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How Haiti Was Devastated by Two Natural Disasters in Three Days

By Tim Wallace ,  Ashley Wu and Jugal K. Patel Aug. 18, 2021

Aug. 14 Epicenter

of earthquake

Aug. 16 Storm path of Grace

A magnitude-7.2 earthquake struck Haiti Saturday morning, killing more than 1,900 and leaving thousands injured and displaced from their homes. As people in the affected regions in the country’s southwest worked to recover with scarce res ources , a severe storm — Grace, then a tropical depression — drenched Haiti in heavy rain on Monday, bringing with it flash floods and the threat of mudslides , which could further delay recovery.

Area affected by earthquake

and storm in Haiti

Lower population

Damage reported

Petit-Trou-de-

Anse-à-Veau

Aug. 16, 8 p.m.

Storm batters Haiti

Aug. 17, 2 a.m.

Path of Tropical

Storm Grace

Aug. 16, 2 p.m.

Very strong shaking

Strong shaking

Moderate shaking

Light shaking

Path of Grace,

now a tropical storm

Although some light shaking from the earthquake could be felt as far as Haiti’s capital, Port-au-Prince, 80 miles from the epicenter, major damage was concentrated in the country’s Nippes, Sud, and Grand’Anse departments. When the shaking subsided, vast swaths of Haiti had ever so slightly moved. The map below shows displaced areas in Haiti, evidence of where the earth shifted after the earthquake.

Petit-Trou-

Epicenter of

magnitude-7.2

How much the ground

sank or rose

1 foot or more

A number of homes and school buildings were damaged in Les Cayes, a seaport community about 20 miles from the earthquake’s epicenter. Local hospitals were quickly overwhelmed , and a very limited number of doctors and surgeons worked through the night to triage victims. Temporary operating rooms near the main airport in Les Cayes were erected, as people tried to evacuate their loved ones to Port-au-Prince for emergency care.

Even before the quake, living conditions had been unstable for many Haitians as the pandemic added to severe poverty, gang violence and political trauma — the still-unsolved July 7 assassination of President Jovenel Moïse .

The earthquake also destroyed several churches that have served as sources of aid and stability to surrounding communities, especially to those that receive little support from the government.

Among the collapsed buildings in Les Cayes was Hôtel Le Manguier, where rescue teams continued to dig through the rubble and remove debris in the days after the earthquake hit.

Hôtel Le Manguier in Les Cayes

Jan. 24, 2020

Aug. 15, 2021

People in Les Cayes who lost their homes spent Monday night sheltering under plastic sheets in makeshift camps or fleeing flooded refugee camps as the storm passed through.

Jérémie, the capital city of the Grand’Anse department in Haiti, also suffered severe damage. Just five years ago, Jérémie was hit by Hurricane Matthew , which destroyed a wave of development that had brought hotels, cell phone service and new roads to the previously isolated region. Saturday’s earthquake caused destruction that overwhelmed the city’s main hospital and triggered a landslide that cut off access to the road leading to the city.

Like in Les Cayes, several churches in Jérémie were damaged, including the St. Louis King of France Cathedral, a landmark place of worship in the area that had also been damaged by Hurricane Matthew.

St. Louis King of France Cathedral in Jérémie

Aug. 14, 2020

Petit-Trou-De-Nippes

In Petit-Trou-De-Nippes, just five miles from the earthquake’s epicenter, phone lines were down in the area with no news immediately available. Landslides in nearby cities were recorded, according to the National Human Rights Defense Network, leaving parts of the Nippes department accessible only by motorcycle or sea.

Because of an editing error, an earlier version of this article misspelled the given name of the Haitian president who was assassinated last month. He was Jovenel Moïse, not Juvenel.

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Rebuilding Haiti: The post-earthquake path to recovery

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Six months after a devastating earthquake in south-west Haiti which caused the deaths of 2,200 people and injured 12,700 more, the international community is coming together with the Government of Haiti to raise up to $2 billion for the long-term recovery and reconstruction of the country. UN News explains why support is needed.

What happened?

The 7.2 magnitude earthquake on 14 August 2021, struck the south-west of this Caribbean island nation causing widespread destruction in predominately rural areas. In addition to the deaths and injuries, thousands of homes were damaged or destroyed and key infrastructure including schools, hospitals, roads and bridges were wrecked, disrupting key services, transport, farming and commerce. The UN says around 800,000 people were impacted in some way or another; that includes 300,000 children whose schooling was disrupted.

What was the response to the Earthquake?

In the immediate aftermath of the earthquake, the Government with the support of the United Nations and others swung into action to provide emergency humanitarian aid to the affected people.  The UN humanitarian affairs office, OCHA , played a central role in coordinating the response. The International Organization for Migration provided temporary shelters for people who lost their homes, food and other items so people could get by. The provision of hot meals for school children by the World Food Programme was stepped up in order to encourage those children whose schools were not destroyed to carry on attending classes. Some 60 health facilities were also destroyed, so emergency wards were supported by the UN Population Fund UNFPA and UNICEF . Expectant mothers were cared for and often gave birth in tents.

Six months after the earthquake, Haiti has moved beyond the immediate emergency and is now looking at long-term recovery and reconstruction. In November, the Government published an assessment of the amount of money it needs to rebuild and recover; it amounts to close to $2 billion. Just over three-quarters of that, so around $1.5bn will go towards reinvigorating social services including housing, health, education and food security programmes. The rest will be spent on boosting agriculture, commerce and industry as well as repairing key infrastructure. Spending on environmental programmes has also been targeted.

What lessons have been learned from natural disasters?

Haiti is, of course, not unused to natural disasters and lessons have been learned from the devasting earthquake of 12 January 2010 in which an estimated 220,000 people died, largely in the capital, Port-au-Prince, and surrounding areas. The key takeaway from that catastrophic event and the response effort that followed was that national leadership is crucial.

In 2010, the government was directly impacted by the disaster and was ill equipped and unprepared to coordinate the emergency response on such a huge scale, and as a result, it was side-lined by the international community.

Haiti also has to do better in terms of introducing more robust disaster risk reduction measures.

What other crises is Haiti facing?

The 2021 earthquake struck as Haiti was facing multiple crises of an economic, political, security, humanitarian and developmental nature. The country has high levels of poverty and ranks 170 out of 189 countries worldwide on the UN Development Programme’s Human Development Report 2020 . The economy is in dire straits, not helped by a recent blockade of petrol deliveries by armed gangs which almost brought the country to a standstill. Insecurity, including kidnapping, is rife, with gangs controlling many neighbourhoods in the capital, Port-au-Prince. In July 2021, the President was assassinated whilst at home and an investigation into his death is continuing. 

On top of all this, Haiti is facing the ongoing threat of COVID-19 .

How can Haiti recover from this latest setback?

On 16 February, the Government is hosting an international conference in Port-au-Prince at which it hopes to raise at least $1.6bn of the $2bn it needs to put the country back on track after the earthquake.

Many donor countries globally are struggling with the extra financial burden the pandemic has put on their resources. Moreover, Haiti is, in reality, competing for funds with other crises around the world, such as Afghanistan and the Ethiopian region, Tigray. One of Haiti’s trump cards may be its huge diaspora, especially in the United States, which it’s hoped will contribute to the fundraising effort. US-based philanthropies are also being targeted.

The international community in Haiti is warning that if the country doesn’t get the support it needs then its recovery, development and ability to withstand other natural disasters will all be negatively affected.

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Why Earthquakes In Haiti Are So Catastrophic

Jaclyn Diaz

Locals recover their belongings Sunday from their homes destroyed in the earthquake in Camp-Perrin in Les Cayes, Haiti. Joseph Odelyn/AP hide caption

Locals recover their belongings Sunday from their homes destroyed in the earthquake in Camp-Perrin in Les Cayes, Haiti.

It happened again.

Over the weekend, Haiti was hit by a magnitude 7.2 earthquake that crumbled homes and buildings and killed more than 1,200 people.

Rescuers are still working to find survivors amid the rubble. The death count is expected to rise.

More than a decade ago, a similar quake left an estimated 220,000 dead, more than 1 million people displaced and roughly 300,000 injured.

These two events are part of Haiti's history of major destructive earthquakes, records of which go back centuries.

Researchers say the country's unique geology make it seismically active — and prone to devastating earthquakes. A combination of factors, however, leaves the country especially susceptible to damage from these events.

Why is Haiti so susceptible to earthquakes?

Haiti sits on a fault line between huge tectonic plates, big pieces of the Earth's crust that slide past each other over time. These two plates are the North American plate and the Caribbean plate.

There are two major faults along Hispaniola, the island shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic.

A map of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti shows dotted orange lines indicating fault lines. The nation sits on a fault line between huge tectonic plates of the Earth's crust — the North American plate and the Caribbean plate. Alyson Hurt/NPR hide caption

The southern one is known as the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system.

It's this fault that the U.S. Geological Survey says caused Saturday's quake and the same one that caused the January 2010 earthquake.

The USGS believes the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone can be blamed on other major earthquakes from 1751 to 1860. The agency said none of these quakes has been officially confirmed in the field as associated with this fault, however.

Haiti Quake: Ruin And Recovery

The anatomy of a caribbean earthquake, a history of catastrophic earthquakes in haiti.

One of the earliest major recorded earthquakes in Haiti occurred in the 1700s, according to the USGS. Others followed, with researchers cataloging events that left hundreds dead and destroyed homes and businesses.

• Nov. 21, 1751: A major earthquake destroys Port-au-Prince and causes major destruction in nearby towns. Witness accounts of the event from the National Centers for Environmental Information recount the devastation . "Houses and factories were thrown down at St.-Marc, Lkogbne, and Plaine du Cul-de-sac. Crevices formed and abundant springs of nauseous water broke forth," researchers who witnessed the event described it. "Great landslips occurred and the beds of the rivers changed direction."
• June 3, 1770: An earthquake hits Port-au-Prince again. Researchers described the event as "one of the strongest shocks recorded on the Island of Haiti." An estimated 200 people in the nation's capital died as a result of the earthquake.
• April 8, 1860: This earthquake occurred farther west of the 2010 earthquake, near Anse-à-Veau, and was accompanied by a tsunami. "At Anse-a-Veau, crevasses sliced across the streets and 124 houses were demolished; at Miragoane, the bridge sank; at Petit Goave, all the houses were abandoned ... ," researchers said of the event. "Ships in the harbor of Les Cayes felt the shock, as did ships at sea."

Before the 2010 earthquake, there hadn't been another major quake along the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone for about 200 years.

In January 2010, people work to free trapped victims from the rubble of a collapsed building after an earthquake in Haiti's capital of Port-au-Prince. Gerald Herbert/AP hide caption

In January 2010, people work to free trapped victims from the rubble of a collapsed building after an earthquake in Haiti's capital of Port-au-Prince.

Building to withstand hurricanes, not earthquakes

The USGS says it recorded 22 magnitude 7 or larger earthquakes in 2010, the same year as the devastating earthquake in Haiti. However, despite an active year, almost all the fatalities were produced by the major temblor that hit on Jan. 12 of that year, the USGS said.

It struck around the densely populated capital of Port-au-Prince, contributing to the high death toll.

But the way structures are built in Haiti is also believed to have contributed to the loss of life and property.

Due to the 1751 and 1770 earthquakes and minor quakes that occurred between them, local authorities started requiring building with wood and forbade building with masonry, according to the USGS.

A woman tries to recover her belongings Sunday amid the rubble of her home destroyed by the quake in Camp-Perrin in Les Cayes. Joseph Odelyn/AP hide caption

A woman tries to recover her belongings Sunday amid the rubble of her home destroyed by the quake in Camp-Perrin in Les Cayes.

In the years since, Haitians have focused on building their homes to withstand the bigger threat in the neighborhood — hurricanes.

Structures made of concrete and cinder block hold up well during storms but are more vulnerable during earthquakes, according to The Associated Press .

More earthquakes may be ahead

In 2012, researchers wrote that the 2010 earthquake "may mark the beginning of a new cycle of large earthquakes on the Enriquillo fault system after 240 years of seismic quiescence."

"The entire Enriquillo fault system appears to be seismically active; Haiti and the Dominican Republic should prepare for future devastating earthquakes," researchers said.

It's still too early to determine the long-term impact of Saturday's earthquake. What is certain is the unique pressures facing Haitians in the days ahead.

The country still has not fully recovered from the 2010 earthquake and Hurricane Matthew in 2016.

Latin America

Ariel henry will become haiti's prime minister, ending a power struggle.

Haiti was already suffering from political instability following last month's assassination of President Jovenel Moïse. Moïse's death has since left a power vacuum that's been filled by interim Prime Minister Ariel Henry, a 71-year-old neurosurgeon and public official.

The nation is also bracing for another threat as Tropical Depression Grace threatens to bring heavy rains on Monday.

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Last updated: Nov. 9, 2021

2021 Haiti Earthquake and Tropical Storm Grace

• Ongoing Needs
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Just before 8:30 a.m. ET on Aug. 14, an M7.2 earthquake struck the southwest of Haiti in the mountains between the Nippes Department and Sud Department. This earthquake occurred at a depth of only 6.2 miles (10 km), which is critical because shallow earthquakes usually cause more damage.

For comparison, the catastrophic 2010 earthquake took place approximately 46.6 miles (75 km) west of this earthquake and was an M7.0 that occurred at a depth of 8.1 miles (13 km). The damages from this earthquake are similar to 2010, albeit on a smaller scale due to the more rural geography and the smaller population at the epicenter. Just under a million people live within 31 miles (50 kilometers) of the epicenter, and about 234,000 live within nine miles (15 km).

Haiti also experienced a direct hit from Tropical Depression (TD) Grace overnight on Aug. 16. International humanitarian and response teams had to reduce many of their operations, especially the air-bridge used to distribute supplies. Those who had lost homes or remained outside fearing an aftershock huddled under tarps or tried to find shelter elsewhere.

Hundreds of landslides  occurred in the impacted area. The most significant landslide blocked the major national highway between Jeremie and Les Cayes, hampering travel for rescue and aid efforts. TD Grace triggered additional landslides as destabilized soil got wet.

According to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA), “The back-to-back disasters are exacerbating preexisting vulnerabilities. At the time of the disaster, Haiti is still reeling from the 7 July assassination of President Jovenel Moïse and still facing an escalation in gang violence since June that has affected 1.5 million people, with at least 19,000 displaced in the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince. The compounded effects of an ongoing political crisis, socio-economic challenges, food insecurity and gang violence continue to greatly worsen an already precarious humanitarian situation. Some 4.4 million people, or nearly 46 per cent of the population, face acute food insecurity, including 1.2 million who are in emergency levels (IPC 4) and 3.2 million people at crisis levels (IPC Phase 3). An estimated 217,000 children suffer from moderate-to-severe acute malnutrition.”

(Photo courtesy of CORE)

The World Bank said , “With a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita of US $1,149.50 and a Human Development Index ranking of 170 out of 189 countries in 2020, Haiti remains the poorest country in the Latin America and Caribbean region and among the poorest countries in the world … In addition to the challenges posed by the pandemic and the political stalemate, Haiti remains highly vulnerable to natural hazards, mainly hurricanes, floods and earthquakes. More than 96% of the population is exposed to these types of shocks.”

According to the World Food Programme, 77% of people in the affected area live in poverty. This increases their challenges in recovering from the disasters.

Haiti has also been overrun by gang violence and plagued by civil unrest, food insecurity, low education rates and cholera. This led Human Rights Watch (HRW) to state, “Protracted political instability and gang violence in 2020—often with state ties—contributed to the Haitian government’s inability to meet the basic needs of its people, resolve long-standing human rights problems, and address humanitarian crises.”

HRW also said:

• “Over 140,000 families displaced by Hurricane Matthew in 2016 still need decent shelter.
• Since the 2010 earthquake, nearly 33,000 people still live in displacement camps and at least 300,000 live in an informal settlement without government oversight. Authorities have not provided assistance to return or resettle them, or to ensure their basic rights in the settlement.
• The country’s most vulnerable communities face environmental risks, including widespread deforestation, industrial pollution, and limited access to safe water and sanitation.
• According to international agencies, some 4.1 million Haitians—more than a third—live with food insecurity, and 2.1 percent of children suffer severe malnutrition.
• Low rainfall, exacerbated by rising temperatures due to climate change, chronically affects much of the country.
• Since its introduction by UN peacekeepers in 2010, cholera has infected more than 819,000 people and claimed nearly 10,000 lives.
• Over a third of the population lacks access to clean water and two-thirds has limited or no sanitation service.
• Just under half of Haitians age 15 and older are illiterate. The quality of education is generally low, and 85 percent of schools are private, charging fees often too high for low-income families.
• Unrest and the pandemic kept 70 percent of Haitian children from classes throughout the school year. From September through November 2019, instability kept an estimated 3 million children out of school, and in March, the pandemic closed schools for five months. Prior to the pandemic, Haiti already had 500,000 school-age children out of school.”

In addition, as with all countries in the world, Haiti has been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. As of Nov. 9, Haiti has reported 24,233 cases and 702 deaths. Testing is not (and has not been) a priority, so these numbers are likely severe underestimations. Haiti did not receive any vaccines until July 13 , just one month before the earthquake. As a result, as of Nov. 5, only 0.49% of residents have received one dose, and 0.34% have been fully vaccinated.

Latest Updates

Aug. 15, 2021

An urgent need to support earthquake-hit communities in Haiti

What is the impact on communities.

As of Sept. 6, the Haiti Civil Protection Directorate (DPC) reported that 2,248 people have died, and 12,763 people were injured. At that time there were still 329 people missing and no updates have been made since to that number. The DPC also reported more than 130,000 houses destroyed or damaged and “enormous damage” to multiple roads and four ports. There is a particular concern for the wellbeing of children , especially girls who the earthquake and subsequent hurricane have orphaned. The New Humanitarian reported that aid is slowly reaching those who need it, but is being challenged by gang activity, increasing cargo costs and other challenges.

UNOCHA says, “As access to food and purchasing power declines, nearly 1 million people – about 45 per cent of the population – in all 4 departments in Grand-Sud will experience high levels of acute food insecurity (IPC Phase 3 or higher) between September 2021 and February 2022, including nearly 320,000 people in Emergency (IPC Phase 4), an increase of 25 per cent compared to the same period in 2020.  Response in rural areas, particularly on much needed livelihood inputs, is challenged by access constraints, creating potential risks for a rural exodus. Beyond the delivery of humanitarian assistance, focus must immediately be placed on scaling up early recovery and supporting livelihood activities. Rapid Gender Analysis indicates 43 per cent of community leaders and 75 per cent of youth say that [Gender-Based Violence] has increased after the earthquake, while 70 per cent of women and men’s fear of sexual violence has intensified post-earthquake. Around 212,000 people have lost access to safe drinking water services in the aftermath of the earthquake. Gang-related activities intensifies along national road #2, threatening to once again cut off access to the southern peninsula from Port-au-Prince, while fuel shortages and insecurity disrupt the distribution of life-saving relief supplies.”

Who was affected and in what ways?

Thousands of people are now homeless, and there continues to be an urgent need for shelters, which is hindered by the amount of damage and the pandemic. About 120,000 people require safe water, a high priority because Haiti only recently resolved the 2010 cholera epidemic. Unaccompanied – often orphaned – children are also a significant concern .

There are about 140 hospitals or health centers in the area of impact. It is reported that four were destroyed, and 32 experienced structural damage; 12 of those were extremely damaged. These hospitals continue to be short on supplies, including equipment and medicine, because of the volume of need.

According to UNICEF , in the Sud Department, “94 of the 255 schools have either sustained damages or been completely destroyed.” In Grand’Anse, 63 schools were destroyed and 39 more sustained damage. As in many countries, schools in Haiti are not just a place of learning and socialization, but also an opportunity to access health services and nutritional programs.

The most critical need at this time is an effective and coordinated response that takes into account the lessons learned from the 2010 quake, including those related to secondary disasters, including the Cholera outbreak , sexual assaults and “stuff” being donated. In 2010, donations included breast milk that spoiled, a box of frisbees mailed from Germany, winter clothes , tuxedos and energy drinks. It is estimated that 60% of in-kind donations are wasted.

According to ACAPS , the key considerations to keep in mind are: “The impact of the earthquake is going to aggravate pre-existing needs and vulnerabilities caused by political instability, recurring violence, food insecurity, and the COVID-19 outbreak. Haiti has high humanitarian constraints. Access has been deteriorating because of the escalating insecurity since the beginning of 2021. Damage to telecommunication networks delays the transmission of information for humanitarian organisations. Roads were damaged, adding a constraint to humanitarian access.”

Emergency basic needs

Emergency basic needs will continue to be needed for years because of the high pre-existing needs in Haiti. This includes food, shelter, hygiene items, cash assistance, tarps, rebuilding supplies, water, PPE and COVID-19 supplies.

Emergency health and psychological first aid

Emergency health and psychological first aid are desperate needs. Many of the victims of the 2021 earthquake also lived through the 2010 earthquake and Hurricane Matthew in 2016 and will require significant mental health and emotional support. There will also need to be psychosocial support for front-line responders – both international and Haitian. Given the loss of a high number of churches, a critical component of Haitian society, emotional disaster spiritual care is also important.

Protection  initiatives to protect everyone’s safety, especially women and girls from violence including gender-based violence. All at-risk populations including the elderly, people living with disabilities, orphaned children need to have protection efforts instituted.

Rebuilding will include infrastructure (WASH, electrical, communications, transportation, etc.) and businesses, homes, schools, health facilities and churches. This will be ongoing for many years as there are still people homeless from the 2010 earthquake and 2016’s Hurricane Matthew.

Livelihood restoration

Livelihood restoration is also important and will be an ongoing concern. Businesses were destroyed, including some of the hotels in tourist areas, a critical component of the Haitian economy. Given the high levels of existing poverty, there will be a need for the development of new revenue-generating activities.

The CDP Haiti Earthquake Recovery Fund supported communities across Haiti as they worked to rebuild and recover from the earthquake.

Contact cdp, recovery updates.

If you are a responding NGO or a donor, please send updates on how you are working in this crisis to [email protected] .

We welcome the republication of our content. Please credit the Center for Disaster Philanthropy .

Donor recommendations

If you are a donor looking for recommendations on how to help in this crisis, please email [email protected] .

Philanthropic and government support

The  CDP Haiti Earthquake Recovery Fund  supported families and entire communities through targeted grantmaking that prioritized needs identified in collaboration with local partners. With an equity lens and an emphasis on medium- and long-term recovery, CDP worked to identify gaps in recovery funding to help direct financial and technical support where it is needed most.

To date, CDP has made three grants through the Haiti Earthquake Recovery Fund:

• AVSI-USA received $159,876 to mitigate the harmful effects of the earthquake on children by providing physical and psychosocial protection, promoting child development through informal education programs and reactivating child protection networks.
• Catholic Relief Services received $200,000 to implement a Haiti Earthquake recovery project focused on livelihoods and hygiene promotion.
• The Haiti Development Institute received $249,997 to bring resources to earthquake-affected communities through local organizations to equip and empower them to help earthquake victims cope in the short term, rebuild their lives by repairing homes and community infrastructure, and restore livelihoods by replacing income-generating assets and repairing agricultural infrastructure. The project aims to ensure that affected communities are engaged in the disaster response as agents rather than objects of humanitarian assistance and to increase their capacity to plan and manage disaster risk.

The United Nations and its partners launched a flash appeal on Aug. 25 to raise $187.3 million , “urgently needed to provide vital relief assistance to more than 800,000 people affected by the devastating earthquake in Haiti, including shelter, water and sanitation, emergency healthcare, food, protection and early recovery.” This funding will target 500,000 of the most vulnerable people impacted by the earthquake.

UNOCHA says, “On 10 September, the Government of Japan announced a $3.25 million in Emergency Grant Aid for Haiti to be distributed to WFP, IOM, UNICEF and IFRC. The Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF), having already contributed $8 million to fund life-saving multi-sectoral response activities, approved an additional $4 million request for Haiti. The CERF allocation will allow for ongoing projects to be scaled up to address needs emerging from multiple simultaneous crises, including $2 million to bolster shelter, logistics and security operations for the earthquake response and $2 million to support the joint Government and UN relocation plan for hundreds of displaced people forced into informal displacement sites due to escalating gang violence in the Port-au-Prince metropolitan area.”

The European Union (EU) issued $4.07 million (€3 million) in emergency humanitarian aid on top of its existing commitments to the country. “To ensure the fastest possible intervention, EU funds will be implemented by humanitarian partners already active in the emergency response and will support and strengthen their capacity to swiftly provide humanitarian aid to the most vulnerable Haitians. The funding will address the most immediate needs such as the provision of medical assistance to local overwhelmed hospitals, water, sanitation and hygiene services, shelter and protection services for the most affected and disadvantaged communities.”

CDP hosted a webinar on Aug. 19 called “ Disaster in a Crisis Zone: Understanding the Impact of Haiti’s Earthquake .” The key takeaways from the speakers were:

• ‘As local as possible, as international as necessary.’ This humanitarian principle that Sebastian Rhodes Stampa of UNOCHA shared is important to remember. We want to rely on local knowledge and capacities. We want to reinvigorate the local economy as much as possible, and importing goods, especially to an island, can be very expensive or even inappropriate. If the goods exist locally, buy them there. If not, bring them in but think consciously about it – for example, use water buffalos and solar-powered water filtration systems instead of pallets of bottled water.
• Find and fund local leaders. If you are funding an American-based 501(c)(3) find out who their Haitian partners are and ask about salaries and support. What is the proportion of Haitians to international staff on the team? It is critical to value and elevate local voices and local leaders and equip them with the resources they need to lead their country.
• Invest in an ecosystem . Aid should be about ending the need for aid. This means taking a wide view and looking at all sectors of society.
• You’re in a marathon, but it’s still a race. It is important that funders invest in mid- and long-term recovery. People were still homeless before the earthquake, not just from Hurricane Matthew in 2016 but also from the 2010 earthquake. That should not be the situation 11.5 years after a disaster and it’s not what we want to see when we look forward to 2032. At the same time, there are immediate and essential basic needs that require emergency funding.

See them all

Earthquakes

Striking without warning, earthquakes often are among the most devastating disasters. Caused by the movement of plates along fault lines on the earth’s surface, earthquakes often leave a monumental path of instant death and destruction.

Hurricanes, Typhoons and Cyclones

Hurricanes, also called typhoons or cyclones, bring a triple threat: high winds, floods and possible tornadoes. But there’s another “triple” in play: they’re getting stronger, affecting larger stretches of coastline and more Americans are moving into hurricane-prone areas.

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH)

Water is one of the most necessary elements for life, yet according to the World Health Organization/UNICEF, 2.1 billion people lack access to safely managed drinking water. In addition, 4.5 billion people lack safely-managed sanitation facilities. Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) principles are of tremendous concern in everyday life, but can be heightened during an emergency or disaster.

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Haiti: earthquake situation report no. 6 (23 september 2021), attachments.

This report was produced by OCHA Haiti with contributions from United Nations Agencies, Funds and Programmes, nongovernmental organizations and humanitarian partners.

Nearly half of quake-affected people in need have received humanitarian assistance through coordinated efforts led by national and departmental authorities in collaboration with local and international humanitarian partners.

As the earthquake response moves into a new phase, the Government, under the leadership of the Haitian Civil Protection General Directorate (DGPC), is recalibrating its response strategy to ensure assistance is provided to populations in remote hard-to-reach areas.

With the school year set to begin in less than two weeks in quake-affected departments, Government and partners are in a race against time to construct temporary learning spaces and ensure rehabilitation of damaged school infrastructure.

The deportation of thousands of Haitians from the U.S. over the past week adds an additional layer of complexity to an already dire humanitarian situation.

800K affected people (Source: UN System in Haiti)

650K need emergency humanitarian assistance (Source: UN System in Haiti)

46% of people in need have received some kind of humanitarian assistance (Source: DGPC)

754.2K acutely food- insecure people in the three quake- affected departments (Source: WFP)

2.2K people dead (Source: DGPC)

137.5K+ damaged and destroyed homes (Source: DGPC)

SITUATION OVERVIEW

More than five weeks into response and recovery efforts, nearly half of quake-affected people in need of assistance have received humanitarian aid through coordinated efforts led by national and departmental authorities in collaboration with local and international humanitarian partners. Around 178,000 people have received food and cash-based transfers, over 250,000 reached with safe water and more than 211,000 non-food kits have been distributed across the three most affected departments – Grand’Anse, Nippes and Sud.

Across all sectors, security remains a major concern and challenge as partners face security risks when distributing relief assistance in affected areas. In a complex context of intertwined access and security constraints, telecommunications, logistics and transport support from humanitarian partners have been critical to bolstering collective coordination and getting assistance to those most in need faster as needs continue to mount, especially in rural and remote areas hardest hit by the powerful 7.2-magnitude quake on 14 August.

Among the key priorities of the ongoing response within the coming weeks is the acceleration of response and early recovery efforts and restoration of livelihoods particularly in hard-to-reach communities, including provision of agricultural support ahead of the planting season, so as to avoid a large-scale rural exodus and formation of spontaneous sites in the aftermath of the quake.

With the reopening of schools in quake-affected areas less than two weeks away, the Government and its partners are in a race against time to ensure adequate preparedness. Save the Children has ranked Haiti’s education system as one of the top 15 most vulnerable worldwide, just ahead of Syria and Yemen. Prior to the earthquake, it is estimated that some 500,000 children were already at risk of dropping out of school due to COVID-19-related closures and persistent insecurity. The quake left more than 900 schools damaged or destroyed in the three hardest hit departments, affecting around 300,000 boys and girls and compounding the risks faced by children out of school, including gang recruitment, informal sector work as well as abuse and exploitation. The Government and partners are working to provide temporary learning spaces to ensure that boys and girls can continue their education.

Three weeks into the Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) process, which is led by the Ministry of Planning and External Cooperation (MPCE) with support from the United Nations, the European Union, the World Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank, substantive progress has been made across sectors. Initial sector-based estimations of damages, losses and needs were presented at a stocktaking workshop on 15 September, with findings expected to be presented in mid-October.

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Haiti: earthquake - flash update no. 1 (15 august 2021), attachments.

● A 7.2-magnitude earthquake struck southwestern Haiti at 8:30am local time at a depth of around 10km. The epicentre was recorded around 12km northeast of SaintLouis-du-Sud, about 125km west of the capital Port-au-Prince.

● Haiti’s Civil Protection reports at least 304 deaths and 1,800 injured so far, figures which are expected to rise. Initial reports indicate more than 700 collapsed buildings, including hospitals and schools, at least 3,778 homes destroyed and significant damages to infrastructure and roads.

● Severe humanitarian access constraints and fragile security situation greatly complicate the humanitarian response in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

● Prime Minister Ariel Henry declared a onemonth national state of emergency. Government has requested specific international assistance for urban search-andrescue, stating that additional support will not be requested until the extent of damages is known.

● USAID is deploying a Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART) to support damage and needs assessments in coordination with the Government and humanitarian partners.

● Government and UN partners are working closely to conduct post-impact damage and needs assessments and to activate rapid response mechanisms.

● Fast-approaching Tropical Storm Grace is expected to reach Haiti between 16 and 17 August, potentially exposing an already vulnerable population to a double impact in a matter of days.

Situation Overview

At 8:30am (GMT-4) on 14 August, a strong, shallow earthquake rocked southwestern Haiti just 12km northeast of SaintLouis du Sud, about 125 kilometers west of the capital Port-au-Prince. The 7.2-magnitude quake, which was 10km deep, toppled buildings and homes and damaged infrastructure and roads, cutting off access to some roads in the southwest, such as national road 7 (RN#7) which connects Les Cayes and Jeremie, and forcing many to flee their homes in fear that they may collapse.

While preliminary assessments are still in their very early stages, the Haitian Civil Protection General Directorate (DGPC) reports more than 700 collapsed buildings, including hospitals, schools and churches, and 2,410 destroyed homes in the department of Nippes and 1,368 in Grand’Anse, forcing at least 470 people to seek refuge in shelters, with thousands more thought to be displaced. DGPC also reports at least 304 dead and around 1,800 more injured, figures likely to increase significantly in the coming hours and days as more are still missing. Despite its strength and depth, the quake is likely less catastrophic than that of 2010, the worst disaster in the country’s history, which left more than 300,000 people dead and 1.5 million others injured.

The Sud, Grand'Anse and Nippes departments, particularly the cities of Les Cayes, Jeremie and Anse à Veaux, were hardest hit, suffering extensive damage and destruction to buildings and homes, while in Petit-Trou-de-Nippes downed phone lines have left the city out of contact. In Port-au-Prince, the earthquake was strongly felt but no major damages have been reported so far. The US Tsunami Warning System had issued a tsunami warning for the region but discontinued it shortly thereafter. Still, flood waters spilled into the streets of Les Cayes, sparking widespread panic that led some people in coastal areas to flee toward the mountains in fear of a possible tsunami.

Additionally, the earthquake generated a series of aftershocks, between magnitude 4.2 and 5.2 all at depths around 10km, creating significant concerns as buildings and infrastructure already compromised by the initial quake are now more vulnerable to even weak aftershocks. In addition, minor floods and landslides have been reported in affected areas. The earthquake struck as Tropical Storm Grace is expected to reach Haiti between 16 and 17 August, exposing an already vulnerable population to tropical storm-force winds and heavy rain that could trigger life-threatening flash floods and landslides.

The quake could not have come at worst time for Haiti, which is still reeling from the assassination of President Jovenel Moïse on 7 July and escalating gang violence which has resulted in the internal displacement of around 19,000 people in the country’s southern peninsula, greatly worsening an already precarious humanitarian situation, with some 4.4 million in need of humanitarian assistance prior to the quake.

While a recent surge in COVID-19 cases has tapered off, the possible displacement of thousands of people has created ripe conditions for a spike in COVID-19 infections, potentially overwhelming an already weak and overstretched health system that will also have to provide assistance to those injured by the earthquake. Early reports indicate that local hospitals near the epicenter are already overwhelmed with wounded people, especially in Les Cayes and Jeremie, with the Red Cross and hospitals in unaffected areas providing surge assistance, while Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) prepares to receive patients at Tabarre Hospital in Port-au-Prince.

Significant humanitarian access constraints, a fragile security situation and a fast-approaching tropical storm add an extra layer of complexity to humanitarian response efforts in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The southern peninsula, a hotspot for gang-related violence, has been virtually unreachable for the past two months due to road blockages and security concerns, while humanitarian personnel have been the targets of repeated attacks, including a targeted attack on an MSF Belgium emergency health centre in late June. All of these factors combined will create significant logistics challenges in reaching the most affected areas. For more on the latest political and security developments in Haiti, see OCHA Haiti’s SitRep No. 5.

Prime Minister Ariel Henry has declared a one-month nationwide state of emergency, stating that international assistance will not be requested until the extent of damages is known. Several governments in the region have already offered to support national response efforts. The Emergency Operations Centre (EOC) has been fully activated and search-and-rescue operations are ongoing with support from international partners. Preliminary assessments are being carried out under the leadership of national authorities, but it will likely take days, if not weeks, to fully assess the scale of damages and humanitarian needs.

Related Content

Ifrc haiti unified plan mid-year report 2023, haiti | earthquake and cholera outbreak - emergency appeal № mdrht018 - operation update #6, save the children’s efforts for children and their families' survival in haiti, acaps thematic report: haiti - a deep dive into the food security crisis (02 august 2023).

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Technical Report: Haiti earthquake

The Haiti Town Still In The Dark Three Years After Earthquake

MANICHE — Abaky Labossière welds a car engine in his workshop in Maniche, a commune 201 kilometers (125 miles) from Port-au-Prince. It’s been 14 years since the blacksmith returned to his hometown from the capital, after an earthquake killed over 200,000 people in Haiti in January 2010. Port-au-Prince suffered extensive damage and the father of four lost his house and job. Abaky, 42, returned to Maniche to start over and opened a workshop where he began making iron stoves to meet local needs. “It was a success,” he says, “and I was able to get back on my feet quickly.”

But in August 2021, disaster struck again.

Another earthquake destroyed the Saut Mathurine hydroelectric plant, the sole supplier of electricity to Maniche. Since then, Maniche hasn’t had electricity, and the blackout has forced residents to abandon activities that require power. Others, like Abaky, have had to find alternatives.

“To continue living, I had to rent a generator for 3,000 [Haitian] gourdes a day, and I have to buy fuel,” he says. “I know I have to work to rent the generator and the fuel, but at least with the little I have left, I can take care of my family.”

A total power outage

Long before the 2021 earthquake, Maniche and Camp-Perrin, a neighboring commune, had no more than 10 hours of electricity per day. Though inadequate, the supply powered businesspeople and other domestic electricity users. When it was operational, the hydroelectric plant often had problems like engine failure and lack of fuel to run, which were blamed for the low power supply. But the situation worsened after the earthquake damaged the plant, causing a total power outage in the two communes.

Since then, the streets of Maniche have remained littered with poles and wires, with little or no sign that power will return anytime soon. Haiti has for months been in the grip of violent gangs that have killed and injured hundreds. According to a report by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN Human Rights), 1,544 people were killed in the first three months of 2024, and 826 injured as of late March. With the resignation of former Prime Minister Ariel Henry in March and no functional government, there is no telling when electricity will be restored. While the mountainous commune remains relatively peaceful, protests routinely block roads into the nearest big town, making it difficult for movement in and out of Maniche.

Living without electricity

Geordany Bellevue, 34, a lawyer and teacher in Maniche, has to go to a friend’s house to plug in his computer. “I don’t have the means to buy a solar charging system,” he says. “I would need a lot of American dollars. At the risk of missing important calls, I charge my computer and my phone at a friend’s house. That way I don’t have to pay.”

This is not the case for Rosie Arius, a student at Maniche University College who lives an hour from the city center. “Not only do I have to walk for almost an hour, but I also have to have money. Otherwise I can’t charge my phone,” she says. When she needs to study in the evening, Arius will often use an oil lamp made of sheet metal, fitted with a wick. To iron her uniform, she uses a charcoal-heated tin iron.

“It’s a real ordeal for us without electricity in our homes,” she says.

While living without electricity is a nightmare for most Maniche residents, those that can afford solar charging systems are taking advantage of the situation to open businesses — selling cold drinks and ice cream, and recharging electronic devices.

“I manage to charge about 100 phones a day for 50 gourdes [about 38 cents] each. I also charge lightbulbs, phone backups, computers and even rechargeable fans. Each device has a fixed charging price. I can also sell a lot of cold drinks when it’s hot,” says Jhonny Montumer, a young entrepreneur from Maniche. He sometimes charges phones for free for relatives, or strangers who don’t have the means to pay. “I won’t let 50 gourdes be the reason why someone has to go home without recharging their phones,” he says. “Sometimes it’s the only distraction they have or the only way to communicate with their family.”

The light for the first time

Maniche got electricity in 2001, through a three-phase connection to the Saut Mathurine power plant. A Haitian company, ELMECEN, coordinated with Haiti’s electric utility, Electricité D’Haïti (EDH), to build the plant’s 11-kilometer (7-mile) network. Construction began in 1980. At the time, Camp-Perrin’s population was about 10,000 households and Maniche was not yet on the grid.

“People were skeptical and only began to believe in it when the first shipment of poles arrived,” recalls Senator Pierre François Sildor, who visited Maniche at the time as director of EDH to help launch the project.

In December 2001, with much fanfare, Maniche was lit for the first time.

“It was a day of celebration,” Geordany says. “We danced and laughed when we saw the light in our homes for the first time.”

Maniche and Camp-Perrin residents have tried to restore electricity but to no avail. Geordany, coordinator of the Union des Jeunes de Maniche pour le Développement, Maniche’s youth union for development, questions authorities’ commitment to solve the problem. He claims that those in charge are yet to assess the electric wires and poles that have been down since the earthquake .

Youth unions in action

In the meantime, the youth union took action.

“My organization approached the CEO of Solo Energy and the mayor of Cavaillon, Ernst Ais, which led to the donation and installation of about 50 solar-powered street lamps in strategic locations in the center of the town,” Geordany says.

Jorice Oremil, coordinator of Aksyon pou sove lavi, a nonprofit association in Camp-Perrin, has not been idle either. Several demonstrations were organized for a single cause: the restoration of electricity to the region.

“We have held rallies, meetings with the community and EDH officials, but nothing has changed,” Oremil says.

Roger Diogène, of EDH, says a lack of responsibility on the part of senior officials is to blame.

During a visit to the power plant in 2023, an engineer in charge of the works at the time said it would cost 12 million gourdes (90,517 dollars) to carry out the repairs.

Oremil says that besides some masonry work, not much else has been going on at the plant. “A team from Port-au-Prince did the masonry work, so we are waiting for other technicians to put the equipment that moved during the earthquake back in place, but we don’t know when,” he says.

The country’s insecurity isn’t making things easier, which has prompted Oremil to change tack.

“The technicians can’t come to Camp-Perrin because of the roads blocked by armed gangs,” he says. “We have taken the decision to form a committee with members of the Camp-Perrin diaspora so that we can collect money to proceed with installation of the power station.”

Time, he says, is of the essence. “We are not sitting idly by. No place can develop without electricity.”

Like our content? Follow us for more. This article first appeared on Worldcrunch.com It was translated and adapted by Worldcrunch in partnership with GLOBAL PRESS JOURNAL . For the latest news & views from every corner of the world, Worldcrunch Today is the only truly international newsletter. Sign up here .

Request support on coordination, information management, integration for nutrition outcomes or technical nutrition in emergencies assistance.

التماس الدعم لتنسيق التغذية وإدارة المعلومات والتغذية في حالات الطوارئ

Demander un appui pour la coordination de la nutrition, la gestion de l'information et la nutrition dans les situations d'urgence

Buscar apoyo para la coordinación de la nutrición, la gestión de la información y la nutrición en situaciones de emergencia

Solicite apoio para coordenação em nutrição, gestão de informação e nutrição em emergências

Case Study: 2021 Haiti earthquake

Strengthening nutrition efforts after the 2021 haiti earthquake.

Children are especially vulnerable to malnutrition, illness, and death during emergencies. They are highly dependent on their caregivers, their immune systems are still developing, and their bodies and brains depend on good nutrition for healthy growth and development. So when a powerful 7.2 magnitude earthquake struck Haiti on August 14, 2021, Infant and Young Child Feeding (IYCF) became top priority for emergency responders.

One way to protect infants and young children in emergencies is to encourage mothers to breastfeed in order to minimize the risks associated with artificial feeding in emergencies. However, in the aftermath of the earthquake, gaining humanitarian access was challenging, security was a huge concern, and national authorities and humanitarian partners were stretched thin trying to meet the swelling humanitarian needs. This made it difficult to reach mothers and their children easily.

There was also a lack of technical capacity within Haiti to support Infant and Young Child Feeding activities in Emergencies (IYCF-E), which is why the Nutrition Cluster Coordinator – with support from the UNICEF Regional Office – requested support from the GNC Technical Alliance.

The nutrition situation for infants and young children in Haiti was challenging even before the disaster. T he number of children exclusively breastfed was low – only 40% of children under six months and 15% of children ages four to five months were breastfed. Additionally, 25% of children relied on bottle-feeding, which put their lives at risk when the water supplies parents relied on to feed them became contaminated or damaged in the earthquake (Demographic Health Survey 2016-2017).

On top of that, only one in four children aged six to 23 months maintained a diet with enough diversification – containing at least four food groups – and only 11% met the World Health Organisation’s minimum intake requirements .

For this reason, the GNC Technical Alliance was asked to provide in-country technical assistance and capacity building to the government, UNICEF’s regional office, the nutrition cluster and its partners in Haiti – including local and international non-governmental organizations.

Claude Sabwa – a French-speaking nutrition advisor from Save the Children International – was sourced to provide in-country and ongoing technical support for eight weeks. During that time, Claude provided a tremendous amount of support, including:

• Strengthening the IYCF-E Technical Working Group’s (TWG) coordination
• Conducting IYCF-E training for advisors and managers at a national level and developing a 3-day IYCF-E training session for frontline staff.
• Revising and updating the guidelines and tools for Baby Nutrition Counselling Points (PCNB)
• Developing guidelines for the management of Breastmilk Substitutes (BMS) and a Monitoring & Evaluation toolkit
• Reviewing IYCF-E messages (Joint Statement) and drafting IYCF-E messages to reach affected populations and strengthening the channels and media used to reach them
• Mapping local IYCF-E capacity in Haiti to inform an effective IYCF-E response

Reflecting on his experience, Claude says “the greatest achievement was conducting the 3-day online IYCF-E orientation session and supporting the development of the 3-day IYCF-E training session for the frontline workers, which allowed to improve quality of non-breastfed intervention in the targeted areas. ”

But Claudes’ deployment was not without its challenges. An arduous visa process and lack of flight options from DR Congo to Haiti reduced Claude’s initial four weeks of in-country support to only two. This meant he didn’t have time to carry out the planned workshop aimed to strengthen linkages between sectors – health, nutrition, child protection, education, and WASH – around IYCF-E.

Once in Haiti, serious security threats prevented Claude from visiting all the areas he needed to asset the quality of the IYCF-E response and collect case studies. Claude was deployed a second time in April 2022 in order to gather this important information.

However, despite all the challenges, Claude says he saw positive results and IYCF-E strengthened in affected areas in Haiti – thanks in large part to the high level of support from the Nutrition Cluster and strong engagement among nutrition partners.

Learn more about the GNC Technical Alliance’s Global Thematic Working Group on Infant and Young Child Feeding in Emergencies .

Need technical support in this area? Get in touch to request support from an advisor .

Photo Credit:

© UNICEF/UN0589507/Rouzier

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Haiti Earthquake 2010

Haiti earthquake case study.

A 7.0 magnitude earthquake .

The earthquake occurred on January 12th, 2010, at 16.53 local time (21.53 GMT).

The earthquake occurred at 18.457°N, 72.533°W. The epicentre was near the town of Léogâne, Ouest department, approximately 25 kilometres (16 mi) west of Port-au-Prince, Haiti’s capital. The earthquake’s focus was 13km (8.1 miles) below the Earth’s surface.

Haiti is situated at the northern end of the Caribbean Plate, on a transform (slip/conservative) plate boundary with the North American Plate. The North American plate is moving west. This movement is not smooth, and there is friction between the North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate. Pressure builds between the two plates until released as an earthquake.

A map to show the location of Haiti in relation to tectonic plates. Source BBC.

The epicentre of the earthquake was 16km southwest of Port-Au-Prince. The earthquake was caused by a slip along an existing fault (Enriquillo-Plaintain Garden fault).

A map to show the location of the epicentre of the earthquake

Primary Effects

As of February 12th 2010, an estimated three million people were affected by the quake; the Haitian Government reports that between 217,000 and 230,000 people died, an estimated 300,000 were injured, and an estimated 1,000,000 were made homeless. They also estimated that 250,000 residences and 30,000 commercial buildings had collapsed or were severely damaged.

Secondary Effects

• Two million people were left without water and food.
• Regular power cuts occurred.
• Crime increased – looting became a problem and sexual violence escalated.
• People moved into temporary shelters.
• By November 2010 there were outbreaks of cholera.

Immediate Responses

• Due to the port being damaged, aid was slow to arrive.
• The USA sent rescue teams and 10,000 troops.
• Bottled water and purification tablets were provided.
• 235,000 people were moved away from Port-au-Prince to less-damaged cities.
• £20 million was donated by The UK government.

Long-term Responses

• As one of the poorest countries on Earth, Haiti relied on overseas aid.
• Although the response was slow, new homes were built to a higher standard. Over one million people still lived in temporary shelters one year after the earthquake.
• The port needed rebuilding, which required a large amount of investment.

So, why did so many people die in the Haiti earthquake? There are several reasons for this:

• The earthquake occurred at shallow depth – this means that the seismic waves must travel a smaller distance through the Earth to reach the surface to maintain more energy.
• The earthquake struck the most densely populated area of the country.
• Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere
• The buildings in Port-Au-Prince and other areas of Haiti were generally in poor condition and were not designed or constructed to be earthquake-resistant.
• Three million people live in Port au Prince; most live in slum conditions after rapid urbanisation.
• Haiti only has one airport with one runway. The control tower was severely damaged in the earthquake. The port is also unusable due to damage.
• Initially, aid had been piling up at the airport due to a lack of trucks and people to distribute it. Water and food have taken days to arrive, and there is not enough to go around.
• Rescue teams from around the world took up to 48 hours to arrive in Haiti due to the problems at the airport. As a result, local people have had to use their bare hands to try and dig people out of the rubble.
• There has been a severe shortage of doctors, and many people have died of injuries like broken limbs.

 The BBC News website has a comprehensive overview of the earthquake here . In addition, the BBC has produced an excellent article titled Why so many people died in the Haiti earthquake? and provides comparative data with similar earthquakes.

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Designing a sustainable-resilient humanitarian supply chain for post-disaster relief process, an earthquake case study in Haiti

Journal of Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management

ISSN : 2042-6747

Article publication date: 25 March 2024

Throughout human history, the occurrence of disasters has been inevitable, leading to significant human, financial and emotional consequences. Therefore, it is crucial to establish a well-designed plan to efficiently manage such situations when disaster strikes. The purpose of this study is to develop a comprehensive program that encompasses multiple aspects of postdisaster relief.

Design/methodology/approach

A multiobjective model has been developed for postdisaster relief, with the aim of minimizing social dissatisfaction, economic costs and environmental damage. The model has been solved using exact methods for different scenarios. The objective is to achieve the most optimal outcomes in the context of postdisaster relief operations.

A real case study of an earthquake in Haiti has been conducted. The acquired results and subsequent management analysis have effectively assessed the logic of the model. As a result, the model’s performance has been validated and deemed reliable based on the findings and insights obtained.

Originality/value

Ultimately, the model provides the optimal quantities of each product to be shipped and determines the appropriate mode of transportation. Additionally, the application of the epsilon constraint method results in a set of Pareto optimal solutions. Through a comprehensive examination of the presented solutions, valuable insights and analyses can be obtained, contributing to a better understanding of the model’s effectiveness.

• Humanitarian supply chain
• Relief operations
• Multiobjective

Shakibaei, H. , Moosavi, S.A. , Aghsami, A. and Rabbani, M. (2024), "Designing a sustainable-resilient humanitarian supply chain for post-disaster relief process, an earthquake case study in Haiti", Journal of Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management , Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHLSCM-08-2023-0071

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2024, Hossein Shakibaei, Seyyed Amirmohammad Moosavi, Amir Aghsami and Masoud Rabbani.

Published in Asia Pacific Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

The term “disaster” encompasses events that inflict harm, devastation, environmental disruption, human suffering or damage to health and medical services. Such events necessitate immediate and extraordinary planning to address the impacted community or area ( Mahmoodi et al. , 2022 ). Disasters are categorized into two main types: 1. Natural disasters, which include earthquakes, floods, volcanoes, droughts and more. 2. Human-made disasters, such as war, nuclear accidents, extreme poverty, disease outbreaks and others ( Tofighi et al. , 2016 ). Based on documented statistics, there has been a significant rise in the frequency of natural disasters since 1980, and they usually give rise to damage to human life and their property ( Bakhshi et al. , 2022 ). However, the impact of these disasters is not uniformly distributed across the globe, with underdeveloped nations experiencing the most severe devastation ( Galanis et al. , 2021 ). The primary factors contributing to the rise in casualties from natural disasters are environmental changes ( Naderi et al. , 2023a ), the expansion of urban populations and the susceptibility of individuals residing in disaster-prone areas, making them more susceptible to events such as floods, typhoons and windstorms ( Attia et al. , 2020 ). The recognition of the significance of coordination and meticulous planning in delivering aid to disaster victims has led to a departure from traditional approaches, which relied on external individuals providing essential items and shelter. This realization has prompted increased attention toward the establishment of a humanitarian supply chain (HSC), aiming to ensure a more effective and efficient response to the needs of those affected ( Agarwal et al. , 2020 ). HSCs are consistently vulnerable to various risks, including facility damage, disruption of transportation routes, resource scarcity and political inefficiencies ( Kovács and Spens, 2007 ). Flexibility in the components of the HSC has gained utmost importance, as it empowers supply chain managers to effectively respond to disruptions and unforeseen events ( Das et al. , 2021 ). This study focuses on modeling a resilient HSC with the objective of providing optimal relief to disaster victims while minimizing casualties, damages and environmental pollution.

According to studies in the International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction , from 2010 to 2019, more than 7,300 disasters occurred worldwide, causing the death of more than 1.2 million people. Also, the number and deaths due to disasters in that decade increased by 30% and 66%, respectively, compared to the previous decade ( Bonaretti and Fischer-Preßler, 2021 ). Also, the Emergency Events Database recorded 432 natural disasters worldwide just in 2021 ( Naderi et al. , 2023b ). According to the statistics on deaths caused by earthquakes, there have been more casualties in recent years. According to the report, more than 2.5 million people have died as a result of earthquakes globally over the last century ( Hayes et al. , 2015 ). Up until now, the most devastating disaster of the 21st century has been the coronavirus pandemic, resulting in a minimum of seven million fatalities ( Kanecki et al. , 2021 ). Before 2017, more than 87% of disaster-related deaths in India were related to drought. Also, in this country, the most damage in disasters was related to floods, which caused more than 58bn dollars of damage to the country ( Negi and Negi, 2021 ). During the span of 60 years, based on available statistics until 2019, Iran has experienced over 400 catastrophic events leading to considerable damage. Regrettably, these disasters have resulted in the loss of over 180,000 lives. Earthquakes contributed to more than 65% of these fatalities, while floods constituting approximately 10% of the overall casualties ( Sharifian et al. , 2017 ).

HSCs play a crucial role in addressing the aftermath of disasters by providing vital resources and necessary equipment to victims. They should demonstrate swift and efficient action in the relief process to rescue and assist victims, ensuring the delivery of essential items and safely relocating them to secure locations ( Bui et al. , 2021 ). The primary challenges faced during relief efforts include the destruction of communication routes and infrastructure, as well as difficulties in identifying and assessing vital items at various centers. This underscores the importance of well-planned relief projects. Humanitarian organizations can enhance their preparedness and response to supply chain disruptions by using resilience models. These models help ensure the uninterrupted provision of essential commodities and services to those in need. A resilient supply chain represents a constructive and responsible system that can deliver improved services to individuals requiring assistance ( Wu et al. , 2019 ).

What is the optimal place to establish or choose a facility?

What effect can the uncertainty of the parameters have on our relief process?

How can resilience in the supply chain deal with disruptions and possible disruptions in the supply chain?

In addition to optimizing social satisfaction, how can an HSC effectively address multifaceted dimensions of sustainability, encompassing economic costs and environmental impacts, within the context of engineering solutions?

To address the aforementioned concerns, a model grounded in mixed-integer linear programing (MILP) has been proposed. This model seeks to determine the optimal locations of facilities, the most efficient transportation modes connecting these facilities and the appropriate quantity of relief item transfers between them.

The literature relevant to the subject matter is reviewed in Section 2. Section 3 provides an explanation of the problem and presents the proposed model. In Section 4, solution methods are introduced. Some numerical examples are presented in Section 5. Section 6 implements the proposed model on a case study, and derives the useful results. A comprehensive sensitivity analysis will be conducted in Section 7. Discussion and managerial insights are presented in Section 8. And in the last part, a conclusion of the article is presented.

2. Literature review

In recent years, numerous types of research have been presented on issues related to the HSC. The increase in disasters in recent decades has augmented attention to HSC. Therefore, in the following, the articles published in recent years addressing various aspects of sustainability, location problems, models with multiple objective functions and resilience in HSCs will be examined.

2.1 Sustainable humanitarian supply chain

This article explores the dimensions of sustainability in the HSC with the goal of achieving overall satisfaction among all stakeholders and participants involved in the relief process across multiple facets.

2.2 Optimal facility location in the humanitarian supply chain

Given the potential for disruption during disasters, it becomes evident that maintaining uninterrupted relief operations is challenging. Therefore, strategically locating facilities before or after such events becomes crucial in minimizing the impact on the relief process. Since the 1950s, the importance of facility location in the HSC has significantly increased due to the escalating frequency of both natural and human-made disasters ( Boonmee et al. , 2017 ). Erden et al. (2023) , managed a study to determine the optimal location for building distribution centers in an HSC in the Saraka province of Turkey. They used criteria such as environmental factors, transportation infrastructure, proximity to airports and vulnerability to accidents. Using the best worst method, they evaluated and identified the most suitable location. Based on their findings, the Adaparazi region emerged as the optimal choice for establishing the distribution center in this area. Shavarani (2019) introduced a model with the objective of determining the optimal quantity and location of disaster relief centers and drone fueling centers. These centers play a crucial role in serving individuals involved in the HSC. Ak and Derya (2021) used multicriteria decision-making methods to prioritize criteria for identifying the optimal location for establishing a logistics warehouse within an HSC. Zhao and Liu (2018) developed a multiobjective model to enhance disaster response capabilities by determining the most suitable location for emergency rescue equipment on the ground. By presenting a range of Pareto solutions, they compared different approaches that took into account different facility locations. In their study, Loree and Aros-Vera (2018) introduced an innovative approach using a mixed-integer nonlinear programming model. The purpose of this model is to identify the most effective locations for distribution centers to provide humanitarian aid in postdisaster situations. The main goal of the model is to minimize human suffering and casualties. This approach demonstrates remarkable progress in terms of cost-effectiveness and overall satisfaction of the affected population, surpassing the capabilities of traditional disaster service models:

This article discusses a comprehensive approach for determining the optimal locations of aid stations and refugee camps. It also explores alternative locations for each facility in the event of destruction or unavailability.

2.3 Enhancing resilience in humanitarian supply chain

Without a doubt, postdisaster scenarios often entail additional challenges that can further impact the relief supply chain. If the supply chain lacks the flexibility and resilience to cope with unforeseen disruptions, the relief efforts can suffer from significant delays, resulting in high costs and substantial losses. In their pioneering work, Modarresi and Maleki (2023) successfully integrated decision-making processes in an HSC both pre and postdisaster scenarios. Their study concluded that implementing strategies such as flexible long-term contracts and allocating dedicated budgets for unforeseen events and public assistance can significantly enhance the resilience of the HSC. These findings emphasize the importance of proactive measures and effective resource management in ensuring the preparedness and response capabilities of humanitarian operations. Kaur and Singh (2022) proposed a robust three-stage resilience framework combined with a mathematical model incorporating two objective functions aimed at mitigating disruptions in a global HSC. The framework consists of supplier selection as the initial step, followed by the application of a MILP model to minimize costs and reduce reliance on nonflexible suppliers. Finally, the focus shifts toward minimizing disruptions within the HSC. Xu et al. (2021) investigated key indicators for assessing the adaptability of the HSC during a 2020 flood in a specific region of China. Their findings emphasize the importance of establishing effective communication channels and information transfer mechanisms within the supply chain departments. This enables the formation of a flexible supply chain that can respond efficiently during flood-related disasters to ensure proper service delivery. In their research, Medel et al. (2020) explored the connection between collaboration in the private sector and public sector, and its influence on the resilience of HSCs. Their study demonstrated that when these two sectors collaborate by engaging in activities such as establishing reserves, enhancing capacities and sharing resources, it greatly improves the overall resilience of the aid supply chain. In their study, Foroughi et al. (2022) analyzed the potential risks of service delivery disruptions following natural disasters with the aim of identifying flexible parameters within the HSC. The parameters under investigation included the demand quantity, the probability of disruptions in different scenarios and the manufacturing cost for each product. The research findings revealed that incorporating flexible parameters into relief models brings them closer to real-world conditions, enhancing their practical applicability. Singh et al. (2018) examined the factors that impact the resilience of an HSC. Their research findings underscore the significance of several essential elements in bolstering supply chain resilience during disaster situations. These factors include the active support of government agencies, consistent monitoring of relief processes and strategic planning to align demand with the capacity of relief centers. The study emphasizes the critical role played by these factors in fostering resilience within the HSC. Reddy et al. (2016) conducted a comprehensive study to explore factors vital in strengthening the resilience of the food supply chain and agricultural industry during periods of disasters. Their research highlighted the importance of several key factors, such as establishing a parallel backup supply chain in conjunction with the primary supply chain, providing training sessions for supply chain agents prior to disasters and conducting disaster simulations. The study strongly indicated that proactive adoption of these measures before a disaster can significantly enhance the overall resilience of the supply chain, enabling more effective recovery in the aftermath of such events.

2.4 Multiobjective approach in humanitarian supply chain

Given the complexity of modeling HSCs, it is crucial to address multiple aspects simultaneously, including social satisfaction, economic costs, environmental concerns and more. In most cases, these models operate by optimizing multiple objective functions in parallel, understanding the interconnected nature of these factors and their collective impact on humanitarian operations. Ehsani et al. (2023) developed a scenario-based, multiobjective, multiperiod, internet of things-based, location-allocation-inventory model to respond phase of disasters in the epidemic outbreak. In their study, Akbari et al. (2023) proposed a three-objective function model for designing an HSC. The first objective function aimed to minimize the ratio of untreated wounded individuals to the total number of injured. The second objective function focused on minimizing the shortage of relief items, while the third objective function aimed at minimizing economic costs. Their research findings demonstrated that the sensitivity of the first objective function to cost-related parameters, such as transportation and facility construction costs, was greater compared to the second objective function. Bhuiyan et al. (2024) directed a study where they introduced a three-objective function model with the goal of reducing economic costs, relief time and the involvement of vehicles in humanitarian relief operations. The model was tested through a case study carried out in the Philippines. The research yielded compelling findings, indicating that this model significantly enhances the efficiency of HSCs, particularly in situations involving secondary accidents. Masoumi et al. (2022) discussed a multiobjective and multiperiod queueing-inventory-routing problem in which a queueing model has been considered to reduce the congestion in the borders of the affected areas (AA). In a study conducted by Jamali et al. (2021) , the 2016 Kermanshah earthquake was examined using a multiobjective mixed-integer programming model. The objective was to assess and compare various aspects of the HSC, including social, economic and environmental factors. The results of the comparison highlighted that prioritizing and improving environmental aspects within the HSC does not always result in higher relief costs. However, it was noted that enhancing the environmental objective function could potentially hinder the improvement of the objective function tied to maximizing social satisfaction. This indicates the need for careful consideration and balance across the different objectives when optimizing the HSC in the context of its social, economic and environmental dimensions. In their study, Praneetpholkrang and Kanjanawattana (2021) proposed a comprehensive three-objective model to determine suitable housing locations for earthquake victims. The model aimed to minimize economic costs, decrease evacuation time for victims from AA and minimize the number of required shelters while ensuring accommodation for all victims. The results showcased the effectiveness of the model in reducing overall supply chain costs by optimizing the number of shelters needed, all while successfully providing housing for 100% of the victims. Mohammadi et al. (2021) proposed a three-objective model to address various factors involved in HSC design. These factors included determining the locations of relief centers, establishing evacuation routes for accident victims and optimizing truck routing. The primary objective of the model was to reduce economic costs across the supply chain, followed by the secondary objective of minimizing maximum truck overload. Additionally, the third objective function aimed to minimize human casualties during the relief process. The results demonstrated the model’s effectiveness in designing a robust HSC under nondeterministic parameters, highlighting its practicality and usefulness in real-world applications. Jha et al. (2017) conducted a study where they introduced a multiobjective model specifically tailored for earthquake scenarios in service supply chains. The main goals of the model were to determine optimal locations for relief camps, optimize delivery routes from suppliers to relief centers and streamline transportation of victims from AA to shelters. The primary objective function focused on minimizing supply chain costs, while the secondary and tertiary objective functions aimed to reduce the gap between supply and demand, ensuring continuous service provision within the relief chain, and enabling efficient evacuation of victims. This multiobjective model encompasses various facets of the supply chain in emergency situations, facilitating effective coordination and resource allocation.

2.5 Gap analysis and research contribution

Limited consideration of sustainability dimensions : previous studies in philanthropic contexts have incorporated sustainability aspects into their quantitative supply chain models. However, the focus has primarily been on one or two dimensions of sustainability. This article seeks to broaden the scope by encompassing multiple sustainability dimensions in the model, providing a more comprehensive analysis.

Single criterion approach : many articles in the field have focused on addressing only one criterion within each dimension of sustainability. For instance, when examining social satisfaction, they primarily consider factors such as the extent of demand coverage or the time taken for relief efforts. In contrast, this article acknowledges the need to assess multiple criteria within each dimension, allowing for a more nuanced evaluation of social satisfaction and other sustainability aspects.

Lack of consideration for resilience in supply chain disruptions : most existing articles in the HSC domain overlook the importance of resilience against future disruptions that may arise in various relief aspects. This article aims to address this gap by examining the impact of potential future disturbances on crucial criteria, such as relief time and victim demands. By incorporating resilience into the model, a more robust approach to HSC management can be achieved.

In comparison to Boostani et al. (2021) article, this study includes an evaluation of victim satisfaction by considering the time it takes for relief processes. This additional aspect provides a superior approach to assessing the effectiveness of the relief efforts.

In addition to addressing the sustainability aspect of the supply chain, this research specifically emphasizes the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production and transportation of relief items, along with the effective management and relocation of damaged goods during relief operations. It is noteworthy that Shakibaei et al. (2023) study failed to consider these crucial factors, underscoring the valuable contribution of this article in integrating environmentally friendly practices within the humanitarian framework.

The model presented in the article by Cao et al. (2021) was developed without considering secondary disasters and incorrectly assumed that survivors would need only one type of item, aid kits, without accounting for different quantities. Furthermore, the model did not consider capacity limits across various transportation modes. In contrast, our model takes into account different types of relief items with varying levels of importance and demand from the victims, as well as transportation capacity constraints.

3. Problem descriptions

This article introduces a comprehensive framework for disaster relief operations, focusing on the structure and methods used in providing aid to AA. A well-designed supply chain consisting of various facilities is proposed to facilitate the delivery of relief goods to distribution centers located in the affected regions. Consideration is given to the varying levels of importance assigned to different relief goods, and multiple transportation modes are used to ensure efficient movement between facilities. The primary objective of this study is to ensure timely and effective relief efforts while maximizing satisfaction in meeting the demands of disaster victims. Simultaneously, the article emphasizes the importance of minimizing environmental damage caused during the relief process and reducing overall economic costs. By integrating these three key objectives, the proposed framework aims to achieve a balanced and sustainable approach to disaster relief operations. By adopting this comprehensive approach, the article intends to contribute to the field of disaster management by providing a robust framework that optimizes resource allocation, enhances logistics efficiency and prioritizes the needs of affected communities. The holistic nature of the proposed model ensures that relief efforts are not only effective and efficient but also sensitive to environmental concerns and economically viable.

This study presents a three-objective mathematical model using MILP to address key considerations in a disaster relief supply chain. The supply chain comprises four levels of facilities, each serving a unique role. The first level involves established suppliers responsible for providing relief items. The second level consists of distributor reference warehouses (DRW) tasked with receiving large quantities of relief items from suppliers and distributing them to the third level: local distributors. Finally, the relief items are sent from the local distributors to the AA for distribution among the victims. The proposed model seeks to determine several factors, including the quantity of products transported between facilities, the selection of facilities to receive services, the choice of location for establishing these facilities, the type of transportation chosen for delivering goods, the inventory levels in each facility and the number of unused products based on transportation capacity limitations. Each facility and transportation mode has its own capacity limitations, leading to variable delivery times based on the type of vehicle used. Additionally, in the establishment of facilities, product manufacturing and transportation processes, various types of environmental damage are inevitably incurred. With this mathematical model, the article aims to optimize resource allocation, minimize transportation costs and enhance efficiency in the disaster relief supply chain while addressing environmental concerns. By considering these multiobjective factors, decision-makers can make informed choices to achieve an effective and sustainable relief operation ( Figure 1 ).

In this model, each product’s importance level corresponds to the specific needs of the disaster victims, making its production crucial for ensuring their satisfaction. After a disaster, the importance of relief items needed by the victims varies significantly. Blood packs, therapeutic serums and play equipment for children in relief shelters each hold a different degree of importance in the relief model. The model incorporates different scenarios with varying aftershocks, resulting in disruptions across facilities, leading to the destruction of relief items and prolonging the relief timeline. Figure 2 provides an overview of the supply chain, with arrows indicating different modes of transportation between facilities. Each scenario considers rates for both time and disruption extent, illustrating the impact of each aftershock on relief time and disruptions. This article tackles the model by initially solving it precisely using general algebraic modeling system (GAMS) software. Some assumptions have been made to formulate this supply chain model accurately. By considering these various factors and using efficient algorithms, the aim is to optimize the relief process, minimize disruptions and achieve timely and effective aid delivery in disaster scenarios.

Figure 1 shows a simple summary of the article structure.

Relief items are considered to be susceptible to damage only during the transit between facilities.

Any relief items that sustain damage during transportation are discarded upon arrival at the destination facility.

The capacity of each facility and transportation mode is defined in a general manner, without specifying individual capacities for each type of relief item within each facility or vehicle.

The inventory level within each facility is determined by the sum of items sent from that facility to other facilities, along with any remaining unused items within the facility due to capacity limitations in transportation and other facilities.

There are predetermined options available for establishing facilities, and the selection is based on optimizing the overall performance of the supply chain.

The transportation modes between facilities are predefined, and the choice of transportation is influenced by factors such as capacity and delivery time.

The model considers different levels of importance for each product based on the needs and satisfaction of the disaster victims.

The incorporation of different scenarios with varying aftershocks assumes that these scenarios can impact the facilities in the supply chain, resulting in disruptions and potentially damaging or destroying relief items.

The environmental damage caused during the establishment of facilities, production of items and transportation processes is acknowledged as a significant factor.

3.1 Three-objective linear integer mathematical programming model

The article presents a formulated three-objective linear integer mathematical programming model to tackle the problem at hand. The epsilon constraint method has been used to generate a set of Pareto-optimal solutions for this multiobjective model. The primary goal of the model is to improve satisfaction levels among disaster victims through the minimization of relief time, unfulfilled demand, environmental damage and economic costs. The solution methodology section provides comprehensive details regarding the methodology and solution approach used in the study.

3.2 Mathematical modeling

This subsection focuses on presenting the mathematical modeling.

Table 1 has listed the used notations of the proposed mathematical model.

The first objective function [ equation (1) ] aims to maximize social satisfaction in relief efforts. This objective function consists of two key components: the first component focuses on maximizing the fulfillment of victims’ demands, while the second component focuses on minimizing the maximum relief time.

The second objective function [ equation (2) ] is centered on minimizing the economic costs associated with the HSC. These costs encompass various factors such as the establishment and utilization costs of supply chain facilities, production costs of relief items, transportation costs during the relief process, costs incurred due to unmet demands and costs attributed to unused items within the facilities. The objective is to optimize these economic factors and reduce overall expenses within the HSC.

The third objective function [ equation (3) ] focuses on minimizing the detrimental environmental impacts within the supply chain during the relief process. These impacts include factors such as the emission of greenhouse gases resulting from the production and transportation of relief items, as well as the disposal or evacuation of disrupted items during relief operations. The objective is to reduce the environmental footprint and promote sustainable practices throughout the supply chain, considering the ecological consequences of relief efforts. (1) M a x Z 1 = ( ∑ l ∑ a ∑ k ∑ m ∑ s ( δ k * P s * x l a m k s * ч a k s ) ) − л* T m a x (2) M i n Z 2 = ∑ j E D j * j j j + ∑ l E L l * B L l + ∑ a E R a * B A a + ∑ i ∑ j ∑ m ∑ k ∑ s T S D i j m k * Q i j m k s + ∑ j ∑ l ∑ m ∑ k ∑ s T D L j l m k * W j l m k s + ∑ l ∑ a ∑ m ∑ k ∑ s T L A l a m k * X l a m k s + ∑ k ( C S D k * U U k a s ) + ∑ i ∑ k ∑ s U I S i k + U L S i k S * P S + ∑ j ∑ k ∑ s U I D j k * U L D j k s * P S + ∑ l ∑ k ∑ s U I L l k * U L L l k s * P S (3) M i n Z 3 = ∑ i ∑ k ∑ s I L I i k s * G P i k + ∑ i ∑ j ∑ k ∑ m ∑ s G S i j k m * Q i j k m s + ∑ j ∑ l ∑ k ∑ m ∑ s G S j l k m * W j l k m s + ∑ l ∑ a ∑ k ∑ m ∑ s G S l a k m * X l a k m s + ∑ s P s ( ∑ j ∑ k ( 1 − δ j k s ) * p c j k * I L D j k s +   ∑ l ∑ k ( 1 − l l k s ) * p c l k * I L L l k s + ∑ a ∑ k ∑ s ( 1 − ч a k s ) * p c a k * I L A a k s )   Equations 4 to 21 represent the constraints within the model. These constraints play a crucial role in ensuring the accuracy and validity of the model’s formulation.

Constraints 4 and 5 show the capacity limits for each local distribution center (LDC) and each DRW.

Constraint 6 states that the sum of unused items within each supplier and the items sent to DRWs must not exceed the supplier’s capacity. This constraint ensures that the total inventory within a supplier remains within its specified limits, accounting for both unused items and those allocated to DRWs.

Constraint 7 shows that in each DRW, the sum of output items and unused items should not exceed the capacity of that DRW.

Constraint 8 shows that in each LDC, the sum of output items and unused items should not exceed the capacity of that LDC.

Constraint 9 shows the amount of unfulfilled demand for each relief item k in each AA.

Constraints 10 to 12 specify the transportation constraints for each relief item (k) across different modes of transport (m).

Constraints 13 to 15 indicate the level of inventory in each facility of the supply chain.

Constraints 16 to 18 ensure transportation time between facilities in each mode remains below the maximum relief time.

Constraints 20 and 21 specify the loss percentage of goods during transportation between facilities: (4) ∑ k I L L l k s * u k ≤ C L l * B L l       ∀ l , ∀ s (5) ∑ k I L D j k s * u k ≤ C D j * J J j         ∀ j , ∀ s (6) ∑ k ∑ j ∑ m Q i j k m s * u k + ∑ k U L S i k s * u k ≤ C S i * E i       ∀ s , ∀ i (7) ∑ k ∑ l ∑ m W j l k m s * u k + ∑ k U L D j k s * u k ≤ C D j * J J j   ∀ s , ∀ j (8) ∑ k ∑ a ∑ m X l a k m s * u k + ∑ k U L L l k s * u k ≤ C L l * B L l   ∀ s , ∀ l (9) ∑ l ∑ m ( X l a k m s * ч aks ) + U U k a s = D k a ( 1 + ∑ f ( θ f s ) )   ∀ k , ∀ a , ∀ s (10) ∑ k Q i j k m s * u k ≤ C T S i j m * BI ijm     ∀ i , ∀ j , ∀ m , ∀ s (11) ∑ k W j k l m s * u k ≤ C D L j l m * Y jlm   ∀ j ,   ∀ l , ∀ m , ∀ s (12) ∑ k X l a k m s * u k ≤ C L A l a m * η lam       ∀ l , ∀ a , ∀ m , ∀ s (13) ∑ j ∑ m Q i j k m s + U L S i k s = I L I i k s * E i         ∀ i , ∀ k , ∀ s (14) ∑ l ∑ m W j l k m s + U L D j k s = I L D j k s * J J j * δ jks     ∀ j , ∀ k , ∀ s (15) ∑ a ∑ m X l a k m s + U L L j k s = I L L l k s * B L l * l ls   ∀ l , ∀ k , ∀ s (16) S S D i j m * B I i j m * ∑ f ( 1 + R f s ) ≤ T m a x   ∀ i , ∀ j , ∀ m , ∀ s (17) S D L j l m * Y j l m * ∑ f ( 1 + R f s ) ≤ T m a x   ∀ j , ∀ l , ∀ m , ∀ s (18) S L A l a m * η l a m * ∑ f ( 1 + R f s ) ≤ T m a x     ∀ l , ∀ a , ∀ m , ∀ s (19) U F F k = ∑ a ( D a k − ∑ s ∑ l ∑ m X l a k m s * P S )     ∀ k (20) ∑ l W j l k m s   ≤ ∑ i Q i j k m s * δ j k s       ∀ j , ∀ k , ∀ m , ∀ s (21) ∑ a X l a k m s ≤ ∑ j W j l k m s * l l k s       ∀ l , ∀ k , ∀ m , ∀ s E i ,   J J j ,   B L l ,   B A a ,   B A a ,   B I i j m ,   Y j l m , η j l m ∈   { 0 , 1 }   Nonlinear constraints 13, 14 and 15 can be readily transformed into a set of linear constraints. To illustrate, constraint 13 can be expanded into four distinct linear constraints as illustrated below: (22) ∑ j ∑ m Q i j k m s + U L S i k s = E I L I i k s     ∀ i   , ∀ k , ∀ s (23) E I L I i k s ≤ I L I i k s       ∀ i , ∀ k , ∀ s (24) E I L I i k s ≤ E ( i ) * B i g M           ∀ i , ∀ k , ∀ s (25) E I L I i k s ≥ I L I i k s + ( E ( i ) − 1 ) * B i g M           ∀ i , ∀ k , ∀ s

4. Solution methodology

This article demonstrates the validation of the proposed model through the presentation and solution of a small example. The results of this validation process are depicted in Figure 3 and Table 5 . Following the successful validation, the implementation of the model in a case study concerning the 2021 earthquake in Haiti is discussed and the obtained results are comprehensively analyzed.

4.1 Multiobjective approach

In multiobjective mathematical programming models, multiple objectives with conflicting optimization goals exist. Achieving an optimal solution requires striking a balance between these objectives, which is facilitated by the set of Pareto solutions generated through multiobjective solving methods. In this article, the presented multiobjective model is solved using the epsilon constraint method to address this need for balancing the objectives and obtaining optimal solutions.

4.1.1 Epsilon – Constraint method

Different approaches to dealing with multiobjective mathematical models were considered in the pertinent literature ( Lotfi et al. , 2023 ). One of this approach is epsilon-constraint method that is regarded as a conventional and extensively used technique for addressing multiobjective modeling issues. This approach is used in situations which is challenging to obtain a single optimal solution that be able to satisfy all objectives simultaneously ( Eslamipirharati et al. , 2023 ). In this method, basic information about the decision-maker’s preferences is needed. In this process, the decision-maker’s priorities are conveyed to the analyzer, who then uses the epsilon-constraint method for solving. The key principle of this method is to optimize the objective function that holds the highest priority for the decision-maker, while treating the remaining objective functions as constraints within their respective limits ( Mavrotas, 2009 ): (26) { M a x   Z ( x ) =   [ z 1 ( x ) , z 2 ( x ) , … ,  z k ( x ) ] s . t g i ( x ) ≤ 0 , ∀ i = 1 , 2 , … , m After using the epsilon-constraint method, it becomes: (27) { Max Z h ( x ) s .t g i ≤ 0   ∀ i = 1 , 2 , … , m Z j ( x ) ≥ e j   ,   j = 1 , 2 , … , h − 1 , h + 1 , … , k The objective functions should be formulated as maximization type, and subsequently transformed into constraints with lower limits ( e j ). By solving this transformed model iteratively, an efficient solution is obtained. After exploring different lower bounds for these objective functions, a set of Pareto solutions is generated. The epsilon-constraint method follows the solution algorithm outlined below:

Step 1: Obtaining optimal solutions of all the objective functions individually.

Step 2: The optimal point of each objective function, denoted as z i ( x k ), is substituted into the other objective functions. This process results in the creation of a payoff table ( Table 2 ). Table 2 displays the values of each objective function when the model is optimized based on a single objective function. For instance, Z 2 ( x 1 ) represents the value of the second objective function when the optimal solution of the model is determined by the first objective function: Also : n j ≤ Z j ≤ m j

Step 3: In the range of the objective function, we consider different values for e j and solve the objective function according to them. These values for e j are calculated by the following equation: (28) e j = n j + [ t r − 1 ] ( m j − n j )         t = 0 , 1 ,   … ,  r − 1 r = The selection of points within the range of n j ≤ Z j ≤ m j .

The method is computationally efficient and does not introduce additional variables to the problem.

It generates a set of nondominant solutions, enhancing the understanding of the problem.

Scaling the different objective functions is not required.

The method allows for the control of the number of generated solutions based on the decision-maker’s preferences ( Teymoori et al. , 2022 ).

5. Numerical example

In this section, the model is validated through a small-scale numerical example solved using GAMS software. The computations were executed on a computer with a 2.3 GHz central processor and 8 GB of RAM, using the Baron solver for exact solutions. The results of solving this example are presented in Figure 3 as a graphical diagram.

5.1 Small size problem

In this subsection, an example on a small scale is presented to verify the logic of the model. The example involves one supplier, two DRWs, two LDCs and four AAs in the supply chain. Additionally, only transportation Modes 1 and 2 are taken into account for sending relief items between facilities.

Allocated capacities for each facility and costs of unused relief items are presented in Tables 3 and 4 , respectively. Moreover, the values of other parameters remain consistent with those outlined in Section 6, ensuring accuracy and reliability across the analysis.

Based on the solutions obtained, Figure 3 illustrates the graphical representation of the total inflow and outflow of relief items for each facility. Also, in Table 5 , the amount of unfulfilled demand in each AA ( UU kas ) is shown.

5.2 Model validation

In this section, the validity of the model is evaluated from the results obtained by solving the model on a small scale. Figure 4 shows the changes of the first objective function due to the increase in transportation time between facilities in the relief process. As anticipated, increasing transportation times during the relief process led to a decrease in the satisfaction level of disaster victims. In another study, Figure 5 illustrates the variations in the second objective function, which encompasses the total economic costs, including establishment costs of aid centers and marginal costs of unused items across each facility. The graph indicates that as costs increase, the second objective function also rises, as expected. Finally, in Figure 6 the impact on the third objective function, representing environmental damage, was examined concerning the escalation of greenhouse gas emissions during the transportation of goods between facilities. As predicted, an increase in pollutant emissions results in an increase in the third objective function.

6. Model implemented: a case study

In the aftermath of a disaster, numerous individuals are directly or indirectly affected, often experiencing severe disruptions to their lives. Given the critical importance of swift action in relief planning, implementing the model in a case study and analyzing the results can significantly contribute to future disaster response planning efforts, mitigating potential damages. In this context, data has been collected from the 2021 earthquake in Haiti to inform the study and draw valuable lessons for more effective relief operations in the future. It should be noted that due to the fact that there is very little and contradictory information about the Haiti earthquake in 2021, there is very little data about this disaster and their values are often different from each other. For this reason, the values of some parameters are considered as an interval with a uniform distribution. Also, since this model was developed based on the implementation of possible future disasters, the only demand parameter is dependent on the data related to that earthquake and the values of other parameters such as parameters related to capacity, establishment costs and the parameters related to pollution have been determined according to field observations, environmental assessments and also past articles such as Nezhadroshan et al. (2021) .

6.1 Case study description

The model incorporates data from the 2021 earthquake in the Tibourn Peninsula of Haiti. This earthquake, registering a magnitude of 7.2 on the Richter scale, endured for over 30 s, tragically claiming the lives of at least 1,290 individuals and displacing more than 50,000 people ( Sriram et al. , 2023 ). After the earthquake, the region experienced four significant aftershocks. The subsequent section presents the parameters derived from the data collected during the case study.

In the following, the values assigned to the parameters based on the data obtained from the case study are presented. In Table 6 , the capacity of each facility that may be used in the supply chain is presented.

Table 7 provides a breakdown of the setup costs associated with each facility. These costs encompass the initial expenses for suppliers and DRWs, as well as the construction costs for LDCs and AAs.

Moving on to Table 8 , it displays the quantity of demand for each AA categorized by different types of relief items. It is important to note that due to the inherent uncertainty in the demand quantities, this factor can contribute to generating varying outcomes within the model.

As a result of capacity limitations in transportation modes and facilities at subsequent stages, certain items become unusable and are left in each facility. The disposal of these items incurs costs for the companies involved, which are detailed in Table 9 .

Next, the values of other important parameters are shown in Table 10 . These parameters encompass the expense associated with transferring each product between different types of facilities, the duration of transportation between said facilities, the capacity of each transportation mode, as well as variables related to the generation of environmental pollution.

6.2 Case study result

In this section, the optimal outcomes of the implemented model on a case study are showcased.

Table 11 presents a comprehensive overview of the quantity of each type of relief items received and dispatched to individual facilities. The transportation of these items is facilitated through various modes of transportation.

Furthermore, the entire process of providing relief and delivering relief items to the AA within this supply chain was successfully accomplished in a total timeframe of 292 h. Additionally, Table 12 provides the objective function values pertaining to each epsilon for all three objectives.

In Figures 7 and 8 , a comparative analysis of the objective functions is presented, showcasing their behavior toward each other based on the set of Pareto solutions.

Figures 7 and 8 indicate that the third objective function exhibits an opposite relationship concerning desirability when compared to the two aforementioned objective functions. Improvements in this third objective function correspond to a decline in the objective function associated with social satisfaction and economic costs.

Figure 9 provides a concluding visual representation in the form of a scatter diagram, which effectively demonstrates the intricate interplay between the objective functions. It uses the set of Pareto solutions as a reference point, offering valuable insights into the relationships between these functions and fostering a deeper understanding of their dynamics.

7. Sensitivity analysis

The key parameters of the presented model are primarily the facility capacity-related parameters (CL l , CD j , CS i ), the transportation mode capacities (CTS ijm , CDL jlm , CLA lam ) and the AA demand (D ak ). Also, the importance rate of total time (Л) can play an important role. In this section, the impact of the variation of the key parameters within the model on the resulting values of the decision variables and objective functions is examined.

The sensitivity of the ratio of total shortages to the ratio of total demands UU ka D ak as influenced by the Л rate is illustrated in Figure 10 . It is widely recognized that an increase in the coverage rate of demands occurs when less significance is placed on time.

Figures 11 to 18 illustrate the behavior of the objective functions in response to changes in variables. Figure 11 demonstrates that there is no distinct relationship between increasing or decreasing demand and the first objective function. However, Figure 12 reveals a notable impact of increased demand on the rise of economic costs in the second objective function.

Figures 13 to 15 illustrate how the objective functions are affected by the capacities of various transportation modes. It is evident that a decrease in transportation capacity has a significant and adverse impact on the objective function related to social satisfaction and economic costs. Conversely, once the desired capacity level of a transportation mode is attained, further increases in capacity do not significantly affect the objective functions.

In Figures 16 , 17 and 18 , the impact of increasing or decreasing facility capacities on the objective functions is demonstrated. It is widely recognized that reducing facility capacity from an optimal level can significantly detriment the satisfaction of disaster victims during the relief process while increasing supply chain costs due to inadequate support. Conversely, enhancing facility capacities improves the performance of the first and second objectives, as depicted in Figure 16 . However, as shown, increasing facility capacities ultimately results in greater environmental damage.

Based on the aforementioned sensitivity analysis of the parameters, it can be deduced that the most crucial factors affecting the satisfaction of disaster victims and the costs of the entire supply chain are the parameters associated with facility capacity and transportation capacity. Hence, during the initial setup and equipment allocation stages, it is advisable for managers to prioritize the establishment of facilities with high capacities. This approach will contribute to achieving satisfactory outcomes in the relief process.

8. Discussion and managerial insights

Shakibaei et al. (2023) neglected to address the environmental aspects in their research. Considering the imperative of combating global warming and escalating environmental pollution, it is essential to prioritize environmental considerations in real-life scenarios to proactively prevent man-made disasters. Moreover, Boostani et al. (2021) focused solely on fulfilled demand when evaluating the objective function pertaining to social satisfaction in their study. In contrast, this article acknowledges the pivotal role of relief time as a crucial criterion, among other factors.

From the results of the sensitivity analysis of different parameters of the model, various managerial insights are obtained, which will be expressed in two sections: theoretical managerial insights and practical managerial insights:

8.1 Theoretical managerial insights

Based on the results obtained from Figures 13 to 18 , it is recommended that the HSC management prioritize the construction of facilities with high capacities because it greatly improves the first and second objective function.

Based on the results obtained from Figure 10 and considering the high importance of both unfulfilled demand and relief time factors, the management is expected to be able to achieve a balance between the two. Because neglecting each one to pay attention to the other can have irreparable consequences.

According to Figures 13 and 14 , the shortage of capacity in different modes of transportation has a very unfavorable effect on the economic and social objective functions. On the other hand, excessive increase in their capacity leads to deterioration of economic and environmental objective functions.

8.2 Practical managerial insights

Figures 13 and 14 show the key impact of the capacity of different modes of transportation. In reality, the capacity of a mode of transportation can be increased to a certain extent. So, the management should increase the number of means of transportation in any mode.

To guarantee relative success in the relief process, it is recommended that government and management officials build prefabricated facilities and warehouses in the vicinity of disaster-prone areas. This action will put the speed of relief in the event of a disaster at a much higher level.

Based on their expertise and experience and according to Figures 17 and 18 , managers may pay less attention to environmental consequences in times of crisis. This approach happens due to speeding up the relief process and paying attention to the needs of the victims. Addressing the environmental aspect of sustainability needs to be planned proactively to prepare for potential natural incidents, as attempting to plan and implement environmental measures at the time of an incident is impractical. This article explained how to approach this issue.

Managers have the opportunity to seek financial assistance from the public, government or private sector to protect against financial constraints that could disrupt the critical aid process. This proactive approach ensures that relief efforts can proceed unhindered. These aids can be in the form of creating a public aid fund, government aid or requesting a loan from international organizations or other governments.

Using nonfossil fuels like electricity for emergency vehicles, establishing recycling facilities in safe zones and consciously choosing the most efficient transportation routes are some of the measures that can help reduce environmental pollution in areas affected by disasters.

9. Conclusion and future study

In conclusion, this article addresses the critical need for an efficient HSC to effectively provide postdisaster relief. By developing an MILP model with three interconnected objectives, the study optimizes the supply chain’s performance across social satisfaction, economic costs and environmental impact. The research combines both available data from the 2021 earthquake in Haiti’s Hispaniola Island and newly generated data to enhance the model’s accuracy. To begin the solution process, the model is first implemented and solved using a small-scale example. Following validation, it is then implemented on a master case. Through a sensitivity analysis on key parameters, valuable management decisions are presented to support supply chain supervisors in making informed decisions. The model’s strength lies in its comprehensive consideration of all dimensions of sustainability, with linear constraints and objective functions facilitating efficient problem-solving time.

Ultimately, the model provides comprehensive insights into the optimal allocation of relief items, determining the necessary transfers between facilities, appropriate vehicles for transportation, timing of relief provision, remaining unused items in each facility and identification of item shortages across AA. By integrating these findings, the HSC can better serve disaster victims in every impacted region.

In future studies, there is an opportunity to expand the scope of the model proposed in this article to incorporate risk management strategies. This would involve considering potential risks within the facilities and fluctuations in key parameters such as demand. Additionally, protocols can be developed to monitor the implementation of social justice principles in the fair distribution of relief services. This can be achieved by incorporating indicators such as the criticality of the victim’s condition, age group, gender and other relevant factors. Including these aspects in the model would further enhance the effectiveness and equity of HSC operations.

Developing protocols to monitor the implementation of social justice principles in the fair distribution of relief services.

Integration of real-time data and advanced technologies.

Evaluation of risk in HSCs.

Investigating the impact of social and cultural factors on HSC operations.

Exploring effective collaboration models and coordination mechanisms among various stakeholders, including government agencies, non governmental organizations, private entities and local communities.

Designing training programs and capacity-building initiatives for humanitarian logisticians and supply chain managers.

Summary of the article structure

Summary of the proposed methodology

Graphic representation of the solved model in the small scale of the supply chain

First objective function based on transit time

Sensitivity analysis of the second objective function based on some costs

Sensitivity analysis of the third objective based on the produced pollutants

Comparative analysis of the first and third objective functions based on the set of Pareto solutions

Comparison of the behavior between the 1st and 3rd objective function based on the set of Pareto solutions

Scatter diagram based on pareto model solutions

Sensitivity analysis of demand rate based on the importance of time

Sensitivity of the first objective function to the multiplication of demand in AAs

Sensitivity of the second objective function to the multiplication of demand in AAs

Sensitivity analysis of the first objective function based on the multiplication of capacity of transportation modes

Sensitivity analysis of the second objective function based on the multiplication of capacity of transportation modes

Sensitivity analysis of the third objective function based on the multiplication of capacity of transportation modes

Sensitivity analysis of the first objective function based on facility capacity

Sensitivity analysis of the second objective function based on facility capacity

Sensitivity analysis of the third objective function based on facility capacity

Source: Table created by authors

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Acknowledgements

Funding : This research work did not receive funding.

Compliance with ethical standards :

Ethical approval: This paper does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Conflict of interest : The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Informed consent : Informed consent was not required as no humans or animals were involved.

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