define operating system essay

Operating System

An operating system (OS) is a program that acts as an interface between the system hardware and the user. Moreover, it handles all the interactions between the software and the hardware. All the working of a computer system depends on the OS at the base level. Further, it performs all the functions like handling memory , processes, the interaction between hardware and software, etc.

Operating System

A kernel is the basic part of an operating system. Moreover, we can say that it is the heart of the operating system. This is because it contains the functions which handle all the basic operations of OS.

Types of Operating System

We can divide the operating system into five basic types:

Time-Shared OS
Distributed OS
Real-time OS

Let us learn about them one by one:

1. Batch OS

In this system, the OS does not forward the jobs/tasks directly to the CPU. It works by grouping together similar types of jobs under one category. Further, we name this group as a ‘batch’. Hence, the name batch OS.

Simple Batch OS

Advantages of Batch OS

Idle time is very less.
Multiple tasks can take place at the same time.
It handles large tasks easily.
The jobs in a batch need no manual interference to execute them one by one.

Disadvantages of Batch OS

If an infinite loop occurs other jobs will have to wait.
It is difficult to debug batch systems.
It can be costly.
One job can affect the other.

Examples are the payroll system, bank statement, etc.

2. Time-Shared OS

When more than one task takes place on the system it is called time-shared OS. As multiple tasks can run at the system at a time as per requirement. Hence, they all share the CPU time one by one. Therefore, we also name it multitasking . The time that each task gets is called quantum .

A fixed interval of time is decided for each task. When the first task executes for that period of time, the second task executes, and so on.

Advantages of Time-Shared OS

Idle time reduces.
Each task gets an equal chance to execute.

Disadvantages of Time-Shared OS

There can be a problem in communication between the tasks.

Examples are UNIX etc.

3. Distributed OS

In this system, there is more than one CPU present. The OS distributes the tasks among all the processors. The processors do not share any memory or clock time. OS handles all communication between them through various communication lines.

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Interpreter

Advantages of Distributed OS

The load on the system decreases.
If one system stops it will not affect the other.
The system shares a workload that makes calculations easy.
The size of the system can be set according to requirements.

Disadvantages of Distributed OS

The cost for set up is more.
Failure of the main system will affect the whole system.
Programming is complex.

Examples are LOCUS etc.

4. Network OS

In these OS various systems are connected to a server. It allows the system to share resources such as files, printers, applications, etc. Moreover, it gives the capability to serve to manage these resources.

Advantages of Network OS

Centralized servers are highly stable.
We can easily access servers from different locations.
Any changes or up-gradation is easy to manage.

Disadvantages of Network OS

Requires high maintenance.
Set up is costly.

Examples are UNIX, LINUX, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, etc.

5. Real-Time OS (RTOS)

In these systems, the time interval for processing and responding to inputs is very small. Therefore, due to this quality, these are used in real-time situations. For example in missile systems, robots, etc.

They have two categories as follows:

a) Hard Real-Time Systems

In this, the time constraint is very short and strict. Even seconds of delay is not acceptable.

b) Soft Real-Time Systems

In this, the time constraint is not so short and strict.

Advantages of RTOS

They have no errors.
Due to their small size, they can be easily added to other systems.

Disadvantages of RTOS

Algorithms are complex.
System resources are expensive.

Functions of OS

Several functions of OS are:

1. Memory Management

It is the management of the main or primary memory. Whatever program is executed, it has to be present in the main memory. Therefore, there can be more than one program present at a time. Hence, it is required to manage the memory.

The operating system:

Allocates and deallocates the memory.
Keeps a record of which part of primary memory is used by whom and how much.
Distributes the memory while multiprocessing.

2. Processor Management/Scheduling

When more than one process runs on the system the OS decides how and when a process will use the CPU. Hence, the name is also CPU Scheduling . The OS:

Allocates and deallocates processor to the processes.
Keeps record of CPU status.

3. Device Management

The processes may require devices for their use. This management is done by the OS. The OS:

Allocates and deallocates devices to different processes.
keep records of the devices.
Decides which process can use which device for how much time.

4. File Management

The files on a system are stored in different directories. The OS:

keeps records of the status and locations of files.
Allocates and deallocates resources.

5. Security

The OS keeps the system and programs safe and secure through authentication. A user id and password decide the authenticity of the user.

6. Other Functions

Some other functions of the OS can be:

Error detection.
keeping a record of system performance.
Communication between different software etc.

These 6 functions can also be named as features of an OS.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What is an OS?

A1. An operating system is a set of programs that acts as an interface between computer hardware and user.

Q2. What is a kernel?

A2. A kernel is the core/heart of an OS. It contains all the functions and operations to manage the working of OS.

Q3. List types of OS.

A3. Major types of OS are:

Simple Batch OS
Multitasking/Time-shared OS
Real-Time OS

Q4. What is the full form of RTOS? What is its function?

A4. RTOS stands for Real-Time Operating System. This type of OS is used in real-time situations where time constraint is very strict.

Q5. List the functions of OS.

A5. Functions of OS are:

Memory Management
Process Management/CPU Scheduling
Device Management
File Management
Error detection etc.

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What is an OS? Operating System Definition for Beginners

Developers have long debated what is the best operating system.

Now, if you are active on social media platforms and developer forums you might have come across Twitter polls and endless discussions on platforms like Reddit, StackOverflow, and others. We haven't come up with a solid answer yet because everybody has their own opinion.

I will promise you one thing here – we won't be answering this question in this article, as trying to answer this question is similar to answering which is the best laptop for a developer to use – we all have different preferencese, right?

But what this article will do is discuss questions like:

What is an operating system?
The history of operating systems
How an operating system works
Types and examples of operating systems
Functions of an operating system
Why you need an operating system

By answering these questions hopefully you will be in a position to choose the right operating system for your needs. You'll also understand the basics of how an operating system works, and that will be the best OS for you as a developer.

Let's get started:

What is an Operating System?

The recent advancements in technologies, where every gadget is considered a smart device has really revolutionized the world. Almost everyone has access to this devices be it mobile phones, tablets, laptops, smart watches or even your personal computer at home. Also to add to the list the huge rising number of the modern vehicles.

What all the above mentioned have in common is, they use an operating system to enable their functionality for you to achieve a certain task. Despite all this amazing being owned by us, very few of us get to understand how the OS that makes it possible to achieve different tasks is structured.

With this understanding we can describe an Operating System( OS ) as a software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs.

In simple English we can say an OS is an interface between the user and the machine that makes it easy for the user to achieve different tasks with ease.

Now you have an understanding of what an OS is and also a slight idea of what it does, So! how did it all come into existence, where did it all begin? Let's have a look at it's history

History of Operating Systems

It all began back in the 1950s, when computer could only handle one program at a go. During this period users directly interacted with the computer hardware. For a program to be executed it was loaded in an input device like a card reader before execution could begin, and incase of an error during execution the registers and main memory had to be inspected to determine the cause of the error.

When the first operating system was developed by General Motors in 1956 it came as a huge success in the market. It's main purpose was to run a single IBM central computer. Due to it's success, IBM took it forward and became the first company to develop operating systems and began distributing them.

In the 1960s the Bell labs introduced the first version of the Unix OS, it was the first system that could support multi-tasking and multi-user functionality. This system was written in C programming language and was freely available. It was widely accepted and adapted by many users this led to it's official release of the first version in the 70s.

With it's success on early stages it was widely accepted, which led to many operating systems used today borrow their origin from them. Some of the companies with their origin from UNIX include: Mac OS X, iOS, Android, Chrome OS etc...

1977 Apple Dos was introduced in the market. It was designed for home computers and it was a huge success. The designer of this OS was Steve Wozniak. Originally it was designed as a ROM, but in 1978 a first DOS was commissioned and it became a popular software.

Microsoft came into play in the year 1981, where they introduced MS-DOS. After it's launch it was shipped and used for the IBM personal computers. Later on in 1990 Windows 3.0 was launched, this became a rival to Apple's Macintosh GUI.

1992 Windows 3.1x was launched. This operating system introduced several enhancements like improvement in multimedia support and system usability just to list a few. Over the years Microsoft continued to improve their system with betterment from the user's side. The improvement has been seen long way till the recent system we have which is Windows 11.

In March 2008 Apple introduced iPhone OS 1, which was the first iOS for Apple's mobile OS. When the iPhone software development kit (iPhone SDK) was released, the operating system previously known as iPhone OS was later renamed to iOS.

Android OS was released on September 2008. It was developed by Google based on Linux Kernel. By this time Android became the first competitor iOS.

Today Apple, OS X, Windows and various forms of Linux dominate the market of the modern Operating System.

How an Operating System Works

The work-flow of a computer begins when you press the power button on your PC or even your phone. Once the power button is pressed the OS is the first program that runs.

In a real real-life scenario we can compare an OS to the government in a particular country. Just like the way governments offer different directives on services and regulations to run different departments the same way OS controls program executions in a machine.

Another scenario to describe this: If you were to travel to a place that you had never been to before, where they speak a language that you are not familiar with, how will you communicate with the locals? Obviously yo will need a translators help. That's exactly what an OS does in your computer. It converts the computer language into a human understandable language.

Without the help of an OS it will be difficult to run even a single program in a machine actually it will be very complex to execute a single task. With this simple understanding you are able to understand that one of the OS's role is to organize and control hardware and software so that the device it lives in does not only behave in a flexible but also predictable way.

Types of Operating Systems

Operating Systems is one of the softwares that have been constantly updated over the past years. Different companies continuously working to provide best of their product to keep up with competitors.

They Include:

Real-time Operating System

The main aim of this system is executing real-time applications. It gives the maximum time for each of the critical operations that it performs. As a result, it guarantees the events will be processed in a given time.

This OS uses a specialized scheduling algorithms, this is to ensure that it switches tasks according to their priorities so that the deadlines are met for every task.

Some of the commonly known real-time OS include Windows CE, OS-9, and Symbian. Some common application of real-time include air traffic control systems, weapons control systems, industrial control systems, and control machinery.

Multi-programming Operating System

They are also known as Multi-tasking OS . They are divided into two parts: pre-emptive and co-operative.

In pre-emptive the OS divides the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the assigned programs. It is similar to the multi-threading. On the other hand Cooperative is achieved by depending on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. It is similar to block multi-threading.

The main goal in multiprogramming operating systems is to improve resource utilization and system throughput and this is achieved through organizing the computing jobs in a manner that ensures that the CPU always has a job to execute at any one time.

Batch Operating System

The execution of programs is done in batches. Programs are collected, grouped and scheduled for later processing. This ensures faster processing speed for the programs.

Some problems associated with these operating systems include the lack of interaction between the user and the computer, difficulty in prioritizing tasks based on their urgency, and high CPU idle time caused by the low speed of the mechanical input and output devices. A good example of this system is the IBM's z/OS.

Distributed Operating System

This is OS manages a group of independent machines and makes them appear as a single computer. They use powerful micro-processors that take advantage of the advancement in networking.

Distributed operating systems also ensure that there is a lighter load on the host machine even when performing heavy computations. A group of computers together in a cooperation form a distributed system.

Examples of Operating Systems

Different types of OS means that we will have specific examples for each. Tech companies compete on daily basis to meet their customer's needs be it users of mobile phones, Desktops, laptops or the smart gadgets we have.

Below is a list of the most popular computer and smart-phone operating systems in the market today.

Computer OS

Microsoft Windows Developed by Microsoft, It is the most used OS among computer users. It's latest release is Windows 11, with some of it's older versions include: Windows 10, 8.1, 8, 7, Vista. XP and Windows 2000.

To install it you will need to purchase a copy of the software which is accompanied by a uniques product activation key.

Mac OS Developed by Apple for Apple computers. This OS comes pre-installed in all Macintosh computers.

Linux It is an Open-Source software, which has resulted to many distributions over the past years. It is considered to be used by people who know their way around working with the command line.

Some of it's distributions include: Ubuntu, Parrot, Debian, Arch, Linux Mint, Fedora, Kali Linux, and more.

Other rising OS among computer field include: Chrome OS & Android

Smart-phone OS

Some of the most popular include: Android, Apple iOS, Windows Mobile, Blackberry OS, Palm OS, Google pixel and Symbian OS.

Functions of an Operating System

Speaking of OS functions, has it ever crossed your mind how the computer manages to handle different processes, how different tasks are managed or even implemented?

If this questions have ever crossed your mind, then in this section they will be answered, all this are functions that are being handled by the OS, Let's talk more about the same below:

Memory Management It's the work of the OS to manage the computer memory. With the help of the CPU the OS keeps track of the memory used by a particular program, It will be fair to mention that the OS ensures that each program is allocated enough memory to execute it's process

Process Management The OS is responsible for deciding the order in which processes will be executed, this act is known as process scheduling. Process management is made possible with the help of algorithms. Other responsibilities that lie under this category include: keeping status of a process and ensuring each process receives enough time to execute.

Device Management It monitors all devices connected to your device, both the input and output devices. It's main function is to ensure that all the connected devices are correctly allocated and function. It also decides which process gets access to a certain device and for how long.

File Management As we all know a system do contain multiple and large amount of data. It's the work of the OS to keep track of all this information including their location, accessibility rights, where they are stored, status of the file. It also manages the process of file deletion.

Job Scheduling The operating system determines the jobs/tasks that need to be processed first and ensures that these tasks are completed. Usually the one with the highest priority is executed first. It also keeps track of the time and resources used by various tasks and users.

Error Detection & Response When a computer is running we are bount to encounter a number of errors, by the computer being able to indicate or show you where this is made possible with the help of the OS. The OS offers helps by a response that guides you on what to do next.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Operating Systems

By this point it is evident that OS plays a big role in our day to day life. It is within our midist either your phone or even you laptop or the PC back at the office.

With the different types we have they all have their benefits and downsides, that's why there will always be new versions released time after time. Let's have a look at some of the pros and cons of an OS.

Resource Sharing Operating System allows for an opportunity to share resources with other users via services like printers, fax, over the network etc... some of the most commonly shared resources include: files documents, videos, images and apps, mails.

Security With the large amount of data stored in the computers it's the responsibility of an OS to make sure all the data present is secure. A good example of an OS actively securing user data is the Microsoft's Windows Defender, it detects malicious and harmful files and removes them or denies access to install.

User Friendly The interface provided by the GUI is much more user friendly compared to a command line interface. It comes with various symbols, buttons, menus and other graphical representations which all make them easily understandable. As a result, users can interact and communicate with the machine easily.

Multitasking By using an operating system, users can perform different tasks simultaneously. There is no need to close one window to open another.

Disadvantages

Cost Unless it is an open-source operating system like Linux and it's distros, most Operating Systems are considered to be expensive. Even though users can choose free versions of them, they typically have limited features.

Virus Attacks Just like any other software out there, the risk of viruses is always higher in an operating system. Sometimes users can unknowingly download malicious programs, visit malicious websites, or open email attachments containing viruses, all which can make a computer vulnerable to viruses.

Complexity The languages used to develop the OS are more complex for people without programming knowledge. So you can't always quickly resolve problems in the OS just by looking you will have to look for a specialist to help hence maintenance cost rises.

System Failure An operating system is the heart of the computer system, and if by any chance, due to any reason, it stops functioning, then the whole system will crash. Meaning without an OS your machine can not function at all.

How to Choose an Operating System

By knowing what to look for when choosing an OS, will have a big impact on your daily interaction with computer. It is always advised to shop keeping in mind the budget at hand and the features you are aspiring for this also depends with your career.

Here are the common actors to consider:

User-friendliness Each OS has a new thing it has to offer, especially for the beginners. Be sure the OS you choose has an easier learning curve and you can easily adapt to it. Linux and it's distributions have always been considered less user friendly to beginners with OS like windows being more friendly.

Software Compatibility Be sure to chore an OS that supports installation of the softwares you use on daily basis or even plan to use. A good example is windows system supports a wide variety of commercial softwares unlike Mac which mostly supports softwares from it's library only.

Hardware Configuration You'll want to make sure that you'll have access to the software that you use in service delivery. You just need the software that will help you deliver your services. Pick the operating system that has everything that you need with full support and updates.

Cost & Support You will need to make sure that the price range is within your budget. Mac generally costs more than most of the others. It is possible to get a cheaper or free OS that effectively serves every purpose you'll need it to serve.

Security As discussed from the disadvantages since an OS is just like any other software it's vulnerable to attacks. Be sure to choose an OS that has high security measures. Usually Windows is considered to be more vulnerable due to it's wide market share while Linux distros are considered less vulnerable

Perhaps you are still wondering what people's take is on the longest debate about the OS best for developers, well according to many surveys and polls conducted by different organizations windows has always managed to scope the top position:

There you have it, all the knowledge you require to help you get around the OS topic, having said this hope this article has helped you out and if you are a beginner all the best as you find the best OS for your work.

Enjoy coding ❤.

Technical Writer ✍️ & Open-Source Enthusiast ❤ || Empowering Developers to Learn & Grow || Committed to Making a Meaningful Contribution to the Tech Community and Beyond.

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Operating Systems – Essay Sample

An operating system, or OS, is a common computer piece in the world today. An OS is an intricate set of software programs that helps organize information within a computer’s hardware. It can store information and retrieve it from memory systems or the hard drive. It can also direct applications and programs within the computer or from portable sources. In essence, an operating system communicates between the hardware and the programs as an organizational tool. For example, when you click on a program file to retrieve stored information, it is the operating system that communicates the command to the hardware, which pulls up the desired information. This means the only way that programs and hardware can interact is through the operating system, which determines the set of procedures and regulations they must follow to maintain order in the computer system.

There are many common operating systems used in the world today. They are used in many electronic devices, including computers, phones, videogames, tablets, portable music devices and websites. The Macintosh company is currently known for producing several operating systems, including Mac OS and Mac OS X (there are several versions of the Mac OS X, including the Lion and the Snow Leopard). The search engine Google recently developed the Google Chrome operating system, thought it was created from the foundations of an older system know as Linux kernel, one of the first that applied to many different devices. Linux, in turn, was derived from UNIX, the original (and largest) group of operating systems, which included a successful subgroup known as BSD. Microsoft Windows is another popular operating system with many versions (Windows 95, Windows 7, etc.).

There are also many different types of operating systems. Some are more commonly used than others, but all have benefits. Some, base their functions on timelines and real-time events. These programs are found in scheduled updates, reservation programs and other time-related tasks; they are known as real-time operating systems. A distributed operating system, on the other hand, links many computers together to create a cohesive network of information and rules; power and electricity-governing computers are a typical example.

Multi-user and single-user operating systems either allow multiple access to computer information (multi) or only allow the access of one persona at a time (single). Home computers typically allow only one user access at a time to the system on that computer. An embedded operating system are typically found on devices other than computers – usually phones and other small devices – and have much more strict, regulated, efficient operating styles than others. Without the invention of the operating system, computers would not have nearly the amount of power, diversity and applicability they do today.

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At the most fundamental level, an operating system serves as an intermediary—that is, a middleman—between a computer user and computer hardware (Bower, 2015). It is an extensive and complicated group of system programs that oversees the many operations of a computer and handles the management of computer resources (Garrido, Schlesinger, & Hoganson, 2013). Furthermore, it is arguably the most important component of system software, because without an operating system, a computer is rendered inoperable (Goodwill Community Foundation, Inc., 2017).

An operating system plays a significant role in facilitating communication between humans and computers because it allows one to indirectly “speak” to them, despite not being fluent in machine language. This is made possible with the use of a user interface, such as a command line or a graphical user interface (GUI) that enables users to interact with a computer by clicking on an array of graphic objects that appear on the screen, such as icons, buttons, and menus (Goodwill Community Foundation, Inc., 2017). These interfaces allow the operating system to abstract out the smaller, more unnecessary details related to the computer’s underlying hardware. If operating systems did not exist, then one would need to know all of these details in order to make anything run (Wienand, 2016).

Aside from acting as a communication interface, operating systems also perform crucial functions such as ensuring system security. The operating system is in charge of controlling access to system resources, such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, file storage, external devices, and network connections (Hemmendinger, 2017). In other words, it checks that only those with proper permissions can use system resources. For instance, if one file is owned by User 1, User 2 should not be permitted to open the file, read the file, or make changes to the file [4] .

Figure 1. The operating system acts as an intermediary between users and computer hardware (Bower, 2015)

The three most commonly used operating systems are Linux, Unix, and Windows [2]. This paper will concentrate its attention on the Mac operating system, macOS, a Unix-based operating system developed by Apple Inc. Before turning our focus to the technicalities of macOS, we will describe a timeline that charts the inception, growth, and development of the Mac operating system and outline its transformation over the years. Following this, we will present an overview of the architecture that makes up macOS and explore each of its components in detail. After, we will consider the advantages that macOS provides over other operating systems, as well as the tradeoffs that come with it. Finally, we will analyze the current direction of macOS and theorize about its future possible trajectories.

Early Beginnings

macOS has come quite a long way from where it began in 1984 when Steve Jobs released the first Macintosh computer on stage at a community college in Cupertino, California. Weighing in at 22 pounds and costing a whopping $2,500 (or $6,000 when adjusted for inflation), it was promised to be “the computer you know how to use.” At that time, the computer was unlike any other. Its pleasing GUI and ground-breaking design caused it to receive high praise from big names, such as Consumer Reports, despite the fact that it only had 128 kilobytes of memory (enough for just under nine pages) once the operating system was installed (Pierce, 2014).

Just one year after the first computer was released, Steve Jobs was forced to leave Apple and set out to create “the next big thing.” Job’s idea was to design what he called “the perfect research computer” (Singh, 2003). Jobs, joined by five previous Apple employees, spent the next three years bringing the idea to life. What resulted was named the NeXT Computer workstation, the first computer to include a digital signal processor. Its accompanying operating system was called NeXTSTEP.

NeXTSTEP went through a number of iterations over the next two years and was transformed into a powerful Objective-C operating system with a highly praised, postscript-based GUI. NeXTSTEP boasted many achievements, such as being the first platform on which a web browser was designed. Further down the road, NeXTSTEP evolved into OPENSTEP, a platform that would allow users to design their own versions of the operating system. The NeXT computer was eventually discontinued, but OPENSTEP would become the foundation for what is known today as macOS.

Around the height of NeXT’s success, Apple was furiously trying to compete with Microsoft Windows. They were in an all-out race to release something big before Windows 95 was made available to the public (Dormehl, 2015). They ultimately lost that race when Pink OS, Apple’s failed venture with IBM, was ended. In response to the loss, Apple went on a full-fledged advertising campaign mocking Windows 95. Apple employees would drive around with bumper stickers comparing the new release to a four-year-old Mac operating system. They even posted a massive ad in the Wall Street Journal mocking the new system.

Unfortunately, Apple’s campaign did not go quite as they had planned. Consumers were lined up around the block on the Windows 95 release day, a feat very uncommon to see in those days. Users loved the start menu and seemed to enjoy the bold, bright colors that Apple had made it a point to avoid in their interface. A then Apple employee, David Curbow, was quoted as saying, “We had this big crash course to make everything look sexier, to make it more colorful. I think it was the first realization that we were not just building computers for people. We were building things that would look good enough that you wanted to buy them” (Dormehl, 2015). To make matters worse, Internet Explorer, which would soon become the first web browser for many, was released afterwards. It was clear that something had to be done to regain a competitive edge. In 1997, NeXT was purchased by Apple and development on Mac OS X began (Patton, 1993).

In September of 2000, Apple released an official preview version of OS X for $30 with the intention of getting opinions from the public. This release greatly improved on the classic Mac OS and had many updated features, including the famous Aqua user interface and the Darwin core, meeting long standing user demand for “preemptive multitasking” and “protected memory.” New native applications were also included. Features that are well known today, such as TextEdit, Preview, QuickTime, and even a pre-iTunes MP3 player, all began there (Siracusa, 2004).

The first full version of Mac OS X, 10.0, called Cheetah, was made available in March of 2001, just two months before the beta trial ended. Despite such a positive beta test, OS X 10.0 received plenty of user criticism. Much of this criticism was focused on three main areas: (1) compatibility, (2) responsiveness, and (3) stability. With this first release, users were not able to burn CDs or play DVDs. Although the Aqua GUI was called beautiful, it lagged terribly and resulted in response times plummeting (McElhearn, Timeline of Key Features Added to Every Mac OS X Release to Date, 2016). Users were fast to point out all of the issues that they ran into, such as kernel panic, which caused computers to continually restart for no apparent reason (Kuziv, 2017). These complaints ultimately convinced Apple to give its users a free upgrade to the next version, 10.01, of Mac OS X (Orlowski, 2001).

Moving forward in time, Mac OS X Jaguar 10.2 was released in August of 2002. This would be the world’s first look at many of the Mac features that are seen today. Things like QuickTime, Contacts, and the native mail client were all rolled out during this time. This would a lso be the start of using Quartz Extre me for smooth graphics rendering and image processing (Apple Inc., 2002). Users embraced this iteration and seemed to be much happier with the improvements included.

Moving down the line, Apple continued with its trend of announcing yearly to bi-yearly operating systems releases, each named after a large cat. Panther, Tiger, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Lion, and Mountain Lion made up the full lineup until the release of OS X Mavericks 10.9, in June of 2013. Mavericks was the tenth significant release from the OS X line and introduced many features. Apple promised its users that there would be more than 200 changes. The front-runner was major improvements to system efficiency, which included the batch processing of more low-level functions. This change allowed the CPU to remain in power-saving mode for longer stretches of time, ultimately reducing CPU utilization by 72% and showing a massive gain in battery life (MacRumors.com, LLC, 2017).

Moving ahead in time, Apple adopted a new naming convention, using names of mountain ranges located in California. The introduction of OS X Yosemite 10.10, in June of 2014, completely overhauled the UI. Flat-like elements completely replaced the more 3D icons. The overall theme became much more resemblant of the current iOS look and feel. Moving down the line there is El Capitan and Sierra. Starting with Sierra 10.12 Apple made the bold decision to rename Mac OS X to macOS. Today we have High Sierra and a much more feature-rich interface. Sierra and High Sierra offer a much more mobile-like experience and huge new feature set. Siri can now be accessed and the computers can be unlocked instantly. with TouchID. Picture in picture videos have and integrated apple pay have both also become user favorites.( https://www.imore.com/macos-sierra) Insert closing sentence here

Architecture

The architecture of macOS consists of several layers: (1) the interface layer, (2) the applications layer, (3) the graphics layer, and (4) the core OS layer. An overview of these layers is given in Figure 3. Layers toward the top provide services that are “closer” to the user, whereas layers toward the bottom provide services that are “farther” from the user (Miser, 2004).

Figure 3. macOS architectural overview (Miser, 2004)

The Interface Layer

The interface layer, Aqua, is one of the first things that comes to mind for many Mac owners when they think of the “Mac Experience.” The UI, menus, Finder, Dock, as well as other key features are what primarily give the user the unique feeling of using a Mac. In most cases, this layer is all the user will ever really directly interact with (Landau, 2003). Aqua was originally designed to resemble a water-like theme; it incorporated a raindrop style with reflective and transparent components. Steve Jobs was quoted as saying that “one of the design goals was when you saw it you wanted to lick it” (Jobs, 2000).

Figure 4. The first version of the Aqua GUI

The Applications Layer

Below the interface layer is the application layer. This layer is comprised of four main environments: (1) the Classic Mac environment, (2) the Carbon environment, (3) the Cocoa environment, and (4) the Java 2 environment. The diversity of this layer greatly contributes to the robustness of macOS because it allows the operating system to be compatible with a wide variety of applications (Miser, 2004).

The primary purpose of the Mac Classic environment is to provide the operating system with a means to run legacy applications and programs that were written for previous versions of macOS. Because of this, literally thousands of applications that would otherwise be obsolete are still able to be utilized, and potentially improved, by making use of the configurable virtual memory of macOS. However, this feature is still not a perfect fix—running these legacy applications can cause graphic issues as well as reference errors due to the previous confusing files systems (Ray & Ray, 2003).

The Carbon environment is responsible for handling all OS X 8 and OS X 9 programs that have had their code optimized for current macOS compatibility (Sellers, 2001). By a process known as Carbonizing, it allows users to port older programs to make use of the Carbon application programming interface (API). Applications being run in this environment can take advantage of the benefits provided by Darwin, including “protected memory” and “preemptive multitasking.” One of the greatest things about Carbon is the amount of time that users save when they choose to Carbonize an application, rather than freshly rebuilding an updated version (Apple Inc., 2017).

Generally, when applications are designed for the current version of macOS, they are designed in the Cocoa environment. Cocoa makes use of object-oriented programming principles and is currently Apple’s native API (Gallagher, 2010). Many components of the applications built in this environment are highly automated in order to remain compliant with Apple’s “Human Interface Guidelines,” allowing them to make full use of the newest macOS features while simultaneously giving them a unique feel. Cocoa applications are rapidly becoming more and more predominant in the macOS world (Miller, 2017).

The final environment in the applications layer is the Java 2 environment. One of the primary draws of the Java 2 environment is that it gives users the ability to build entirely pure Java applications and applets using the Java development environment. Applications written in Java are some of the most common applications found on the web today. Because Java applications are so widespread, programming in the Java 2 environment provides a huge advantage over other alternatives because the resulting products will be cross-platform compatible (Zobkiw, 2003).

The Graphics Layer

The Mac operating system includes an advanced graphics layer, which has three main components: (1) Quartz Extreme, (2) OpenGL, and (3) QuickTime.

The first part of the graphics layer is known as Quartz Extreme. Quartz Extreme is responsible for handling the system’s 2D elements, such as interface graphics, fonts, and the rendering and antialiasing of images. If available, Quartz Extreme processes images using the system’s graphics card instead of using the machine’s CPU. This reduces the CPU load, effectively making the machine more responsive because it frees up the CPU to handle other processes. The engine driving Quartz Extreme is designed on top of the Acrobat Portable Format (PDF), a file format designed by Adobe Systems Incorporated. The text and graphics rendered in Quartz Extreme are crisp, clean, easily resized, and easily transferred between computers. Quartz Extreme allows the Mac operating system to display PDF files without using Adobe Acrobat Reader in Mac’s native Preview application (Chambers, 2012). The use of Quartz Extreme also eliminates the need for non-native font smoothing when working with PostScript fonts (Miser, 2004).

The second component of the graphics layer is OpenGL, an API that facilitates the use of 3D graphics. OpenGL is arguably the heart of the graphics system in macOS. Being an industry standard, OpenGL can take applications that were built to run on other operating systems, such as Windows and Unix, and more easily convert them to native macOS applications (Apple Inc., 2017). The Mac version of OpenGL gives users access to a wide variety of 3D graphics functions, such as texture mapping, transparency, antialiasing, atmospheric effects, and other special effects (Miser, 2004).

The final part of the graphics layer is QuickTime, a multimedia framework that handles a wide array of media formats on macOS, such as video, sound, animation, graphics, text, interactivity, and mus ic (Apple Inc., 2017).

The Core OS Laye r

One of the most distinctive characteristics of macOS is the core on which it is built upon. The operating system is structured around a Unix core named Darwin, which was modeled after the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) Unix version. Darwin is the primary facilitator of all I/O services for macOS allowing modern features like “plug and play” and “hot swapping.” Surprisingly, the code for Darwin is free to use for anyone without any special permissions.

At the heart of Darwin is a component called Mach. Mach is responsible for performing critical system operations. Mach that a unique space in memory is allocated each application. As a result, unexpected application freezes or shut-downs will not affect other running applications. Mach is in-charge of managing random access memory. This takes the burden of having to worry about memory usage off of the user, a welcomed change from Mac OS 9 and earlier. A third primary function of Mach is managing the CPU processes making sure that each application has the needed resources as well as the CPU running efficiently overall. (http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=1552774).

Advantages, Disadvantages, and Future Possibilities

Apple supporters might claim that their MacBook laptops or Mac desktop computers eclipse other operating systems due to the logical synthesis of macOS and state-of-the-art hardware specifications. Meanwhile, Apple cynics may contend that the Mac operating system is markedly limited when compared to others, such as Windows, or that it is too costly a product (Bonheur, 2016). In truth, all operating systems come with their share of advantages and disadvantages, and macOS is no exception. macOS has numerous benefits that make it more attractive than other operating systems, in addition to shortcomings that may make other operating systems appear to be better options.

One of the strongest advantages of macOS lies in its advanced security technology. Part of the reason why macOS is so secure is because it is built on a Unix core—antivirus software is largely unnecessary on macOS devices because destructive software cannot be installed unless the user explicitly gives root access, that is, administrative privileges, to the harmful programs (Carson, 2011). macOS also offers many security features that keep its users and their data safe (McElhearn, OS X Security: Under the Hood Features That Protect Your Mac, 2016). For instance, Gatekeeper, a feature introduced in Mountain Lion and OS X Lion v10.7.5, makes it safer to download applications by putting additional checks in place to guard against malicious software, or malware, that users may unintentionally stumble upon (Apple Inc., 2017). It uses a process called code signing to verify the authenticity of an application’s publisher (McElhearn, OS X Security: Under the Hood Features That Protect Your Mac, 2016). iCloud Keychain, another helpful security feature, makes it easier for users to visit websites that require login credentials because it safely stores and encrypts account names, usernames, passwords, or credit card information that the user saves. This information is kept up-to-date and is synced across all of the user’s Apple devices (Apple Inc., 2017).

Ease-of-use is another trait that makes macOS advantageous. The Mac operating system offers an appealing and intuitive GUI that is somewhat similar to the GUI found in other Apple products, such as the iPhone and the iPad. Those who are familiar with iOS devices will find that navigating the user workflow of macOS in a desktop environment to be quite simple and straightforward (Bonheur, 2016). The logical organization of macOS makes for a very user-friendly interface. Even those unfamiliar with iOS devices will find that such a process is clear-cut, due to things being where one expects them to be (Miser, 2004).

An extension of macOS’ ease-of-use is the fact that it comes pre-stocked with useful applications, such as Pages, Numbers, and Keynote, the web browser Safari, the email client Mail, and communication apps such as Messages and FaceTime. For creative-minded professionals, Apple includes the photo-editing app iPhoto, the video-editing app iMovie, and the music-production app GarageBand (Bonheur, 2016). Figure 5 shows Launchpad, the application launcher in macOS Sierra, where all of these applications can be started (Apple Inc., 2017).

Perhaps one of the most compelling advantages of macOS in relation to other operating systems is its seamless integration with other Apple products (Bonheur, 2016). macOS will automatically recognize other Apple devices (Carson, 2011). Only individuals with several Apple devices can enjoy the benefit of painless data and information synchronization across multiple devices, without the need to use cloud-based drives such as OneDrive or Google Drive (Bonheur, 2016).

Figure 5. macOS Sierra application launcher (Apple Inc., 2017)

Although macOS may provide many enticing advantages over other operating systems, it is not without its drawbacks. Perhaps one of the most frequently cited reasons to use an operating system other than macOS is the steep price tag placed on Apple products. The only way to legally obtain legitimate macOS software is to purchase a Mac computer (Bonheur, 2016). Macs are expensive computers, with the latest iMacs, MacBooks, and MacBook Pros costing upwards of $1,300. A 15-inch MacBook Pro with 512 gigabytes (GB) of storage will set one back $2,799, for instance (Apple Inc., 2017).

Another significant disadvantage to macOS is its inflexibility with regards to hardware upgrades. With Windows computers, users can design and tailor their builds to their preferences and upgrade specific hardware parts whenever desired. However, most Mac computers cannot be upgraded effortlessly due to the integration of the Mac’s hardware components at the design and engineering levels (Bonheur, 2016). For those who enjoy tinkering with computers as a hobby, or for those who wish to lengthen the lifespan of their PC, this is somewhat disheartening and oftentimes a deal breaker when it comes to selecting an operating system. It is the same scenario for those who enjoy playing video games: gamers generally want the ability to easily upgrade hardware components so that they can keep up with and adapt to ever-changing game requirements.

Some users may also feel rather constrained by the fact that there are fewer software options available for macOS than there are for other operating systems, such as Windows (Carson, 2011). That is, macOS has a smaller application ecosystem, even though the gap is beginning to close. Many software developers may opt to develop for Windows before macOS in order to reach a larger audience (Bonheur, 2016). This is especially true when it comes to the highly specialized, harder-to-source software that is often found in industry-specific applications or at small and/or independent companies (Carson, 2011). For instance, there are fewer video game titles available for macOS than there are for Windows, although there has been a push more recently for greater support for gaming on macOS and Linux.

Despite Windows’ position as the most prominent and accessible desktop operating system in the world, Apple’s macOS has gained a significant following in recent years. Figure 6 and Figure 7 illustrate the results of an annual survey conducted by Stack Overflow about developers’ desktop operating system preferences. In 2016, although Windows operating systems as a whole prevailed with 52.2 percent of developers’ votes, macOS rose to 26.2 percent from its previous 18.7 percent in 2013, illustrating its progressively rising influence among web developers (Stack Exchange, Inc., 2017). It would not be surprising if this trend continued.

Figure 6. Stack Overflow’ s Web Developer Survey Results (2016) – Desktop Operating System preferences (Stack Exchange, Inc., 2017)

Figure 7. Stack Overflow’s Web Developer Survey Results (2013) – Desktop Operating System preferences (Stack Exchange, Inc., 2017)

Beyond developer preferences, what does the future hold in store for macOS? Some believe that Apple’s iOS will ultimately replace macOS. Others, like programmer Steven Troughton-Smith, wouldn’t’ be surprised if Apple were to consolidate iOS and macOS into something new: “We’re far enough into the age of mobile that the big players are designing the OSes that’ll follow it—surprised if Apple isn’t doing the same. It’s not so crazy to think that Apple would want to replace both iOS and macOS with something new and more unified” (Snell, 2017).

[CONTENT here.]

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API: a set of commands, functions, protocols, and objects that programmers can use to create software; it provides developers wi th standard commands for performing common operations so that they do not have to write code from scra tch

Application programming interface (API): a set of commands, functions, protocols, and objects that programmers can use to create software; provides developers with standard commands for performing common operations so that they do not have to write code from scratch

Central processing unit (CPU): the primary component of a computer that processes instructions; it runs the operating system and applications, constantly receiving input from the user or active software programs; it processes the data and produces output, which may be stored by an application or displayed on the screen

Code signing: the method of using a certificate-based digital signature to sign executables and scripts in order to verify an author’s identity and ensure that code has not been changed or corrupted since it was signed by the author; helps users and other software determine whether the software can be trusted

CPU: the primary component of a computer that processes instructions; it runs the operating system and applications, constantly receiving input from the user or active software programs; it processes the data and produces output, which may be stored by an application or displayed on the screen

Gatekeeper: a security feature of the macOS operating system by Apple that enforces code signing and verifies downloaded applications before allowing them to run, thereby reducing the likelihood of inadvertently executing malware

Graphical user interface (GUI): a type of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphic icons and visual indicators, instead of text-based user interfaces, typed command labels, or text navigation

GUI: a type of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphic icons and visual indicators, instead of text-based user interfaces, typed command labels, or text navigation

iCloud Keychain: a security feature of the macOS operating system that keeps a user’s Safari website usernames and passwords, credit card information, and Wi-Fi network information up to date across all approved devices

Kernel panic: a safety measure taken by an operating system’s kernel upon detecting an internal fatal error from which it cannot safely recover from, or where the system cannot continue to run without risking major data loss

Machine language:

Malicious software (“malware”): an umbrella term used to refer to a variety of forms of hostile or intrusive software, including computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware, spyware, adware, scareware, and other malicious programs

Malware: an umbrella term used to refer to a variety of forms of hostile or intrusive software, including computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware, spyware, adware, scareware, and other malicious programs

Operating system:

Root: refers to the top-level directory of a file system; the username or account that, by default, has access to all commands and files on a Linux or other Unix-like operating system

Unix: a popular multi-user, multitasking operating system developed at Bell Labs in the early 1970s; it was designed for flexibility and adaptability; it has become a leading operating system for workstations, but historically has been less popular in the personal computer market

Biographies

Ali Amin is a senior pursuing a degree in Information Systems at the University of North Florida. He is expected to graduate in Fall 2018. Ali is currently living in Jacksonville, Florida.

Katie Grubbs is a senior pursuing a degree in Information Science at the University of North Florida. She is expected to graduate in Summer or Fall 2018. Katie currently lives in St. Johns, Florida, but has lived in quite a few other places (including Japan) due to her family’s military background. In Summer 2017, she interned at APPX Software, Inc. as a business application developer. She is currently in the midst of senior project and hopes to obtain a position with a software development company upon graduation.

Daniel Lee is a junior pursuing a degree in Information Systems at the University of North Florida. He is expected to graduate in Summer or Fall 2019. Daniel currently lives in Middleburg, Florida.

Matthew Ramsay is a senior at the University of North Florida. Upon graduating, he will have earned a Bachelor’s of Business Administration with a concentration in Accounting, as well as a Bachelor’s of Science with a concentration in Computer and Information Science. Matthew is an active member of his community and takes the time to help others whenever possible. In his free moments, Matthew enjoys spending time in nature and striving to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Aside from school, Matthew is a candidate engineer at feature[23], a local consulting/software-engineering firm that focuses on innovation in the software industry. Matthew plans to graduate in Summer 2018.

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Introduction to Operating Systems

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Introduction

1. introduction #.

This part of the book gives an overview of everything you will learn in more detail in the rest of the book. We start by discussing the purpose of operating systems today, why it is so valuable to understand them, and some of the reasons we expect operating systems to continue to evolve rapidly in coming years. The next chapter describes the fundamental structure of today’s monolithic operating systems, and how applications and devices interact with the OS. We then discuss some of the core abstractions of operating systems and of Unix/Linux in particular. The final chapter on tools reviews the fundamental tools that we expect you to master on using Unix to develop system software.

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Operating System (OS) Definition & Examples

Operating system definition and examples of modern operating systems

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An operating system is a powerful and usually extensive program that controls and manages the hardware and other software on a computer.

All computers and computer-like devices require operating systems, including your laptop, tablet, desktop, smartphone, smartwatch, and router.

Not sure what operating system you're running? Use the Lifewire System Info Tool below to find out!

Examples of Operating Systems

Laptops, tablets, and desktop computers all run operating systems. You've probably heard of most of them. Some examples include versions of Microsoft Windows (like Windows 11 , Windows 10, Windows 8, Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP), Apple's macOS (formerly OS X), Chrome OS , and various Unix and Linux distribution lists . (Unix and Linux are open-source operating systems.)

Your smartphone runs a mobile operating system, probably either Apple's iOS or Google's Android. Both are household names, but you may not have realized that they are the operating systems running on those devices.

Servers such as those that host the websites you visit or serve the videos you watch typically run specialized operating systems designed and optimized to run the special software required to make them do what they do. Some examples include Windows Server, Linux, and FreeBSD.

Software & Operating Systems

Most software applications are designed to work with just one company's operating system, like just Windows (Microsoft) or just macOS (Apple).

A piece of software will clearly say which operating systems it supports and will get very specific if necessary. For example, a video production software program might support Windows 11 and Windows 10 but not older versions like Windows Vista and XP.

Software developers also often release other versions of their software that work with different operating systems. In the video production program example, that company might also release another version of the program with the same features, which only works with macOS.

It's also crucial to know if you have Windows 64-bit or 32-bit for your operating system. It's a common question asked when downloading software.

Special types of software called virtual machines can mimic "real" computers and run different operating systems from within them.

Operating System Errors

There are many ways that an operating system itself can become corrupted or damaged, but these issues are relatively rare.

In Windows, the most severe is the Operating System Not Found error message that implies an OS can't even be found!

Operating System Updates

All modern operating systems have a built-in mechanism to keep the software updated. In Windows, this is through Windows Update . Other operating systems work similarly, like when you update the Android OS or download and install new iOS updates .

Keeping an operating system up to date with the newest features is vital so that you're getting the most out of your money. Getting security fixes is another crucial reason to ensure your OS is up-to-date; this can help prevent hackers from getting into your device.

There are three main operating systems for computers: Windows, Apple, and Linux. The two main operating systems for mobile are Android and iOS. There are countless other operating systems made for specific devices, such as Samsung's One UI that only works on Samsung devices.

Google Chromebooks typically run Chrome OS, which is optimized for use with Google's ecosystem of online tools (Google Docs, the Chrome browser, etc.) Some Chromebooks, however, can also run Android apps and Linux apps.

Amazon tablets run Fire OS, which is a modified version of Android. (Learn about the history of Fire OS and how it matches up to Android.)

It can vary. Apple Watch runs on watchOS while most other smartwatches use the Wear operating system , Google's operating system for wearable products.

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Engineering Mathematics
Discrete Mathematics
Operating System
Computer Networks
Digital Logic and Design
C Programming
Data Structures
Theory of Computation
Compiler Design
Computer Org and Architecture
Operating System Tutorial
What is an Operating System?
Functions of Operating System
Types of Operating Systems
Need and Functions of Operating Systems
Commonly Used Operating System

Structure of Operating System

Operating System Services
Introduction of System Call
System Programs in Operating System
Operating Systems Structures

History of Operating System

Booting and Dual Booting of Operating System

Types of OS

Batch Processing Operating System
Multiprogramming in Operating System
Time Sharing Operating System
What is a Network Operating System?
Real Time Operating System (RTOS)

Process Management

Introduction of Process Management
Process Table and Process Control Block (PCB)
Operations on Processes
Process Schedulers in Operating System
Inter Process Communication (IPC)
Context Switching in Operating System
Preemptive and Non-Preemptive Scheduling

CPU Scheduling in OS

CPU Scheduling in Operating Systems
CPU Scheduling Criteria
Multiple-Processor Scheduling in Operating System
Thread Scheduling

Threads in OS

Thread in Operating System
Threads and its types in Operating System
Multithreading in Operating System

Process Synchronization

Introduction of Process Synchronization
Race Condition Vulnerability
Critical Section in Synchronization
Mutual Exclusion in Synchronization

Critical Section Problem Solution

Peterson's Algorithm in Process Synchronization
Semaphores in Process Synchronization
Semaphores and its types
Producer Consumer Problem using Semaphores | Set 1
Readers-Writers Problem | Set 1 (Introduction and Readers Preference Solution)
Dining Philosopher Problem Using Semaphores
Hardware Synchronization Algorithms : Unlock and Lock, Test and Set, Swap

Deadlocks & Deadlock Handling Methods

Introduction of Deadlock in Operating System
Conditions for Deadlock in Operating System
Banker's Algorithm in Operating System
Wait For Graph Deadlock Detection in Distributed System
Handling Deadlocks
Deadlock Prevention And Avoidance
Deadlock Detection And Recovery
Deadlock Ignorance in Operating System
Recovery from Deadlock in Operating System

Memory Management

Memory Management in Operating System
Implementation of Contiguous Memory Management Techniques
Non-Contiguous Allocation in Operating System
Compaction in Operating System
Best-Fit Allocation in Operating System
Worst-Fit Allocation in Operating Systems
First-Fit Allocation in Operating Systems
Fixed (or static) Partitioning in Operating System
Variable (or Dynamic) Partitioning in Operating System
Paging in Operating System
Segmentation in Operating System
Virtual Memory in Operating System

Page Replacement Algorithms

Page Replacement Algorithms in Operating Systems
Program for Page Replacement Algorithms | Set 2 (FIFO)
Belady's Anomaly in Page Replacement Algorithms
Optimal Page Replacement Algorithm
Program for Least Recently Used (LRU) Page Replacement algorithm
Techniques to handle Thrashing
Storage Management
File Systems in Operating System
File Allocation Methods
Free space management in Operating System
Disk Scheduling Algorithms
RAID (Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks)

OS Interview Questions

Last Minute Notes – Operating Systems
Operating System Interview Questions

OS Quiz and GATE PYQ's

OS Process Management
OS Memory Management
OS Input Output Systems
OS CPU Scheduling
50 Operating System MCQs with Answers

An operating system is a type of software that acts as an interface between the user and the hardware. It is responsible for handling various critical functions of the computer or any other machine. Various tasks that are handled by OS are file management, task management, garbage management, memory management, process management, disk management, I/O management, peripherals management, etc.

Generation of Operating System

Below are four generations of operating systems.

The First Generation
The Second Generation
The Third Generation
The Fourth Generation

1. The First Generation (1940 to early 1950s)

In 1940, an operating system was not included in the creation of the first electrical computer. Early computer users had complete control over the device and wrote programs in pure machine language for every task. During the computer generation, a programmer can merely execute and solve basic mathematical calculations. an operating system is not needed for these computations.

2. The Second Generation (1955 – 1965)

GMOSIS, the first operating system (OS) was developed in the early 1950s. For the IBM Computer, General Motors has created the operating system. Because it gathers all related jobs into groups or batches and then submits them to the operating system using a punch card to finish all of them, the second-generation operating system was built on a single-stream batch processing system.

3. The Third Generation (1965 – 1980)

Because it gathers all similar jobs into groups or batches and then submits them to the second generation operating system using a punch card to finish all jobs in a machine, the second-generation operating system was based on a single stream batch processing system . Control is transferred to the operating system upon each job’s completion, whether it be routinely or unexpectedly. The operating system cleans up after each work is finished before reading and starting the subsequent job on a punch card. Large, professionally operated machines known as mainframes were introduced after that. Operating system designers were able to create a new operating system in the late 1960s that was capable of multiprogramming —the simultaneous execution of several tasks in a single computer program.

In order to create operating systems that enable a CPU to be active at all times by carrying out multiple jobs on a computer at once, multiprogramming has to be introduced. With the release of the DEC PDP-1 in 1961, the third generation of minicomputers saw a new phase of growth and development.

4. The Fourth Generation (1980 – Present Day)

The fourth generation of personal computers is the result of these PDPs. The Generation IV (1980–Present)The evolution of the personal computer is linked to the fourth generation of operating systems. Nonetheless, the third-generation minicomputers and the personal computer have many similarities. At that time, minicomputers were only slightly more expensive than personal computers, which were highly expensive.

The development of Microsoft and the Windows operating system was a significant influence in the creation of personal computers. In 1975, Microsoft developed the first Windows operating system. Bill Gates and Paul Allen had the idea to advance personal computers after releasing the Microsoft Windows OS. As a result, the MS-DOS was released in 1981, but users found it extremely challenging to decipher its complex commands. Windows is now the most widely used and well-liked operating system available. Following then, Windows released a number of operating systems, including Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows XP , and Windows 7, the most recent operating system. The majority of Windows users are currently running Windows 10. Apple is another well-known operating system in addition to Windows.

Types of Operating System

Operating Systems have evolved in past years. It went through several changes before getting its original form. These changes in the operating system are known as the evolution of operating systems . OS improve itself with the invention of new technology. Basically , OS added the feature of new technology and making itself more powerful. Let us see the evolution of operating system year-wise in detail:

No OS – (0s to 1940s)
Batch Processing Systems -(1940s to 1950s)
Multiprogramming Systems -(1950s to 1960s)
Time-Sharing Systems -(1960s to 1970s)
Introduction of GUI -(1970s to 1980s)
Networked Systems – (1980s to 1990s)
Mobile Operating Systems – (Late 1990s to Early 2000s)
AI Integration – (2010s to ongoing)

1. No OS – (0s to 1940s)

As we know that before 1940s, there was no use of OS . Earlier, people are lacking OS in their computer system so they had to manually type instructions for each tasks in machine language(0-1 based language) . And at that time , it was very hard for users to implement even a simple task. And it was very time consuming and also not user-friendly . Because not everyone had that much level of understanding to understand the machine language and it required a deep understanding.

2. Batch Processing Systems -(1940s to 1950s)

With the growth of time, batch processing system came into the market .Now Users had facility to write their programs on punch cards and load it to the computer operator. And then operator make different batches of similar types of jobs and then serve the different batch(group of jobs) one by one to the CPU .CPU first executes jobs of one batch and them jump to the jobs of other batch in a sequence manner.

3. Multiprogramming Systems -(1950s to 1960s)

Multiprogramming was the first operating system where actual revolution began. It provide user facility to load the multiple program into the memory and provide a specific portion of memory to each program. When one program is waiting for any I/O operations (which take much time) at that time the OS give permission to CPU to switch from previous program to other program(which is first in ready queue) for continuos execution of program with interrupt.

4. Time-Sharing Systems -(1960s to 1970s)

Time-sharing systems is extended version of multiprogramming system. Here one extra feature was added to avoid the use of CPU for long time by any single program and give access of CPU to every program after a certain interval of time. Basically OS switches from one program to another program after a certain interval of time so that every program can get access of CPU and complete their work.

5. Introduction of GUI -(1970s to 1980s)

With the growth of time, Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) came. First time OS became more user-friendly and changed the way of people to interact with computer. GUI provides computer system visual elements which made user’s interaction with computer more comfortable and user-friendly. User can just click on visual elements rather than typing commands. Here are some feature of GUI in Microsoft’s windows icons, menus and windows.

6. Networked Systems – (1980s to 1990s)

At 1980s,the craze of computer networks at it’s peak .A special type of Operating Systems needed to manage the network communication . The OS like Novell NetWare and Windows NT were developed to manage network communication which provide users facility to work in collaborative environment and made file sharing and remote access very easy.

7. Mobile Operating Systems – (Late 1990s to Early 2000s)

Invention of smartphones create a big revolution in software industry, To handle the operation of smartphones , a special type of operating systems were developed. Some of them are : iOS and Android etc. These operating systems were optimized with the time and became more powerful.

8. AI Integration – (2010s to ongoing)

With the growth of time, Artificial intelligence came into picture. Operating system integrates features of AI technology like Siri, Google Assistant, and Alexa and became more powerful and efficient in many way. These AI features with operating system create a entire new feature like voice commands, predictive text, and personalized recommendations.

Note: The above mentioned OS basically tells how the OS evolved with the time by adding new features but it doesn’t mean that only new generation OS are in use and previously OS system are not in use, according to the need, all these OS are still used in software industry.

FAQs on History of Operating System

Q.1: how has the development of computer hardware been impacted by the evolution of operating systems.

The design and advancement of computer hardware have been significantly influenced by the development of operating systems. By time by time hardware producers added new features and capabilities to their products as operating systems improved in order to better support the functionality offered by the operating systems after a long variation of time. Like for instance, basically the development of memory management units (MMUs) in hardware to handle memory addressing and protection followed the introduction of virtual memory in operating systems. Similarly, the demand for operating system multitasking and multiprocessing support prompted the creation of more potent and effective processors and other hardware components.

Q.2: How has the development of distributed systems impacted how operating systems have changed over time?

Operating systems have been significantly impacted by the rise of distributed systems, such as client-server architectures and cloud computing. To support network communication, distributed file systems, and resource sharing across multiple machines, operating systems had to develop. Distributed operating systems also developed to offer scalability, fault tolerance, and coordination in distributed environments. These modifications improved the ability to manage resources across interconnected systems by advancing networking protocols, remote procedure calls, and distributed file systems.

Q.3: What is the mother of operating system?

UNIX is the mother of operating System. Unix is an Operating System that is truly the base of all Operating Systems like Ubuntu, Solaris, POSIX, etc.

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An Introduction to Operating System

An Operating system forms the core of any computer device. The functioning and processing of a computer system can come to hold without an operating system.

In this article, we shall discuss in detail the Operating System, along with its various types and functions. The different features and history of the development of OS have also been discussed. For the reference of competitive exam aspirants, some sample questions have also been given further below in this article.

To comprehend Computer Knowledge and its key features, understanding this concept becomes a key factor. Thus, one must carefully go through the various aspects related to this topic to understand it well.

Before moving forward, let us first know What is an Operating System?

An Operating System is the interface between the computer hardware and the end-user. Processing of data, running applications, file management and handling the memory is all managed by the computer OS. Windows, Mac, Android etc. Are examples of Operating systems which are generally used nowadays.

All modern computing devices including Laptops, Tablet, mobile phones, etc. comprise an Operating System which helps in the smooth working of the device.

History of the Operating System

It took years to evolve the Operating Systems and make them as modernised and advanced as they are today. Given below are the details about the evolution and history of Operating systems.

Initially, the computers made did not have an Operating system and to run each program a different code was used. This had made the processing of data more complex and time taking
In 1956, the first operating systems were developed by General Motors to run a single IBM computer
It was in the 1960s that IBM had started installing OS in the devices they launched
The first version of the UNIX operating system was launched in the 1960s and was written in the programming language C
Later on, Microsoft came up with their OS on the request of IBM
Today, all major computer devices have an operating system, each performing the same functions but with slightly different features

To read more about MS Windows , the Operating system released by Microsoft, visit the linked article.

Types of Operating System

Given below are the different types of Operating System along with brief information about each of them:

1. Batch Operating System

There is no direct communication between the computer and the OS
There is an intermediate, the Operator, which needs to distribute the work into batches and sort similar jobs
Multiple users can use it
Can easily manager a large amount of work

2. Real-Time Operating System

It has a data processing system
The processing time is very small between the user’s command and the output
Used in fields where the response needs to be quick and rapid

3. Time-Sharing Operating System

Multiple people at various terminals can use a program at the same time
The main motive is to minimize the response time

4. Distributed Operating System

When two or more systems are connected to each other and one can open files which are not present in their system but in other devices connected in the network
Its usage has now increased over the years
They use multiple central processors to serve real-time applications
Failure of one system does not affect the other systems connected in the network

5. Embedded Operating System

These special Operating systems are built into larger systems
They generally are limited to single specific functions like an ATM

6. Network Operating System

They have one main server which is connected to other client servers
All the management of files, processing of data, access to sharing files, etc. are performed over this small network
It is also a secure operating system for working with multiple users

7. Mobile Operating System

With the advancement in the field of technology, smartphones now are released with an Operating system.
They are designed in a manner that they can help a small device work efficiently

To read in detail about the Fundamentals of Computer , visit the linked article.

Functions of Operating System

Given below are the various functions of an Operating System:

It helps with memory management. It keeps a track of the files being saved in the Main memory and the primary memory of the computer device
Whenever a computer is turned on, the Operating system automatically starts to work. Thus, the booting and rebooting process of a computer device is also an important function of the OS
It provides a user interface
Managing of basic peripheral devices is done by the operating system
Using the password protection option of an operating system, the data in the device can be kept secure
It coordinates with the software and the user
Easy navigation and organisation of files and programs are managed by the OS
Any kind of program which needs to be run through the system is done by the operating system
If any kind of error or bug is found during the program is detected using the operating system

List of Common Operating Systems

Given below is a list of commonly used Operating systems along with their year of release.

To know more about Microsoft Windows and its features, candidates can visit the linked article.

Sample Questions on Operating System

Computer Awareness is an important part of the syllabus for major Government and competitive exams conducted in the country. Questions in the form of MCQ are generally asked in these examinations and candidates must prepare themselves well enough to score more.

Given below are a few sample questions on the topic of Operating System and aspirants can refer to these to apprehend the type of questions and the pattern in which they may be asked.

To get the best Preparation Strategy for Competitive Exams , candidates can visit the linked article.

Q 1. The __________ connects applications to the actual processing of data and manages all communications between software and hardware components. It is the core of any OS.

Central Processing Unit
Main Memory
Systematic Multi-Processing
Cluster Unit

Answer: (3) Kernel

Q 2. Which of the following options is not an Operating System?

Blackberry OS

Answer: (4) Oracle

Q 3. Which of these is not a type of Operating System?

Network Operating System
Distributed Operating System
Embedded Operating System
Batch Operating System
All are a type of Operating System

Answer: (5) All are a type of Operating System

Q 4. The first Operating System was developed by _____

General Motors

Answer: (5) General Motors

Q 5. A program that automates the translation of assembly language into machine language is called _________

Interpreter
None of the above

Answer: (1) Assembler

The information given in this article will help aspirants comprehend the Operating System and its users in a much easier and understandable manner.

Furthermore, to get the latest exam information and the best study material for competitive exams, visit BYJU’S.

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Types of Operating System

1. Batch OS

Advantages of Batch OS

Disadvantages of Batch OS

2. Time-Shared OS

Advantages of Time-Shared OS

Disadvantages of Time-Shared OS

3. Distributed OS

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Advantages of Distributed OS

Disadvantages of Distributed OS

4. Network OS

Advantages of Network OS

Disadvantages of Network OS

5. Real-Time OS (RTOS)

a) Hard Real-Time Systems

b) Soft Real-Time Systems

Advantages of RTOS

Disadvantages of RTOS

Functions of OS

1. Memory Management

2. Processor Management/Scheduling

3. Device Management

4. File Management

5. Security

6. Other Functions

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

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Operating Systems – Essay Sample

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Introduction to Operating Systems

Introduction

Operating System (OS) Definition & Examples

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Operating System Errors

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Structure of Operating System

History of Operating System

Types of OS

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CPU Scheduling in OS

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OS Interview Questions

OS Quiz and GATE PYQ's

Generation of Operating System

1. The First Generation (1940 to early 1950s)

2. The Second Generation (1955 – 1965)

3. The Third Generation (1965 – 1980)

4. The Fourth Generation (1980 – Present Day)

Types of Operating System

1. No OS – (0s to 1940s)

2. Batch Processing Systems -(1940s to 1950s)

3. Multiprogramming Systems -(1950s to 1960s)

4. Time-Sharing Systems -(1960s to 1970s)

5. Introduction of GUI -(1970s to 1980s)

6. Networked Systems – (1980s to 1990s)