the self presentation in everyday life

The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life

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The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life is a book that was published in the U.S. in 1959, written by sociologist  Erving Goffman . In it, Goffman uses the imagery of theater in order to portray the nuances and significance of face-to-face social interaction. Goffman puts forth a theory of social interaction that he refers to as the dramaturgical model of social life.

According to Goffman, social interaction may be likened to a theater, and people in everyday life to actors on a stage, each playing a variety of roles. The audience consists of other individuals who observe the role-playing and react to the performances. In social interaction, like in theatrical performances, there is a 'front stage' region where the actors are on stage  before an audience, and their consciousness of that audience and the audience's expectations for the role they should play influence the actor's behavior. There is also a back region, or 'backstage,' where individuals can relax, be themselves, and the role or identity that they play when they are in front of others.

Central to the book and Goffman's theory is the idea that people, as they interact together in social settings, are constantly engaged in the process of "impression management," wherein each tries to present themselves and behave in a way that will prevent the embarrassment of themselves or others. This is primarily done by each person that is part of the interaction working to ensure that all parties have the same "definition of the situation," meaning that all understand what is meant to happen in that situation, what to expect from the others involved, and thus how they themselves should behave.

Though written over half a century ago,  The Presentation of Self in Everday Life  remains one of the most famous and widely taught sociology books, which was listed as the 10th most important sociology book of the twentieth century by the International Sociological Association in 1998.

Performance

Goffman uses the term ‘performance’ to refer to all the activity of an individual in front of a particular set of observers, or audience. Through this performance, the individual, or actor, gives meaning to themselves, to others, and to their situation. These performances deliver impressions to others, which communicates information that confirms the identity of the actor in that situation. The actor may or may not be aware of their performance or have an objective for their performance, however, the audience is constantly attributing meaning to it and to the actor.

The setting for the performance includes the scenery, props, and location in which the interaction takes place. Different settings will have different audiences and will thus require the actor to alter his performances for each setting.

Appearance functions to portray to the audience the performer’s social statuses. Appearance also tells us of the individual’s temporary social state or role, for example, whether he is engaging in work (by wearing a uniform), informal recreation, or a formal social activity. Here, dress and props serve to communicate things that have socially ascribed meaning, like gender , status, occupation, age, and personal commitments.

Manner refers to how the individual plays the role and functions to warn the audience of how the performer will act or seek to act in a role (for example, dominant, aggressive, receptive, etc.). Inconsistency and contradiction between appearance and manner may occur and will confuse and upset an audience. This can happen, for example, when one does not present himself or behave in accordance with his perceived social status or position.

The actor’s front, as labeled by Goffman, is the part of the individual’s performance which functions to define the situation for the audience. It is the image or impression he or she gives off to the audience. A social front can also be thought of like a script. Certain social scripts tend to become institutionalized in terms of the stereotyped expectations it contains. Certain situations or scenarios have social scripts that suggest how the actor should behave or interact in that situation. If the individual takes on a task or role that is new to him, he or she may find that there are already several well-established fronts among which he must choose. According to Goffman, when a task is given a new front or script, we rarely find that the script itself is completely new. Individuals commonly use pre-established scripts to follow for new situations, even if it is not completely appropriate or desired for that situation.

Front Stage, Back Stage, and Off Stage

In stage drama, as in everyday interactions, according to Goffman, there are three regions, each with different effects on an individual’s performance: front stage, backstage, and off-stage. The front stage is where the actor formally performs and adheres to conventions that have particular meaning for the audience. The actor knows he or she is being watched and acts accordingly.

When in the backstage region, the actor may behave differently than when in front of the audience on the front stage. This is where the individual truly gets to be herself and get rid of the roles that she plays when she is in front of other people.

Finally, the off-stage region is where individual actors meet the audience members independently of the team performance on the front stage. Specific performances may be given when the audience is segmented as such.

• Goffman's Front Stage and Back Stage Behavior
• The Meaning and Purpose of the Dramaturgical Perspective
• A Biography of Erving Goffman
• How Our Aligning Behavior Shapes Everyday Life
• "Cheating Out," "Breaking Curtain," and More Curious Theatre Jargon
• Ancient Greek Tragedy
• 15 Major Sociological Studies and Publications
• Stage Directions for Actors: The Basics
• Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity
• What Is a Total Institution?
• Aristotle's Tragedy Terminology
• Famous Sociologists
• What Is Self-Concept in Psychology?
• Choose the Right Setting for Your Play
• What Is Role Conflict in Sociology?
• An Overview of Labeling Theory

Erving Goffman

The presentation of self in everyday life.

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The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life – A Summary

A summary of The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life by Erving Goffman, and a brief discussion of its relevance to A level Sociology. 

Executive Summary

The best way to understand human action is by seeing people as actors on a ‘social stage’ who actively create an impression of themselves for the benefit of an audience (and, ultimately themselves).

When we act in the social world, we put on a ‘front’ in order to project a certain image of ourselves (call this part of our ‘social identity’ if you like) – we create a front by manipulating the setting in which we perform (e.g. our living room), our appearance (e.g. our clothes) and our manner (our emotional demeanour).

In the social world we are called upon to put on various fronts depending on the social stage on which we find ourselves and the teams of actors with whom we are performing – the work-place or the school are typical examples of social stages which require us to put on a front. On these social stages we take on roles, in relation to other team-members and carefully manage the impressions we give-off in order to ‘fit in’ to society and/ or achieve our own personal goals

Impression management involves projecting an ‘idealised image’ of ourselves, which involves concealing a number of aspects of a performance – such as the effort which goes into putting on a front, and typically hiding any personal profit we will gain from a performance/ interaction.

Unfortunately because audiences are constantly on the look-out for the signs we give off (so that they can know who we are) ‘performers can stop giving expressions, but they cannot stop giving them off’. This means that we must be constantly on our guard to practice ‘expressive control’ when on the social stage. There are plenty of things that can go wrong with our performance which might betray the fact that we are not really the person who our act suggests that we are – we might lose bodily control (slouch), or make mistakes with our clothing (a scruffy appearance) for example.

Acting out social roles is quite demanding and so in addition to the front-stage aspect of our lives, we also have back-stage areas where we can drop our front and be more relaxed, closer to our ‘true-selves’, and where we can prepare for our acting in the world.

We generally tend to think of performances as being of one or two types – the sincere and the contrived. Some people sincerely believe in the parts they are playing, they invest their true selves in the impression they give off, this is the typical case. However, other people act out their roles more cynically – they do not believe the parts they are playing are a reflection of their ‘true selves’ but instead only play their part in order to achieve another end.

However, most performances on the social stage fall somewhere between these two realities. What is required in social life is that the individual learn enough about role-playing to fulfil the basic social roles that are required of him during his life – most of us ‘buy into this’ and act out what is expected of us, so we invest an element of ourselves into our roles, but at the same time we don’t necessarily get into our roles in a gung-ho sort of way…. So most acting is neither fully ‘sincere’ or fully ‘contrived’ and most people oscillate between sincerity and cynicism throughout the day and throughout the role they are playing.

Some of the roles we play contradict each other – and so we need to keep audiences separate – some performances are only meant for certain audience members – For example a student might act studiously while at school but more care-free while amongst his friends outside of school.

Thankfully most audience members are tactful and voluntarily stay away from back-stage areas where we prepare for our social roles, and if we ever ‘fall out of character’ they tend to engage in ‘tactful inattention’ in order to save the situation.

The significance of Goffman’s work for A level Sociology

From a theoretical point of view Goffman criticises structuralist (Functionalist and Marxist) theories of socialisation – Marxism for example argues that school socialises children to passively accept authority and hierarchy thus preparing them for exploitation in later life. What Goffman’s theory suggests is that many children might just be acting out this acceptance of hierarchy in order to get through school with as little hassle as possible, while backstage they may think school is not particularly important, and they may not accept authority.

From a research methods point of view the significance of Goffman lies in the fact that f we really want to understand people, we would need to engage in participant-observation in order to get back-stage with them, because we only get to see peoples true feelings when they stop performing.

If a researcher merely gave people a questionnaire to fill out, or even if they did an in-depth interview with them – they could be perceived by the respondent as a member of an audience – and the results we get could just be a performance put on for the benefit of the researcher.

Ultimately from this Interactionist/ dramaturgical perspective human interaction is so intricately complex that the correct way to study human action is to look at either individuals or small groups and focus on the efforts they make to maintain their identities in public, and how these social identities differ from their more relaxed selves when they are back-stage.

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The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959)

Erving goffman (1959): the presentation of self in everyday life.

By Jason Taylor

Introduction

Erving Goffman (1922-1982) was “arguably the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century” (Fine & Manning, 2003, p. 34). This summary will outline one of his earliest works – The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life , originally published in 1956. The book was published more widely in 1959 with some minor changes and in 1969, won the American Sociological Association’s MacIver Award (Treviño, 2003). It has been listed by the International Sociological Association (1998) as the tenth most important book of the last century.

Goffman (1959, p.12) introduces his “report” as “a sort of handbook” which details “one sociological perspective from which social life can be studied”. In it, he describes “a set of features… which together form a framework that can be applied to any concrete social establishment, be it domestic, industrial, or commercial”.

Goffman (1959) intends on providing a unique sociological perspective from which to view the social world. He names this perspective dramaturgical analysis. Elegantly intuitive, this perspective directs us to view the social world as a stage. Goffman is using the language of the theatre to describe social interaction. Much like on the stage, ‘actors’ take on ‘roles’ – they engage in a performance . There is an audience who views and interprets this performance. There are props and scripts. And there is a ‘front stage’ and a ‘backstage’.

Following the introduction, the book is broken down into six main chapters. These are:

• Performances
• Regions and Region Behaviour
• Discrepant Roles
• Communication out of Character
• The Arts of Impression Management

These six chapters outline the six ‘dramaturgical principles’ of Goffman’s theory (Fine & Manning, 2003; Manning, 1992). This section will outline some of the core aspects of each of these ‘dramaturgical principles’. The first principle (performances) will be the most detailed of the six, because it is the fundamental theoretical basis for Goffman’s (1959) overall concept. The additional five principles can be seen as supporting and building upon this underlying idea. Following from this fairly extensive summary of the book, a critical evaluation will discuss some of its main criticisms and consider why it remains an exceptionally influential piece of Sociology. Finally, we will end with some cautionary advice from Goffman on the scope and practicality of his theory.

1. Performances

A “performance” may be defined as all the activity of a given participant on a given occasion that serves to influence in any way any of the other participants. (Goffman, 1959, p.26)

I have been using the term “performance” to refer to all the activity of an individual which occurs during a period marked by his continuous presence before a particular set of observers and which has some influence on the observers . (Goffman, 1959, p. 32)

So, by ‘performance’, Goffman (1959) is referring to any activity by an individual in the presence of others which influences those others.

It is important to recognise that there are various situations, circumstances and settings within which a performance can take place. One of the most obvious, perhaps, is a job interview. In this case, the interviewee is likely presenting a version of themselves that they believe the interviewer values in their employees – well-mannered, confident (but not arrogant), respectful, hard-working, trustworthy, and so on. They may attempt to present these characteristics through the way they dress, their posture, their manner and tone of speaking, their body language, etc. Indeed, the interviewer will also be putting on a performance – perhaps restraining themselves so as not to reveal too much about how the interview is going or presenting an authoritative demeanour, for example. However, performances occur in more subtle settings and situations, too. When a couple go out to dinner, they present themselves in a certain way – both towards each other as well as the person serving them and to other diners. The way we dress, the way we speak, the facial expressions we make, our body language, all amount to a kind of performance.

Goffman (1959) suggests that performances are an essential aspect of how we “define the situation”:

When an individual enters the presence of others, they commonly seek to acquire information about him or to bring into play information about him already possessed. They will be interested in his general socio-economic status, his conception of self, his attitude toward them, his competence, his trustworthiness, etc. Although some of this information seems to be sought almost as an end in itself, there are usually quite practical reasons for acquiring it. Information about the individual helps to define the situation, enabling others to know in advance what he will expect of them and what they may expect of him. Informed in these ways, the others will know how best to act in order to call forth a desired response from him. (Goffman, 1959, p.1)

Essentially, the argument here is that social interaction requires performances from all actors involved in any social interaction in order to define and negotiate the situation we find ourselves in. Through our performances, we make claims about what the situation is, who we are, and what to expect from one another.

A word of caution here. Goffman (1959) is not necessarily implying that individuals are consciously deceiving one another or ‘faking it’… at least, not all of the time:

At one extreme, one finds that the performer can be fully taken in by his own act; he can be sincerely convinced that the impression of reality which he stages is the real reality. When his audience is also convinced in this way about the show he puts on—and this seems to be the typical case—then for the moment at least, only the sociologist or the socially disgruntled will have any doubts about the “realness” of what is presented. At the other extreme, we find that the performer may not be taken in at all by his own routine. This possibility is understandable, since no one is in quite as good an observational position to see through the act as the person who puts it on. Coupled with this, the performer may be moved to guide the conviction of his audience only as a means to other ends, having no ultimate concern in the conception that they have of him or of the situation. When the individual has no belief in his own act and no ultimate concern with the beliefs of his audience, we may call him cynical, reserving the term “sincere” for individuals who believe in the impression fostered by their own performance. (Goffman, 1959, pp.17-18)

Certainly then, an individual may intentionally and consciously put on a performance in order to gain in some way from a given situation. However, performances occur in any and all social interactions. The performer may well be convinced that the performance they are giving is not really a performance at all and instead may view it as an authentic reflection of him- or herself.

Nonetheless, there has been criticism that Goffman presents a cynical view of the ‘self’. Manning (1992), for example, argues that Goffman’s theory is based on what he calls the ‘two selves thesis’. One aspect of the self is considered to be a careful performer, while the other is the “cynical manipulator behind the public performance” (Fine & Manning, 2003, p. 46). We will return to this and other criticism later in the discussion.

An essential aspect of performance, one we have considered in examples already, is what Goffman (1959) calls ‘front’:

It will be convenient to label as “front” that part of the individuals performance which regularly functions in a general and fixed fashion to define the situation for those who observe the performance. Front, then, is the expressive equipment of a standard kind intentionally or unwittingly employed by the individual during his performance. (Goffman, 1959, p. 22)

Front can be broken down into two broad components:

Setting: the manipulation of the environment to support a particular performance…

… involving furniture, décor, physical layout, and other background items which supply the scenery and stage props for the spate of human action played out before, within, or upon it.  (Goffman, 1959, p.22)

Personal Front:

refers to the other items of expressive equipment, the items that we most intimately identify with the performer himself and that we naturally expect will follow the performer wherever he goes. As part of personal front we may include: insignia of office or rank; clothing; sex, age, and racial characteristics; size and looks; posture; speech patterns; facial expressions; bodily gestures; and the like. (Goffman, 1959, p. 24)

Personal Front is broken down into two further categories – ‘Appearance’ and ‘Manner’. Appearance refers to the performers social status – how they are dressed, for example, or any status symbols they may have on show; while manner may be taken as “those stimuli which function at the time to warn us of the interaction role the performer will expect to play in the oncoming situation” (Goffman, 1959, p. 24). For example:

a haughty, aggressive manner may give the impression that the performer expects to be the one who will initiate the verbal interaction and direct its course. A meek, apologetic manner may give the impression that the performer expects to follow the lead of others, or at least that he can be led to do so. (Goffman, 1959, p.24)

Performances are often a collaborative effort. Individuals will often find themselves in situations whereby they must perform as part of a ‘team’. Examples of this include colleagues at work, students in a classroom, and family outings. ‘Teams’ work together to maintain a common impression and cooperate to contribute to defining the situation. They are required to trust one another to play their role convincingly.

Individuals who perform together as a team are therefore mutually dependent on one another. Each may have a specialised role to play, and there may be a ‘director’ who has “the right to direct and control the progress of the dramatic action” (Goffman, 1959, p. 97).  Members of a team are also generally aware that each individual within the team is performing while they are ‘frontstage’.

Members of a team also have access to a ‘backstage’ where they are able to relax and cease performing – to an extent. However, it should be recognised that each individual will still maintain their own personal performance, intended to be observed by other members of the team.

3. Regions and Region Behaviour

Continuing with the metaphor of the stage, Goffman (1959) considers there to be various regions, variably observable to different audiences, where performers will have more or less need to perform. He distinguishes between three different ‘regions’. These are front region , back region and outside region .

Front Region: Also referred to as ‘frontstage’. An audience is present and a performance is given. Essentially, an individual is ‘frontstage’, at least to a degree, any time they are in the presence of others.

Back Region: Also referred to as ‘backstage’. When ‘backstage’, individuals and teams can rehearse, relax and behave ‘out of character’.

[Backstage], the performer can relax; he can drop his front, forgo speaking his lines, and step out of character. (Goffman, 1959, p. 122)

An individual ‘backstage’ no longer has to be concerned with their appearance or manner, or with with manipulating the setting to accommodate or please an audience. Under normal circumstances the audience has little or no access to the backstage region.

Outside Region: A region occupied by ‘outsiders’ who are not intended to be present by a performer. These outsiders are neither performers or actors and are often considered to be ‘intruders’. Performances vary based on who is in the audience. Outsiders may cause confusion or embarrassment because they may not be the ‘intended audience’ for a specific performance. Goffman (1959) gives an example of a couple who regularly bicker unexpectedly receiving a guest who they do not wish to be aware of their marital troubles. Essentially, the current performance must be adapted to accommodate the outsider, although “rarely can this be done smoothly enough to preserve the newcomer’s illusion that the show suddenly put on is the performer’s natural show” (Goffman, 1959, p. 139), In other words, the ‘adapted’ performance may not be a convincing one.

4. Discrepant Roles

For far, we have considered most individuals to be categorised in one of three ways – a performer, an audience member, or an outsider. But Goffman (1959) notes that ‘discrepant roles’ also exist, where an individual may not appear what they seem or may not completely fit into any of these three predefined categories. Some examples of discrepant roles include:

The Informer:

… someone who pretends to the performers to be a member of their team, is allowed to come backstage and to acquire destructive information, and then openly or secretly sells out the show to the audience. The political, military, industrial, and criminal variants of this role are famous. If it appears that the individual first joined the team in a sincere way and not with the premeditated plan of disclosing its secrets, we sometimes call him a traitor, turncoat, or quitter, especially if he is the sort of person who ought to have made a decent teammate. The individual who all along has meant to inform on the team, and originally joins only for this purpose, is sometimes called a spy. It has frequently been noted, of course, that informers, whether traitors or spies, are often in an excellent position to play a double game, selling out the secrets of those who buy secrets from them. Informers can, of course, be classified in other ways: as Hans Speier suggests, some are professionally trained for their work, others are amateurs; some are of high estate and some of low; some work for money and others work from conviction. (Goffman, 1959, pp. 145-146)

A shill is someone who acts as though he were an ordinary member of the audience but is in fact in league with the performers. Typically, the shill either provides a visible model for the audience of the kind of response the performers are seeking or provides the kind of audience response that is necessary at the moment for the development of the performance.  (Goffman, 1959, p. 146)

We must not take the view that shills are found only in non-respectable performances… For example, at informal conversational gatherings, it is common for a wife to look interested when her husband tells an anecdote and to feed him appropriate leads and cues, although in fact she has heard the anecdote many times and knows that the show her husband is making of telling something for the first time is only a show. A shill, then, is someone who appears to be just another unsophisticated member of the audience and who uses his unapparent sophistication in the interests of the performing team. (Goffman, 1957, pp. 146-147)

Non-persons:

… are present during the interaction but in some respects do not take the role either of performer or of audience, nor do they (as do informers, shills, and spotters) pretend to be what they are not. (Goffman, 1959, p. 151)

Goffman suggests examples of ‘non-persons’ such as servants, children, the elderly and the sick. The term ‘non-person’ may come across as insensitive or prejudiced, but to be clear, Goffman is trying to outline how people are seen, thought about and treated within this framework. Such examples highlight members of society who are seen as neither performer, audience or outsider and do not make substantial impact on the way people behave in their presence. ‘Non-persons’ can often move between frontstage and backstage without causing the same sort of disruption that an ‘outsider’ might. Goffman’s (1963) work on Stigma adds a great deal of theory building on comparable concepts.

The Spotter: Undercover government or company ‘agents’ who act as a member or the public or team in order to check up on the conduct of employees or officials.

The Shopper:

… is the one who takes an unremarked, modest place in the audience… but when he leaves he goes to his employer, a competitor of the team whose performance he has witnessed, to report what he has seen. He is the professional shopper—the Gimbel’s man in Macy’s and the Macy’s man in Gimbel’s; he is the fashion spy and the foreigner at National Air Meets. [He] has a technical right to see the show but ought to have the decency, it is sometimes felt, to stay in his own back region, for his interest in the show is from the wrong perspective… (Goffman, 1959, pp. 148-149)

The Mediator: An individual who has access to both sides of a dispute but gives each side the impression that they are more loyal to them than to the other. Examples Goffman (1959) suggests are arbiters of labour disputes (negotiating between each side of the dispute), factory foremen (advancing the directives of upper management whilst maintaining the respect and willingness of workers) and chairmen or formal meetings (who are to moderate the meeting and ensure everyone is treated fairly). Goffman is amusingly cynical of ‘mediators’, concluding that they are essentially a ‘double-shill’:

When a go-between operates in the actual presence of the two teams of which he is a member, we obtain a wonderful display, not unlike a man desperately trying to play tennis with himself. Again we are forced to see that the individual is not the natural unit for our consideration but rather the team and its members. As an individual, the go-between’s activity is bizarre, untenable, and undignified, vacillating as it does from one set of appearances and loyalties to another. As a constituent part of two teams, the go-between’s vacillation is quite understandable. The go-between can be thought of simply as a double-shill. (Goffman, 1959, p. 149)

5. Communication out of Character

The discussion so far has outlined many of the ways in which a performer maintains their performance. There are, however, times when an actor may step ‘out of character’, revealing aspects of themselves that are not part of, and may be incompatible with, a given performance. For example, an actor who is unexpectedly startled or frightened while giving a performance may shout out “Good Lord” or “My God!” (Goffman, 1959, p. 169). Goffman outlines four forms this communication out of character may take:

• Treatment of the Absent: While backstage, performers may derogate and talk negatively about the audience, toward whom they speak about favourably whilst frontstage. Goffman gives an example of salespeople:

… customers who are treated respectfully during the performance are often ridiculed, gossiped about, caricatured, cursed, and criticized when the performers are backstage; here, too, plans may be worked out for “selling” them, or employing “angles” against them, or pacifying them. (Goffman, 1959, p. 170)

While it is asserted that derogative speech is most the common treatment of the absent, backstage performers may also talk positively about their audience in ways they would not whilst frontstage.

• Staging Talk: Backstage discussion between teams about various aspects of the performance, possible adjustments are considered, potential disruptions are explored, “wounds are licked, and morale is strengthened for the next performance” (Goffman, 1959, p. 176).
• Team Collusion: Communication between fellow performers and those backstage who are involved in maintaining the performance. One example of team collusion is instructions given through the in-ear piece of a television news anchor. However, team collusion can also be more subtle, such as through “unconsciously learned vocabulary of gestures and looks by which collusive staging cues can be conveyed” (Goffman, 1959, p. 181).
• Realigning Actions: Unofficial communication directed at the audience, often in an attempt to redefine the situation. Realigning actions may include “innuendo, mimicked accents, well-placed jokes, significant pauses, veiled hints, purposeful kidding, expressive overtones, and many other sign practices” (Goffman, 1959, p. 190). In the event that a performer is accused of unacceptable or improper communication out of character, through realigning actions they may attempt to claim that they did not ‘mean anything’ by their out of character communication and the audience is given a chance to disregard the outburst or mistake.

6. The Arts of Impression Management

It is a reality that performances have the potential to be disrupted. Audience members or outsiders may find their way backstage, for example, or communication out of character may result in a particular performance becoming irreconcilably contradictory with what the audience has witnessed.  ‘Impression management’ is a term used to describe the ways in which performers may plan and prepare ‘corrective practices’ for such disruptions (Goffman, 1959). These ‘dramaturgical disciplines’ may include techniques for covering up for teammates, suppressing emotions and spontaneous feelings, and maintaining self-control during performances.

Performers often rely on the “tactful tendency of the audience and outsiders to act in a protective way in order to help the performers save their own show (Goffman, 1959, p. 229). However, the tactfulness of the audience may not be enough to recover the situation, which may result in embarrassing and socially awkward consequences. As Goffman explains in his wonderfully Goffman way:

Whenever the audience exercises tact, the possibility will arise that the performers will learn that they are being tactfully protected. When this occurs, the further possibility arises that the audience will learn that the performers know they are being tactfully protected. And then, in turn, it becomes possible for the performers to learn that the audience knows that the performers know they are being protected. Now when such states of information exist, a moment in the performance may come when the separateness of the teams will break down and be momentarily replaced by a communion of glances through which each team openly admits to the other its state of information. At such moments, the whole dramaturgical structure of social interaction is suddenly and poignantly laid bare, and the line separating the teams momentarily disappears. Whether this close view of things brings shame or laughter, the teams are likely to draw rapidly back into their appointed character. (Goffman, 1959, 233)

Summary Conclusion

Here we will conclude this summary of Presentation of Self . It is a fairly extensive summary in comparison to many currently available and is focused principally on helping students to engage in the core ideas found throughout the book. As has become usual on this website, I have used extensive quotations with the aim of encouraging readers to explore this key text more directly. While I consider this summary to be fairly extensive, it does not nearly cover everything. My hope is that there is enough here to provide a relatively clear outline of what Goffman (1959) is trying to say. That said, it should be noted that Goffman’s theories are notoriously considered to be tricky to understand structurally. His work can be difficult to neatly condense and summarise. At the same time, something about his work changes the way we view the world. As Lemert (1997) puts it:

The experience Goffman effects is that of colonizing a new social place into which the reader enters, from which to exit never quite the same. To have once, even if only once, seen the social world from within such a place is never after to see it otherwise, ever after to read the world anew. In thus seeing differently, we are other than we were. (Lemert, 1997 – cited in Scheff, 2003, p.52)

Scheff (2003) adds:

Our vision of the world, and even of ourselves, is transformed by reading Goffman. (Scheff, 2003, p.52)

We will now move on to some critical analysis of the book.

The Presentation Of Self In Everyday Life

39 pages • 1 hour read

A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.

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Introduction-Chapter 3

Chapters 4-7

Key Figures

Index of Terms

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Summary and Study Guide

The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life is a sociological study of the ways individuals encounter each other. Published in 1956 by Erving Goffman , it focuses on the relationship between an individual carrying out a particular role in society (what Goffman calls a “performance”) and those who are present but not participant (whom he calls “observers”) in the activity. While the text begins with a general introduction to Goffman’s methodology, with Chapter 1 solely an analysis of the individual performer, Goffman’s larger aim is to outline the various ways groups of performers (what he calls “performance teams” or “teams”) interact with themselves and with observers, with the aim of fostering a specific and clear impression on the viewers.

By focusing on the larger group dynamics within a given social setting , Goffman successfully accounts for various phenomena that are largely taken for granted or seen as unworthy of rigorous academic study: the economic, racial, and gendered relations between workers and their boss; the role played by architecture and space in the staging of a performance; the various techniques and habits cultivated by performers to avoid any disruption to the situation; and so forth. Moreover, Goffman classifies the more marginal actors and observers that one may come across in everyday social settings (or what he calls “discrepant roles”). Additionally, by focusing on the interaction within and between performance teams and their audience , Goffman provides a detailed description of the various ways any given performer is continuously shifting between different modes of communication, such as formal in the presence of an audience and informal in the presence of fellow performers.

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This discrepancy between communication styles allows Goffman to engage in an ethnography of the ways any given social interaction always contains more than what the audience simply experiences. Thus, we hear stories of kitchen staff who dry their clothes over the stoves, or stories of how workers gossip behind the back of a customer who frequents their place of business. It is only by focusing on every possible position within a social situation that one can account for all of these interactions that, from the vantage point of the audience or a customer, are kept largely out of view.

However, Goffman’s main point is how we should understand this notion of the “self.” For Goffman, we should remember that among the various social interactions we have only a daily basis, the performances we encounter are not identical to the individuals carrying out those roles. Rather, the self that is given by a performer is always the image of an individual who is better or worse than the ideal person for their role. Thus, Goffman concludes with two implications. First, we should be careful not to treat someone’s performance as a reflection of their moral character or as a summation of the whole of their being. Second, we should remind ourselves that the self is merely a product of everything that goes into sustaining and carrying out a performance. As Goffman writes, “The self is a product of all of these arrangements, and in all of its parts bears the marks of this genesis” (253).

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The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life Kindle Edition

• Print length 263 pages
• Language English
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• Publication date September 29, 2021
• File size 1505 KB
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• ASIN ‏ : ‎ B09DNZT93C
• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Anchor (September 29, 2021)
• Publication date ‏ : ‎ September 29, 2021
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• File size ‏ : ‎ 1505 KB
• Text-to-Speech ‏ : ‎ Enabled
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• Enhanced typesetting ‏ : ‎ Enabled
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• Print length ‏ : ‎ 263 pages
• Page numbers source ISBN ‏ : ‎ B001LM11MW
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About the author

Erving goffman.

Erving Goffman was Benjamin Franklin Professor of Anthropology and Sociology at the University of Pennsylvania until his death in 1982. He is recognized as one of the world's foremost social theorists and much of his work still remains in print. Among his classic books are The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life; Interaction Ritual; Stigma; Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity; and Frame Analysis. William B. Helmreich is a professor of sociology at the CUNY Graduate Center and City College. He has written Against All Odds, The Enduring Community, Saving Children, and The Things They Say Behind Your Back all available from Transaction.

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The Presentation of Self in the Age of Social Media the Article by Bernie Hogan

This essay about self-presentation theory discusses the ways individuals manage others’ perceptions of them to achieve desired social and personal outcomes. It explores motivations behind self-presentation, including the desire for social acceptance, professional advancement, and self-esteem maintenance. The essay describes different strategies used in self-presentation, classified as assertive and defensive, and examines how these tactics vary across cultures. Furthermore, it considers the impact of digital technology, particularly social media, on self-presentation, noting both the opportunities and psychological pressures it introduces. The essay emphasizes the importance of understanding self-presentation not only to navigate social interactions more effectively but also to achieve greater authenticity and empathy in personal exchanges. It concludes by suggesting that mastering self-presentation can enhance one’s ability to navigate both real and virtual social landscapes.

How it works

The concept of self-presentation isn’t just some academic buzzword—it’s an essential part of how we navigate our everyday lives. Essentially, self-presentation is about the different ways we try to manage and control other people’s perceptions of us. Whether it’s curating our social media profiles, dressing up for a job interview, or just deciding what to say in a meeting, we’re constantly engaged in shaping how others see us.

Self-presentation isn’t just about striving for popularity or manipulating others’ views for nefarious reasons.

It’s a fundamental human behavior rooted deeply in our social fabric. It’s about survival and adaptation in a world where impressions can dictate our social, professional, and personal outcomes. Imagine going for a job interview and choosing to wear something casual instead of formal attire. That choice sends a message, whether you intend it or not. It’s this nuance and intention behind our actions that form the crux of self-presentation theory.

Sociologist Erving Goffman, one of the pioneers in studying this phenomenon, described it beautifully when he likened daily interactions to a stage play. In his view, everyone is both an actor and a spectator, performing roles tailored to different audiences. At work, you might play the diligent employee. At a party, you might be the carefree friend. Each setting demands a different performance.

Why do we engage in self-presentation? At its core, the motivation can usually be linked to one of three desires: to acquire resources, to build social ties, or to maintain self-esteem. In a professional setting, you might project confidence and competence to secure a job or a promotion. Socially, you might portray yourself as friendly and outgoing to win friends or a potential partner. What’s driving these performances is often the basic human need to belong and be accepted, alongside the need to feel good about ourselves.

Self-presentation strategies can broadly be classified into two types: assertive and defensive. Assertive self-presentation is when you take the initiative to shape others’ views by highlighting desirable qualities. This might involve showcasing your knowledge during a presentation or your ability to lead during a group project. Defensive self-presentation, on the other hand, is more about damage control. It’s the excuses we make when we’re late or the justifications we provide when a project doesn’t go as planned.

Both strategies have their place, and most of us use a mix of the two depending on the situation. What’s fascinating is how these strategies play out across different cultures and social settings. For instance, assertive tactics might be more appreciated in individualistic cultures like the United States, where self-promotion can be seen as a sign of strength and assertiveness. In more collectivist cultures, such as Japan, aggressive self-promotion might be frowned upon, and defensive tactics might be more common to maintain group harmony.

The advent of digital technology, especially social media, has transformed the landscape of self-presentation. Online platforms like Instagram, Facebook, and LinkedIn have become arenas for meticulous self-presentation. Here, you can edit, filter, and select what aspects of your life to display and how—often portraying a polished, idealized version of reality. The feedback loop created by likes, comments, and shares can further influence and reinforce these online personas.

But it’s not all positive. The pressure to maintain a perfect image on social media can lead to anxiety and depression. The disparity between the edited online self and the real, often messier self, can exacerbate feelings of inadequacy and insecurity.

Let’s consider a real-life scenario: preparing for a job interview. Here, self-presentation is critical. You choose your outfit carefully, rehearse answers to potential questions, and maybe even tweak your resume to highlight particular strengths. During the interview, you watch your body language, control your tone, and manage your responses—all efforts to influence the interviewer’s perception in your favor.

Another everyday example could be a first date, where the stakes are equally high, albeit more personally. Here, you might choose stories that showcase your interests, charm, and humor, all the while downplaying aspects of yourself that you feel might not be as appealing.

Understanding self-presentation doesn’t just make us more adept at managing impressions—it also makes us better at reading the situations and intentions of others. It encourages a more nuanced view of social interactions and can even lead to greater empathy, as we understand the pressures each person faces in their performative roles.

Moreover, by becoming aware of our own self-presentation tactics, we can strive for more authentic interactions. While it’s natural to want to put our best foot forward, finding a balance where our public personas align closely with our true selves can reduce stress and increase life satisfaction.

In essence, self-presentation is about the everyday art of managing impressions. Whether we are aware of it or not, each of us participates in this subtle dance of influence every day. By understanding the theory behind it, we not only become better at crafting our own public personas but also more understanding of others. As the digital realm continues to evolve, the principles of self-presentation will become increasingly relevant, making it an essential toolkit for navigating both the real and virtual worlds. Whether it’s for climbing the career ladder or just finding your place in a social group, effective self-presentation is a skill worth honing.

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The Presentation Of Self In The Age Of Social Media The Article By Bernie Hogan. (2024, May 01). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/the-presentation-of-self-in-the-age-of-social-media-the-article-by-bernie-hogan/

"The Presentation Of Self In The Age Of Social Media The Article By Bernie Hogan." PapersOwl.com , 1 May 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/the-presentation-of-self-in-the-age-of-social-media-the-article-by-bernie-hogan/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Presentation Of Self In The Age Of Social Media The Article By Bernie Hogan . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-presentation-of-self-in-the-age-of-social-media-the-article-by-bernie-hogan/ [Accessed: 11 May. 2024]

"The Presentation Of Self In The Age Of Social Media The Article By Bernie Hogan." PapersOwl.com, May 01, 2024. Accessed May 11, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/the-presentation-of-self-in-the-age-of-social-media-the-article-by-bernie-hogan/

"The Presentation Of Self In The Age Of Social Media The Article By Bernie Hogan," PapersOwl.com , 01-May-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-presentation-of-self-in-the-age-of-social-media-the-article-by-bernie-hogan/. [Accessed: 11-May-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Presentation Of Self In The Age Of Social Media The Article By Bernie Hogan . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-presentation-of-self-in-the-age-of-social-media-the-article-by-bernie-hogan/ [Accessed: 11-May-2024]

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I've Co-founded Over 20 Firms — These Are the Five Critical Questions You Need to Ask to Evaluate Your Startup's Health Have you checked your startup's pulse recently? If not, here are five questions to assess how your company is doing and which areas need more attention.

By Hilt Tatum IV • May 10, 2024

Key Takeaways

• Ask yourself the following five questions: How are my employees doing and how can I improve their well-being? How are we handling failure? Are we attracting the correct type of people to hire? How well do you understand where you're spending money? Are your employees taking initiative?

Opinions expressed by Entrepreneur contributors are their own.

If you ask me, entrepreneurship is one of the most challenging roles you could ever undertake. The stress and burden of starting and building a successful business — not to mention the pressure of keeping people gainfully employed — falls squarely on your shoulders.

It can be far too easy to become distracted by growing your revenue and sales to appease your investors that you forget to look at your company's health. The bigger your company gets, the heavier that load becomes. Yet, for those who have the fortitude to take it on, it's an exciting and rewarding experience, full of daily joys and challenges.

Regardless of your business type, every entrepreneur must take a step back from the daily grind and evaluate where their company is and if it is healthy . As an entrepreneur and venture capitalist, I always try to judge the overall well-being of a startup and focus on these five areas to make it a healthier company.

Related: I Wish I Received This Advice as a Young Entrepreneur

1. How are my employees doing and how can I improve their well-being?

No healthy startup stays that way if the people who keep it moving aren't healthy. If the pandemic showed us anything, it's that providing support and resources for health and wellness can positively impact employee morale .

A startup's commitment to creating a supportive and healthy work environment can help reduce stress and improve employee motivation, increasing engagement and productivity. I'm not talking about a general, one-size-fits-all approach that will simply be seen as a half-measure. Every person on your team is different, and each person's wellness needs differ.

Improving employee wellness

If your startup is still small, don't be afraid to talk to your employees directly to ask them how they're doing and to understand their wellness routines. These conversations will help you develop an informed strategy for the company to support their needs better.

For larger companies, reach out to an employee wellness consulting firm. Ask them to collect employee feedback, find out what your competitors are doing and use these data points to build a customized plan for your workforce. Don't exclude your own health in this area, either. As a leader, you must be on top of your game, setting an example for others to do the same.

2. How are we handling failure?

Depending on your personality type, risking failure may be the best or worst part of your startup life.

Most entrepreneurs realize that failure can be a good thing, but only if it's handled in the right way. While this can be hard to measure, here are a few probing questions to help get a clearer picture:

• Do I or my team dwell on failures longer than we should?
• Are we consistently repeating the same mistakes?
• Does fear of failure impact our motivation or creativity?

Strong leadership is critical

Ultimately, it falls on the leadership team to encourage a culture of learning from failure and implementing structures to leverage these lessons while preventing reoccurrences.

Encouraging leaders and employees to think critically and evaluate where things went wrong is vital. Meet with your teams and discuss these questions:

• What was in their control vs. out of their control?
• Looking back, were there any early signs that now seem apparent this would be a failure?
• What can we change in our process to better detect issues earlier?

Related: The Difference Between Startup Success and Failure Comes Down to This One Thing

3. Are we attracting the correct type of people to hire?

There are generally two types of employees: those working for a bigger paycheck and those working because they believe in the direction and culture . Is your business built for one type over the other?

It is vital to focus on building a business where people want to work rather than those who will just work there because they get paid above market rates. With younger employees, compensation is essential, but role and company fit are equally if not more important. This is another challenging area to check the status of, but a good sign is that you regularly receive inbounds on LinkedIn and directly from job seekers.

Hiring the best fits for your startup

So, where can you find suitable candidates?

Your employees are your greatest advocates , and while you need to be careful, you often find high-quality candidates from within their networks. Encourage your employees to take some ownership and let them be more involved in the hiring process, especially if your team is smaller.

4. How well do you understand where you're spending money?

You would be shocked at how often companies do not know how much money they spend per month, quarter or year. If you find yourself in this category — and it's okay to admit it — or you want to understand your financial picture more clearly, here are a few questions to ask yourself and your team:

• Do you have a budget, and is it realistic? Have other people in the organization sanity-checked it?
• How are you currently tracking compared to your budget?
• How well is spending aligned with your core strategy compared to new opportunities or potential distractions?

These are simple questions, but they can help you uncover significant flaws in your financial process.

An early focus on finances

Building a robust financial function early in the company's life cycle may cost more upfront. Still, it saves you and your startup headaches and costs in the future, especially when you start dealing with investors and auditors.

If your company is more mature and making significant financial progress, it may be time to invest in a strong CFO if you haven't done so already. You'll want to bring someone in who can tie company strategy back to your budget and spending and support the finance team.

5. Are your employees taking initiative?

Earlier, I mentioned the importance of hiring the right people for your organization. This aspect becomes solidified when you examine how often employees step up and take ownership — and whether you, as a leader, are encouraging it. As they experience the ins and outs of company life daily, your employees likely know the inner workings of your business better than you do. This is a good thing. It means they're deeply involved and invested.

However, it's essential to recognize whether your employees are bringing you new ideas of their own volition or simply obeying orders. Are they expressing their thoughts and opinions in meetings or sitting silently and listening only?

Promoting a culture of initiative

One of the best things you can do as a leader is to take the initiative yourself and speak with your employees, encouraging them to be critical of operations and providing them with a safe environment in which to do so. On certain occasions, this is better done through an external firm or using an anonymous method. As an investor, I've found more success speaking with employees directly and communicating feedback to management.

Related: 7 Easy Steps for Encouraging Employees to Take Initiative

A healthy perspective

Evaluating the overall health of your startup means paying attention to details beyond financial metrics. An entrepreneur must consistently assess the company's well-being and adjust as necessary to ensure long-term success. These five questions aren't comprehensive, but they are essential to building a healthy and sustainable business.

All of these require a keen sense of self-awareness as a leader. Leaders often operate isolated with "blinders on" in pursuit of their goals or revenue objectives, sacrificing the broader foundation of the business and how it will affect future scalability. As a long-term investor, I firmly believe in building a solid foundation, even if it means taking things a bit slower.

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CEO of Dale Ventures Group of Companies

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Mother's Day 2024: 5 meditation tips for moms to cultivate calm in everyday life

Dear moms, make sure to find some peaceful time for yourself every day with these easy meditation tips, this mother's day..

In the fast-paced life of today, meditation can be a very effective tool to manage emotions, increase productivity and stay calm. Especially for mothers who juggle with multiple tasks every day, some moments of mindfulness can boost efficiency and increase joy. Meditation isn't just about closing your eyes and focusing within, but also incorporating mindfulness in your daily life. Starting your day with some deep breathing can set the tone of the day, while spending some time with yourself can help sort thoughts. Balancing the demands of motherhood with self-care can feel like an uphill battle, but amidst the hustle and bustle, there lies an oasis of calm waiting to be discovered through meditation. (Also read | Mother's Day 2024: 10 self-care tips every mom must follow for health and happiness)

This Mother's Day, make sure to find some peaceful time for yourself every day with these easy meditation tips shared by Raman Mittal, Meditation expert and Founder of Idanim.

1. Embrace mini moments of meditation

Who says meditation has to be a lengthy affair? Incorporate micro-moments of mindfulness into your day, whether it's taking a few deep breaths while waiting for the kettle to boil or finding stillness in the midst of a chaotic morning routine. By embracing these mini moments of meditation, you can weave tranquility seamlessly into your daily life without adding extra stress to your busy schedule.

2. Make mindfulness a family affair

Get the whole family involved in the practice of mindfulness. Whether it's a peaceful walk in nature, a moment of gratitude before a family meal, or a bedtime meditation session with your little ones, incorporating mindfulness into family activities can strengthen bonds and create moments of shared serenity amidst the hustle and bustle of everyday life.

3. Create your zen zone

Designate a tranquil sanctuary within your home where you can retreat for moments of meditation and reflection. Whether it's a cozy nook adorned with plush cushions and flickering candles or a sunlit corner of your garden, make it your own. By creating a dedicated space for meditation, you signal to yourself and your family that self-care is a priority worth cherishing.

4. Experiment with meditation styles

Explore a variety of meditation techniques to discover what resonates most with you. From guided meditations that offer soothing narration and gentle prompts to mindfulness practices that focus on breath awareness and present-moment awareness, there's a meditation style for every mood and moment. Don't be afraid to experiment until you find the perfect fit for your lifestyle and preferences.

5. Practice self-compassion

As moms, we often put immense pressure on ourselves to be perfect. But perfection is overrated, and self-compassion is essential. If your mind wanders during meditation or you miss a session altogether, practice kindness and understanding toward yourself. Remember that you're doing the best you can, and every moment of self-care, no matter how small, is a step toward greater well-being for yourself and your family.

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Horoscopes Today, May 7, 2024

Here are the horoscopes for today, Tuesday, May 7, 2024.

For full daily and monthly horoscopes as well as expert readings, see our full Horoscopes experience .

What is your zodiac sign? A guide to what astrology can tell you about yourself

Get to know Taurus: Personality traits and more on this Zodiac sign

Taurus (April 20 - May 20)

Reconsidering your presentation? Today’s new moon falls in Taurus, prompting you to rethink your style of self-expression.

Is it in the stars? Free Daily and Monthly Horoscopes

Read the full Taurus Daily Horoscope

Gemini (May 21 - June 21)

Prioritizing rest? Under today's Taurus new moon, listening to your body plants seeds of structure and stability.

Read the full Gemini Daily Horoscope

Cancer (June 22 - July 22)

What’s your five-year plan? Get your ducks in a row and set long-range intentions under today’s Taurus new moon.

Read the full Cancer Daily Horoscope

Leo (July 23 - August 22)

Pondering your career goals? Under today's Taurus new moon, invoke patience and discipline to keep on the proper path.

Read the full Leo Daily Horoscope

Virgo (August 23 - September 22)

Are you sure of your position? The Taurus new moon encourages new learning experiences but cautions against a stubborn attitude.

Read the full Virgo Daily Horoscope

Libra (September 23 - October 22)

Cultivating trust? The Taurus new moon asks you to set intentions for risking closeness and intimacy.

Read the full Libra Daily Horoscope

Scorpio (October 23 - November 21)

An ending or beginning? Under the Taurus new moon, assess your relationship dynamics. What is and what isn’t working?

Read the full Scorpio Daily Horoscope

Sagittarius (November 22 - December 21)

Checking out the latest health trends? Under the Taurus new moon, your focus is on feeling good in your body.

Read the full Sagittarius Daily Horoscope

Capricorn (December 21 - January 19)

Following your passions? The evocative Taurus new moon might get dramatic! Set intentions for cultivating creative self-expression.

Read the full Capricorn Daily Horoscope

Aquarius (January 20 - February 18)

Seeking stability? The Taurus new moon asks you to get grounded. Set intentions for putting down roots.

Read the full Aquarius Daily Horoscope

Pisces (February 19 - March 20)

Soaking in the scenery? The Taurus new moon suggests touching grass. Get out in your neighborhood and do some meandering.

Read the full Pisces Daily Horoscope

Aries (March 21 - April 19)

Financial focus? Set intentions to solidify your material affairs during today’s Taurus new moon. Your primary goal is cultivating security.

Read the full Aries Daily Horoscope

This horoscope was generated automatically using information from Sanctuary . You can send feedback to Laura Trujillo at [email protected] .