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Documentary Research – Types, Methods and Examples

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Documentary Research

Definition:

Documentary research is a type of research method that involves the systematic investigation and analysis of existing documents or records. These documents can be in the form of written, visual, or audio materials, such as books, articles, photographs, videos, and audio recordings.

Documentary Research Methods

Documentary Research Methods for data collection are as follows:

Systematic Searching

This involves conducting a thorough and systematic search of documents to identify relevant information. Researchers can use keywords, search terms, and other techniques to locate relevant documents.

Content Analysis

This involves analyzing the content of documents to identify patterns, themes, and other insights. Researchers can use manual or computer-assisted methods to analyze the content.

Historical Analysis

This involves analyzing historical documents to understand past events, trends, and cultural contexts. Researchers can use primary and secondary sources, as well as oral histories and other forms of documentation.

Archival Research

This involves analyzing documents stored in archives such as government records, personal papers, and institutional records. Researchers may need to gain access to the archives, navigate complex cataloging systems, and handle fragile or delicate documents.

Case Study Analysis

This involves analyzing specific cases and the documents related to them to understand underlying causes and effects. Researchers may need to collect a range of documents related to the case, such as police reports, medical records, and witness statements.

Comparative Analysis

This involves comparing documents from multiple sources or locations to identify similarities and differences. Researchers can use a range of tools and techniques to compare documents, such as content analysis software or qualitative coding schemes.

Literary Analysis

This involves analyzing literary works such as novels, poems, and plays to understand themes, symbolism, and other literary devices. Researchers can use a range of methods, such as close reading and thematic analysis, to analyze literary works.

Ethnographic Analysis

This involves analyzing documents related to a specific culture or group to understand their beliefs, practices, and values. Researchers may need to collect a range of documents such as interviews, field notes, and artifacts to analyze the culture or group.

Visual Analysis

This involves analyzing visual media such as photographs, videos, and artwork to understand the meaning, symbolism, and cultural context. Researchers can use a range of methods such as content analysis, semiotics, and discourse analysis to analyze visual media.

Network Analysis

This involves analyzing the relationships between documents, individuals, or organizations to understand social networks and power dynamics. Researchers can use a range of methods such as social network analysis and organizational analysis to analyze networks.

Data Analysis Methods

Documentary Research Data Analysis Methods are as follows:

• Coding : This involves categorizing and labeling segments of data to identify patterns and themes. Researchers can use a range of coding techniques such as deductive coding, inductive coding, and grounded theory coding.
• Thematic analysis: This involves identifying recurring themes and patterns in the data to understand the meaning and significance of the content. Researchers can use a range of thematic analysis techniques such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis.
• Content analysis : This involves analyzing the content of the data to identify patterns, themes, and other insights. Researchers can use manual or computer-assisted methods to analyze the content.
• Statistical analysis : This involves analyzing numerical data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships. Researchers can use a range of statistical techniques such as regression analysis, factor analysis, and cluster analysis.
• Qualitative data analysis : This involves analyzing non-numerical data to identify patterns, themes, and other insights. Researchers can use a range of qualitative data analysis techniques such as phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory.
• Discourse analysis : This involves analyzing the language and communication in the data to understand the meaning, context, and social relationships. Researchers can use a range of techniques such as critical discourse analysis, narrative analysis, and conversation analysis to analyze discourse.
• Visual analysis : This involves analyzing visual media such as photographs, videos, and artwork to understand the meaning, symbolism, and cultural context. Researchers can use a range of methods such as content analysis, semiotics, and discourse analysis to analyze visual media.

Documentary Research Methodology

The steps involved in conducting documentary research using a systematic methodology include:

• Defining the research question : The first step is to define the research question or problem that will guide the research. This should be a specific, clear, and answerable question.
• Identifying relevant documents: The next step is to identify the relevant documents that can provide information on the research question. This may involve conducting a search of databases, archives, and other sources of information.
• Evaluating the quality of the documents: Once the documents have been identified, it is important to evaluate their quality and relevance to the research question. This may involve assessing the reliability, validity, and bias of the documents.
• Collecting the documents: The next step is to collect the documents that will be used in the research. This may involve obtaining permission to access the documents, making copies, or taking notes.
• Organizing the documents: The documents should be organized in a way that makes it easy to find and analyze relevant information. This may involve creating a database, spreadsheet, or other organizational tool.
• Analyzing the documents: The data collected from the documents should be analyzed using appropriate methods such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. The data should be interpreted in relation to the research question.
• Drawing conclusions: The final step is to draw conclusions based on the analysis of the documents. This may involve synthesizing the findings, identifying patterns and trends, and making recommendations for future research or action.

Applications of Documentary Research

Some of the common applications of documentary research include:

• Historical research : Documentary research is commonly used in historical research to study past events, trends, and social issues. Historians use existing documents such as newspapers, diaries, and government records to reconstruct historical events and understand the social and cultural context.
• Legal research : Documentary research is often used in legal research to understand the legal context of a particular case or issue. Legal researchers use existing documents such as court cases, legislation, and legal opinions to analyze the legal issues and provide insights into the legal system.
• Social sciences: Documentary research is commonly used in social science research to study social phenomena such as social movements, political campaigns, and cultural practices. Social scientists use existing documents such as media reports, government records, and personal accounts to understand the social and cultural context of the phenomena.
• Marketing research : Documentary research is used in marketing research to understand consumer behavior, market trends, and competitor strategies. Marketers use existing documents such as industry reports, market data, and customer feedback to develop marketing strategies and make informed decisions.
• Education research: Documentary research is used in education research to study educational policies, practices, and outcomes. Education researchers use existing documents such as educational records, policy documents, and research studies to understand the factors that influence student achievement and inform educational policies.
• Business research: Documentary research is used in business research to study business practices, industry trends, and market dynamics. Business researchers use existing documents such as financial reports, industry publications, and customer feedback to analyze business performance and inform business strategy.

Examples of Documentary Research

Here are some real-time examples of documentary research:

• Investigative journalism : Investigative journalists often use documentary research to uncover hidden information or expose corruption. For example, a journalist may use existing documents such as government reports, financial statements, and leaked documents to investigate a company’s unethical practices or a government’s hidden agenda.
• Social media research : Social media researchers use documentary research to analyze user-generated content and social media platforms. For example, a researcher may use existing social media posts, comments, and tweets to study public opinion on a particular topic or track the spread of misinformation.
• Public policy research : Public policy researchers use documentary research to analyze government policies and their impact on society. For example, a researcher may use existing documents such as legislative records, budget reports, and policy briefs to study the effects of a particular policy on a particular population.
• Historical research : Historians use documentary research to reconstruct historical events and understand the social and cultural context. For example, a historian may use existing documents such as diaries, newspapers, and government records to study the impact of World War II on a particular region.
• Market research : Market researchers use documentary research to analyze market trends and consumer behavior. For example, a market researcher may use existing documents such as industry reports, market data, and customer feedback to develop a marketing strategy for a new product.
• Environmental research : Environmental researchers use documentary research to study the impact of human activities on the environment. For example, a researcher may use existing documents such as environmental impact statements, government reports, and scientific studies to understand the effects of climate change on a particular region.

Purpose of Documentary Research

The purpose of documentary research is to gather and analyze data from existing documents such as records, archives, newspapers, magazines, books, and other media sources. The goal of this type of research is to extract information and gain insights that are relevant to the research question or problem being studied. The purpose of documentary research can vary depending on the specific context and objectives of the research project. Here are some examples of the purposes of documentary research:

• To study historical events : Documentary research is often used by historians to study past events and understand the social and cultural context of the time period being studied.
• To analyze public policies: Documentary research is frequently used by policy analysts to evaluate the effectiveness of public policies and identify areas where improvements can be made.
• To understand social phenomena : Documentary research is commonly used in social science research to study social phenomena such as social movements, political campaigns, and cultural practices.
• To develop marketing strategies: Documentary research is used in marketing research to understand consumer behavior, market trends, and competitor strategies. Marketers use existing documents such as industry reports, market data, and customer feedback to develop marketing strategies and make informed decisions.
• To inform business decisions : Documentary research is used in business research to study business practices, industry trends, and market dynamics. Business researchers use existing documents such as financial reports, industry publications, and customer feedback to analyze business performance and inform business strategy.

When to Use Documentary Research

Here are some situations when documentary research might be a good fit:

• When the research question requires the analysis of existing data : Documentary research is useful when the research question requires the analysis of existing data sources such as records, archives, newspapers, magazines, and other media sources.
• When the research question involves historical analysis: Documentary research is frequently used in historical research to study past events and understand the social and cultural context of the time period being studied.
• When the research question requires the analysis of policy documents: Documentary research is often used in public policy research to evaluate the effectiveness of public policies and identify areas where improvements can be made.
• When the research question requires the analysis of marketing or business data: Documentary research is useful in marketing and business research to understand consumer behavior, market trends, and competitor strategies.
• When the research question requires a comprehensive analysis of a large data set : Documentary research can be useful when researchers need to analyze a large data set that would be difficult or time-consuming to collect through primary data collection methods.
• When the research question requires triangulation of data: Documentary research can be used in conjunction with other data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, or observations to triangulate data and verify findings.

Characteristics of Documentary Research

Here are some characteristics of documentary research:

• Non-experimental: Documentary research is a non-experimental research method, meaning that researchers do not manipulate any variables or conduct experiments in a controlled setting.
• Use of secondary data: Documentary research relies on secondary data sources such as existing documents, rather than collecting new primary data through surveys or observations.
• Historical and retrospective : Documentary research is often used to study historical events or retrospective phenomena such as public policies, social movements, or cultural practices.
• Objective and unbiased: Documentary research is based on existing documents that are typically considered objective and unbiased, which can add credibility to the research findings.
• Time-efficient and cost-effective: Documentary research can be a time-efficient and cost-effective research method, as it involves the analysis of existing data sources rather than collecting new primary data.
• Requires critical thinking and interpretation : Documentary research requires critical thinking and interpretation of the data sources to identify relevant information and gain insights that are relevant to the research question or problem being studied.
• Can be used in combination with other research methods: Documentary research can be used in combination with other research methods such as interviews, surveys, or observations to triangulate data and verify findings.

Advantages of Documentary Research

Here are some advantages of documentary research:

• Cost-effective : Documentary research is generally less expensive than primary data collection methods such as surveys or experiments, as it involves the analysis of existing data sources.
• Time-efficient: Documentary research is generally faster than primary data collection methods, as the data sources are readily available and do not require the time and resources associated with data collection.
• Non-intrusive : Documentary research is a non-intrusive research method that does not involve direct interaction with study participants. This can be particularly advantageous when studying sensitive topics or populations.
• Access to historical data : Documentary research provides access to historical data sources that may not be available through primary data collection methods.
• Objective and unbiased : Documentary research is based on existing documents that are typically considered objective and unbiased, which can add credibility to the research findings.
• Allows for triangulation of data: Documentary research can be used in combination with other research methods such as interviews, surveys, or observations to triangulate data and verify findings.
• Ethical considerations: Documentary research can be useful when conducting research on sensitive topics where ethical considerations may limit the use of primary data collection methods.

Limitations of Documentary Research

some limitations of documentary research are as follows:

• Limited control over data quality: Researchers have limited control over the quality and accuracy of the data sources used in documentary research, as they are often historical and not specifically designed for research purposes.
• Limited generalizability : The findings from documentary research may not be generalizable to other populations or contexts, as the data sources are often specific to a particular time period or location.
• Limited ability to answer specific research questions: Documentary research is limited to the data sources that are available, which may not always provide the information needed to answer specific research questions.
• Limited ability to explore causality: Documentary research is a non-experimental research method and does not involve the manipulation of variables, making it difficult to explore causality.
• Limited ability to explore complex phenomena : Documentary research may not provide a complete picture of complex phenomena, as the data sources may not capture all aspects of the phenomenon being studied.
• Limited ability to collect qualitative data: Documentary research is primarily a quantitative research method and may not provide rich qualitative data that can be obtained through other research methods such as interviews or observations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• Documentary Research: Definition, Types, Applications & Examples

Introduction

Over the years, social scientists have used documentary research to understand series of events that have occurred or happened in the past. Here, they explore available recovered or existing documents and material to get information and gain insight into a research question or particular topic.

In this article, we would define the concept of documentary research, the various types of documentary research, its applications, and some valid examples.

Let’s dive right in.

What is Documentary Research?

In simple terms, documentary research is a form of research that uses records to get accurate information about a particular subject. It is a systematic investigation and analysis of existing records or documents. These documents can be in written forms, visual/audio materials, photographs, videos books, etc.

Documentary research is a valuable approach used in exploring historical events, cultural phenomena, and societal trends to get deep insight into a topic, subject or research question.

Documentary research is somewhat similar to content analysis, which also entails studying existing information/documents.

One of the most vital considerations when using documentary research is the quality of the material being utilized, hence the danger of falling into the single-story phenomenon. 

To forestall this, the documents being reviewed must be assessed thoroughly before it is used. (see John Scott, A Matter of Record, 1990). The criteria for authenticity involves checking the documents thoroughly to ensure their genuineness.

List of Documentary Research Methods

• Social Research Studies: This form of documentary research is commonly used in social research studies. For instance, Karl Max used documentary research extensively for his research and the documents he used include The Royal Commission, Inland revenue reports, and Her Majesty Inspectors of Factory reports, to mention a few. Emile Durkheim one of the founders of sociology authored a book on suicide and his work was recognized as the first modern example of consistent use of documents for social research.
• Archival Inquiry: This is a field of sociology explored in documentary research. It entails using primary source documents stored in archives. This form of research is popular amongst historians and the archival documents are referred to as references in their research.
• Content Analysis: This method involves the examination and interpretation of content in documents like articles, books, and speeches in other to find a connection, verify events, and identify patterns or trends.
• Historical Analysis: This is the study and analysis of occurrences that took place in the past, but were documented in records like newspapers, government records, and diaries to understand past events accurately and use the information to understand the present.
• Textual Analysis: This form of analysis is focused on printed texts, in a bid to understand pictures, symbols, and language in other to understand events or occurrences that happened in the lives of the subject.
• Oral Tradition : Oral history involves gathering information via oral summations of people who had direct experience of the events or subject being researched. These interviews are recorded and transcribed, and then analyzed as documents.
• Ethnographic Research: This form of research involves documenting the daily experiences of people in their natural environment, in other to understand how interactions in their personal space affect or impacts their experiences.
• Comparative Analysis: Comparative analysis entails comparing documents from multiple sources to understand context, and periods and uncover any similarities or differences. The goal is to understand cultural or political variations.
• Cross-Sectional Analysis: Cross-sectional analysis involves reviewing documents from multiple perspectives to understand changes, trends, or developments over a specific period.
• Aesthetic Interpretation: This is analyzing visual documents, like paintings, photographs, and footage from videos. This is often used as a supplement to text to authenticate discoveries uncovered in text documents.

Understanding the Documentary Research Methodology

Documentary research involves several key steps, such as defining the objective or research question, identifying relevant resources, revising them, and drawing up a well-informed and accurate conclusion based on fact.

Here are some key points to help you understand the documentary research methodology:

• Purpose: The essence of documentary research is to review existing documents to have insight into a research problem or question. The documents reviewed include written texts, such as books, articles, letters, diaries, newspapers, official reports, government publications, and archival materials, and non-written materials like videos, audio recordings,  photographs, and digital documents.
• Data Collection: This phase is when researchers gather relevant documents required for the research topic. These documents are evaluated carefully based on credibility and relevance. 

Explore – Data Collection Methods: Definition + Steps to Do It

• Data Analysis: Here, the gathered documents are analyzed systematically using relevant document research methodologies. This involves reading, grouping similar resources, and extracting information based on similarities, trends, etc.
• Interpretation: After data analysis, the discoveries are interpreted and the answers are applied to the research question or objective.

Read More: What is Data Interpretation? + [Types, Methods & Tools]

• Ethical Considerations: Ethical principles should be considered when carrying out documentary research. Copyright and intellectual property rights should be respected and all necessary permissions should be obtained before using confidential materials.
• Strengths and Limitations: The documentary research methodology has several advantages. One of which is that it helps researchers study past events by providing relevant documentation that sheds light. It also offers rich and detailed insights into social, cultural, and historical contexts. However, as with every good thing, there are limitations, such as some form of biases in the selected documents, which could emanate from the author or source of the document, missing data, and validity of the findings.

Related: What are Ethical Practices in Market Research?

Applications of Documentary Research

The documentary research methodology has a broad range of applications across various disciplines. They include:

• Historical Research : Documentary research is used extensively in historical studies to explore past events, in other to predict the future. Researchers review historical documents, like letters, diaries, government records, newspapers, and photographs, to better understand historical narratives, social and cultural contexts, and see how individuals or communities conducted their activities in the past.
• Social Sciences: In social sciences, documentary research helps investigate social concepts and trends. Documents like surveys, census data, and organization records are studied and analyzed, in other to understand public opinion, social inequality, and organizational behavior.
• Legal Research: Documentary research plays a vital role in legal studies. Lawyers, legal scholars, policymakers, etc analyze legal documents, regulations, court cases, and legal antecedents all in a bid to understand the legal framework and ways in which law evolves. Documentary research can support legal arguments, influence the development of legal theories, and inform policy-making.
• Education Research: Documentary research is used to understand educational policies, curriculum development, and teaching practices. Researchers review educational documents, such as textbooks,  educational policies, and assessment materials, to access educational systems, approaches, and the effect of these on learning outcomes.

Examples of Documentary Research

• The Russian Revolution (1891 – 1924), With the aid of newspaper documents and personal diaries Orlando Figes, a British historian narrated the most important milestones of the revolution in that period and proffered a comprehensive portrait of everyday occurrences as it occurred then the book Figes. depicts how the Russian Revolution was a historical process that changed the lives of its people and had its influence globally.
• The Vietnam War . The 990 minutes audiovisual documentary by Ken Burns narrates the Vietnam War (1955-1975). Throughout 10 episodes, the military operations of the Vietnam War were addressed, as well as the opposition to the war by the US.
• Bios . Lives that marked yours: Luis Alberto Spinetta. This two-hour audiovisual documentary, produced by National Geographic, intimate and deeply details the life of  Luis Alberto Spineta, an artist referred to as one of the fathers of Argentine rock. His family was part of the production,the100 hours documentary was directed by Catarina Spinetta and she used recordings, and testimonies from family members to review her father’s childhood until his final moments.
• The Secret Decrees of the Dictatorship . This publication was released between March and May 2019, and more than 7000 secret decrees issued by the Military Juntas in Argentina between 1976-1983 were reviewed by the Data Unit of the news portal. These decrees signed by different dictators focused on deportations, the prohibition of books, and the sale of weapons. All of these materials were analyzed and presented along with eight notes, published in 2019.
• World War II in Photographs, David Boyle . This book is an example of aesthetic documentary research. 900 high-quality photographs from various sources were used to portray World War II (1939–1945). The images uncover the scenarios as the warfare took place. The images were arranged in chronological order with images of the steppes of Russia, the deserts of Africa, the jungles of the South Pacific, and the seas of the Arctic and each one of them has a detailed explanation of the course of events.
• The Silence of the Others . This documentary by the Spanish Pedro Almodóvar took 7 years to produce and over 450 hours of review of materials to uncover the crimes carried out during the Franco regime and the plight of the victims seeking justice. 
• The Berlin Wall . The border through a city, Thomas Flemming. This is another example of documentary research, with documents, photos, and illustrations, this book illustrates the history of the Berlin Wall. The daily life of the people who lived to the west and east of the city was portrayed in the book as well as the events that led to the fall of the border in 1989.

Purpose of Documentary Research

The purpose of documentary research is to gather verifiable evidence, that can help researchers understand clearly events that occurred in the past/present and also uncover new knowledge by analyzing existing documents and materials. It aids researchers in exploring topics that are difficult to decipher through other research methods and proffers a historical or contextual perspective on the subject being studied.

When to Use Documentary Research

Documentary research is best when researching events that occurred in the past, especially in instances where direct observation is not applicable. Here are some instances where documentary research is particularly useful:

• Historical Studies: Documentary research is ideal when conducting historical research. Researchers can then analyze historical records or documents left behind to better understand past events, chronologically.
• Exploratory Research: In cases where there are gaps in research studies. documentary research can serve as an exploratory method to fill gaps in knowledge by exploring different perspectives that can uncover new knowledge.
• Policy Analysis : Documentary research is useful in examining policies and similar regulations. By analyzing policy documents, over a period, researchers can measure the impact policies had or have on a particular subject. Based on their review of existing documents, they can make recommendations and supervise their implementation. This method is particularly useful in fields such as public policy, education, healthcare, and social welfare.
• Comparative Studies: Documentary research is useful for comparative analysis. Researchers can analyze documents from different sources and geographical locations to identify patterns, verify results or simply identify contradictions and uncover areas that require further investigation.

Characteristics of Documentary Research

• Uses Existing Documents: Documentary research is based on existing documents as a primary source of data. These documents can be written(letters, diaries, articles, books)or unwritten documents(videos, photographs, inscriptions). These documents are analyzed to gain insight and understanding into a specific phenomenon. 
• Non-Experimental In Nature: Documentary research does not involve manipulated variables, meaning that the researcher can not change the outcomes by directly intervening in the research. All the results derived are based on phenomena that have d occurred, which have documented records to attest to their occurrence. 
• Data Analysis: Documentary research involves rigorous data analysis, as researchers have to carefully read, extract relevant information, categorize data, and use qualitative/quantitative analysis to derive results.
• Interpretation of Findings: After data analysis. The findings of the research must be interpreted in a way that gives insight and deep understanding to anyone reading about the subject being researched. The interpretation phase involves synthesizing and relating the findings to the research questions or objectives.
• Contextual Understanding : Documentary research emphasizes the importance of understanding the social, cultural, and historical, events in the context, in which the documents were recorded, reviewed, and analyzed.By context we mean, the period, cultural norms, political climate, socio-economic factors, etc where the events being studied took place and under what circumstances. This contextual understanding helps to interpret the findings and draw accurate conclusions.
• Cross Reference and Validation: Documentary research is characterized by cross-referencing or triangulation, which involves using multiple sources or methods to corroborate findings. The combination of documentary research with other research methods strengthens the validity and reliability of their findings. This enhances the robustness of the research and helps minimize potential biases or inaccuracies.
• Ethical Considerations: Documentary research requires that researchers respect ethical guidelines and principles. Copyright and intellectual property laws must be adhered to and necessary permissions obtained when using sensitive or confidential documents, as well as the privacy and anonymity of individuals mentioned in the documents. 

Advantages of Documentary Research

• Access to Existing Data: In documentary research, existing data is readily available for review and analysis. There is no need to collect new data, via surveys and the like which can take time or require intensive resources. This makes documentary research a cost-effective and efficient method.
• Rich and Dynamic Data: Documents and materials used in documentary research offer a rich pool of information and insights. This method covers a wide range of topics, periods, and perspectives. There is access to primary sources, such as original letters or historical documents, as well as secondary sources like scholarly articles or reports. This variety of data allows for a comprehensive and clear understanding of the research topic.
• Longitudinal and Historical Perspectives: Documentary research allows researchers to study phenomena over extended periods and explore historical contexts. By examining documents spanning different periods, researchers can analyze patterns, trends, changes, and continuity across social, cultural, or organizational aspects. 
• Non-Intrusive Method : Since documentary research relies on existing documents, there is no direct involvement with research subjects or settings. Hence there is no need to disturb or manipulate the research environment or intrude on the lives of individuals. This makes it an ethical and practical method, especially for sensitive or personal topics.
• Exploration of Inaccessible or Historical Data: Documentary research allows researchers to access data that cannot be duplicated anymore due to timelapse and changing circumstances. For instance, researchers can analyze archived documents, historical records, or rare texts which provide unique insights into the past or specific contexts. 
• Large-Scale Data Analysis : Documentary research deals with or involves large volumes of data. Numerous documents, texts, or media materials to identify patterns, themes, or trends can be examined. This exposure to extensive data sets enables comprehensive analysis and enhances the reliability of research findings.

Limitations of Documentary Research

• The Danger of Biased Perspectives: The documents used in documentary research are subject to bias, as they could reflect the perspectives, agendas, or limitations of the authors or organizations that produced them. Critical evaluation is necessary to ensure the credibility of the documents.
• No Control Over Data Collection : Documentary research relies on existing data that may not have been aimed at the research question it is being applied to. As researchers have limited control over the collection process, there is the potential for missing or incomplete information.
• Subjective Interpretation: Documents analyzed require interpretation of findings, which can be subjective as different researchers can interpret the same document differently, leading to variations in findings and conclusions.

Documentary research is a valuable form of research methodology as it provides access to existing documents and materials for analysis and interpretation. There are many advantages of these methods, such as diverse sources of data, historical perspectives, and access to large volumes of data from analysis.

However, there are also limitations like biases based on the author’s perspective, no control over data collection, and challenges in interpretation. A clear understanding of the pros and cons of this research method would help users make informed decisions on how to apply documentary research to their subject of study.

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• cross-sectional study
• data analysis
• data collection methods
• data interpretation
• documentary research
• Angela Kayode-Sanni

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How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

Need a helping hand?

Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications. If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

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Documentary Research: What it is, methodology & free examples

Social scientists often conduct documentary research. Its primary use is to assess various documents in the interest of social or historical value. Researchers also conduct documentary research to study multiple documents surrounding events or individuals.

What is documentary research?

Documentary research is the research conducted through the use of official documents or personal documents as the source of information.

Documents can include anything from the following: 

• Directories
• Government statistical publications
• Gramophone records
• Photographs
• Computer files

The above may not fit the traditional bill of a “document”, but companies can use them towards documentary research since they contain information.

Documentary research is similar to content analysis, which involves studying existing information recorded in media, texts, and physical items. Here, data collection from people is not required to conduct research. Hence, this is a prime example of secondary research.

It is essential to consider the quality of the documents while using it as evidence on social relations and social meanings. Keep in mind that, unlike surveys and research interviews, the records are originally published/generated without keeping the purpose of research in mind. It is good practice to cross-verify documents against other similar documents before reaching a decision.

Documentary research examples

Bellow, we can find a few real-life examples of documentary research applied to companies’ daily events.

1. Social research studies

Although documentary research is not used extensively today, it is the go-to research method to conduct social research studies. For example, Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim used documentary research extensively for their research.

Karl Marx used documents like:

• Her Majesty Inspectors of Factories Reports
• Royal Commission
• Inland Revenue Reports

There’s also a record of his use of reports by the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, reports on children’s employment in factories, the Corn-laws, the Banking Acts, and Census Reports for Wales and England to name a few.

Durkheim, one of the founders of Sociology, wrote a book on suicide, which is recognized as the first modern example of a methodical and consistent use of documents for social research.

2. Archival inquiry

The field of sociology has a popular, longstanding tradition of documentary inquiry. Many historians refer to and rely on primary documents for their research. Historians give historical documents more emphasis while conducting research. Of course, as we evolve, virtual documents like emails will play a significant role in research activities conducted by these researchers.

3. Aesthetic interpretation

Documentary research is not limited to text only. Pictures, paintings, videos, audio files, monuments are also used to conduct research. Documentary researchers use these tools in addition to texts while studying social sciences. The use of these tools adds to the authenticity of the textual research, or may very well point out deviations in the findings.

This deviation suggests that investigators research more to draw accurate conclusions.

Documentary research methodology

Documentary research, if conducted thoroughly, can help develop a hypothesis or prove or disprove an existing theory. This of course depends on the methodology applied and the depth of research conducted. The researcher must conduct his/her own secondary research to analyze the contents before extracting it. They must handle the data scientifically.

Follow this four-step approach to control the quality of the content:

The authenticity of the documents

The credibility of the documents

Representativeness of the documents

The meaning derived from the documents

Let’s take a look at these in detail.

Authenticity implies whether the document’s origin is reliable, is the evidence genuine, are the intentions sincere, and what were the commitments to creating the document. The authenticity of the source is the primary criterion of documentary research.

Credibility means the subjective and objective components that make one believe the source of information and whether the data is free from distortion and error. The information must be trustworthy and must have some level of expertise.

Representativeness refers to whether the document represents a more extensive collection of the data point, and it is an aggregation of the topic being studied. That said, documents get distorted with time due to the inclusion of new factors, and a check has to be made to ensure the documents are representative.

Meaning means whether the findings are understandable and clear to be called evidence. The goal of examining documents is to understand its significance and meaning. Researchers must find out whether the document fits within the historical context or not.

Advantages of documentary study

Here are the advantages of the documentary research method:

• Data readily available: Data is readily available in various sources. You only need to know where to look and how to use it. The data is available in different forms, and harnessing it is the real challenge.
• Inexpensive and economical: The data for research is already collected and published in either print or other forms. The researcher does not need to spend money and time like they do to collect market research insights and gather data. They need to search for and compile the available data from different sources.
• Saves time: Conducting market research is time-consuming. Responses will not come in quickly as expected, and gathering global responses will take a huge amount of time. If you have all the reference documents available (or you know where to find them), research is relatively quick.
• Non-bias: Primary data collection tends to be biased. This bias depends on a lot of factors like the age of the respondents, the time they take the survey, their mentality while taking the survey, their gender, their feelings towards certain ideas, to name a few. The list goes on and on when it comes to surveying bias.
• A researcher is not necessary during data collection: The researcher doesn’t need to be present during data collection. It is practically impossible for the researcher to be present at every point of the data source, especially thinking about the various data sources.
• Useful for hypothesis: Use historical data to draw inferences of the current or future events. Conclusions can be drawn from the experience of past events and data available for them. 

Disadvantages of the method

Here are the disadvantages of the documentary research method:

• Limited data: Data is not always available, especially when you need to cross-verify a theory or strengthen your argument based on different forms of data.
• Inaccuracies: As the data is historical and published, there is almost no way of ascertaining if the data is accurate or not. 
• Incomplete documents: Often, documents can be incomplete, and there is no way of knowing if there are additional documents to refer to on the subject.
• Data out of context: The data that the researcher refers to may be out of context and may not be in line with the concept the researcher is trying to study. Its because the research goal is not thought of when creating the original data. Often, researchers have to make do with the available data at hand.

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• How to write a research paper

Last updated

11 January 2024

Reviewed by

With proper planning, knowledge, and framework, completing a research paper can be a fulfilling and exciting experience. 

Though it might initially sound slightly intimidating, this guide will help you embrace the challenge. 

By documenting your findings, you can inspire others and make a difference in your field. Here's how you can make your research paper unique and comprehensive.

• What is a research paper?

Research papers allow you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of a particular topic. These papers are usually lengthier and more detailed than typical essays, requiring deeper insight into the chosen topic.

To write a research paper, you must first choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to the field of study. Once you’ve selected your topic, gathering as many relevant resources as possible, including books, scholarly articles, credible websites, and other academic materials, is essential. You must then read and analyze these sources, summarizing their key points and identifying gaps in the current research.

You can formulate your ideas and opinions once you thoroughly understand the existing research. To get there might involve conducting original research, gathering data, or analyzing existing data sets. It could also involve presenting an original argument or interpretation of the existing research.

Writing a successful research paper involves presenting your findings clearly and engagingly, which might involve using charts, graphs, or other visual aids to present your data and using concise language to explain your findings. You must also ensure your paper adheres to relevant academic formatting guidelines, including proper citations and references.

Overall, writing a research paper requires a significant amount of time, effort, and attention to detail. However, it is also an enriching experience that allows you to delve deeply into a subject that interests you and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in your chosen field.

• How long should a research paper be?

Research papers are deep dives into a topic. Therefore, they tend to be longer pieces of work than essays or opinion pieces. 

However, a suitable length depends on the complexity of the topic and your level of expertise. For instance, are you a first-year college student or an experienced professional? 

Also, remember that the best research papers provide valuable information for the benefit of others. Therefore, the quality of information matters most, not necessarily the length. Being concise is valuable.

Following these best practice steps will help keep your process simple and productive:

1. Gaining a deep understanding of any expectations

Before diving into your intended topic or beginning the research phase, take some time to orient yourself. Suppose there’s a specific topic assigned to you. In that case, it’s essential to deeply understand the question and organize your planning and approach in response. Pay attention to the key requirements and ensure you align your writing accordingly. 

This preparation step entails

Deeply understanding the task or assignment

Being clear about the expected format and length

Familiarizing yourself with the citation and referencing requirements 

Understanding any defined limits for your research contribution

Where applicable, speaking to your professor or research supervisor for further clarification

2. Choose your research topic

Select a research topic that aligns with both your interests and available resources. Ideally, focus on a field where you possess significant experience and analytical skills. In crafting your research paper, it's crucial to go beyond summarizing existing data and contribute fresh insights to the chosen area.

Consider narrowing your focus to a specific aspect of the topic. For example, if exploring the link between technology and mental health, delve into how social media use during the pandemic impacts the well-being of college students. Conducting interviews and surveys with students could provide firsthand data and unique perspectives, adding substantial value to the existing knowledge.

When finalizing your topic, adhere to legal and ethical norms in the relevant area (this ensures the integrity of your research, protects participants' rights, upholds intellectual property standards, and ensures transparency and accountability). Following these principles not only maintains the credibility of your work but also builds trust within your academic or professional community.

For instance, in writing about medical research, consider legal and ethical norms , including patient confidentiality laws and informed consent requirements. Similarly, if analyzing user data on social media platforms, be mindful of data privacy regulations, ensuring compliance with laws governing personal information collection and use. Aligning with legal and ethical standards not only avoids potential issues but also underscores the responsible conduct of your research.

3. Gather preliminary research

Once you’ve landed on your topic, it’s time to explore it further. You’ll want to discover more about available resources and existing research relevant to your assignment at this stage. 

This exploratory phase is vital as you may discover issues with your original idea or realize you have insufficient resources to explore the topic effectively. This key bit of groundwork allows you to redirect your research topic in a different, more feasible, or more relevant direction if necessary. 

Spending ample time at this stage ensures you gather everything you need, learn as much as you can about the topic, and discover gaps where the topic has yet to be sufficiently covered, offering an opportunity to research it further. 

4. Define your research question

To produce a well-structured and focused paper, it is imperative to formulate a clear and precise research question that will guide your work. Your research question must be informed by the existing literature and tailored to the scope and objectives of your project. By refining your focus, you can produce a thoughtful and engaging paper that effectively communicates your ideas to your readers.

5. Write a thesis statement

A thesis statement is a one-to-two-sentence summary of your research paper's main argument or direction. It serves as an overall guide to summarize the overall intent of the research paper for you and anyone wanting to know more about the research.

A strong thesis statement is:

Concise and clear: Explain your case in simple sentences (avoid covering multiple ideas). It might help to think of this section as an elevator pitch.

Specific: Ensure that there is no ambiguity in your statement and that your summary covers the points argued in the paper.

Debatable: A thesis statement puts forward a specific argument––it is not merely a statement but a debatable point that can be analyzed and discussed.

Here are three thesis statement examples from different disciplines:

Psychology thesis example: "We're studying adults aged 25-40 to see if taking short breaks for mindfulness can help with stress. Our goal is to find practical ways to manage anxiety better."

Environmental science thesis example: "This research paper looks into how having more city parks might make the air cleaner and keep people healthier. I want to find out if more green spaces means breathing fewer carcinogens in big cities."

UX research thesis example: "This study focuses on improving mobile banking for older adults using ethnographic research, eye-tracking analysis, and interactive prototyping. We investigate the usefulness of eye-tracking analysis with older individuals, aiming to spark debate and offer fresh perspectives on UX design and digital inclusivity for the aging population."

6. Conduct in-depth research

A research paper doesn’t just include research that you’ve uncovered from other papers and studies but your fresh insights, too. You will seek to become an expert on your topic––understanding the nuances in the current leading theories. You will analyze existing research and add your thinking and discoveries.  It's crucial to conduct well-designed research that is rigorous, robust, and based on reliable sources. Suppose a research paper lacks evidence or is biased. In that case, it won't benefit the academic community or the general public. Therefore, examining the topic thoroughly and furthering its understanding through high-quality research is essential. That usually means conducting new research. Depending on the area under investigation, you may conduct surveys, interviews, diary studies , or observational research to uncover new insights or bolster current claims.

7. Determine supporting evidence

Not every piece of research you’ve discovered will be relevant to your research paper. It’s important to categorize the most meaningful evidence to include alongside your discoveries. It's important to include evidence that doesn't support your claims to avoid exclusion bias and ensure a fair research paper.

8. Write a research paper outline

Before diving in and writing the whole paper, start with an outline. It will help you to see if more research is needed, and it will provide a framework by which to write a more compelling paper. Your supervisor may even request an outline to approve before beginning to write the first draft of the full paper. An outline will include your topic, thesis statement, key headings, short summaries of the research, and your arguments.

9. Write your first draft

Once you feel confident about your outline and sources, it’s time to write your first draft. While penning a long piece of content can be intimidating, if you’ve laid the groundwork, you will have a structure to help you move steadily through each section. To keep up motivation and inspiration, it’s often best to keep the pace quick. Stopping for long periods can interrupt your flow and make jumping back in harder than writing when things are fresh in your mind.

10. Cite your sources correctly

It's always a good practice to give credit where it's due, and the same goes for citing any works that have influenced your paper. Building your arguments on credible references adds value and authenticity to your research. In the formatting guidelines section, you’ll find an overview of different citation styles (MLA, CMOS, or APA), which will help you meet any publishing or academic requirements and strengthen your paper's credibility. It is essential to follow the guidelines provided by your school or the publication you are submitting to ensure the accuracy and relevance of your citations.

11. Ensure your work is original

It is crucial to ensure the originality of your paper, as plagiarism can lead to serious consequences. To avoid plagiarism, you should use proper paraphrasing and quoting techniques. Paraphrasing is rewriting a text in your own words while maintaining the original meaning. Quoting involves directly citing the source. Giving credit to the original author or source is essential whenever you borrow their ideas or words. You can also use plagiarism detection tools such as Scribbr or Grammarly to check the originality of your paper. These tools compare your draft writing to a vast database of online sources. If you find any accidental plagiarism, you should correct it immediately by rephrasing or citing the source.

12. Revise, edit, and proofread

One of the essential qualities of excellent writers is their ability to understand the importance of editing and proofreading. Even though it's tempting to call it a day once you've finished your writing, editing your work can significantly improve its quality. It's natural to overlook the weaker areas when you've just finished writing a paper. Therefore, it's best to take a break of a day or two, or even up to a week, to refresh your mind. This way, you can return to your work with a new perspective. After some breathing room, you can spot any inconsistencies, spelling and grammar errors, typos, or missing citations and correct them. 

• The best research paper format 

The format of your research paper should align with the requirements set forth by your college, school, or target publication. 

There is no one “best” format, per se. Depending on the stated requirements, you may need to include the following elements:

Title page: The title page of a research paper typically includes the title, author's name, and institutional affiliation and may include additional information such as a course name or instructor's name. 

Table of contents: Include a table of contents to make it easy for readers to find specific sections of your paper.

Abstract: The abstract is a summary of the purpose of the paper.

Methods : In this section, describe the research methods used. This may include collecting data , conducting interviews, or doing field research .

Results: Summarize the conclusions you drew from your research in this section.

Discussion: In this section, discuss the implications of your research . Be sure to mention any significant limitations to your approach and suggest areas for further research.

Tables, charts, and illustrations: Use tables, charts, and illustrations to help convey your research findings and make them easier to understand.

Works cited or reference page: Include a works cited or reference page to give credit to the sources that you used to conduct your research.

Bibliography: Provide a list of all the sources you consulted while conducting your research.

Dedication and acknowledgments : Optionally, you may include a dedication and acknowledgments section to thank individuals who helped you with your research.

• General style and formatting guidelines

Formatting your research paper means you can submit it to your college, journal, or other publications in compliance with their criteria.

Research papers tend to follow the American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), or Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) guidelines.

Here’s how each style guide is typically used:

Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS):

CMOS is a versatile style guide used for various types of writing. It's known for its flexibility and use in the humanities. CMOS provides guidelines for citations, formatting, and overall writing style. It allows for both footnotes and in-text citations, giving writers options based on their preferences or publication requirements.

American Psychological Association (APA):

APA is common in the social sciences. It’s hailed for its clarity and emphasis on precision. It has specific rules for citing sources, creating references, and formatting papers. APA style uses in-text citations with an accompanying reference list. It's designed to convey information efficiently and is widely used in academic and scientific writing.

Modern Language Association (MLA):

MLA is widely used in the humanities, especially literature and language studies. It emphasizes the author-page format for in-text citations and provides guidelines for creating a "Works Cited" page. MLA is known for its focus on the author's name and the literary works cited. It’s frequently used in disciplines that prioritize literary analysis and critical thinking.

To confirm you're using the latest style guide, check the official website or publisher's site for updates, consult academic resources, and verify the guide's publication date. Online platforms and educational resources may also provide summaries and alerts about any revisions or additions to the style guide.

Citing sources

When working on your research paper, it's important to cite the sources you used properly. Your citation style will guide you through this process. Generally, there are three parts to citing sources in your research paper: 

First, provide a brief citation in the body of your essay. This is also known as a parenthetical or in-text citation. 

Second, include a full citation in the Reference list at the end of your paper. Different types of citations include in-text citations, footnotes, and reference lists. 

In-text citations include the author's surname and the date of the citation. 

Footnotes appear at the bottom of each page of your research paper. They may also be summarized within a reference list at the end of the paper. 

A reference list includes all of the research used within the paper at the end of the document. It should include the author, date, paper title, and publisher listed in the order that aligns with your citation style.

10 research paper writing tips:

Following some best practices is essential to writing a research paper that contributes to your field of study and creates a positive impact.

These tactics will help you structure your argument effectively and ensure your work benefits others:

Clear and precise language:  Ensure your language is unambiguous. Use academic language appropriately, but keep it simple. Also, provide clear takeaways for your audience.

Effective idea separation:  Organize the vast amount of information and sources in your paper with paragraphs and titles. Create easily digestible sections for your readers to navigate through.

Compelling intro:  Craft an engaging introduction that captures your reader's interest. Hook your audience and motivate them to continue reading.

Thorough revision and editing:  Take the time to review and edit your paper comprehensively. Use tools like Grammarly to detect and correct small, overlooked errors.

Thesis precision:  Develop a clear and concise thesis statement that guides your paper. Ensure that your thesis aligns with your research's overall purpose and contribution.

Logical flow of ideas:  Maintain a logical progression throughout the paper. Use transitions effectively to connect different sections and maintain coherence.

Critical evaluation of sources:  Evaluate and critically assess the relevance and reliability of your sources. Ensure that your research is based on credible and up-to-date information.

Thematic consistency:  Maintain a consistent theme throughout the paper. Ensure that all sections contribute cohesively to the overall argument.

Relevant supporting evidence:  Provide concise and relevant evidence to support your arguments. Avoid unnecessary details that may distract from the main points.

Embrace counterarguments:  Acknowledge and address opposing views to strengthen your position. Show that you have considered alternative arguments in your field.

7 research tips 

If you want your paper to not only be well-written but also contribute to the progress of human knowledge, consider these tips to take your paper to the next level:

Selecting the appropriate topic: The topic you select should align with your area of expertise, comply with the requirements of your project, and have sufficient resources for a comprehensive investigation.

Use academic databases: Academic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and JSTOR offer a wealth of research papers that can help you discover everything you need to know about your chosen topic.

Critically evaluate sources: It is important not to accept research findings at face value. Instead, it is crucial to critically analyze the information to avoid jumping to conclusions or overlooking important details. A well-written research paper requires a critical analysis with thorough reasoning to support claims.

Diversify your sources: Expand your research horizons by exploring a variety of sources beyond the standard databases. Utilize books, conference proceedings, and interviews to gather diverse perspectives and enrich your understanding of the topic.

Take detailed notes: Detailed note-taking is crucial during research and can help you form the outline and body of your paper.

Stay up on trends: Keep abreast of the latest developments in your field by regularly checking for recent publications. Subscribe to newsletters, follow relevant journals, and attend conferences to stay informed about emerging trends and advancements. 

Engage in peer review: Seek feedback from peers or mentors to ensure the rigor and validity of your research . Peer review helps identify potential weaknesses in your methodology and strengthens the overall credibility of your findings.

• The real-world impact of research papers

Writing a research paper is more than an academic or business exercise. The experience provides an opportunity to explore a subject in-depth, broaden one's understanding, and arrive at meaningful conclusions. With careful planning, dedication, and hard work, writing a research paper can be a fulfilling and enriching experience contributing to advancing knowledge.

How do I publish my research paper? 

Many academics wish to publish their research papers. While challenging, your paper might get traction if it covers new and well-written information. To publish your research paper, find a target publication, thoroughly read their guidelines, format your paper accordingly, and send it to them per their instructions. You may need to include a cover letter, too. After submission, your paper may be peer-reviewed by experts to assess its legitimacy, quality, originality, and methodology. Following review, you will be informed by the publication whether they have accepted or rejected your paper. 

What is a good opening sentence for a research paper? 

Beginning your research paper with a compelling introduction can ensure readers are interested in going further. A relevant quote, a compelling statistic, or a bold argument can start the paper and hook your reader. Remember, though, that the most important aspect of a research paper is the quality of the information––not necessarily your ability to storytell, so ensure anything you write aligns with your goals.

Research paper vs. a research proposal—what’s the difference?

While some may confuse research papers and proposals, they are different documents. 

A research proposal comes before a research paper. It is a detailed document that outlines an intended area of exploration. It includes the research topic, methodology, timeline, sources, and potential conclusions. Research proposals are often required when seeking approval to conduct research. 

A research paper is a summary of research findings. A research paper follows a structured format to present those findings and construct an argument or conclusion.

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Document Analysis - How to Analyze Text Data for Research

Introduction

What is document analysis, where is document analysis used, how to perform document analysis, what is text analysis, atlas.ti as text analysis software.

In qualitative research , you can collect primary data through surveys , observations , or interviews , to name a few examples. In addition, you can rely on document analysis when the data already exists in secondary sources like books, public reports, or other archival records that are relevant to your research inquiry.

In this article, we will look at the role of document analysis, the relationship between document analysis and text analysis, and how text analysis software like ATLAS.ti can help you conduct qualitative research.

Document analysis is a systematic procedure used in qualitative research to review and interpret the information embedded in written materials. These materials, often referred to as “documents,” can encompass a wide range of physical and digital sources, such as newspapers, diaries, letters, policy documents, contracts, reports, transcripts, and many others.

At its core, document analysis involves critically examining these sources to gather insightful data and understand the context in which they were created. Research can perform sentiment analysis , text mining, and text categorization, to name a few methods. The goal is not just to derive facts from the documents, but also to understand the underlying nuances, motivations, and perspectives that they represent. For instance, a historical researcher may examine old letters not just to get a chronological account of events, but also to understand the emotions, beliefs, and values of people during that era.

Benefits of document analysis

There are several advantages to using document analysis in research:

• Authenticity : Since documents are typically created for purposes other than research, they can offer an unobtrusive and genuine insight into the topic at hand, without the potential biases introduced by direct observation or interviews.
• Availability : Documents, especially those in the public domain, are widely accessible, making it easier for researchers to source information.
• Cost-effectiveness : As these documents already exist, researchers can save time and resources compared to other data collection methods.

However, document analysis is not without challenges. One must ensure the documents are authentic and reliable. Furthermore, the researcher must be adept at discerning between objective facts and subjective interpretations present in the document.

Document analysis is a versatile method in qualitative research that offers a lens into the intricate layers of meaning, context, and perspective found within textual materials. Through careful and systematic examination, it unveils the richness and depth of the information housed in documents, providing a unique dimension to research findings.

Document analysis is employed in a myriad of sectors, serving various purposes to generate actionable insights. Whether it's understanding customer sentiments or gleaning insights from historical records, this method offers valuable information. Here are some examples of how document analysis is applied.

Analyzing surveys and their responses

A common use of document analysis in the business world revolves around customer surveys . These surveys are designed to collect data on the customer experience, seeking to understand how products or services meet or fall short of customer expectations.

By analyzing customer survey responses , companies can identify areas of improvement, gauge satisfaction levels, and make informed decisions to enhance the customer experience. Even if customer service teams designed a survey for a specific purpose, text analytics of the responses can focus on different angles to gather insights for new research questions.

Examining customer feedback through social media posts

In today's digital age, social media is a goldmine of customer feedback. Customers frequently share their experiences, both positive and negative, on platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram.

Through document analysis of social media posts, companies can get a real-time pulse of their customer sentiments. This not only helps in immediate issue resolution but also in shaping product or service strategies to align with customer preferences.

Interpreting customer support tickets

Another rich source of data is customer support tickets. These tickets often contain detailed descriptions of issues faced by customers, their frustrations, or sometimes their appreciation for assistance received.

By employing document analysis on these tickets, businesses can detect patterns, identify recurring issues, and work towards streamlining their support processes. This ensures a smoother and more satisfying customer experience.

Historical research and social studies

Beyond the world of business, document analysis plays a pivotal role in historical and social research. Scholars analyze old manuscripts, letters, and other archival materials to construct a narrative of past events, cultures, and civilizations.

As a result, document analysis is an ideal method for historical research since generating new data is less feasible than turning to existing sources for analysis. Researchers can not only examine historical narratives but also how those narratives were constructed in their own time.

Turn to ATLAS.ti for your data analysis needs

Try out our powerful data analysis tools with a free trial to make the most out of your data today.

Performing document analysis is a structured process that ensures researchers can derive meaningful, qualitative insights by organizing source material into structured data . Here's a brief outline of the process:

• Define the research question
• Choose relevant documents
• Prepare and organize the documents
• Begin initial review and coding
• Analyze and interpret the data
• Present findings and draw conclusions

The process in detail

Before diving into the documents, it's crucial to have a clear research question or objective. This serves as the foundation for the entire analysis and guides the selection and review of documents. A well-defined question will focus the research, ensuring that the document analysis is targeted and relevant.

The next step is to identify and select documents that align with the research question. It's vital to ensure that these documents are credible, reliable, and pertinent to the research inquiry. The chosen materials can vary from official reports, personal diaries, to digital resources like social media data , depending on the nature of the research.

Once the documents are selected, they need to be organized in a manner that facilitates smooth analysis. This could mean categorizing documents by themes, chronology, or source types. Digital tools and data analysis software , such as ATLAS.ti, can assist in this phase, making the organization more efficient and helping researchers locate specific data when needed.

With everything in place, the researcher starts an initial review of the documents. During this phase, the emphasis is on identifying patterns, themes, or specific information relevant to the research question.

Coding involves assigning labels or tags to sections of the text to categorize the information. This step is iterative, and codes can be refined as the researcher delves deeper.

After coding, interesting patterns across codes can be analyzed. Here, researchers seek to draw meaningful connections between codes, identify overarching themes, and interpret the data in the context of the research question .

This is where the hidden insights and deeper understanding emerge, as researchers juxtapose various pieces of information and infer meaning from them.

Finally, after the intensive process of document analysis, the researcher consolidates their findings, crafting a narrative or report that presents the results. This might also involve visual representations like charts or graphs, especially when demonstrating patterns or trends.

Drawing conclusions involves synthesizing the insights gained from the analysis and offering answers or perspectives in relation to the original research question.

Ultimately, document analysis is a meticulous and iterative procedure. But with a clear plan and systematic approach, it becomes a potent tool in the researcher's arsenal, allowing them to uncover profound insights from textual data.

Text analysis, often referenced alongside document analysis, is a method that focuses on extracting meaningful information from textual data. While document analysis revolves around reviewing and interpreting data from various sources, text analysis hones in on the intricate details within these documents, enabling a deeper understanding. Both these methods are vital in fields such as linguistics, literature, social sciences, and business analytics.

In the context of document analysis, text analysis emerges as a nuanced exploration of the textual content. After documents have been sourced, be it from books, articles, social networks, or any other medium, they undergo a preprocessing phase. Here, irrelevant information is eliminated, errors are rectified, and the text may be translated or converted to ensure uniformity.

This cleaned text is then tokenized into smaller units like words or phrases, facilitating a granular review. Techniques specific to text analysis, such as topic modeling to determine discussed subjects or pattern recognition to identify trends, are applied.

The derived insights can be visualized using tools like graphs or charts, offering a clearer understanding of the content's depth. Interpretation follows, allowing researchers to draw actionable insights or theoretical conclusions based on both the broader document context and the specific text analysis.

Merging text analysis with document analysis presents unique challenges. With the proliferation of digital content, managing vast data sets becomes a significant hurdle. The inherent variability of language, laden with cultural nuances, idioms, and sometimes sarcasm, can make precise interpretation elusive.

Many text analysis tools exist that can facilitate the analytical process. ATLAS.ti offers a well-rounded, useful solution as a text analytics software . In this section, we'll highlight some of the tools that can help you conduct document analysis.

Word Frequencies

A word cloud can be a powerful text analytics tool to understand the nature of human language as it pertains to a particular context. Researchers can perform text mining on their unstructured text data to get a sense of what is being discussed. The Word Frequencies tool can also parse out specific parts of speech, facilitating more granular text extraction.

Sentiment Analysis

The Sentiment Analysis tool employs natural language processing (NLP) and machine learning to analyze text based on sentiment and facilitate natural language understanding. This is important for tasks such as, for example, analyzing customer reviews and assessing customer satisfaction, because you can quickly categorize large numbers of customer data records by their positive or negative sentiment.

AI Coding relies on massive amounts of training data to interpret text and automatically code large amounts of qualitative data. Rather than read each and every document line by line, you can turn to AI Coding to process your data and devote time to the more essential tasks of analysis such as critical reflection and interpretation.

These text analytics tools can be a powerful complement to research. When you're conducting document analysis to understand the meaning of text, AI Coding can help with providing a code structure or organization of data that helps to identify deeper insights.

AI Summaries

Dealing with large numbers of discrete documents can be a daunting task if done manually, especially if each document in your data set is lengthy and complicated. Simplifying the meaning of documents down to their essential insights can help researchers identify patterns in the data.

AI Summaries fills this role by using natural language processing algorithms to simplify data to its salient points. Text generated by AI Summaries are stored in memos attached to documents to illustrate pathways to coding and analysis or to highlight how the data conveys meaning.

Take advantage of ATLAS.ti's analysis tools with a free trial

Let our powerful data analysis interface make the most out of your data. Download a free trial today.

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 4. The Introduction
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper.

Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Importance of a Good Introduction

Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:

• What was I studying?
• Why was this topic important to investigate?
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study?
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

According to Reyes, there are three overarching goals of a good introduction: 1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem; 2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and, 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of your research.

A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach. All introductions should conclude with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper.

Hirano, Eliana. “Research Article Introductions in English for Specific Purposes: A Comparison between Brazilian, Portuguese, and English.” English for Specific Purposes 28 (October 2009): 240-250; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide. Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Structure and Approach

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:

• What is this?
• Why should I read it?
• What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow your analysis to more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your research problem and the rationale for studying it [often written as a series of key questions to be addressed or framed as a hypothesis or set of assumptions to be tested] and, whenever possible, a description of the potential outcomes your study can reveal.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction: 1.  Establish an area to research by:

• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.

2.  Identify a research niche by:

• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.

3.  Place your research within the research niche by:

• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

NOTE:   It is often useful to review the introduction late in the writing process. This is appropriate because outcomes are unknown until you've completed the study. After you complete writing the body of the paper, go back and review introductory descriptions of the structure of the paper, the method of data gathering, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion. Reviewing and, if necessary, rewriting the introduction ensures that it correctly matches the overall structure of your final paper.

II.  Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your research . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the topic.

Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction. For example, a delimitating statement could read, "Although many factors can be understood to impact the likelihood young people will vote, this study will focus on socioeconomic factors related to the need to work full-time while in school." The point is not to document every possible delimiting factor, but to highlight why previously researched issues related to the topic were not addressed.

Examples of delimitating choices would be:

• The key aims and objectives of your study,
• The research questions that you address,
• The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon being studied],
• The method(s) of investigation,
• The time period your study covers, and
• Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.

Review each of these decisions. Not only do you clearly establish what you intend to accomplish in your research, but you should also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria understood as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!

NOTE:   Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.

ANOTHER NOTE : Do not view delimitating statements as admitting to an inherent failing or shortcoming in your research. They are an accepted element of academic writing intended to keep the reader focused on the research problem by explicitly defining the conceptual boundaries and scope of your study. It addresses any critical questions in the reader's mind of, "Why the hell didn't the author examine this?"

III.  The Narrative Flow

Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :

• Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest . A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.
• Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review--that comes next. It consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature [with citations] that establishes a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem. See the drop-down menu under this tab for " Background Information " regarding types of contexts.
• Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated . When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the...."
• Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.

IV.  Engaging the Reader

A research problem in the social sciences can come across as dry and uninteresting to anyone unfamiliar with the topic . Therefore, one of the goals of your introduction is to make readers want to read your paper. Here are several strategies you can use to grab the reader's attention:

• Open with a compelling story . Almost all research problems in the social sciences, no matter how obscure or esoteric , are really about the lives of people. Telling a story that humanizes an issue can help illuminate the significance of the problem and help the reader empathize with those affected by the condition being studied.
• Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected, anecdote . During your review of the literature, make note of any quotes or anecdotes that grab your attention because they can used in your introduction to highlight the research problem in a captivating way.
• Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question . Your research problem should be framed by a set of questions to be addressed or hypotheses to be tested. However, a provocative question can be presented in the beginning of your introduction that challenges an existing assumption or compels the reader to consider an alternative viewpoint that helps establish the significance of your study. 
• Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity . This involves highlighting an interesting quandary concerning the research problem or describing contradictory findings from prior studies about a topic. Posing what is essentially an unresolved intellectual riddle about the problem can engage the reader's interest in the study.
• Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important . Draw upon the findings of others to demonstrate the significance of the problem and to describe how your study builds upon or offers alternatives ways of investigating this prior research.

NOTE:   It is important that you choose only one of the suggested strategies for engaging your readers. This avoids giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance and does not distract from the substance of your study.

Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies. Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction. Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.

Writing Tip

Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction

Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific terminology that readers may be unfamiliar with. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source because it doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term or concept may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, use a subject specific dictionary or encyclopedia [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology]. A good database for obtaining definitive definitions of concepts or terms is Credo Reference .

Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper. Florida International University; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Another Writing Tip

When Do I Begin?

A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "Where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from history. Therefore, it is important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that illustrates the study's overall importance. For example, a study that investigates coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exports in Africa. If a research problem requires a substantial exploration of the historical context, do this in the literature review section. In your introduction, make note of this as part of the "roadmap" [see below] that you use to describe the organization of your paper.

Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Always End with a Roadmap

The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a brief description of the rest of the paper [the "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect. A roadmap is important because it helps the reader place the research problem within the context of their own perspectives about the topic. In addition, concluding your introduction with an explicit roadmap tells the reader that you have a clear understanding of the structural purpose of your paper. In this way, the roadmap acts as a type of promise to yourself and to your readers that you will follow a consistent and coherent approach to addressing the topic of inquiry. Refer to it often to help keep your writing focused and organized.

Cassuto, Leonard. “On the Dissertation: How to Write the Introduction.” The Chronicle of Higher Education , May 28, 2018; Radich, Michael. A Student's Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies . (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Writing n. d.), pp. 35-37.

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• Published: 21 April 2022

Documenting research software in engineering science

• Sibylle Hermann 1 , 2 &
• Jörg Fehr 1  

Scientific Reports volume  12 , Article number:  6567 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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• Mechanical engineering

The reuse of research software needs good documentation, however, the documentation in particular is often criticized. Especially in non-IT specific disciplines, the lack of documentation is attributed to the lack of training, the lack of time or missing rewards. This article addresses the hypothesis that scientists do document but do not know exactly what they need to document, why, and for whom. In order to evaluate the actual documentation practice of research software, we examined existing recommendations, and we evaluated their implementation in everyday practice using a concrete example from the engineering sciences and compared the findings with best practice examples. To get a broad overview of what documentation of research software entailed, we defined categories and used them to conduct the research. Our results show that the big picture of what documentation of research software means is missing. Recommendations do not consider the important role of researchers, who write research software, whose documentation takes mainly place in their research articles. Moreover, we show that research software always has a history that influences the documentation.

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A large-scale study on research code quality and execution

Introducing the FAIR Principles for research software

A dataset describing data discovery and reuse practices in research

Introduction.

Documentation of research software 1 in engineering science is inadequate 2 . Nevertheless, researchers–particularly within the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable) movement–state that documentation of research software as a major prerequisite for reuse 3 . Although, research data and software play a central role in the Cluster of Excellence “Data-Integrated Simulation Science (SimTech)” 4 , documentation is also lacking here.

But why is research software documented poorly? And what does good documentation actually imply? Previous approaches provide rather explanatory models why documentation is not done; they explain the missing documentation with lack of time 5 or insufficient training 6 . But is this really the case? Is it even clearly defined what documentation entails? Until now, incentives and rewards are missing for well documented research software. But, the scientific environment is changing, Gil et al. 7 observe a shift in the scientific environment in different areas: scientific publishing, scientists, public interest and funding. In recent years, these developments are gaining momentum with initiatives like EOSC (European Open Science Cloud) 8 and NFDI (National Research Data Infrastructure, Germany) 9 . Moreover, research funding agencies demand reusability; the guidelines for good scientific practices, for example, require documentation of research software explicitly 10 . Surprisingly, it remains rather unclear what good documentation of research software involves. We illustrate that there are recommendations on how to document (research) software. But are the recommendations actually applied?

The hypothesis of this paper is, that it is still unclear what good documentation actually involves. The approach intends to examine how documentation takes place in everyday work in a research environment in engineering science within the Cluster of Excellence, SimTech. We also examine if and how given recommendations are implemented. We defined categories to represent different documentation purposes. Based on these categories, we examined three different aspects:

Given recommendations on how research software should be documented.

An actual documentation workflow of a specific research software project from engineering science within SimTech.

Given documentation of two best practice examples within SimTech.

Previous approaches have been concerned with reasons why research software is poorly documented, but not with what good documentation actually entails. Also, it has not been investigated what and how documentation must be implemented in order to be perceived as good. It’s the intention of this approach to show what is missing and give an overview on who has to document for whom what, where, when, and how.

We want to investigate how research software is documented in a field where scientists usually don’t have a computer science background. Due to the highly disciplinary nature of research software, we focused on our discipline, Engineering Science. We conducted a multi-case study with a case-based approach 11 . To see how the documentation is implemented, one specific research software was chosen: Neweul-M 2 12 , a research software that has been developed over years in an institute by engineers without formal software development training. Neweul-M 2 continues to be actively developed and is often used to address specific research questions. We cross-case synthesis with two other research software’s documentation habits, to compare the gained insights. We selected these best practice examples because they received funding from the DFG (German Research Foundation) sustainable software funding call to improve their documentation 13 . In contrast to Neweul-M 2 , both best practice examples are open source. DuMu x 14 is a research software from engineering sciences, which is also programmed by Research Software Developers with an engineering background. The other example preCICE 15 is a research software developed from more experienced Research Software Developers working in an informatics institute; their users are mainly engineers. The central rival hypotheses we considered are the lack of time to document and the lack of training of researchers in software engineering 2 , 6 .

Two main research questions structure the investigation.

Research questions

What are the recommendations for documenting research software? Which rules and best practices exist? Do the given recommendations cover the defined categories?

What is the practice of documenting research software? How is research software documented in the daily life of researchers? Which workflows are implemented? What are the obstacles to document research software?

Data collection

For collecting data, we choose different sources of evidence:

Documentation : An evaluation of literature was conducted to assess what recommendations are given (RQ1). Furthermore, the three research software documentation were evaluated (RQ2).

Participant observation : Both authors are familiar with Neweul-M 2 , one author from a new Research Software Developer perspective, and the other from years of experience. One author is part of the project from the sustainable software funding call and has thus witnessed the discussions about the possibilities for improvement and shortcomings of the documentation of DuMu x (RQ2).

Direct observations : The concepts, thoughts, and insights were further discussed with the old and later the new Research Software Engineer from Neweul-M 2 and with DuMu x and preCICE Researcher Software Engineers (RQ2).

Interviews : The two best practice examples were evaluated with semi-structured interviews (RQ1, RQ2).

Data analysis

Our first idea was to evaluate the research software using given recommendations from the literature. As we soon noticed, the recommendations for research software do not give a complete picture of what documentation should actually contain. Therefore, we switched to an inductive strategy and formed categories that we consider necessary from everyday work with research software, supplemented with categories from literature and internet resources like blogs and wikis. Moreover, we decided to include the best practice examples to answer the research questions. We defined four documentation categories for research software, intending to picture possible documentation forms. Based on the defined categories, we evaluated the recommendations given for, Neweul-M 2 , DuMu x , and preCICE. In the following, we introduce the categories, followed by the recommendations and conclude with the analyzed research software examples.

Domain Research software can belong to different domains 16 : private , shared and open . Usually, research software is developed in the private domain with one main Research Software Developer. The shared domain varies from a few users at an institute to many users all over the world, nevertheless the research software is unavailable to the broader public. Published research software in the open domain is accessible for everyone. Where open can have two different meanings: only the source code is available open source or the software is developed openly. The domains may change over time and require more documentation, as more people need to understand the research software.

Role As we noticed, it is essential who documents for whom; we differentiate between three roles: Research Software Engineer (RSE) , Research Software Developer (RSD) and user . One person can have multiple roles, multiple people can share the role and the role of a person can change. As the roles in classical software engineering are conceptualized 17 , we defined the roles from our perspective—which is biased from our education as engineers and work in an interdisciplinary research cluster. When we speak about engineers, we think of the classic engineering fields such as mechanical engineering, civil engineering or chemical engineering. We explicitly neglect software engineers—due to their formal education in software development and maintenance, which is mostly missing in the other fields.

* Research Software Engineers are responsible (i) for the infrastructure and maintenance of the software, (ii) they give the rules of how research software should be written, (iii) but are often not part of the active feature development. The problems of funding, education and missing credit of Research Software Engineers are discussed in the RSE movement 18 .

* Users are (i) research software users who want to do either computer-aided engineering or computer-based experiments without writing code.

* Research Software Developers are (i) the link between Research Software Engineers and users , (ii) they develop new features, mainly to answer–with the research software–specific new research questions (iii) in engineering without education in software development and are often less experienced than Research Software Engineers. They typically need a specific answer for their research question, for which they need to implement a specific new or missing feature in existing research software. A typical example in Neweul-M2: A RSD implemented the calculation of reaction forces. This new feature can be reused for other research questions from other researchers and, therefore, need to be documented. RSDs are an essential part of the documentation process; they mainly know their developed features but are usually not deeply involved in the maintenance and documentation process.

Purpose The purposes describe the content of the documentation: why , what and how . The documentation of the problem should describe why the research software or a feature is written–similar to describing the research question, i.e. the RSE Manuscript/Dev docs row from Table 3 . The feature’s documentation should describe what is needed to be done to solve the research question. How the feature is implemented should be documented in a technical documentation, i.e. the Help/Handbook/User Docs row from Table 3 .

Type The type describes the characteristics of the documentation 19 : problem , product and technology . The three above introduced categories can be expressed in different types of documentation: The documentation of the problem can involve how the problem is implemented and why a solution was preferred. The product documentation contains the list of all features provided by the software and how they work together. The technical documentation should help the RSD and RSE to understand the code, how the research software is engineered and how to build over the existing source code. It should contain different schemas about the used model, the logical, and physical architecture. The types are intended to be umbrella terms for different forms of documentation types. For example, code comments are a form of technical documentation or tutorials as a type of product description.

We assume that each of these categories requires a different type of documentation. In each domain, researchers can document purposes in their role as RSE or RSD for different roles. The combination leads to several types of content, which then appear in a variety of forms. For example, a RSD can describe why they solved what and how in a problem description such as an article. Or a RSE describes how to solve a problem for the user in a product description as a how-to-guide.

Different aspects of documentation.

Recommendations

Aspects of good research software, and its documentation, has also been addressed in various recommendations. In order to find recommendations for documenting (research) software, we conducted a literature review in Web of Science using the terms “research software” and “documentation” or “reusability”. Most articles refer to the whole process of developing research software, and not only to documentation. Often just one small paragraph is dedicated to documentation. The selection of the articles was limited to those that include rules or best practices for documenting research software in at least one paragraph. Ten articles with interdisciplinary and different disciplinary focus were found. As described above, the evaluation of the recommendations did not provide a complete picture of what the documentation in our opinion should contain. Therefore, we also analysed the recommendations according to the categories we defined (Fig.  1 ).

Analysis of research software

Neweul-M 2 Neweul-M 2 is a software package that allows the dynamic analysis of mechanical systems in calculating multibody systems with symbolical equations 20 . The first version of Neweul was written in FORTRAN with an own symbolic formula manipulator engine in the mid 1970s and was rewritten in 2003 using MATLAB. The new version is called Neweul-M 2 . In Kurz et al. 12 , the history and changes are documented until the year 2010 (for further information see Table 1 ). Neweul-M 2 is used from:

external people (user)

PhD students (RSD and user)

students (user)

The source code is developed and administrated by PhD students within the developing institute, they aim for a degree in mechanical engineering and usually don’t have a formal software development education. One experienced RSD is the RSE, a new colleague is briefed as RSE from the previous one.

For the external people and students, a content-obscure (P-code) version of Neweul-M 2 is provided. One part of the documentation is in an integrated help within MATLAB. The help includes a product description, tutorials and examples and a function reference, automatically generated from the code. For PhD students from the developing institute, the full source code is accessible. The source code is managed via a Git repository hosted at an institutional GitLab instance. Bug fixes and support are the responsibility of the RSE. Another part of the documentation is done in a local wiki with information on how to get started and how to document with coding guidelines, tests and checklists. Decisions and discussions are documented via GitLab. For the RSE, an additional document gives information on how everything is organized. PhD students, who use Neweul-M 2 for their research, develop new features in Neweul-M 2 that they need for their research. They document these features mainly in publications.

DuMu x The research code for the free and open-source simulator is written in C++ and is based on DUNE (Distributed and Unified Numerics Environment). DuMu x stands for “DUNE for Multi-{Phase, Component, Scale, Physics, ...} flow and transport in porous media 21 . The main intention is to provide a sustainable and consistent framework for implementing and applying of porous media model concepts and constitutive relations (for further information see Table 1 ). All documentation is linked on the Website. The documentation consists of a collection of documented code examples within the institute’s publicly accessible GitLab instance, a manual in PDF format, code documentation within Doxygen, a reference to the most important publications and a wiki that is still under construction. The software is written by PhD candidates in civil engineering with a predominantly engineering background, who have taught themselves to program.

preCICE The research software preCICE 22 is an open-source coupling library for partitioned multi-physics simulations, including fluid-structure interaction and conjugate heat transfer simulations. The research is about methods how two systems can be coupled (for further information see Table 1 ). In preCICE the research question is not solved with the software, rather the research results are provided to users of the software. For this reason, there are only RSEs and users. The software is written by PhD candidates with different backgrounds, who are aiming for a degree in computer science. The documentation is bundled in a website. By using GitHub pages, pull requests can be made to all the documentation. The website is divided in quick start, docs, tutorials, community and blog. The section docs start with a user documentation with fundamentals, installation, configuration, tooling and provided adapters. The API is described in the category “couple your code”. Followed by a developer documentation, with a link to the source code documentation in Doxygen, and a description of coding conventions, tooling, workflow and testing. Even a description, how the documentation is build, exists. For the users–in addition to the conventional documentation–a community page gives insights on workshops, other contributors and publications. Furthermore, there is a blog where there is also the possibility to ask questions.

Validity analysis

We have deliberately chosen projects in which we can gain a more in-depth insight. These projects are in the engineering field to establish comparability of the training background of RSEs, RSDs and users. The interview partners are based on personal relationships and recommendations, which could lead to a specific research bias due to the small sample size and the personal connection. More extensive studies based on the research hypothesis of this study should be conducted in the future, e.g. at research software conferences. In order to validate our conclusions, we presented and discussed our results and methods with the RSEs and RSDs of the three software projects. We also presented a poster at the internal SimTech conference to receive feedback on our method and conclusions from other researchers. The feedback received confirmed our approach. The poster and other material is published in the case study database 23 . The selection of the case studies initially limits the generalizability of the results. However, the feedback received confirmed that our approach could be transferable to other research software projects. For example, PhD students at the conference confirmed that our approach is similar to their experiences with research software. The generalizability of the findings obtained in this study will be tested in another larger interview study with more extensive surveys in the future.

We present three main observations from the recommendations and the documentation of three research software examples, based on the categories that are presented in the method section.

Observation 1: A big picture is missing

A big picture is missing on what documentation of research software should contain and how it should be done. The examined recommendations focus only on specific aspects of research software documentation (see Fig.  1 ).

Observation 1.1: Problem and decision are undocumented

The recommendations rarely mention that the why should be documented and seldom take the underlying problem into account (see Table 2 ). They refer–according to our categories–mainly to the technology of the research software. Their focus is on techniques (like version control systems and programs that generate a documentation out of comments in the code) not on content. Lee 6 state for example to “use automated documentation tools” and that “the best type of documentation is documentation that writes itself”, but do not explain what have to be the content of the automated documentation. Looking into the practice, all three examples use these automated documentation tools.

In Neweul-M 2 (see Table 3 ) the function reference within the help is created with a given template, including: short description, syntax, long description, parameters, examples and references. In DuMu x (see Table 3 ) the modules are documented with Doxygen 24 . In comparison to Neweul-M 2 the description involves the underlying concept, mostly explaining the formula behind the code. In preCICE (see Table 3 ) as well, Doxygen is used with a generic documentation template: the parameters and a one line description is needed and an optional elaborate description. Here, the description do not contain the underlying concept. These tools are intended to document the code not the decisions and problems: RSDs document the problem and decision in research articles or thesis, which are not linked to the documentation; they implement new features to solve a specific task for a thesis; and they describe the problem only in the thesis referring to a specific version of the software. Eventually, the description of the problem and the feature differ from the software solution. Once the feature is included in the main branch, the dependencies are further maintained.

Observation 1.2: Shared and private domain are neglected

The recommendations focus on the open domain (see Table 4 ). Especially, the documentation for the shared domain is rarely mentioned. Neweul-M 2 is a research software from the shared domain, the different documentation types live in different domains (see Table 5 ). RSDs document mainly for their successors at the own institute. But the knowledge is not only transported by documentation: students of the institute learn about the software in their lectures and later on from their supervisor and fellow students or colleagues. In the best practice examples, the documentation is openly available.

Observation 2: Research software has a history

In engineering science, PhD candidates usually stay round about six years, become experts in a very specific field and then leave. Successors–interested in the same topic–often do not have the chance to talk to them. So the experts omit feedback on their documentation and are ignorant of which questions they have to address in their documentation.

Quality of research software documentation over time. The research software undergoes different phases, from first implementation to continuous application. During these phases, the quality of the documentation varies accordingly. In particular, the change of RSE involves risks, but can also lead to improvements.

Figure 2 describes the observed effect in Neweul-M 2 , showing the quality of the research software documentation over the different phases of research software development. The quality of the documentation behaves similarly to Kondratiev waves 31 : prosperity, recession, depression, and improvement. In the case of Neweul-M 2 one researcher developed the research software to solve a specific problem in the initiation phase. In the maturation phase, other researchers adopt the research software and more people get involved in the project. At the beginning, the documentation was good (enough) for the people who use the software (prosperity). Eventually, the initial RSD left, and new researchers added new features and modified the code. The quality of the documentation decreased (recession) in the saturation phase because modifications were not documented (depression); until a point was reached where the research software needed a refactoring. A new documentation is needed, usually written with a new tool (improvement). But the old documentation is still used because some aspects are important in there: different documentations exist for different roles in different places with different up-to-dateness. The descriptions of the implemented features in the articles referring to the research software before the refactoring are now more difficult or even impossible to reproduce. A new researcher inherits this history. Comparing this conceptual model with the other research software projects confirms the principle progression; the cycles are more or less pronounced depending on the dynamics of the research software and happen more or less rapidly. New RSEs do not necessarily contribute to the documentation quality. The funding received made it possible to solve many problems in the documentation, which were mainly pointed out by external RSDs and users. They both best practice examples benefit of being open source, receive more feedback from users outside the institute, and spend more effort and money to improve the documentation. So the effect of unconscious knowledge can be minimized.

Observation 2.1: Unconscious knowledge

In Neweul-M 2 new users and RSDs are inducted to the software with the help of an more experienced RSD or the RSE. The knowledge of experienced RSDs is often unconscious, that means that they are not aware of their own knowledge and therefore do not explain important steps to the new RSD 32 . The effect shows up for example in the description of the workflow. It is described in the help theoretically but not concretely how and where information is stored and called. Relevant information about what is written in which files are presupposed. Usually, the RSE or experienced RSDs compensates this divergence. For example, where and how storing files is explained in a lecture about Neweul-M 2 , but this information is totally missing in the documentation. In the best practice examples the problem is less pronounced, because users from outside ask questions and draw attention to the problem, and especially in preCICE there is a workflow to update the help, according to the asked questions. Both projects have improved user-friendliness of the documentation through third-party funding. The recommendations do not address this problem.

Observation 2.2: Missing consistency

In Neweul-M 2 the documentation lives in different places: An integrated MATLAB help, mainly intended for users; an internal Wiki with more information, mainly intended for RSDs; and an internal document for the RSE with storage locations, workflows and pieces of the history. Not all the documentation is updated with changes in the code. RSDs usually archive their documentation with their thesis in a zip-file. This kind of documentation often refers to an obsolete version, inherited from the history. Moreover, outdated dependencies, which are not documented, invalidate the function or a lot of effort must be spent to fix the dependencies. Looking at the best practice examples: one of the first issues was to have all in one place. Through feedback from external users, the best practice examples are more consistent. Moreover, they spend money and effort to meet these challenges. In DuMu x all the documentation is linked on the homepage, an overview where to find which information is missing. In preCICE the documentation is directly on the homepage, with an overview where to find what. Additionally, there is even meta information about the documentation itself. The recommendations give hints about documentation tools, which can be used–how to structure this information is mentioned in 30 .

Observation 3: Research software has different purposes

Researchers write research software for different purposes. Therefore, the focus of the documentation can differ as well. The purpose of Neweul-M 2 is to implement a physical model to evaluate the same effects that occur in or beyond experiments. Engineers use already developed algorithms to solve their research question using research software. Here, in addition to documentation for the users, documentation for the RSDs is also necessary, because the scientists at the institute need to understand the results of their predecessors and want to be able to adapt them to their own needs.

The purpose of DuMu x is similar. However, there is a larger community outside the own institute, which uses the software and develops it accordingly.

The purpose of preCICE is to implement new algorithms and to show that these algorithms work. In preCICE the role of RSDs is not specifically taken into account. Users do couple their software with the help of preCICE but do not contribute to the code with features. So the documentation is mainly intended and improved for scientific users (see Table 6 ).

Observation 3.1: Research Software Developers are neglected

RSDs are often neglected as authors and as audience. As authors of the documentation, the recommendations consider mainly RSEs; the audience are RSEs and users (see Table 7 ). The documentation requirements for RSDs are unclear. While in practice some requirements are given, the documentation reality often differs. In Neweul-M 2 the RSE has formalized the documentation of and for the RSDs through a given template. RSDs document directly in the code, which is automatically transferred to the help. The description often remains very short and are sometimes insufficient to be understood by others. No feedback from the successors is given about the quality of the documentation, because the Research Software Developers leave the institute and no longer notice possible problems (see Table 6 ).

In DuMu x RSDs have as well a guideline how and what they have to document. Experience shows that instead of following the guidelines, RSDs tend to keep the effort as small as possible and do not describe as expected, especially if the requirement is considered unnecessary (see Table 6 ).

The results undoubtedly show that research software is documented. We found out that a literature review could not answer RQ1. One hypothesis why we were not able to answer RQ1 from a literature review is Observation 1: The big picture is missing. Who documents what for whom in which domain and for what purpose. The primary hypothesis was that researchers document their software, but that this is not perceived as sufficiently documented. The data collected should provide information about who documents how and why the documentation is not sufficient. The already described rival hypotheses of lack of time and training seemed to be insufficient due to the existing documentation and software knowledge. Our study shows that not necessarily the motivation or missing skills lead to the opinion that software is not documented; rather, research software is not documented as expected.

Often the main problem is that documentation is seen as an event and not a process. Observation 2 shows that the RSEs do not necessarily contribute to documentation quality. Possible reasons for this are different perceptions among the RSEs about what good documentation is, and that old documentation is not discarded. However, funding can improve documentation because they can transform the event character of documentation into a process. The path dependency described in the results as well as the missing consistency and missing framework can be mitigated by setting uniform standards . This will always be a balancing act between freedom of research and predefined framework. However, the movement in given structures allows a more efficient work. Also, writing and documenting are not in itself the actual research work, but only the framework in which the research takes place. Researchers have other goals in writing and documenting code than professional software developers. Software developers aim to achieve the objectives defined in the product requirements: Specifying these requirements can be seen as a part of the documentation. Research software, on the other hand, is a means to an end and is not documented in product requirements. Researchers aim to answer research questions with the help of software 33 . Consequently, one part of the documentation happens in research articles, doctoral, master and bachelor theses. Those can be seen as delayed product requirements . Nevertheless, this kind of documentation is focused on the research question and not on the research software. Moreover, research papers discuss scientific results based on research software; but the research software behind the results is quickly outdated and developed further. Above all, the precise implementation of physic into code in the research software is not specified 34 , but particularly this point is essential for reusing the research software. Besides, articles document research results, not software. Sometimes the material is also not accessible or difficult to find . Certainly the lack of time to document is critical, but at a later stage much more time needs to be invested to support the users 30 and to understand the research software as a RSD. Some papers argue with the lack of training of researchers in software engineering 2 , 6 . But even in professional software development, documentation is neglected. Ludewig and Lichter 35 see two reasons for this neglection: Firstly, documentation is not necessarily learned even in software developer training and secondly, although it is said that documentation is important, other aspects usually have priority. Websites like “write the docs” 36 and The blog “I’d Rather be Writing” 37 gives advice for technical writers how to document code. Some approaches can certainly be adopted, though not everything can be transferred one-to-one to research software. Initiatives like “Better Scientific Software” 38 and the “Software Sustainability Institute” 39 draw attention to the problem and provide assistance. Although these sites are certainly helpful, you need to know them. They give only possible assistance and are not in themselves a standard. Nevertheless, a generally applicable standardization of documenting research software is difficult to find. Existing standards from software engineering 40 are complex, in parts not relevant for research software and difficult to access. Even if a standardization will be helpful to share results openly, it needs a clear guideline to document results for oneself and in a group. Therefore, all three examined research software have some forms of standardized templates, testing strategies and checklists provided by the RSE. However, compliance must also be checked, which in turn costs time. Especially, in engineering science several points add to the described difficulties:

use of other funding possibilities

existence of confidentiality reasons

fear of sabotaging the business model

modification of existing software, which is unclear how to document

But working together with industry demands good documented results–independent from publishing the software. Moreover, other RSDs need the documentation in order to understand the work from their predecessors. In Neweul-M 2 RSDs contribute to code and documentation. They have to understand the code, and they have to develop new features, which have to be documented. This part of the documentation can not be written but be controlled by a RSE. RSDs depend on the documentation of their predecessors and the existing structure. This experience happens as well in DuMu x . It can also be discussed whether some problems described could be avoided by making the software open source. There are good reasons, such as confidentiality obligations and also often a business model, that make these steps undesirable. Nevertheless, from our point of view, some investigated methods can be transferred to the shared domain.

All in all, it can be said that it should be clear who documents what and where. Hence, adopting best practices and principles from technical documentation and professional software development can help to improve the documentation of research software. Nevertheless, the study shows that all three case studies struggle with similar problems in the documentation and in part also decided on similar solution strategies, making transferability to other research software projects conceivable. Future research should explore how principles from the best practices examples can be transferred into the shared domain. A possible standardization of content would certainly be helpful here, but this cannot be solved by the individual scientist. The national and international initiatives certainly contribute to improving the situation here. One limitation of the current research is that the findings are not evaluated with more examples. This obstacle can be overcome in evaluating more software documentations. It can be expected that other research software in engineering science has similar problems. Moreover, there is a personal bias when trying to solve the problem with a given documentation. The experience showed that it was totally clear for the Research Software Engineer of the help where they can find the information and how the documentation is structured. But for inexperienced users, it is not obvious, they have to ask the Research Software Engineer. The effort to write documentation should be taken into account. Will the benefit exceed the effort that must be used for documentation? This can be an area for future research. As long as people are there who can help, it is just inefficient but not impossible to solve the given task without a sufficient documentation. But in the current discussion about FAIR, research software documentation plays an important role. The pay-off for Research Software Developers is may be marginal at the moment, but the importance is increasing. Good documentation pays off in the long run.

We discovered that researchers are often not aware for whom and why they document. A big picture what documentation for research software means is missing. The new approach in this paper is to define for what purpose and what appearance the documentation is intended and who has to document what for whom depending on the domain. The paper shows that even in recommendations, the objective of the documentation of research software is unclear. Until now the focus lies on Research Software Engineers and user, the researcher who develops features to an existing research software is here brought into focus. While essentially only the open domain has been considered so far, a substantial part of research software does not take place publicly in the first place; here, too, documentation is needed in order to ensure sustainable research.

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Acknowledgements

Funded by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany’s Excellence Strategy - EXC 2075 - 390740016. We acknowledge the support by the Stuttgart Center for Simulation Science (SimTech). We also want to thank the Research Software Engineers of the three examined research software examples Bernd Flemisch, Georg Schneider and Benjamin Uekermann for their support and helpful inputs.

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

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Institute of Engineering and Computational Mechanics, University of Stuttgart, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany

Sibylle Hermann & Jörg Fehr

Cluster of Excellence SimTech, University of Stuttgart, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany

Sibylle Hermann

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S.H. studied the research software documentation, developed the methodology, and wrote the article. J.F. contributed to the writing process through valuable discussion and feedback, as well as his own experience in documenting research software. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Sibylle Hermann .

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Hermann, S., Fehr, J. Documenting research software in engineering science. Sci Rep 12 , 6567 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10376-9

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Received : 07 January 2022

Accepted : 05 April 2022

Published : 21 April 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10376-9

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