animal farm essay thesis

Animal Farm

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Animal Farm: Introduction

Animal farm: plot summary, animal farm: detailed summary & analysis, animal farm: themes, animal farm: quotes, animal farm: characters, animal farm: symbols, animal farm: theme wheel, brief biography of george orwell.

Historical Context of Animal Farm

Other books related to animal farm.

• Full Title: Animal Farm
• When Written: 1944-45
• Where Written: England
• When Published: 1945
• Literary Period: Modernism
• Genre: Allegorical Novel
• Setting: A farm somewhere in England in the first half of the 20th century
• Climax: The pigs appear standing upright and the sheep bleat, “Four legs good, two legs better!”
• Antagonist: Napoleon specifically, but the pigs and the dogs as groups are all antagonists.
• Point of View: Third Person

Extra Credit for Animal Farm

Tough Crowd. Though Animal Farm eventually made Orwell famous, three publishers in England and several American publishing houses rejected the novel at first. One of the English editors to reject the novel was the famous poet T.S. Eliot, who was an editor at the Faber & Faber publishing house. One American editor, meanwhile, told Orwell that it was “impossible to sell animal stories in the U.S.A.”

Red Scare. Orwell didn’t just write literature that condemned the Communist state of the USSR. He did everything he could, from writing editorials to compiling lists of men he knew were Soviet spies, to combat the willful blindness of many intellectuals in the West to USSR atrocities.

“Animal Farm” by George Orwell Essay

The first thing that can be highlighted is that most of the literature pieces are not created just for the sake of entertainment and relaxation but also for meaningful reflections. A lot of novels and books are extremely thought-provoking and encourage readers to engage in discussions and conversations with others. What is important to mention is that different authors achieve this goal in different ways. For instance, some prefer to build their reading on metaphors, some on specific organizations and structures, and others establish their texts on satire. One of such literature prices is an allegorical novella Animal Farm written George Orwell. This reading is extremely interesting from that point of view and, for this reason, should be carefully analyzed. Therefore, the following paper will prove that Animal Farm is a satirical work by using the elements of satire.

Before discussing the elements of satire in the identified novella it seems essential to learn more about its plot and meaning. This reading is an allegory, which is a specific story where the chosen characters and situations represent other characters and situations for the purpose of making a point about them (“Animal Farm at a Glance”). In the story, a group of animals rebel against the human farmer, embrace the idea of Animalism, and organize a revolution in order to achieve justice and equality. However, everything ends with a totalitarian dictator becoming the head of the community and ruining its desire for progress and justice. Since the reading is an allegory, the readers should try looking at the vents from a different perspective. As it appears, Animalism stands for communism, farm stands for Russia, the farmer for the Russian Tzar, the pig for the revolutionary Trotsky, and Napoleon stands for the figure of Stalin (“Animal Farm at a Glance”). Therefore, even by analyzing what characters and situations represent in the story, it can already be stated that the reading is a satire because it represents real people and situations in an ironic way.

Satire and its elements are used in literature works in order to highlight some features of the situation or a person and make fun of them. It effectively represents stupidity of humans, especially those who are the members of the high society layers. One of the most obvious elements that the author of the Animal Farm uses in order to highlight the satire is irony. He uses animals and represents then as being able to talk, feel, and make decisions “in order to illustrate the abuse of one group of humans by another” (Boremyr 3). It can easily be noticed in the end of the story when it becomes almost impossible to tell the animals apart from the humans. Throughout the story, they became more human despite the commitment to the Animalism philosophy. By doing this, he achieves the goal of showing the brutality, corruption and incompetence of the Soviet Union not just like in a history book but in an entertaining and fun way.

Additionally, another way in which the author frames the story as a satirical work is the concept of defamiliarization. As suggested by Adhikari, this idea “tends to throw light on the special use of language in the works of art, unlike the use of language in the everyday life” (378). This concept generally suggests that that various forms of language used to present familiar things in unfamiliar ways for the purpose of persuading their readers and appealing to their emotions can encourage them to look at those things from a different perspective (Adhikari 378). For this reason, by using the concept of defamiliarization, the author increases the irony of the whole novella, makes the forms unfamiliar and difficult to understand, and increases the process of perception and decision-making. Orwell did not adopt the violent mode in order to represent and satirize communism (Adhikari 385). On the other hand, he satirized it and employed a more subtle way of representation (Adhikari 285). Therefore, Animal Farm can be called a satirical piece of literature because the author uses the concept of defamiliarization in order to present the readers with a different and more ironic perspective on a familiar issue.

To summarize, Animal Farm is an interesting and thought-provoking novella. It is very insightful not just from the point of its meaning but also the effective use of satire throughout the story. The author was able to incorporate the different elements of this concept in order to increase its satirical nature and encourage the readers to reflect on this more. Therefore, the presented paper proved that Animal Farm is a satirical novella.

Works Cited

Adhikari, Krishanu. “Animal Farm: A Satire on Communism Through ‘Defamilirization’.” An International Refereed e-Journal of Literary Explorations , vol. 1, no. 1, 2014, pp. 378-385.

“Animal Farm at a Glance.” CliffsNotes . Web.

Boremyr, Hanna. “Reading Orwell’s Animals: An animal-oriented study of George Orwell’s political satire Animal Farm.” 2016.

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• Defamiliarization in Literature: Examples
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Animal Farm George Orwell

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Animal Farm Material

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Animal Farm Essays

Bit and spur shall rust forever: hollow symbols in george orwell's animal farm mike yank, animal farm.

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Consent to Destruction: the Phases of Fraternity and Separation in Animal Farm Anonymous

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Character Textual Response - Benjamin Dante Di Paolo 9th Grade

In the allegorical novel Animal Farm, George Orwell uses animals to represent humans or groups in Stalin's Russian Revolution. A character who is integral to the development of the storyline is Benjamin, an aged donkey. It is unclear which group...

Non vi, sed verbo (Not by force, but by the word) Chelsea Santos 10th Grade

Sylvia Plath, a confessional poet, once said, “I talk to God but the sky is empty,” (Plath 199). When one talks to God, they know He is there, but they do not see Him. They ask for help and expect it right away, which leads to conflict. Plath is...

Comparison of Values: Animal Farm and V for Vendetta Joonhwy Kwon 11th Grade

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Why Animal Farm Failed Anonymous 10th Grade

The social hierarchy and class differences of The Animal Farm caused its demise. The most prominent social groups settled into their own habitats, establishing their own “grounds.” The animals on the bottom of the hierarchy are not well educated,...

Moses the Raven: The "Church" of Animal Farm Eesha Zahid Khan 10th Grade

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Power and Corruption: A Comparison of Animal Farm and Divergent Harleen Kaur 10th Grade

“All power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely” is echoed throughout the texts ‘ Animal Farm’ (George Orwell, 1945) and Divergent (Neil Burger, 2014). Both texts demonstrate that the struggle for power is deep rooted in...

Lack of Education and the Rise of Class Stratification: Boxer, Napoleon, and the Fate of Animal Farm Peter Liu 11th Grade

The first president of the United States, George Washington, famously stated, “If freedom of speech is taken away, then dumb and silent we may be led, like sheep to the slaughter” (Washington). Often an uneducated working class is exploited for...

Propaganda and Power in Animal Farm Brendan Dickson 10th Grade

From Hitler to Hussein, the rise and fall of dictators has captivated historians and writers alike for centuries. British novelist George Orwell (1903-1950) was no exception. In his 1946 allegory Animal Farm , Orwell satirized the 1917 Russian...

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Old Major’s Speech: A Rhetorical Analysis Anonymous 10th Grade

Animal Farm , a book by George Orwell, begins with a leader, an old, wise boar that delivers a speech after their tyrant owner, Mr. Jones, goes to sleep. He speaks about how the animals are oppressed at the farm, and allows them to see how badly...

Rousseau's Social Contract in the novella ''Animal Farm'' Raghda Maher College

The social contract is the view that a person's morals or political obligations are dependent upon a contract or agreement among them to form a society in which they live. The best three known philosophers of social contract theory: Thomas Hobbes,...

Snowball as a Model of Principled Governance and Leadership Bronson Hill 12th Grade

Whilst Snowball is used to convey an image of just leadership in Animal Farm , Orwell demonstrates how this leadership alone is inadequate. Orwell presents his views on leadership and governance through the characterisation of Snowball as the ideal...

• Animal Farm

George Orwell

• Literature Notes
• The Russian Revolution
• Animal Farm at a Glance
• Book Summary
• About Animal Farm
• Character List
• Summary and Analysis
• Character Analysis
• Character Map
• George Orwell Biography
• Critical Essays
• Major Themes
• Full Glossary
• Essay Questions
• Practice Projects
• Cite this Literature Note

Critical Essays The Russian Revolution

One of Orwell 's goals in writing Animal Farm was to portray the Russian (or Bolshevik) Revolution of 1917 as one that resulted in a government more oppressive, totalitarian, and deadly than the one it overthrew. Many of the characters and events of Orwell's novel parallel those of the Russian Revolution: In short, Manor Farm is a model of Russia, and old Major , Snowball , and Napoleon represent the dominant figures of the Russian Revolution.

Mr. Jones is modeled on Tsar Nicholas II (1868-1918), the last Russian emperor. His rule (1894-1917) was marked by his insistence that he was the uncontestable ruler of the nation. During his reign, the Russian people experienced terrible poverty and upheaval, marked by the Bloody Sunday massacre in 1905 when unarmed protesters demanding social reforms were shot down by the army near Nicholas' palace. As the animals under Jones lead lives of hunger and want, the lives of millions of Russians worsened during Nicholas' reign. When Russia entered World War I and subsequently lost more men than any country in any previous war, the outraged and desperate people began a series of strikes and mutinies that signaled the end of Tsarist control. When his own generals withdrew their support of him, Nicholas abdicated his throne in the hopes of avoiding an all-out civil war — but the civil war arrived in the form of the Bolshevik Revolution, when Nicholas, like Jones, was removed from his place of rule and then died shortly thereafter.

old Major is the animal version of V. I. Lenin (1870-1924), the leader of the Bolshevik Party that seized control in the 1917 Revolution. As old Major outlines the principles of Animalism, a theory holding that all animals are equal and must revolt against their oppressors, Lenin was inspired by Karl Marx's theory of Communism, which urges the "workers of the world" to unite against their economic oppressors. As Animalism imagines a world where all animals share in the prosperity of the farm, Communism argues that a "communal" way of life will allow all people to live lives of economic equality. old Major dies before he can see the final results of the revolution, as Lenin did before witnessing the ways in which his disciples carried on the work of reform.

old Major is absolute in his hatred of Man, as Lenin was uncompromising in his views: He is widely believed to have been responsible for giving the order to kill Nicholas and his family after the Bolsheviks had gained control. Lenin was responsible for changing Russia into the U.S.S.R., as old Major is responsible for transforming Manor Farm into Animal Farm. The U.S.S.R.'s flag depicted a hammer and sickle — the tools of the rebelling workers — so the flag of Animal Farm features a horn and hoof.

One of Lenin's allies was Leon Trotsky (1879-1940), another Marxist thinker who participated in a number of revolutionary demonstrations and uprisings. His counterpart in Animal Farm is Snowball, who, like Trotsky, felt that a worldwide series of rebellions was necessary to achieve the revolution's ultimate aims. Snowball's plans for the windmill and programs reflect Trotsky's intellectual character and ideas about the best ways to transform Marx's theories into practice. Trotsky was also the leader of Lenin's Red Army, as Snowball directs the army of animals that repel Jones.

Eventually, Trotsky was exiled from the U.S.S.R. and killed by the agents of Joseph Stalin (1979-1953), as Snowball is chased off of the farm by Napoleon — Orwell's stand-in for Stalin. Like Napoleon, Stalin was unconcerned with debates and ideas. Instead, he valued power for its own sake and by 1927 had assumed complete control of the Communist Party through acts of terror and brutality. Napoleon's dogs are like Stalin's KGB, his secret police that he used to eliminate all opposition. As Napoleon gains control under the guise of improving the animals' lives, Stalin used a great deal of propaganda — symbolized by Squealer in the novel — to present himself as an idealist working for change. His plan to build the windmill reflects Stalin's Five Year Plan for revitalizing the nation's industry and agriculture. Stalin's ordering Lenin's body to be placed in the shrine-like Lenin's Tomb parallels Napoleon's unearthing of old Major's skull, and his creation of the Order of the Green Banner parallels Stalin's creation of the Order of Lenin. Thanks, in part, to animals like Boxer (who swallow whole all of their leader's lies), Stalin became one of the world's most feared and brutal dictators.

Numerous events in the novel are based on ones that occurred during Stalin's rule. The Battle of the Cowshed parallels the Civil War that occurred after the 1917 Revolution. Jones ; Frederick represents Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), who forged an alliance with Stalin in 1939 — but who then found himself fighting Stalin's army in 1941. Frederick seems like an ally of Napoleon's, but his forged banknotes reveal his true character. The confessions and executions of the animals reflect the various purges and "show trials" that Stalin conducted to rid himself of any possible threat of dissention. In 1921, the sailors at the Kronshdadt military base unsuccessfully rebelled against Communist rule, as the hens attempt to rebel against Napoleon. The Battle of the Windmill reflects the U.S.S.R.'s involvement in World War II — specifically the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, when Stalin's forces defeated Hitler's (as Napoleon's defeat Frederick). Finally, the card game at the novel's end parallels the Tehran Conference (November 28-December 1, 1943), where Stalin, Winston Churchill, and Franklin D. Roosevelt met to discuss the ways to forge a lasting peace after the war — a peace that Orwell mocks by having Napoleon and Pilkington flatter each other and then betray their duplicitous natures by cheating in the card game.

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Animal Farm Essay

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Revolution as a phenomenon is considered as a way to a complete change of a situation or system of government to a better one. Is revolution really the right way to fulfil our dreams and have a better way of life? Or is it simply just changing the face of rulers or the name of the governments? Many writers and novelists have written about this issue. George Orwell, who is considered as a political writer, is one of them. He wrote many novels. Animal Farm, as one of them, is an allegorical story of some animals on a farm. They begin a revolution against the humans with the dream of getting rid of Man as the root cause of their problems, and to be rich and free. They have a short period of honeymoon revolution, but then their dream of building a utopian farm is crashed by the pigs and they would find themselves in dystopia. This paper aims to study the nature of revolution generally to shed light on human history, Then to explore how this phenomenon is treated by Orwell in his novel. Can we consider revolution as a right way to have a complete change in the political system and thinking of people? The researchers try to illuminate and find answers for those questions by providing examples from the story of Animal Farm.

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A philosophy initiated by a pioneer redirects its course from the proposed ideology when the origin ceases to exist. In this case, it happens to be the OLD MAJOR; an old wise pig. Staying by chance not by choice in the setting of MANOR FARM; 'the comrades of old major' have accepted their lives to be no other way but this, ruled and governed by man's interests and luxuries. Mr Jones, the owner of MANOR FARM; exploits these animals treating them ruthlessly up until one of them challenges and refuses to keep things the way they were. He turns out to be the motivator for the herd inspiring them to change things around them; convincing them about the fact that; to be born as an animal is not living a laborious life for the benefit of human race. He infact states that " MAN IS THE ONLY CREATURE THAT CONSUMES WITHOUT PRODUCING. REMOVE MAN FROM THE SCENE, AND THE ROOT CAUSEOF HUNGER AND OVERWORK IS ABOLISHED FOR EVER ". Few days later; after his death, the fellow beings continue living in the same scenario with the Major's wise words still ringing in the head, unaware of how to implement the revolt and when and why should it happen if at all it has to. Anything that reaches its maximum level of tolerance backfires at the peak point, No different are the animals who vouch for a REBELLION on being starved for the entire day by their self centred master. ANIMAL FARM as the name changes from manor farm is seen as the initial step of freeing the animals from the shackles of humans. Being slightly more educated than the fellow beings, makes the pigs sit on the position to decide the so called habitability for the rest of the farm. This scenario could very much draw a parallel between animals and the way humans lead their life. NAPOLEAN and SNOWBALL, obedient descendants of old major keep legacy maintained by taking the lead and imparting reading and writing classes to the fellow beings. Characters that highlight several

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Animal Farm is a short novel written by George Orwell during the Russian Revolution. The novel is full of satire which aims to teach, make people laugh and at the same time make people think, written in a fable style which transfers a human's trait to non-human beings. George Orwell himself was an opponent of communism. So, this work is often seen as a critical piece against the Soviet Russian regime.

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In the past, pigs were kept near their guardians' (owners') homes, ate leftovers from their guardians' kitchens and enjoyed a generally close relationship with humans. The closeness of the relationship, combined with its ultimate end in the killing of the pig, led to a sense of shame (Leach, 1964). This shame manifested itself in negative expressions about pigs within the English language, which remain to this day. However, the relationship between humans and pigs is becoming increasingly distant, with decisions affecting pigs' lives made in the offices of agricultural industry executives far from the intensive farms on which the pigs live. The new relationship has led to the evolution of a new discourse about pigs, that of the modern pork industry. Because of its technical and scientific nature, this new discourse does not contain the explicit insults of mainstream discourse.Yet, embedded within it are a series of implicit ideological assumptions designed to justify...

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Home — Essay Samples — Literature — George Orwell — Animal Farm Moral Analysis

Animal Farm Moral Analysis

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Reading Animal Farm in Zimbabwe

From minority white rule to dictatorship and beyond, orwell’s 1945 novel—now in a new translation—has proved prescient.

George Orwell’s 1945 novel Animal Farm speaks directly to Zimbabwe’s readers in 2024—especially with a new translation, writes Beaven Tapureta of Writers International Network Zimbabwe. Courtesy of AP Photo/Tsvangirayi Mukwazhi .

by Beaven Tapureta | April 17, 2024

I began to notice Animal Farm references proliferating in Zimbabwe in 2008.

That was the year hyperinflation nosedived the economy, and long-time leader Robert Mugabe felt threatened enough by a newly formed opposition party that he silenced its supporters.

In the years since, writers and independent media have repeatedly turned to Animal Farm as a way to illuminate our political reality—even after Mugabe’s 2017 ousting. Last year, a group of Zimbabwean writers published the first-ever Shona translation of it, Chimurenga Chemhuka or Animal Revolution . Chimurenga Chemhuka , published by House of Books , strategically appeared on the literary stage in the lead-up to last August’s general elections to encourage Zimbabwean readers to think critically about politics at home and abroad.

Animal Farm follows a group of anthropomorphized barnyard animals who gather to overthrow their oppressive human masters and set up an egalitarian society on the farm. However, power-loving pigs take advantage of internal divisions to subvert the revolution. Concluding that “all animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others,” the pigs install a dictatorship led by the despotic pig Napoleon.

George Orwell intended the book to be a commentary on Joseph Stalin’s betrayal of Russia’s  Bolshevik  revolution. But since Animal Farm was published in 1945, the story’s message has served as a bitter pill to all Napoleons threatened by freedom and equality, including in Zimbabwe.

After the end of white-minority rule in 1980, Mugabe, like Napoleon, seized the reins and installed himself as the head of the country for the next three decades.

When a people-powered movement finally pressured Mugabe to step down, euphoria filled streets and homes. Only it did not last long. People had expected a government of national unity would run the country until the house was in order, but new leaders ignored that.  The people of Zimbabwe came to feel they had been neglected by the same leaders they had united with to remove a dictator.

Orwell’s tale is a powerful reminder of how freedom decomposes when it’s entrusted to the hands of the selfish.  

Over and over again, we see people unite in times of revolution—but once the goal is collectively achieved, greed and power crash the original dream. Who in Africa did not hope that after colonialism and apartheid, the people would enjoy true independence?

Petina Gappah, a lawyer and leading Zimbabwean writer, said that she first hatched the idea for a Shona translation of Animal Farm a few years ago. She and the rest of the team behind the effort sought to do more than put Orwell’s book in the Shona vernacular—they wanted it to feel Zimbabwean.

“Reading [ Chimurenga Chemhuka ] is like reading a story told in Shona to a Shona audience. This makes it our story, and the similarities also inform the reader that human beings are almost the same in deeds in spite of differences in skin color and geographical space,” another translation team member, Tinashe Muchuri, a Shona author, translator, poet, and journalist, told me.

The settings and places of traditional Shona folktales are vague, just like in Orwell’s tale.  However, the translators used different Shona dialects to appeal to a local readership here. In his article last year, Zimbabwean literary scholar Tinashe Mushakavanhu called attention to the number of dialects employed in the book: “Though Chimurenga Chemhuka is mainly in standard Shona, its characters speak a medley of different Shona dialects—such as chiKaranga, chiZezuru, chiManyika—plus a smattering of contemporary slang.”

Through the translators’ creativity, the original tale gained additional meanings as well. In most African folklore, and many other cultures, the pig represents selfishness. This makes the actions of Napoleon, and his fellow pigs, even more resonant.

Chimurenga Chemhuka is part of a larger renaissance of literary translation happening in Zimbabwe today, which is often centered on works about human rights. Ignatius Mabasa, an illustrious Zimbabwean writer and translator, has said that he sees translating as a “form of liberation struggle” that furthers a decolonized mindset. His translations include Finnish author Tove Jansson’s 1962 “The Invisible Child” (“Mwana Asingaonekwe”), which tells the story of a girl named Ninny who became invisible after her caretaker mistreats her, and Zimbabwean novelist Tsitsi Dangarebga’s Nervous Conditions (Kusagadzikana). First published in English in 1988, Nervous Conditions tells the story of Tambudzai Sigauke, who dreams of escaping a life of poverty in rural Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in the 1960s to pursue an education.

Recently, I attended a writers’ retreat in Nyanga, here in Zimbabwe, where I discussed today’s translation efforts with Blessing Musariri, a Zimbabwean children’s book author, poet, and screenwriter. Musariri said that she sees translation as a way to begin a global conversation in the Shona vernacular. “Translation is a great way to expand on the literary lexicon of works written in Shona. International literature usually deals with broader themes and ideas than what we might write about specifically in our own language,” Musariri told me.

Animal Farm is an important example of this. Zimbabweans have long been conscious of Orwell’s novel, but reading Chimurenga Chemhuka offers a chance to fuse the novel’s 1945 message with present-day politics.

Now it’s only a matter of making sure these translated works are made accessible to their intended audience.

Distribution must not be limited to critics and intellectuals in offices and universities. Instead, publishers must be diligent about getting books in local bookstores and libraries, and thus to the ordinary Zimbabwean—the very people whose lives these stories reflect.

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A Cruel Way to Control Bird Flu? Poultry Giants Cull and Cash In.

Big poultry farms have received millions of dollars for their losses. Animal welfare groups contend that aid reinforces inhumane cullings of birds exposed to the virus.

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By Andrew Jacobs

The highly lethal form of avian influenza circulating the globe since 2021 has killed tens of millions of birds, forced poultry farmers in the United States to slaughter entire flocks and prompted a brief but alarming spike in the price of eggs .

Most recently, it has infected dairy cows in several states and at least one person in Texas who had close contact with the animals, officials said this week.

The outbreak, it turns out, is proving to be especially costly for American taxpayers.

Last year, the Department of Agriculture paid poultry producers more than half a billion dollars for the turkeys, chickens and egg-laying hens they were forced to kill after the flu strain, H5N1, was detected on their farms.

Officials say the compensation program is aimed at encouraging farms to report outbreaks quickly. That’s because the government pays for birds killed through culling, not those that die from the disease. Early reporting, the agency says, helps to limit the virus’s spread to nearby farms.

The cullings are often done by turning up the heat in barns that house thousands of birds, a method that causes heat stroke and that many veterinarians and animal welfare organizations say results in unnecessary suffering.

Among the biggest recipients of the agency’s bird flu indemnification funds from 2022 to this year were Jennie-O Turkey Store, which received more than $88 million, and Tyson Foods, which was paid nearly $30 million. Despite their losses, the two companies reported billions of dollars in profits last year.

Overall, a vast majority of the government payments went to the country’s largest food companies — not entirely surprising given corporate America’s dominance of meat and egg production.

Since February 2022, more than 82 million farmed birds have been culled, according to the agency’s website . For context, the American poultry industry produces more than nine billion chickens and turkeys each year.

The tally of compensation was obtained by Our Honor , an animal welfare advocacy group, which filed a Freedom of Information Act request with the U.S.D.A. The advocacy organization Farm Forward collaborated on further analysis of the data.

The breakdown of compensation has not been publicly released, but agency officials confirmed the accuracy of the figures.

To critics of large-scale commercial farming, the payments highlight a deeply flawed system of corporate subsidies, which last year included more than $30 billion in taxpayer money directed to the agriculture sector, much of it for crop insurance, commodity price support and disaster aid.

But they say the payments related to bird flu are troubling for another reason: By compensating commercial farmers for their losses with no strings attached, the federal government is encouraging poultry growers to continue the very practices that heighten the risk of contagion, increasing the need for future cullings and compensation.

“These payments are crazy-making and dangerous,” said Andrew deCoriolis, Farm Forward’s executive director. “Not only are we wasting taxpayer money on profitable companies for a problem they created, but we’re not giving them any incentive to make changes.”

Ashley Peterson, senior vice president of scientific and regulatory affairs at the National Chicken Council, a trade association, disputed the suggestion that the government payouts reinforced problematic farming practices.

“Indemnification is in place to help the farmer control and eradicate the virus — regardless of how the affected birds are raised,” she said in an email. The criticisms, she added, were the work of “vegan extremist groups who are latching on to an issue to try and advance their agenda.”

The U.S.D.A. defended the program, saying, “Early reporting allows us to more quickly stop the spread of the virus to nearby farms,” according to a statement.

Although modern farming practices have made animal protein much more affordable, leading to an almost doubling of meat consumption over the past century, the industry’s reliance on so-called concentrated animal-feeding operations comes with downsides. The giant sheds that produce nearly 99 percent of the nation’s eggs and meat spin off enormous quantities of animal waste that can degrade the environment, according to researchers.

And infectious pathogens spread more readily inside the crowded structures.

“If you wanted to create the ideal environment for fostering the mutation of pathogens, industrial farms would pretty much be the perfect setup,” said Gwendolen Reyes-Illg, a scientist at the Animal Welfare Institute who focuses on meat production.

The modern chicken, genetically homogenous and engineered for fast growth, compounds those risks. Selective breeding has greatly reduced the time it takes to raise a barrel-breasted, table-ready broiler, but the birds are more susceptible to infection and death, according to researchers. That may help explain why more than 90 percent of chickens infected with H5N1 die within 48 hours.

Frank Reese, a fourth-generation turkey farmer in Kansas, said that the modern, broad-breasted white turkey is ready for slaughter in half the time of heritage breeds. But fast growth comes at a cost: The birds are prone to heart problems, high blood pressure and arthritic joints, among other health issues, he said.

“They have weaker immune systems, because bless that fat little turkey’s heart, they are morbidly obese,” said Mr. Reese, 75, who pasture-raises rare heritage breeds. “It’s the equivalent of an 11-year-old child who weighs 400 pounds.”

Highly pathogenic avian influenza has been circulating since 1996, but the virus had evolved to become even more lethal by the time it showed up in North America in late 2021. It led to the culling of nearly 60 million farmed birds in the United States, and felled countless wild ones and a great many mammals, from skunks to sea lions. Last week, federal authorities for the first time identified the virus in dairy cows in Kansas, Texas, Michigan, New Mexico and Idaho. The pathogen has also been implicated in a small number of human infections and deaths , mostly among those who work with live poultry, and officials say the risks to people remains low .

The virus is extremely contagious among birds and spreads through nasal secretions, saliva and feces, making it tough to contain. Migrating waterfowl are the single greatest source of infection — even if many wild ducks show no signs of illness. The virus can find its way into barns via dust particles or on the sole of a farmer’s boot.

While infections in North America have ebbed and flowed over the past three years, the overall number has declined from 2022, according to the U.S. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service .

On Tuesday, the nation’s largest egg producer, Cal-Maine Foods, announced that it had halted production at its Texas facility and culled more than 1.6 million birds after detecting avian influenza.

Federal officials have been debating whether to vaccinate commercial flocks , but the initiative has divided the industry, in part because it could prompt trade restrictions harmful to the nation’s $6 billion poultry export sector.

Many scientists, fearing that the next pandemic could emerge from a human-adapted version of bird flu, have been urging the White House to embrace a vaccination campaign.

The agency’s livestock indemnity program , part of a farm bill passed by Congress in 2018, pays farmers 75 percent of the value of animals lost to disease or natural disaster. Since 2022, the program has distributed more than $1 billion to affected farmers.

Critics say the program also promotes animal cruelty by allowing farmers to euthanize their flocks by shutting down a barn’s ventilation system and pumping in hot air, a method that can take hours. Chickens and turkeys that survive are often dispatched by a twist of the neck.

Crystal Heath, a veterinarian and co-founder of Our Honor , said the American Veterinary Medical Association , in partnership with the agriculture department, recommended that ventilation shutdown be used only under “ constrained circumstances .” She added that a vast majority of farms relied on it because the process was inexpensive and easy to carry out.

“All you need are duct tape, tarps and a few rented heaters,” Dr. Heath said. “But ventilation shutdown plus is especially awful because it can take three to five hours for the birds to die.”

Thousands of veterinarians have signed a petition urging the association to reclassify ventilation shutdown as “not recommended” and say that other methods that use carbon dioxide or nitrogen are far more humane, even if they are more costly. Since the start of the outbreak through December 2023, ventilation shutdown was used to cull 66 million chickens and turkeys, or about 80 percent of all those killed, according to analysis of federal data by the Animal Welfare Institute, which obtained the data through a Freedom of Information Act request.

Last summer, the institute filed a petition asking the agriculture department to require farms to devise depopulation plans that are more humane as a condition for receiving compensation. The agency has yet to respond to the petition.

Tyson and Jennie-O, the top recipients of federal compensation, have both used ventilation shutdown, according to an analysis of federal data . Tyson declined to comment for this article, and Hormel, which owns the Jennie-O brand, did not respond to requests for comment.

Some animal welfare advocates, pointing to recent outbreaks that were allowed to run their course, question whether killing every bird on an affected farm is even the right approach. When H5N1 hit Harvest Home Animal Sanctuary in California in February 2023, killing three birds, the farm’s operators steeled themselves for a state-mandated culling. Instead, California agriculture officials, citing a recently created exemption for farms that do not produce food, said they would spare the birds as long as strict quarantine measures were put in place for 120 days.

Over the next few weeks, the virus claimed 26 of the farm’s 160 chickens, ducks and turkeys, but the others survived, even those that had appeared visibly ill, according to Christine Morrissey, the sanctuary’s executive director.

She said the experience suggested that mass cullings might be unnecessary. “There needs to be more research and effort put into finding other ways of responding to this virus,” Ms. Morrissey said, “because depopulation is horrifying and it’s not solving the problem at hand.”

With the northward migration in full swing, poultry farmers like Caleb Barron are holding their breath. Mr. Barron, an organic farmer in California, said there was only so much he could do to protect the livestock at Fogline Farm given that the birds spent most of their lives outdoors.

So far, the birds remain unscathed. Perhaps it’s because Mr. Barron raises a hardier breed of chicken, or maybe it’s because his birds have a relatively good life, which includes high-quality feed and low stress.

“Or maybe,” he said, “ it’s just luck.”

Andrew Jacobs is a Times reporter focused on how healthcare policy, politics and corporate interests affect people’s lives. More about Andrew Jacobs