essay questions for epic of gilgamesh

The Epic of Gilgamesh

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Enkidu is civilized through his encounter with Shamhat, a prostitute. As opposed to our own society, what does this say about views toward sexuality and femininity in ancient Mesopotamia?

Rather than being seen as a negative attribute, Shamhat's sexuality and its ties to the temple cement her importance in Mesopotamian society. She is a means to tame Enkidu as opposed to a means for him to behave like an animal. Throughout the poem, the role of women is unavoidable and important. Although Enkidu and Gilgamesh insult Ishtar, Gilgamesh specifically points out her temple to Urshanabi.

Compare and contrast the role of the serpent and the flood in the Bible and the Epic of Gilgamesh. What similarities and differences can be found?

In both books the serpent is presented negatively; a force that deprives humanity of some pleasure or immortality. In the Bible, the serpent is a deliberate force of temptation, and Adam and Eve are cast out as sinners. It is clearly depicted as an evil presence. In Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh’s own carelessness deprives him of immortality. In his case, the role of the serpent is necessary for him to move past his feelings toward life and death and become a better king, making this serpent less of a villain and more a catalyst for change.

The flood stories in both texts are very similar, and some scholars believe that they refer to a singular event. However, there are differences between the accounts.

What does Gilgamesh's and Enkidu's constant struggle and defiance of the gods tell us about how the gods were viewed in Gilgamesh's time? Are the consequences that both characters face worth the risk each takes?

The gods as depicted in Gilgamesh's story, as well as Utnapishtim's, are presented as being easily angered and vengeful. Part of Gilgamesh's heroic pedigree is inherent in being two-thirds a god himself, but his acts of defiance also speak to a possibly resentful view of the gods among ancient Mesopotamians. The gods are depicted as being difficult to please, sometimes punishing without explanation or meting out punishments that seem far out of proportion to the original offense, as in Utnapishtim's story. Both characters take on large risks by insulting Ishtar, but Gilgamesh is able to face his own mortality and Enkidu is able to learn of the world of humans and of the value of life. Both also come to understand the importance of friendship in life.

What does Humbaba/Huwawa represent? Use examples from the story to support your position.

Humbaba represents fear and the unknown. Both Enkidu and Gilgamesh experience great fear in the cedar forest when they are about to face Humbaba. They support one another with encouraging words when the other is frightened. One can also argue that Humbaba represents nature itself. As guardian of the Cedar Forest, he has a duty to protect it from harm. Gilgamesh and Enkidu together represent civilization. They seek to tame the natural world for their own purposes.

At various points in the story, dreams foretell events to come. What do these passages reveal about how dreams were valued in Mesopotamian culture? What do they tell us about the dreamer's state of mind?

It is obvious from the text that dreams were regarded as important markers that should be interpreted. It seems fair to say that the ancient Mesopotamians lent a good deal of credibility to them in their day-to-day lives. As Gilgamesh dreams of the meteor and the axe in anticipation of his meeting with Enkidu, he turns to his mother for an interpretation of his dreams. While she informs him of the imminent arrival of Enkidu, it could also be that Gilgamesh is lonely and looking for a companion. Enkidu dreams of the gods deciding his death and of what the underworld will be like. His state of mind is one of absolute fear of his defiance of the gods.

Although Gilgamesh faces his own mortality upon Enkidu's death, he also must now face a life without his friend. Why is this also of importance? What does it teach Gilgamesh about life and the spirit of endurance?

Beyond teaching Gilgamesh that his own life must end, Enkidu's death also forces Gilgamesh to continue living the life he still has left. He is initially so distraught over Enkidu's death that he more or less abandons his kingly duties. Utnapishtim teaches him that life must end, but Gilgamesh also must return to Uruk with the full understanding that his own life must continue if it is to have meaning.

What is the significance of the darkness that Gilgamesh encounters in the passage beneath Mount Mashu on his way to seek Utnapishtim?

The text repeatedly mentions how Gilgamesh is alone at this point in the story. With nothing else visible around him, Gilgamesh is truly on his own on this quest. He is also completely lost, without obvious direction, fumbling in the dark. This metaphor reiterates Gilgamesh's struggle with the loss of Enkidu. He is suddenly finding himself unsure of how to proceed in life.

Repetition is a frequent technique the author(s) used in the Epic of Gilgamesh, as is the theme of duality. Enkidu and Gilgamesh are near mirrors of each other, for example. They undertake two quests: one against Humbaba, the other against the Bull of Heaven. Discuss other examples of duality and repetition in the story. Why does the epic contain these elements?

Repetition reinforces themes present in the story, or attributes of a character. Sometimes repetition can also draw contrasts between different events or characters. Besides reinforcing elements in the story, repetition also suggests that these stories may have had a strong oral tradition and were largely passed down in this manner before being committed to these tablets.

Duality also draws comparisons between characters and again reinforces one of the themes of the story: companionship. Enkidu and Gilgamesh are near mirrors of each other. Gilgamesh and Utnapishtim also share some characteristics, not in appearance, but in the knowledge that they both have gained. Enkidu and Gilgamesh embark on two quests. Gilgamesh's journey to the underworld mirrors his quest with Enkidu.

The story begins and ends with a description of the city of Uruk and its walls and other features? What does this signify?

For Gilgamesh it signals reconciliation with the finite nature of life. He is able to return to where he began and see it, almost with new eyes, and a new appreciation. He accepts his place. It also brings the story full-circle, perhaps an aesthetic choice to mirror the cyclical nature of life.

Comment on Gilgamesh and Enkidu's relationship. Is their love of a sexual nature or a more platonic one? The text describes them as being very close. Why do you think that is?

Although there is language in the text suggestive of a relationship beyond friendship between the two, there is no direct evidence of a sexual relationship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu. At the same time, Gilgamesh declares a love for Enkidu greater than that for any woman. However, Gilgamesh's sexual appetite for women is established early on in the text, where it is written that he sleeps with newly married brides before their husbands do. It is more likely that as the gods created Enkidu to be a counterweight to Gilgamesh, the characters are able to find in each other an understanding that no one else can provide. Only they are able to comprehend what it is like to be the other.

The Epic of Gilgamesh Questions and Answers

The Question and Answer section for The Epic of Gilgamesh is a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss the novel.

what insults does humbaba throw at gilgamesh and enkidu upon their 1st encounter ?

Are you sure he faces Humbaba in chapter 2? Gilgamesh talks about going to the Cedar Forest but I don't think he gets there in Ch. 2.

How does Enkidu help Gilgamesh before he dies?

Enkidu helps Gilgamesh to defeat Humbaba before he dies.

Epic of Gilgamesh

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Study Guide for The Epic of Gilgamesh

The Epic of Gilgamesh study guide contains literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, quotes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.

• About The Epic of Gilgamesh
• The Epic of Gilgamesh Summary
• Character List

Essays for The Epic of Gilgamesh

The Epic of Gilgamesh essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of The Epic of Gilgamesh.

• Enkidu's Deathbed Realization
• Questions of the Hereafter in Gilgamesh, the Bhagavad-Gita, and the Bible
• Mother, Goddess, Seductress, Harlot: Women in "The Epic of Gilgamesh"
• Fellowship in the Epic of Gilgamesh
• Death and Immortality in the Epic of Gilgamesh

Lesson Plan for The Epic of Gilgamesh

• About the Author
• Study Objectives
• Common Core Standards
• Introduction to The Epic of Gilgamesh
• Relationship to Other Books
• Bringing in Technology
• Notes to the Teacher
• Related Links
• The Epic of Gilgamesh Bibliography

Wikipedia Entries for The Epic of Gilgamesh

• Introduction
• Later influence

114 Epic of Gilgamesh Essay Topics & Examples

If you’re writing a Gilgamesh essay , you can explore the themes of love and death for numerous pages. Our experts collected topics and examples that will help you analyze the epic and its characters.

🏆 Best Gilgamesh Essay Topics & Examples

📃 simple & easy gilgamesh essay topics, 💡 interesting topics to write about gilgamesh, ❓ gilgamesh essay questions.

• Gilgamesh: The Hero’s Journey by Joseph Campbell (The Monomyth) For instance, the separation stage encompasses a “call to adventure, refusal to heed the call, and a crossing of the first threshold”. The last part of a hero’s journey according to Campbell is the Hero’s […]
• Gilgamesh and Odysseus: A Comparison After offering prayers to the dead, the people of the river offered the sheep to them and put the remaining parts in a pit that had been dug with shadows of the dead gathering around.
• Gilgamesh and Enkidu Friendship Essay The role of friendship in the Epic of Gilgamesh is vital. This essay unfolds the theme of friendship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu that develops in the course of the story.
• Gilgamesh Compared to Modern Day Hero: Similarities and Differences The characters from The Epic of Gilgamesh help to realize a true essence of heroism as a concept and accept heroes as ordinary people, who are able to develop good relations, set goals, and be […]
• Importance of Dreams in the Epic of Gilgamesh The prophetic dreams that both Gilgamesh and Enkidu have are used to show the weaknesses of man in front of destiny.
• The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Death and the Afterlife The main purpose of the Gilgamesh myth is to illustrate the weakness of man in the face of destiny. By the time this dream appears in the story, the reader is already aware Enkidu is […]
• Gilgamesh: Significance of the Literature of That Period of Time The significance of Gilgamesh is evident indeed due to the variety of factors: this work is still regarded as one of the earliest literary works that are known to the reader, this is a captivating […]
• What Is the Nature of the Gods in the “Epic of Gilgamesh”? In The Epic of Gilgamesh, gods have unbelievable connection to people: people get a chance to learn something from gods, and gods can easily analyze the nature of people and use their values in for […]
• The Literary Function of Dreams in the Epic of Gilgamesh These dreams greatly influence the plot of the narrative since the characters perceived that the deities sent the dreams, they needed interpretation because they had a unique revelation, and were able to foretell the future.
• Comparison Between the Serpent in the Old Testament and in Gilgamesh The serpent is responsible for Gilgamesh not getting everlasting life in the same way that the serpent in the Bible led Adam and Eve to lose a chance at eternal life.
• Gilgamesh, The Iliad and Aeneid: On the Similarities in the Works In contrast, the villains are made to capture the fears, and challenges of the societies represented by these epics. The import of these three epics lies in their historicism.
• “The Epic of Gilgamesh” a Story by Maureen Kovacs The fact that Gilgamesh is ready to die for the sake of his people, also shows that he is selfless, a character of a true hero.
• Death in The Epic of Gilgamesh and Egyptian Book of the Dead The Epic of Gilgamesh is the most famous work of Babylonian literature, in which the everlasting question of life’s purpose and the inevitability of human death is posed.
• The Importance of Friendship in “The Epic of Gilgamesh” At the beginning of the story, Gilgamesh, the king of the Sumerian city of Uruk, despite achievements in the development of the town, causes the dislike of his subjects.
• “The Epic of Gilgamesh” and “The Bhagavad Gita” Comparison In the epic of Gilgamesh, it is indicated that there was a ruler who ruled the land of Samaria very many years ago.
• Exile of Gilgamesh and Shakespeare’s Prospero The authors of these famous texts show in detail how the main characters Gilgamesh and Prospero struggle with the sense of alienation because of their exile, but overcoming this challenging experience, the characters develop their […]
• “The Epic of Gilgamesh” by Ryan Gibbs He will have you lie on a grand couch, and will have you lie in the seat of ease, the seat at his left, so that the princes of the world kiss your feet.
• The Epic of Gilgamesh Poem Analysis Whence, the lamentation of his subjects and the appearance of Enkidu form the basis of the transformation of Gilgamesh especially his character.
• The Epic of Gilgamesh Analysis In the story, Enkidu who was created to be wild is meant to counteract the oppression of King Gilgamesh on the inhabitants of the Uruk territory.
• The Flood in the Bible and The Epic of Gilgamesh The flood stories in the Babylonian text ‘The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet XI’ and the Hebrew text ‘Genesis 6-9’ have been targets of international attention due to a controversy created by enemies of Christianity, namely, […]
• The Epic of Gilgamesh Enkidu, another man who is also depicted in the Epic of Gilgamesh as having a power in terms of how he treated his companions, meets King Gilgamesh in some of the scenes in the epic […]
• “Bhagavad-Gita”, “The Odyssey” and “The Epic of Gilgamesh”: Contrast and Comparison The sole aim of all the religions is to make the people realize the value of life and to make the most of the same but doing holy acts and by not indulging in undesirable […]
• Women in The Odyssey and The Epic of Gilgamesh In particular, the women’s power in the story was shown in their ability to influence significantly men, who were depicted as the wisest and most powerful beings.
• The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Hebrew Bible The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Hebrew Bible illustrate the origin of the world and the coexistence between mortals and gods.
• The Poems “The Song of Roland,” “The Epic of Gilgamesh,” and “The Odyssey” The emphasis on bravery and dignity in Roland represents a stark contrast to the characters of Odysseus and Gilgamesh. Therefore, Roland as a character is vital in the evolution of heroic characters in epic narratives.
• Gilgamesh and Odysseus as Heroes Gilgamesh was believed to be two-thirds god due to the religious background of the land with supernatural influences and the human relationship.
• “The Epic of Gilgamesh” and COVID-19 Pandemic The article chosen for this analysis was written by Zhu & Zheng and focuses on the connection between the Epic of Gilgamesh and the COVID-19 Pandemic.
• Discussion of “The Epic of Gilgamesh” Enkidu’s journeys to Gilgamesh and Uruk, his trek with Gilgamesh to the Forest, and the journeys to the underworld are examples of only a few of these major events.
• Main Character and Idea of “The Epic of Gilgamesh” As stated, the main character of this story is the King of Uruk, who now serves as a reminder that in the early times, humans used to feel the same as we did.
• Quote Explanation From “The Epic of Gilgamesh” This is the task worthy of a hero because, in order to acquire the previous cedar logs for the monument, the characters would have to travel to the faraway forest guarded by the dreaded giant […]
• Deception in King Lear, The Odyssey and Gilgamesh The forms of deception in the book seem to come effortlessly to Odysseus, and the stories he tells throughout the book serve to protect him and his family.
• Heroism and the Spirit of Adventure: The Odyssey and Gilgamesh Interpretation In fact, the ancient epic is famous nowadays mainly due to the fact that some of the works are considered as the first official mentioning of a hero.
• The Role of Women in Great Epic Works: “The Odyssey” and “Gilgamesh” To summarize the influence of both women on Gilgamesh, it is possible to cite Kelley to describe Gilgamesh’s advice to him during one of the toughest period of the epic: When the gods created man, […]
• The Epic of Gilgamesh: Analysis Turning to Gilgamesh’s outward metamorphosis, he was selfish and arrogant at the beginning of the epic, convinced of his exceptionality and ultimacy of judgment.
• Heroes’ Noble Intentions in Epic Poems: Sundiata, Beowulf and Gilgamesh The monster was killed, and later Beowulf had to protect his people from the vengeful mother of the beast, although even the hero’s original sword refused to harm a woman.
• Humans & Gods: Gilgamesh, Genesis, The Iliad, Nicomachean Ethics The narrative in the book of Genesis is constructed to depict that God created the society of people. It is seen in multiple appeals of the characters in the legend to gods.
• Quest in “The Epic of Gilgamesh” To a great extent, the Epic of Gilgamesh illustrates the self-discovery and moral transformation of the protagonist who cannot accept the brevity of his life.
• Critical Reading of Gilgamesh and Ecclesiastes This is to teach the reader to appreciate the life they have and prepare for the inevitability of death. Gilgamesh struggles to understand that, even as a king, he will need to face the fact […]
• The Character of Gilgamesh in His Quest for Immortality The main character’s quest for immortality is analyzed through his way of life, the predetermined impossibility of achieving immortality, his journey to Uta-Napishtim, some of the challenges he has to pass to reach his aim, […]
• The Theme of Tyranny in “Pedro Paramo” by Rulfo and “Gilgamesh” by Mason The usage of magic facilitates the understanding of the real world through its separation from illusive pictures. In his novel, the total deconstruction of political power is observed.
• Dream Symbolism, Epic of Gilgamesh and Sigmund Freud Considering any similarity among the three given theories, it is can be seen that ‘Dream Symbolism’ and ‘Sigmund Freud’ are very similar in the sense that in both of them the main subject is wouldream’.
• Two Legendary Literature Works: Gilgamesh and the Death of Ivan Ilyich Being excerpted from the ancient writing source, the story of Gilgamesh is a mystical epic with points on the struggle of divine and human parts in a man.
• Gilgamesh King of Uruk Review: Unique Characters of Courage and Bravery In the first mentioning of Gilgamesh’s immoral life with the women of Uruk, I feel that he does not qualify to be bestowed with the honor of a hero.
• The Mythical Villains: Gilgamesh, Ravana and Oedipus Thus, the myth is one of the literary genre which helped ancient people to understand and explain the structure and natural phenomena of the world, environment, people and other creatures around, the origins of everything […]
• The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Story of the Flood Gilgamesh is portrayed as a strong, bold and cruel king of Uruk in the beginning. Arjuna, the central character of the epic Mahabharatha is a man of strength, wisdom and who adheres to his duties.
• The Flood in The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Secret Through the Story of the Flood Gilgamesh asks Utanapishtim to narrate the story of his fate, and Utanapishtim reveals the secret behind his fate through the story of the flood.
• Epic of Gilgamesh: An Analysis of the Main Character Due to his heroic attribute he comes across a numinous phenomenon and in this case he prays to Shamash and divine assistance to overcome the challenges that he is journey to attaining an immortal life.
• Violence in the “Epic of Gilgamesh” and “The Summoning of Every-Man”. It is interesting to note that while Gilgamesh relish in the use of violence Every-Man depicts violence in a different light.
• The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Ancient Egyptian Culture The Epic of Gilgamesh and the culture of the ancient Egypt have their own similarities and differences based on the historical events that took place in this cultures and the religious beliefs of the two […]
• Gilgamesh and Oedipus the King In the case of Enkidu, he uses his strength to undermine all those going against his will and he is not putting in mind what the results will be to other in the society.
• Gilgamesh Epic: The Life of a God-Man Both the Eden story and the Flood Story have clear counterparts in the Gilgamesh epic, whose restless hero also has his parallel in Odysseus of the Iliad, even as Gilgamesh fated friendship with Enkidu can […]
• Gilgamesh’s and Joseph’s Dreams Comparison Review The functions of dreams in both works are studied by the researcher, their significance is underlined, differences and parallels between the usage of dreams in both works are established, the enduring values that the works […]
• Epic of Gilgamesh – King of Uruk Their campaign against the ruler of the mountains of Lebanon, monster Humbaba, the death of Enkidu, and the journey of Gilgamesh to the land of Siduri motivated me to create this drawing.
• Epic of Gilgamesh and Its Historical Significance Gilgamesh is “the semi-mythic King of Uruk in Mesopotamia” who is widely known by present-day readers from a classical, ancient piece of literature “The Epic of Gilgamesh”.
• “When the Light Came On: The Epic of Gilgamesh” by Jarman In this passage, the author urges the readers to regard The Epic of Gilgamesh as a source that can illustrate the worldviews and values of the Mesopotamians.
• Medea and the Epic of Gilgamesh Works Evaluating the murder of the children, the conclusion can be drawn that the females were thought to give the life and take it back.
• Comparing Stylistic Features of “Epic of Gilgamesh”, “The Iliad”, “One Thousand and One Nights” In the “Epic of Gilgamesh” Ninsun serves as a mother figure; she is devoted to her son Gilgamesh and is ready to help him in his endeavors.
• Gilgamesh and Odysseus Comparison as a Heroes This myth is priceless for the researchers of Mesopotamian culture since it mirrors the religious traditions of that period, the treatment of gods, the perception of a hero, and attitudes to friendship and death.
• “The Epic of Gilgamesh” in Art Interpretation It is imperative to mention that the analysis of ancient works is incredibly important because it enhances the understanding of the traditions and values of the people.”The Epic of Gilgamesh” is regarded as one of […]
• “The Epic of Gilgamesh” and “The Death of Ivan Ilyich” From both stories, it is evident that the journey of life requires people to be sympathetic and interact with each other.
• Hero in “The Odysseus” and “The Epic of Gilgamesh” This paper explores the differences and similarities between the heroes of the ancient epics such as “The Odyssey” by Homer and “The Epic of Gilgamesh” the product of the culture of ancient Mesopotamia.
• Relationships in The Epic of Gilgamesh In the story of Gilgamesh, Enkidu helps the wild animals to escape traps set by people. In Catullus, the narrator shows that toiling in further lands to gain profit is worthless if it is not […]
• Epic Poems: “The Epic of Gilgamesh”, “The Iliad”, and “One Thousand and One Nights” On the other hand, in the epic poem “The Iliad” the author is concerned with the heroic exploits of Achilles in the contexts of death and immortality.
• “Epic of Gilgamesh” – Characters Comparison The characters of Enkidu and Gilgamesh, and in fact, all the characters of this poem, are not notable for logical or reasonable behavior that makes sense to modern readers.
• Literature: Things Fall Apart and The Epic of Gilgamesh The two are internally affected by the struggle between the forces longing for change and those advocating for the restoration of the status quo.
• The “Epic of Gilgamesh” and Mesopotamia Another instance in the epic, which portrays women as sexual objects, is the use of the women as sex tools in the temple. Women in Mesopotamian society had the duty of brewing wine for men […]
• Mythological Story of Gilgamesh Connecting the Story to the Bible: Where the Narrations Cross Being listed among the earliest specimen of the ancient literature, The epic of Gilgamesh bears a certain resemblance to another ancient book, which is the […]
• The Epic of Gilgamesh by Sumerians This paper creates a critical analysis of The Epic of Gilgamesh by specifically discussing Gilgamesh’s place in society, the justification of his societal position and his rights and obligations.
• Cardinal Virtues in The Epic of Gilgamesh The Epic of Gilgamesh enables the reader to identify the cardinal virtues that could be valued in the ancient world. The author of this poem highlights the importance of fortitude through the words of Enkidu […]
• “The Epic of Gilgamesh” and “The Tempest” Analysis The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Tempest are two masterpieces, which reflect the life of people who lived in the times when the works were created.
• Post-Colonial Theory in “The Epic of Gilgamesh” and “The Tempest” In “The Epic of Gilgamesh”, the main character is shown to be sure of his own strength and righteousness of feelings and thoughts.
• Philosophy & Literature: Mythology Through Gilgamesh At the beginning of the myth, Gilgamesh decides to conquer the jungle’s beast, Humbaba. The myth of Gilgamesh is a well-known literary piece.
• The Comparison of Gilgamesh and Odysseus This paper is aimed at discussing the journeys undertaken by the main characters; in particular one should focus on their motives of the protagonists and the way in which both Gilgamesh and Odysseus were transformed […]
• Homeric Heroes: Ulysses and Gilgamesh Then they would talk about their encounters with gods, Ulysses would tell how he met the god of the sea and how he was able to interact with him.
• The Impact of Friendship in the Epic of Gilgamesh The elusive coalition between Enkidu and Gilgamesh, their fateful destinies and eventual epiphanies broaden the societal apprehension of the elements/value of friendship as expounded in the next discussion.
• Meaning of Gilgamesh’s Quest After Enkidu’s death and the loss of the magic plan of the rejuvenation walls, Gilgamesh is reduced to a humble and introverted seeker.
• Interior Monologue for Gilgamesh Yes, that one there, pick it up and use it to wade through the waters Remember to be cautious enough, and let not your hand pass over the waters of death Yes that is okay, […]
• Epiphany of a Character From Assigned Readings Enkidu is Gilgamesh’s closest friend and just before his death, “he has a revelation on the punishment he and Gilgamesh are to undergo after their death.
• The Driving Force of Plot in Medea by Euripides, Othello by William Shakespeare, and the Epic of Gilgamesh Reading Medea by Euripides, Othello by William Shakespeare, and The Epic of Gilgamesh it becomes obvious that the driving force of plot is heroism, however, the nature of that heroism is different that may be […]
• Greek/Roman Humanities: Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey The earliest works of fiction included the work of fiction the Epic of Gilgamesh that dates from the beginnings of civilization in Mesopotamia and Homer’s Odyssey, greatest ancient works of literature attributed to Homer.
• Epic of Gilgamesh The aim of the mythic expedition of the male protagonist is to discover special understanding which will re-establish steadiness to him and the entire society.
• The Story of Gilgamesh in Sumerian Versions The story talks about the powers of Gilgamesh who was the King of Uruk and the influence of other gods in the land.
• “What Is the Meaning of Life?” in the Works of Gilgamesh and Agamemnon Trying to answer the question ‘what is the meaning of life?’ has been one of the hardest tasks for humanity. One readily gets attempted to ask the question, ‘is life meant to have a bitter […]
• The Gain of Consciousness in the “Epic of Gilgamesh” After killing Humbaba in the forbidden forest of cedars, Gilgamesh and Enkidu returns home to find Ishtar, the goddess of love full of lust for Gilgamesh.
• What Assumptions Can You Make About the Ancient Babylonians Based on Your Reading of the “Epic of Gilgamesh”?
• How Has Gilgamesh Changed?
• What Does the Friendship Between Gilgamesh and Enkidu Tell You About the Character of Both Men?
• How Does Enkidu Represent an Undiscovered Side of Gilgamesh?
• What Do the Selections From the “Epic of Gilgamesh” Tell Us About the Society That Produced It?
• What Makes a Person Heroic? Is Gilgamesh a Hero?
• What Is Gilgamesh Like at the Beginning of the Story? How Does Enkidu Change Gilgamesh?
• What Does Gilgamesh Learn About Death and Immortality From Utnapishtim?
• What Does Gilgamesh Search for in His Life and Why?
• How Are Cultural Values Conveyed Through the Narrative Structure of the “Epic of Gilgamesh”?
• What Are the Similarities Between Genesis and the “Epic of Gilgamesh”?
• Who Faced Greater Challenges: Achilles or Gilgamesh?
• What Traits Have Beowulf and Gilgamesh in Common?
• Who Was the Greater Hero – Gilgamesh or Enkidu?
• What Do Enkidu’s Curse and Then His Blessing of the Prostitute Suggest About the Lot of Women in Ancient Mesopotamia in the “Epic of Gilgamesh”?
• Why Does Utnapishtim Tell Urshanabi That He Is No Longer Welcome in His Realm in the “Epic of Gilgamesh”?
• What Does the Story of Enkidu’s Education by the Prostitute Tell Us About Mesopotamian Views of Culture and Civilization in the “Epic of Gilgamesh”?
• Why Is Gilgamesh an Epic Hero?
• What Is the Significance of Gilgamesh’s Passage Through the Darkness Beneath the Twin-Peaked Mountain?
• Is Gilgamesh a Virtuous Character?
• What Does Gilgamesh’s and Enkidu’s Constant Struggle and Defiance of the Gods Tell Us About How the Gods Were Viewed in Gilgamesh’s Time?
• Is Gilgamesh a Man of Action or a Man of Contemplation?
• What Does Humbaba/Huwawa Represent in the “Epic of Gilgamesh”?
• Which Line of Gilgamesh’s Lament Expresses His True Emotion Over the Loss of Enkidu?
• What Is the Significance of the Darkness That Gilgamesh Encounters in the Passage Beneath Mount Mashu on His Way to Seek Utnapishtim?
• What Are Women’s Strength and Their Roles in the “Epic of Gilgamesh”?
• What Is the Importance of Friendship in the “Epic of Gilgamesh”?
• What Was a Cause of Stance Loss in Battles of Gilgamesh?
• What Are Gilgamesh’s Character Traits, Strengths, and Weaknesses? What Are Enkidu’s?
• What Is the Ultimate Message of “Epic of Gilgamesh”?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Bibliography

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The Epic of Gilgamesh

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Gilgamesh: Introduction

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Historical Context of The Epic of Gilgamesh

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• Full Title: The Epic of Gilgamesh
• When Written: As far back as the Third Dynasty of Ur (around 2100 BCE), stories were written about the legendary king Gilgamesh. These stories, however, were not unified into a single narrative until the 18th century BCE, in what is now known as the Old Babylonian version of the Epic. This version, however, had major gaps, which were largely filled in by what is now known as the Standard Version. The Standard Version dates from between the 10th and 13th century BCE. Still today, the text is considered incomplete.
• Where Written: Ancient Sumer / Mesopotamia
• When Published: The Epic of Gilgamesh was first discovered in 1853, and the first modern translation was published in the 1870s. Since then, various versions have been published.
• Literary Period: Ancient epic
• Genre: Epic Poem
• Setting: Ancient Sumer (modern-day Iraq)
• Climax: Enkidu’s death
• Antagonist: Though the epic does not have a single clearly-defined antagonist, pride is Gilgamesh’s main obstacle throughout.
• Point of View: Third-person omniscient

Extra Credit for The Epic of Gilgamesh

Old School. The Epic of Gilgamesh is the world’s oldest surviving written poem.

Gilgamesh the Boss. In the Final Fantasy series of videogames, a character known as Gilgamesh frequently features as a boss enemy, along with his sidekick Enkidu.

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Reflection on The Epic of Gilgamesh

• Categories: Book Review Epic of Gilgamesh

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Published: Oct 2, 2020

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• A New Audience for the World’s First Author

May 6, 2024 | Ho, Melanie | Ancient History , Essays , Poetry

Sophus Helle —

Authors in antiquity knew from prolonged experience the labor that is needed to carry a text through time. Books do not move across centuries on their own. They must be moved, and they are moved by the hard work of copyists and editors, printers and proselytizers, translators and versifiers, singers and booksellers, teachers and students, readers and listeners. No written material, not even the comparatively durable clay of the Sumerians, survives the passing of time entirely unaffected: if books are not attended to, they crumble and decay. It takes many hands, mouths, ears, and eyes to secure their survival.

The priestess Enheduana, the first known author in literary history—by which I mean the first person to whom a literary work was attributed and who can be identified in the historical record—knew this also. The best known poem attributed to her, The Exaltation of Inana , ends with a description of its own composition. After it was created by Enheduana, it was passed on to the singer who performed it on the following day, setting in motion a chain of transmission that moved from the singer to the scribes who copied out the poem, the archaeologists who excavated those copies, and the philologists who pieced the manuscripts together to reconstruct the text. When I came to translating the poem for my book, Enheduana: The Complete Poems of the World’s First Author , I was merely adding yet another link to this four-millennia-long chain.

Even that one link would not have been possible without a wide circle of gifted and generous collaborators, including the editors, publicists, colleagues, peer reviewers, friends, and family members who offered crucial feedback and support. And then there are the many reviewers, blurbers, booksellers, and podcasters who helped bring the book to its readers. Even this list is not exclusive, and again, it covers only a single episode in the long story of the poem’s journey across time and languages.

To publish a book is a lesson, not in the skills or inspiration needed to write, but in indebtedness, gratitude, and humility. Books are collaborative events; they travel, like rockstars, on a sea of happy hands.

Books live longest and, as it were, healthiest, when the labor of their transmission is organized and incentivized by institutions, such as libraries and monasteries. Institutions are uniquely well-suited to offer continuity over time, and no institution is more effective in carrying a book across time than the school. The books that survive the longest and spread the widest are those that are taught in schools.

Schools are the reason Enheduana’s poems survived for millennia. Around year 2000 BCE, the Sumerian language, in which the poems are written, died out as a native language, becoming instead a language of scholarship and religious rituals, much like Latin in Europe and Sanskrit in India. And so, it had to be taught in schools, and the copying of Sumerian poems—including those attributed to Enheduana—was a key part of the school curriculum in ancient Babylonian cities like Nippur and Ur. The Exaltation was among the most popular of the texts in this curriculum, and as a result, just over a hundred manuscripts of it have been found.

However, after the 18th century BCE, the school curriculum dropped Enheduana’s poems. It would take centuries for them to be excavated, edited, and brought to light once again: the first edition of the Exaltation appeared in 1968. Even then, Enheduana would languish in literary obscurity for five decades, being almost completely unknown outside of specialist circles. But now, after two years of explosive publicity—triggered in part by my book and in part by the exhibition “She Who Wrote: Enheduanna and the Women of Mesopotamia, ca. 3400–2000 BC” at the Morgan Library in New York—the poems are coming full circle, taking their place yet again in school curricula.

Starting next year, the Exaltation will be the first literary text read by students in Columbia University’s Core Curriculum. Other universities are likely to follow suit, since there is currently a high—and justified—pressure on educational institutions to include more female and non-Western voices in the curricula of literary history. But what would be the implications if Enheduana’s poems do indeed become an established part of university curricula? It is, of course, too early to answer this question with any serious confidence or detail, but I would like to offer four suggestions.

First, if Enheduana is indeed included in survey courses on literary history, she will most often be the first author in those course, as is the case with Columbia University. As such, her inclusion will—or rather, should—spark reflections on what force we ascribe to firstness. We should not allow this firstness to signal primitiveness, implicitly placing ancient texts in a telelogical narrative leading from crude beginnings to modern refinement: Enheduana’s hymns are as complex and self-aware as any postmodern poem. But we should not fetishize firstness, either, since it is in many ways a construct. There are literary works far older than Enheduana’s, such as the Instructions of Shuruppak that dates to at least three centuries before her birth; and there are even older texts that discuss authorship, such as the Kesh Temple Hymn (though here authorship is assigned to the gods rather than to a human being who can be identified in the historical record). Ideally, then, the placement of Enheduana at the head of the curriculum will spark reflections on what this place means or should mean.

Second, much of the appeal that Enheduana currently commands is the excitement of discovery. There is a thrill to reading her poems that is often expressed in the question, “How did I not know these poems before?” If the poems are institutionalized, that thrill may fade. It might fade slowly—the excitement of discovery still clings to the Babylonian epic Gilgamesh , which has been known for some 150 years—but it will inevitably lessen, leaving more complicated emotional responses in its wake. Readers may come to approach Enheduana more critically, as a figure of institutional power rather than an unfairly neglected outsider. Indeed, that is how Enheduana was perceived in her own time: she was the daughter of King Sargon, who subdued the previously independent Sumerian city states to create his kingdom, and the Exaltation describes a rebellion against her family’s rule. And yet, as a rare female and non-Western author on the curriculum of literary history, Enheduana is likely to retain an anti-canonical force even if she should come to be ensconced in the canon. That is what happened with the great Greek lyricist of desire Sappho, whose long queer heritage has meant that is she is still viewed as an oppositional figure, even as she is one of the most commonly taught authors of antiquity.

This leads me to my third point: teachers are likely to pair Enheduana with Sappho, which will bring out new features in both. The most striking similarity between them is that both their best-known poems—the Exaltation and the “Hymn to Aphrodite”—are prayers by a woman to a goddess, requesting help in a desperate situation and creating a complex dialogue between mortal and divine voices. And yet the tenor of the two texts is also strikingly different: the desperate situation is an anti-imperial revolt in Enheduana’s case and an ill-fated fling in Sappho’s. The other obvious pairings are even more complex. Enheduana could also be read alongside the Iliad and Gilgamesh ; these are more similar in content, since they all concern war and (as with Sappho) the interaction between gods and humans, but also far more dissimilar in form, since Enheduana’s enigmatic hymns contrast sharply with the more straightforwardly narrative style of the epics.

Fourth, as the preceding points illustrate, placing Enheduana’s poems on the curriculum is likely to broaden our shared sense of what these texts are about. I expressed this hope already in the first blog post I wrote about Enheduana, arguing that, as the poems find new readers, new readings of the texts will also come to light, including the critical and comparative perspectives I have hinted at here.

Just as I would want the teaching of these poems to open them up to new readings, so I would want these poems to open the way for students to other Sumerian texts.

Enheduana’s poems are works of wonder, but they are far from the only Sumerian pearls taught in the ancient Babylonian schools: texts like Inana’s Descent , Enki and Ninmah ,and the Uruk Cycles will, I hope, find their way to literary fame. Just as we should not worship the (largely constructed) firstness of Enheduana, we should not treat her as a unique exception either: her poems arose from—and can point us back to—the rich literary heritage of the Sumerian language.

Sophus Helle is a writer, translator, and cultural historian. In 2021, Helle translated Gilgamesh: A New Translation of the Ancient Epic with Yale University Press. Enheduana: The Complete Poems of the World’s First Author, is accompanied by the website enheduana.org, which is designed to help students, teachers, and interested readers learn more about Enheduana’s world and work.

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The Epic of Gilgamesh

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Summary: Tablet 1

A prelude introduces us to the hero. Gilgamesh’s mother was the Lady Wildcow Ninsun, a minor goddess noted for her wisdom, and Lugulbanda was his father. Gilgamesh built the great city of Uruk and surrounded it with magnificent, intricately constructed outer and inner walls. He erected beautiful temples for Anu, the god of the heavens, and for Anu’s daughter Ishtar, the goddess of war and love. He laid out orchards and ponds and irrigated fields. A dauntless explorer, Gilgamesh opened passes through the mountains and dug wells in the wilderness. He traveled to the ends of the Earth and beyond, where he met Utnapishtim, the sole survivor of the great flood that almost ended the world. When he returned from his travels he wrote everything down on a tablet of lapis lazuli and locked it in a copper chest.

As the story begins, Gilgamesh is terrifying and all-powerful. He sacrifices warriors whenever he feels like fighting, rapes his nobles’ wives, takes whatever he wants from his people, and tramples anyone who gets in his way. The old men of Uruk complain, saying that a king is supposed to protect his subjects like a shepherd, not harass them like a wild ox. The gods listen. They tell Aruru, the goddess of creation, that since she made Gilgamesh, she must now make someone strong enough to stand up to him.

Aruru takes some clay, moistens it with her spit, and forms another man, named Enkidu. Shunning the cultivated lands and the cities, he lives in the wilderness with the animals. His most prominent physical feature is his hairiness. One day a hunter sees him at a watering hole. Terrified, the hunter rushes back to his house to tell his father he has seen a giant man, the most powerful in the land. The hunter says the man has unset his traps and filled in his pits, and that now he cannot be a hunter.

The hunter’s father tells him he should go to Uruk and ask Gilgamesh to lend him a temple prostitute, whose greater power will suffice to conquer Enkidu. The hunter follows his father’s advice and soon travels back to the wilderness with the prostitute. They wait by the watering hole for three days.

When Enkidu finally appears, the hunter tells the prostitute to lie down on a blanket and show Enkidu her breasts. Enkidu comes to her and they copulate for six days and seven nights. When Enkidu’s lust is finally sated, he returns to the animals, but they no longer regard him as their kin. They run away from him.

Enkidu tries to pursue the animals, but he has become weaker and can no longer gallop as he did before. His mind has awakened. Troubled and confused, he goes back to the prostitute, who consoles him by telling him about the pleasures and wonders he will find in the city of Uruk. She tells him about music, food, festivals, and the strong, terrible king, Gilgamesh. As soon as Enkidu hears about Gilgamesh, he realizes how lonely he is. He longs to meet him and challenge him to a contest of strength.

The prostitute tells Enkidu that Gilgamesh is stronger than he is and that he could not hope to prevail over him, but also that Gilgamesh longs for a friend. In fact, Gilgamesh has already had two dreams about Enkidu. In the first dream, a meteor lands in a field outside Uruk. Gilgamesh is drawn to the rock as if it were a woman. After lifting it with great effort, he carries it to his mother, Ninsun. In the second dream, Gilgamesh finds an axe lying in the street. Throngs of people surround it, overcome with admiration. Gilgamesh too loves the axe, as much as if it were his wife. He carries it to his mother and lays it at her feet. Ninsun tells him that both the rock and the axe represent the man he will soon contend with—the man who will become his most trusted companion and counselor, the friend who has the power to save him.

Analysis: Tablet 1

The narrator introduces Gilgamesh in the past tense—the high walls of the city he built are already ancient. At the same time he suggests that the story is in Gilgamesh’s own words, and that the legendary king himself wrote it down. Gilgamesh’s story commemorates historical people and deeds, and at the same time, Gilgamesh’s passage through heroism, grief, and wisdom is a perpetual, universal process. The story of Gilgamesh is both timeless and immediate.

Read more about the background of The Epic of Gilgamesh .

Though Gilgamesh’s mother Ninsun plays a fairly significant role in the early parts of the story, we learn very little about his father. The Sin-Leqi-Unninni version of Gilgamesh says his father is Ninsun’s husband, Lugulbanda, but it’s not clear if Lugulbanda is actually Gilgamesh’s biological father. Some versions of the poem declare that Gilgamesh’s father is a priest, while others call him a “fool.” Like Gilgamesh, Lugulbanda was a genuine historical figure. He precedes Gilgamesh on Uruk’s king list by two, and he would have more likely been his grandfather, considering the lengths of the recorded reigns. Like Gilgamesh, people worshipped him as a god after his death.

Though Gilgamesh is legendary, the poet hastens to inform us that he was not always exemplary. An equal was required to counter and control his awesome power. Gilgamesh was more god than mortal, and the narrator suggests that his equal, Enkidu, is a singular force of nature. He is hairy, he grazes with the animals, and he lacks the power of speech. Enkidu anticipates the hairy Esau of the Bible and possibly Ishmael, “the wild ass” of a man. He enables the animals to escape human dominance, which threatens the balance of the world. When Enkidu must depart from his life in nature and come into civilization, his redemption is through a woman. He confronts the strong power of a woman’s sexuality, which tames him. Ishtar is Uruk’s resident god, and the prostitutes in her service epitomize the values of that highly sophisticated urban culture.

Read an in-depth analysis of Enkidu.

Enkidu’s story repeats the story of humankind, the passage from mere animal existence to self-awareness and culture. His fall from nature foreshadows another biblical motif: Adam and Eve’s fall from innocence in Eden when they become aware of their sexuality. Female sexuality is the force that makes domesticity and civilized life possible, and Ishtar, the goddess of love, fertility, and war, plays a huge role in Gilgamesh and Enkidu’s stories. As the epic continues, however, sexual love does not necessarily figure in to the ultimate human relationship. In Gilgamesh , the love that exists between evenly matched comrades is even more important. Equilibrium, balance, and moderation are essential virtues. Gilgamesh is part god and part mortal, and these different aspects are in constant contention. The very qualities that make him so awesome—his strength and beauty—also make him monstrous, until they achieve balance. Enkidu’s wildness, likewise, must come into harmony with his humanity. He requires an equally developed spirit to control his powerful body. Enkidu’s domestication is a prerequisite for Gilgamesh’s moral education.

Read more about the theme of love as a motivating force.

Gilgamesh (SparkNotes Literature Guide)

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