civil service essay

Thursday, April 4

Previous issues, submit a tip.

Make civil service plan A

The Center for Career Development

Thomas buckley/the daily princetonian.

In Montgomery County, Maryland, where I grew up, the federal government was the backbone of the local economy. Over 10,000 people work at each of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Naval Hospital, with another nearly 10,000 employed by the Food and Drug Administration. Over one in five jobs in the county are in the government at some level — federal, state, or local. Civil service is woven into the fabric of the community.

My dad works at the NIH, and years ago my uncle worked on the first sequencing of the human genome there, so the idea of a career in public service always felt like a good option, and even a prestigious one. But when I got to Princeton, I was struck by how many of my classmates saw limited options beyond consulting and private sector work. Among students of all majors — people who are told that their degrees have “no applications,” like English majors, and those who have clear private pathways as well, like economics and math majors — there is a lack of vision about how to translate their skills into meaningful work for the public good.

Our potential is limited by our imagination , and our imagination is limited by what we have seen around us. Many of us have grown up not seeing the world of civil service jobs. It is an entire universe that goes practically unnoticed on Princeton’s campus. Princeton should do more to raise them up — to make them available, accessible, and attractive to students.

Studying climate science? The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has a place for you. English major? Every government agency needs your incredible writing and communication skills (my English major friend who loves rural America wrote speeches for the Agriculture Secretary for a decade and loved it). Studying medicine? The FDA , the NIH , the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), Medicare, Medicaid, and many other agencies offer you a way to use your skills to improve public health and save lives outside the profit-obsessed, vulture-like private health system. Studying economics? The Federal Reserve, the Treasury, and the Council of Economic Advisors want your skills in shaping policy that affects hundreds of millions of people, and other agencies employ hundreds of economists as well, not to mention Congress and the White House . Studying history? The Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C. does amazing research and exhibits, and the National Archives needs people to document and preserve the nation’s history.

Although most government jobs won’t pay you the six-figure salary directly out of undergrad that many consulting companies will, government jobs, especially federal jobs, pay well over time. Right out of college, Princeton alumni would probably start at a federal grade of “GS-7” (entry-level jobs for people with BAs and “Superior Academic Achievement”), and our salaries would likely range from about $56,000 to almost $73,000 (if we lived in the D.C. area — there’s a regional adjustment for cost of living). Get a Master’s degree first, and you’ll start around $68,000 to $89,000. With a doctorate, you’d probably get $82,000 to $107,000 to start off.

Some make even more than what’s offered by the standard GS (General Schedule) levels: If you qualify for “critical position pay” — which some Princeton graduates with certain in-demand technical skills almost certainly will later in their careers — you could qualify for the up to $221,000 salaries on the table “to recruit or retain … exceptionally well qualified” individuals. If you’re a medical doctor, they make an exception to the normal caps, allowing you to be paid up through $300,000 .  Even if you start at a regular rate, if you stay in the government and get standard promotions, you can eventually rise to making almost $200,000. That’s not to mention benefits including healthcare, retirement and childcare subsidies .

Yet at Princeton’s career fairs and in the coursework, civil service opportunities are marginalized. At the last career fair, only seven of the 99 employers fell into the government category and most of these were from state agencies in New Jersey. The only federal government agencies that did show up were security and defense: the FBI, the State Department, the US Navy, and the Marine Officer Program. Where are the federal scientific agencies? The economic policymakers? The communicators of our shared history? There are a few more available through Princeton’s PICS internship , as three federal agencies are listed: the Department of Agriculture, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, and the Department of Justice. But this is still far from the full range of government jobs.

And this problem of the absence of civil service goes further than just the careers we are offered. It is evident in what Princeton is teaching as well. Take my department, economics: we have not offered an undergraduate class mainly on government policy (taxes, spending, regulation, or monetary policy) since Spring 2020 ( Economic Inequality and the Role of Government ). Just one class currently offered focuses on market failure . There’s not much public-sector-oriented in macroeconomics currently offered at the undergraduate level, although there are some topic-area microeconomics classes (economics and law , the environment , disease , health , and agriculture ). Instead, Princeton students learn about finance — we have offered Portfolio Theory and Asset Management all but one year since 2015.

This needs to change. Princeton should be helping students with the specific training and vision to thrive and succeed in civil service. The University should promote these careers as a prestigious calling worth devoting ourselves to. At career fairs and recruiting events, federal agencies across the full breadth of the federal government should have a visible presence on campus. Let’s get Jerome Powell ’75 to rep the Fed to Princetonians. Students shouldn’t have to chase these opportunities — the norm should be that civil service jobs are beating down our seniors' doors with competitive offers.

For the next generation of Princeton grads, public service should not be an obscure Plan B. It should be an honored and hyped Plan A — a path burnished with our own prestigious graduates, with a sense of purpose and a devotion to the common good. Princeton is missing an opportunity to cultivate that ethos of excellence in civic responsibility. It’s time for the University to shine a light on these noble careers — and it’s time for Princetonians to take them.

Eleanor Clemans-Cope (she/her) is a sophomore from Rockville, Md. studying economics. She spends her time making music with Princeton University Orchestra and the Triangle Club and good trouble with Sunrise Princeton. She can be reached on Twitter at @eleanorjcc or by email at [email protected].

Hitch yourself to service, not just a man

“While this personal essay can be read as just another silly example of a writer unintentionally revealing their delirious worldview, her message to female Ivy League readers reflects an unconscionable acceptance of status-quo sexism and a serious lack of accountability for our duty to use our educational privilege productively and selflessly.”

Room draw for students with housing accommodations is actually unaccommodating

“I, or any student, should not have to choose between accepting what room I have been offered or losing my accommodations.”

We must not let eating clubs be ideological safe spaces

"The notion that merely being in the vicinity of someone whose views you find objectionable qualifies as a legitimate threat to your safety, health, or well-being is patently absurd — and should not be validated by any authority, Charter’s leadership included."

Most Popular

Correct the curves: princeton’s intro stem courses are inequitable, class of 2028 admitted, first class following affirmative action ban, princeton alum trey farmer ’93 arrested for possession of child pornography, ford graham ’86 indicted on multiple charges of fraud.

Civil Service System Explained Essay

Csra and its abilities to fix problems, pay band, pay scales, and pay for performance, federal personnel system and its panacea, works cited.

The Civil Service Reform Act was represented to public in 1978 in order to reform the civil service of the federal government in the Unites States of America. The essence of this act was to reorganize functions of the Civil Service and “to create a professional, well-managed federal workforce in keeping modern employment practices” ( Civil Service Reform 2).

The peculiar feature of this act is that civil servants and top mangers in particular got numerous opportunities to have bonuses or merit pay for their work. People tried to demonstrate the best results of their work in order to distinguish from the others and prove that they were worthy of these performance awards. Unfortunately, the attempts to achieve the desirable success led to a terrible failure only.

In spite of the fact that congress made numerous attempts to fund some of the bonuses and government was on the side of the bonuses, people realized that they could work just a little in order to get the desirable bonuses. People also got a chance to forget about numerous reprisals against whistleblowers, which limited their actions (Bardes, Shelley, and Schmidt 280), but still cannot comprehend the benefit of this opportunity and decrease the level of work and the abilities to save this act working.

Taking into consideration these facts, it is possible to give more or less clear answer to the question whether CSRA was able to fix problems for the federal system or to promote their development. The role of time is crucial in this concepts.

Because on the one hand, this act is a good attempt to encourage people to work and to demonstrate their potentials; on the other hand, with time, people realize that they can do nothing and still get benefits. It is the problem number one, created by both time and CSRA. New issues were presented, and they lead to new problems and new challenges, people have to cope with.

The results that congress makes all possible attempts to vote against NSPS (the National Security Personnel System) are not that positive. Pay for performance systems (another explanation of NSPS) usually aim at meeting all types of need of cultures and organizational structures of their nations ( Human Capital 4). General Schedule (GS) has been already replaced by NSPS. This system also becomes more effective than pay band system.

The peculiar feature of NSPS is its ability to provide flexible payment levels and to decrease people’s efforts while paying for performance. Taking into account the fact that GS schedule is used by the variety of white collar personnel in the existed civil services, I think that General Schedule system has to be modified in order to meet the conditions under which National Security Personnel System works and provides a qualified pay for performance system.

This modification may happen in the following way: NSPS system is closer to private affairs and their effective collaboration; it attracts more and more performers; and if the conditions of NSPS are used in GS system, where federal salaries have to be kept on the same level with other federal affairs, the improved system makes GS system closer to private agents. So the level of competition, pay scales, and pay bands systems become easier to control and to improve if necessary.

Time is one of the most influential factors on the development of the federal personnel system. This system may be under the influence of numerous concepts, and this is why it is crucially important to improve this system as frequent as possible.

The Civil Service Reform offered by the United States General Accounting Office may serve as a kind of panacea for the federal personnel system because it presents the evaluation of the Civil Service Act of 1978, analyses the service system and defines it as a “burden some for manager”, and investigates the actions of congress and the discussion of their decisions.

The federal personnel system touches upon numerous issues like equity, fairness, and accountability and works on the establishment of the rules and procedures, which meet resource requirements and demands (Abramson and Gardner 69).

And because of time, it is considerably broken: inability to meet the challenges of the currently developed world, failure to analyze the attempts to deepen into knowledge-based environment, and finally, presence of NSPS conditions, which influence the development of the system.

To introduce a new, improved, and able to answer all modern standards, the federal personnel system should considers technological development, attract the attention of people due to its abilities to cope with any modern challenge, and to prove its readiness to help and support people at different working levels.

The debates within the sphere of civil services and the federal personnel system are not a new concept to deal with, and to improve the current state of affairs, it is obligatory to start analysis the development of the system from the end of the 1970s, when the Civil Service Reform Act was adopted.

Abramson, Mark, A. and Gardner, Nicole, W. Human Capital 2002 . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2002.

Bardes, Barbara, A., Shelley, Mark, C., and Schmidt, Steffen, W. American Government and Politics Today: the Essentials . Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2009.

Civil Service Reform: Changing Times Demand New Approaches. United Sttaes General Accounting Office . 12 Oct. 1995. 18 Dec. 2009. Web.

Human Capital: Implementing Pay for Performance at Selected Personnel Demonstration Projects . United States General Accounting Office . Jan. 2004. Web.

Urgent Business for America: Revitalizing the Federal Government for the 21 st Century . Report of the National Commission on the Public Service . Jan. 2003. Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2022, April 1). Civil Service System Explained. https://ivypanda.com/essays/civil-service-system/

"Civil Service System Explained." IvyPanda , 1 Apr. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/civil-service-system/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'Civil Service System Explained'. 1 April.

IvyPanda . 2022. "Civil Service System Explained." April 1, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/civil-service-system/.

1. IvyPanda . "Civil Service System Explained." April 1, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/civil-service-system/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Civil Service System Explained." April 1, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/civil-service-system/.

• National Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy in Canada
• Environmental Defense v. Duke Energy
• New Public Management Can Be Considered to Be Both a Panacea and a Plague to Public Administration
• Chapters 7-9 of "International Trade" by Suranovic
• Autosuggestion as the World Panacea
• Buyer-Seller Negotiations: Strategy and Process
• The AA-DD Model in Monetary Economics
• Social Media for Strategic Business Communication
• Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Ability III Edition: Critique
• Interventional Radiology and Its Unexplored Uses
• Environmental Analysis in Norway
• The US and Japanese Constitutions
• City Government System paper: Perris California
• Torture During the Algerian War and Its Relevance on the War on Terror
• Organic Food and Healthy Eating

Civil Services Essay Exam (Mains) – Tips for Writing the Best Essay

The Civil Services Essay Mains Exam is one of the essential exams in the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) Civil Services Mains Examination. For this part, candidates have to write two essays, each with a word count of 1000 – 1200 words or as per the latest requirement of the UPSC. The candidates can select one out of four options. Each essay comprises of 125 marks with a total of 250 marks.

Candidates need to prepare well for this exam, and they should start practising for this exam after analyzing the pattern from the previous year papers.

Note- It is recommended that you follow specific steps while writing the essay paper.

• Read the topics thoroughly in order to be able to choose one out of four topics. Selecting a topic for UPSC plays a very critical role in determining your chances of scoring good marks in the result, make sure you know most about that topic out of the given topics.
• Do not pick a sensitive or controversial topic.
• Never select a topic which you are too passionate or feel strongly about as it can lead to a very personal and opinionated essay.
• Think and take some time in justifying your chosen topic.
• After finalizing your topic, you should think about the key areas and points you want to cover in the essay, and you shouldn’t start writing it right away. It is essential to remember and collect your thoughts on the topic.  Start writing your points with pencil, as this is essential because only then you can re-write your critical points in the correct sequence while writing your final essay.

Note- Once you have decided upon the key points, you can start framing the final essay. While writing, you need to focus on a good structure.

Recommended Structure of the UPSC Civil Services Mains Exam Essay Paper

• Start with a strong introduction.
• Historical facts.
• Describe the main issue/problem.
• Plot the current scenario/current news related to the topic.
• Positive and negative aspects of the topic.
• Obstacles while solving the problem.
• Reforms/way forward.

Get some extra marks by including the following pointers

• Relevant or motivational quote/saying by any famous personality
• Relevant government schemes and policies.
• Any data and stats based information should be correct.

Essential points to consider while writing the essay

• Never get personal in your essay.
• Don’t have extreme views on any topic.
• Don’t just present problems. Give possible reforms/solutions also.
• Don’t criticize anyone/anything excessively with a single point of view.
• Never choose a provocative topic for your essay; your essay shouldn’t be the centre around it. Present a balanced picture. You don’t HAVE to agree to the issue.
• Avoid writing perfect solutions.
• Understand the fact that you are a future officer.

Other points to keep in mind while preparing to write the essay

• What does the UPSC say about the essay paper?
• What resources do you have to prepare?
• How do you improve language and expression?
• A better understanding of subheadings and rough drafts.
• What words or mistakes should you avoid?
• How do you write a compelling and grammatically correct introduction?
• Developing the content strategy of the essay.
• Substantiating your arguments and points.
• How do you conclude an essay with a call to action?

One of the essential papers in the UPSC Civil Services Mains Exam is the Essay Paper. Candidates are required to write two essays, each having 1000 to 1200 words. To qualify for this part, candidates should score 125 out of the 250 total marks.

To be able to get favorable scores, candidates can follow the recommended structure for the UPSC Civil Services Mains Exam Essay paper.

Areas covered in this article

• Tips to write a good essay for the UPSC Civil Services Mains Exam

Related Links

• UPSC Civil Services Exam Notification
• Civil Services CSAT Exam : A Comprehensive Guide on How to Prepare [Updated for 2021]
• Top 10 UPSC Preparation Mistakes That Almost All Civil Service Aspirants Make and How To Avoid Them

Essay: Civil Service Reform: Methods and Practices

• April 28, 2022
• Chronicle of the reform, from the initial stage of investigation and diagnosis to the recommendation, design, and implementation of the pilot plan of the reform and the planning for a broader implementation
• Restructuring and modernizing the organizational structures of the agencies of the Government of Puerto Rico
• Compensation benchmarking methodology to ensure competitive, fair, and justified salaries in the government

Arnaldo Cruz, Olivier Perrinjaquet Cruz, Emmanuel Alemar

Related posts.

• Skip to primary navigation
• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar

UPSC Coaching, Study Materials, and Mock Exams

Enroll in ClearIAS UPSC Coaching Join Now Log In

Call us: +91-9605741000

UPSC Civil Services Exam Previous Year Question Papers (IAS/IPS)

Last updated on January 26, 2024 by Alex Andrews George

Do you wish to download or practice UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)?

This post contains links for free download of official UPSC question papers from 2011.

Table of Contents

Practice Previous Year UPSC Questions Online

ClearIAS Mock Exam platform offers the facility to re-take UPSC Preliminary Exam questions from 2011 to 2023 with negative marking (answers as per official UPSC key).

• Re-Take UPSC CSE Prelims General Studies Paper 1 Questions (from 2011)
• Re-Take UPSC CSE Prelims General Studies Paper 2 Questions (from 2011)

Note: To practice UPSC CSE Prelims model exams, join the ClearIAS Prelims Online Mock Test Series .

Download UPSC Civil Services Exam Previous Year Question Papers: Prelims

ClearIAS provides the option to download the previous year’s UPSC CSE questions as PDFs.

Click the below links to download UPSC Prelims question papers from 2011.

Learn more from: ClearIAS Study Materials

Download UPSC Civil Services Exam Previous Year Question Papers: Mains

Click the below links to download UPSC Mains question papers from 2011.

Analysis of UPSC CSE Mains Previous Year Question Papers

• Essay Paper

Official UPSC Answer Keys

You can find the official UPSC answer key for various exams conducted last year from the link – UPSC Answer Keys .

Note: You will get answer keys for only the latest exams from the above link. If you need official keys for the last 10+ years, explore Re-Take option of PYQs provided by ClearIAS .

We have provided an opportunity to take previous year’s UPSC questions (year-wise) in a timed environment to get your performance reports. You will also get solutions (as per official UPSC answer keys) and detailed explanations in your user account in our mock test platform.

Official UPSC Cut-Off Marks

Find the official UPSC cut-off marks for various exams conducted last year from the link – UPSC Cut-Off Marks .

Aim IAS, IPS, or IFS?

About Alex Andrews George

Alex Andrews George is a mentor, author, and social entrepreneur. Alex is the founder of ClearIAS and one of the expert Civil Service Exam Trainers in India.

He is the author of many best-seller books like 'Important Judgments that transformed India' and 'Important Acts that transformed India'.

A trusted mentor and pioneer in online training , Alex's guidance, strategies, study-materials, and mock-exams have helped many aspirants to become IAS, IPS, and IFS officers.

Reader Interactions

May 10, 2014 at 6:44 pm

one simple doubt, for mains optional we have to choose two subjects or one with paper one and two???? please any one help me

June 18, 2014 at 9:47 pm

only one…

June 30, 2017 at 9:25 am

Hello bro kya aap bata sakte hain samnya adhyan 1,2,3,4 k liye kaun si book padhni chahiye

April 6, 2019 at 1:10 am

Thanks for sharing

October 29, 2019 at 12:28 am

hi, ias mains book list you tube pe search karo then you will get your answer.

September 9, 2016 at 1:16 pm

Only one paper of optional can be choose by applicant in upse mains which contains two paper,paper 1 and paper 2 having 250 marks each paper

November 15, 2016 at 8:02 am

June 10, 2018 at 3:37 pm

We have to choose one subject..for that subject there are 2papers

June 15, 2018 at 12:07 pm

Only one subject u have to choose but there is two paper if that subject in upsc mains

August 8, 2018 at 2:29 pm

muja ips ka bara ma jan na ha aap muja es ka bara ma bata eya ips exam,selabus,etc. all details lease

December 19, 2018 at 1:01 pm

You have to choose one subject. Both the paper one and to of optionals will be of the chosen subject.

December 28, 2018 at 9:45 pm

Only one subject you have to choose..but it consist of two papers..paper 1-250 marks paper 2-250 marks

February 4, 2019 at 3:25 pm

We have to chose one subject as for the mainstream optional and in that two parts we have to study

March 23, 2019 at 9:15 am

How do u knw that ur doubt is simple?

June 20, 2020 at 6:16 pm

December 20, 2020 at 3:49 pm

Hi u need to choose only *one subject* which is having two papers from optional subjects.

July 2, 2014 at 11:17 am

For paper A and B,only language is required or their literature also have to study with the subject has been choosen??plz clear my confusion

November 15, 2016 at 8:06 am

only language.

July 2, 2014 at 8:08 pm

sir piz add answer to questions paper

February 4, 2019 at 9:24 am

Which paper, ?

September 26, 2014 at 11:45 am

where can i find last 30 years prelims questions ?

October 30, 2014 at 11:24 am

Sir i am student of mechanical engineering of 2nd year sir i want to preparing for ias exam ,sir i want to take optional subject political science .sir can i take it

October 30, 2014 at 2:10 pm

Yes. You can.

January 10, 2017 at 9:02 pm

sir i want to preparing for ias exam sir how many subject can take in mains exam

August 16, 2018 at 3:16 am

U have to give totally 26 subjects. You choose any one subject and any one language England or Telugu

September 20, 2018 at 4:21 pm

I want to make Ips officer

November 15, 2016 at 8:10 am

First try to write sentences that are at least not laced with phrases like “to preparing for ias exam…”.

July 3, 2018 at 6:31 pm

ofcourse you can

January 22, 2015 at 12:43 pm

Sir I have done b tech mechanicals I want to be a ias officer how and from were I start this I m totally confused plz help me.

February 1, 2015 at 8:59 am

sir I am a student of std. 10 …. My only dream is I.A.S .. Can i start my coaching. ??

March 14, 2016 at 12:09 am

Babu pehele 12th mein pass ho jao… Phir IAS ka sochna

July 24, 2016 at 1:33 pm

S u can join coaching centre bt ur age is not comfortable for understanding the coaching, so better is u must complete the 2nd pu

May 18, 2018 at 5:24 am

January 11, 2019 at 9:45 pm

No. Your time will come. Everything has it’s own time, otherwise the labor & enthusiasm may go in vain

February 4, 2019 at 9:29 am

Not now my child

April 10, 2015 at 11:18 pm

hello, sir i need info about ips exams.. which languages are allowed in ips examination…gujarati language is allowed ?!

August 25, 2017 at 6:42 pm

Yes….but question paper language only in English and Hindi

May 30, 2021 at 12:52 pm

I want to know after 12th what should i do for I.A.S ….can you clear out cuz i have 5 years gape after 12th so it’s possible or not

April 11, 2015 at 5:18 pm

sir i am a student of B.A final and done my exam but result nt cm can i do i.a.s pre exam i am confused plz help me

June 13, 2016 at 1:17 pm

April 20, 2015 at 11:24 pm

Sir, I have given my 12th main exams with PCB and I want to prepare for IAS thoroughly, which are the best institutions for UPSE exam and which which degree you would prefer me to take as to save my most of the time to study for Ias

April 6, 2019 at 10:09 am

I also have the same doubt

May 3, 2015 at 2:56 pm

Sir I am student Sanskrit sub. I want toprepare IAS exam I can do it please sand me ias rules for apply IAS exam

May 6, 2015 at 9:23 pm

sir i have qualified 12 class in 2015 by PCM. but my physics is too poor.i think i should graduate from BA and prepare for IAS exam. will it b right sir?

July 18, 2018 at 11:37 pm

May 24, 2015 at 11:07 am

sir, i want to take hindi honours ………….will I able to appear UPSC exam ??????

December 24, 2020 at 7:00 pm

Ha aap aapne aap par confidence rakhe, Kare ke liye sab kuch aasan he or hoga

May 29, 2015 at 12:42 am

sir im ba final year student now. i want to know the ias exam process from beginning to end in detail. plz gave me reply

June 19, 2015 at 11:17 am

IAS can be cleared, what ever subject you take for 12th or graduation. So take subjects of your interest. Of-course there are certain overlapping subjects which can give you an edge in UPSC exams. But you don’t need to take graduation subject just for the sake of UPSC preparation. Almost every query of a fresher is answered in the article: Clear IAS FAQ. Please go through the same in detail. All the best!

June 30, 2015 at 2:57 pm

Sit I’m BE student final year I want a IAS officer pls help me witch subject I have to take

July 8, 2015 at 1:24 pm

i’m B.com student final year I want IAS officer pls me which subject i have to take

August 23, 2015 at 5:25 pm

Sir , I’m 2nd year student of b.tech ECE , my dream is to become ias officer , but don’t know how to start , can u guide me sir , please .

January 26, 2019 at 5:04 pm

Hello safiya,u can start ur training by joining a best coaching institute,near to ur residents u can start ur coaching from now if u can manage ur BTech and IAS coaching,if not after BTech take its coaching,if u study u can achieve any thing.thank u

November 2, 2015 at 9:04 pm

can english literature be a optional subject or its a compulsory subject

December 15, 2015 at 9:51 pm

I read in class 12th I want to make an IAS officer

January 8, 2016 at 1:36 pm

Sir I wanna know each nd everything about Ias examination I only become Ias officer can u explain me how to start preparation for it

January 15, 2016 at 3:42 pm

Sir i am ips officar start guadence work

January 22, 2016 at 7:04 pm

sir I am 3rdyear Biochemisty student my aim is to became a IAS officer.i want idea to start preparing for xam and help me with exam syllabus plz

February 2, 2016 at 1:58 pm

Sir I have done engineering sir i want to preparing for ias exam ,sir i want to take optional subject urdu .sir can i take it

March 22, 2016 at 4:25 pm

Sir Maine 15/06/2015 ko IAS pre exam from applied kiya exam date please

December 17, 2017 at 9:53 am

Sir kya mai IAS ki taiyari kisi bhi state se Taiyari kar Sakta hun

May 7, 2016 at 5:10 pm

Hello sir My Name is Shahjada kalam & My Aim is ips officer and My qualification is B.com 2nd year … And sir My engiish is week so can i prepare ips in hindi medium…..Please help me

February 13, 2019 at 3:58 pm

I’M NISHCHITHA DEVADIGA MY AIM IS IPS OFFICER AND MY QUALIFICATION IS BA COMPLETED. PLEASE IPS PROCIDURE AND RULES..

May 17, 2016 at 1:07 pm

Sir l am in class 12, (pcm) sir my aim is to become an ips officer. Sir what should i do after completing 12. Sir please advise me and help me. Plz…

September 18, 2016 at 5:15 pm

Ready to get this contact 8533092764

May 19, 2016 at 7:40 pm

HI I WANT TO APPEAR UPSC EXAMINATION I AM STUDENT OF GRADUATION PART 1 POL SCIENCE BUT STILL RYT NOW I AM NOT GETTING WHATS ACTUALY NEED FOR THE UPSC AND WHICH TYPE OF SYLBUSS I HAVE NEED PLEASE GUIDE ME IAS CLEAR. ANAS KAMAL

May 31, 2016 at 2:07 pm

Sir i am doing Btech. My only one dream is to become an IAS officer but i don’t have enough knowledge about the procedures and coaching centres ..so can you please help me to be ome an IAS officer

June 4, 2016 at 2:29 pm

UPSC Civil Services Exam Previous Year Question Papers (IAS/IPS): This post contains links for free download of official UPSC question papers from 2009 to 2015.

lINKS ARE INACTIVE OF 2009 TO 2013.Please correct it

June 4, 2016 at 2:46 pm

UPSC has taken out the links recently.

June 5, 2016 at 10:33 pm

sir,I clear 12th . kya m IPS kr sakta hu

June 14, 2016 at 10:30 pm

i have very less time to study. is it enough to solve only sample papers from your site and other coaching centres like vision?

June 16, 2016 at 2:57 pm

Sir,there is available books upsc in hindi medium.online books are isufficient books for upsc

June 26, 2016 at 9:40 pm

please share me the previous years prelims Q.paper . with analysis, subject taken from.. i had a pdf of 2015 CSP ..PLZ POST other Q.papers till 2011 ..thank u

June 27, 2016 at 11:22 pm

sir /mam , i am an employee of centeral police as constable as i have passed my 12th throught CBSE from JNV , sir i have an great urge to crack IAS but sometimes it seems too tought for me because of time bond . so can u plzzz suggest me to crack without any special coaching ,or it’s necessary to join any institute for coaching , plzzz tell mee sir . and i m reading Magbooks for prelims and mains , are they good for me or not plzzz suggest me it will be your most kindness plzzz sir/mam

December 26, 2017 at 5:43 pm

sir, it’s not necessary to join any institute for coaching for preparation of UPSC exam. You also study in online for UPSC exam. Best of luck

July 24, 2016 at 11:02 am

Sir I am completed 12 class in this yrr with 86.6% math group my main target qualified IAS exam sir please suggest me how I prepare for this exam

July 26, 2016 at 12:53 pm

Sir which the best prepartion for IAS. which books is perfect to prepare of IAS.

August 1, 2016 at 6:53 pm

sir actually I dine his 10 class And I took ARTs background side then what should be first step for me

August 9, 2016 at 8:19 am

I am studying in mechanical engineering , can I take literature as optional subject

December 26, 2017 at 5:49 pm

yes, you take literature as an optional subject, don’t worry. Best of luck

August 23, 2016 at 5:25 pm

Sir I am a student of 10th class and my only aim is to become an I.A.S Officer .so please advise me what stream I will choose next year.

March 22, 2017 at 5:13 pm

you should choose the maths in allien institue kota …….

September 17, 2016 at 4:36 pm

Can i have previous year question papers plzz

September 21, 2016 at 9:33 am

sir how i reconfirm my email id for registration

October 13, 2016 at 9:38 am

Who do preparation??

November 2, 2016 at 3:27 pm

sir I am doing bsc hotel management…but I am not comfortable with this course..it was my parents who forced me to join the hotel management.But i want to become a IAS officer .can i apply for the exam after my course!!!??

December 26, 2017 at 6:11 pm

Yes, you can apply for UPSC exam. Best of luck

December 26, 2017 at 6:23 pm

yes, you can apply for UPSC exam. After your graduation. Don’t worry, best of luck

November 6, 2016 at 2:06 pm

I am in 2 nd year architcture…. I want to give IAS xam.. Plz hlp me ..i want to know at what stage i should start its preparation n frm where… Mns books and subjects….

November 6, 2016 at 10:49 pm

Hlw sir, My name is priyatam debnath.. Nd I study B. Sc nursing in Tripura Medical college. After graduation…. I will face IPS exam. So, I need help for this exm.

December 26, 2017 at 7:02 pm

you follow this link : https://www.clearias.com/upsc-exam-guidance/ Best of luck.

January 26, 2017 at 2:26 am

Geart job by clear IAS team, Thanx a lot to you people . You are like pole star to a wandered sailor.

February 3, 2017 at 12:43 pm

i actually read Times Of India newspaper!! Is it useful or not?? And in newspapers what should i concentrate more on?? Please help me out…Please!!

February 14, 2017 at 10:45 am

Anyone help me to fill the forms of ips/ias can we fill both by same tym or one person can face only one exam

March 6, 2017 at 7:52 pm

I am student of 9th standard.I want to be an IAS officer. On which subjects I must pay attention. Else social studies, I like all the subjects. What should I do.

March 24, 2017 at 10:43 am

hlw sir.. i am aarti jha and i want to become a ips officer..i am in 11 standard .but i take science in 11 ..so that it was correct for me to cracker ups exam or not ..plz suggest mei which subject i had to take in collage

June 3, 2017 at 4:08 pm

Sir I m doing b.sc 2 ND yr and u want to be a IAS plz guide me and I want to know the language system and more information about the exam

October 3, 2017 at 5:57 pm

drop ur no. here i will clear ur confusion

December 26, 2017 at 6:59 pm

you follow this link : https://www.clearias.com/upsc-syllabus/ best of luck

June 4, 2017 at 10:25 am

Plese help me sir I join for upsc exam

July 14, 2017 at 9:01 pm

sir i am shyam, iam studying degree B.A .SIR i want to become a IAS officer . how to prepared in civil serivces . SIR i am telugu medium student. sir nenu na goal in reach avagalana sir

December 26, 2017 at 6:54 pm

August 13, 2017 at 6:26 pm

Sir i have a question. Did main exam of ias contain mcq or writing answer

December 26, 2017 at 6:37 pm

essay writing of mains paper pattern. Best of luck

October 3, 2017 at 5:51 pm

i am doing bsc from ignou.. will i be eligible for upsc after completing my grad

October 6, 2017 at 12:29 pm

Respected sir; I am Digendra ;student of 12 class (CBSE board).I have pcm and I want to become an IAS officer.So please tell me what I do now. Thanks

December 3, 2017 at 11:32 pm

My question is,can I choose two languages for different subjects,as one in hindi and another one in english.. Is this possible ????? Pls tell me….

December 26, 2017 at 6:48 pm

It’s not possible. you take only one language Hindi or English. Best of luck.

Sir plzzz tell me ias ke exam me questions Hindi language me hote hain ya fir hindi or English dono languages me… plzzz sir reply me I m confused

December 26, 2017 at 6:43 pm

Hindi and English both language. Best of luck

December 26, 2017 at 6:50 pm

Best of luck with your career

December 30, 2017 at 11:14 am

Sir where do i get upsc civils past 25 years previous papers??

December 30, 2017 at 11:16 am

Where do i get free downloads of all exams by upsc ??

January 2, 2018 at 1:58 pm

Sir my am war to be an IAS office sir can you please help me to find out how many subjects were required for ias

January 5, 2018 at 3:36 pm

Sir, is i have to write mechanical engineering subject in kannada language if I chosed to write in kannada language..?

January 10, 2018 at 11:11 am

Sir I am 1st year BALLB student … I want to become IPS officer but … there is one problem that .. my eye vision is .. some what bad so … can u help me

January 14, 2018 at 6:04 pm

I am student of class ninth i want to be an ips officer. I do not like social science subject. Can i apply for upse exam without studying this subject?

January 29, 2018 at 3:47 pm

I would like to become a ias officer , how can I improve myself.

February 6, 2018 at 7:25 pm

hlo sir, i am a student dentist (3rd proff.) and i am aiming at cracking IAS , could you please guide me as in what books to study and also where can i get previous years papers.

February 16, 2018 at 10:25 pm

My dream is … Mala IPS vaichay.. Me maharastra Madhe rahate so.. I like my culture and mother tan…. lps is my dream… I’m in 11th art class and I want get a complete graduation and i have after 12th I ‘ll start to MPSC exam study….. I’m vary happy with my dream come true…. And I have come true my dream …….. Let’s Smile….. 😊😉🙏

March 1, 2018 at 3:49 pm

Its very helpful for all students as well as everyone … Thanks for great job

March 10, 2018 at 5:21 pm

Sir/madam,I have one doubt ias preliminary exam paper 2 is optional paper questions are asked? ..

March 14, 2018 at 12:13 pm

sir i m a graduate in b.com hons.,can i apply for INDIAN FOREST SERVICE??plzzz reply

March 28, 2018 at 10:11 pm

Sir in IPS exam is there any paper is in Gujarati or hindi, because I don’t know this two languages. I know only English!!!! Sir pls answer my question!!!!!

March 31, 2018 at 4:22 pm

Sir I wanna be a police officer on the base of ips can you help me that what should I do

April 17, 2018 at 5:57 pm

Hlo sir, I have completed my graduation but pol science was not my subject in graduation, can I apply for IAS

April 21, 2018 at 12:56 pm

I m a student of 8th I want to become an IAS officer…..so whn should I start my course..

May 7, 2018 at 1:22 pm

Sir I have passed my inter this year . My dream is to become an IAS officer. So whether I should opt for BA or BSc to complete my graduation Please reply soon

May 10, 2018 at 12:08 am

I am BA Economic student.How many subjects are selected for optional subject.I am very interested in History.

May 20, 2018 at 11:59 am

Respected sir Am doing 11 on bio-math group . I wish to be an I P S officer,and am totally confused about my future courses and finally to my dream I P S .And i wish to graduate Ship-Arc from CU SAT as the key to I C S . Sir please correct me if you note any missing or mistakes on my plan .

June 7, 2018 at 8:40 am

Hello Friends !!! Good Morning Everyone !!! I am also a Civil Engineering students !!! And I am very confused !! So please help me that how to start !!!!

June 7, 2018 at 7:06 pm

Sir I read in +3 first year so can I take IPS coaching from this year?

June 20, 2018 at 3:16 am

I hv cleared a prelim exams n i was worried about my mains and final plzz help me out the syllabus

June 28, 2018 at 7:28 am

Sir, I am Bams Final year student whose exam will be Next year Sept cn I apply fr upsc cse nxt Feb ??

July 11, 2018 at 12:42 am

Sir please tell me what should be the qualification . Is Msc , MA or M. com Or Bsc or BA required

August 11, 2018 at 6:28 am

Bachelor Degree only

August 2, 2018 at 10:30 pm

Sir, i am starting my preparation for the 2019 CSE and i want to know how to prepare notes from newspaper effectively? Do we have to go through the paper everyday? Is that necessary or preparing notes from online sources is enough? Which is better in the long run?

August 11, 2018 at 6:26 am

Reading Hindu Newspaper Is Enough To Get Ample General Knowledge

August 7, 2018 at 6:29 pm

sir, mains exam written hota h ya multiply question

September 16, 2018 at 11:54 am

Sir Maine iss saal b.tech ke last year ka exam diya hai.. Ek subject ki back clear ni hui hai. Iss vajah se mera result ruka hai. Kya mai. kya mai iss exam ko dene ke liye eligible hu ??

December 13, 2018 at 4:53 pm

sir now im studying fourth b tech ece .my dream is become ips officer.i dont know how to apply for ips exam.can u tell me how to apply for the exam and eaxm notification .

December 15, 2018 at 1:04 pm

Is it able to take commerece as main in civil service examination.I am now at the end of my degree.

December 26, 2018 at 1:44 pm

Can I choose English as optional subject???

January 8, 2019 at 9:03 am

Sir.. I have completed my mbbs.. I want to know whether I am eligible for ips exam.. if yes.. what will be my preliminary exam on..? Medical related.. or general studies?

January 30, 2019 at 7:44 pm

Sir, Mera name prince Kumar hai.mai class 12th Mai hu.mera subject science hai.sir mai childhood se hi ips(Indian police service) banana chahata hu lekin age badhane ke sath-sath Mera soch bhi badalane laga.mai abhi bhi ips banana chahata hu lekin pata Chala ki sabhi training nikal lene ke baad bhi Paisa mang rahe jo mere Ghar ke log nahi de sakate hai is liye lagta hai ki ips nahi ban paonga.lekin Mai police me is liye jana chahata hu ki adhikans police wale riswat lete hai jo mujhe pasand nahi karata hu aur agar Mai police Wala ban gaya to jaha join hokhunga waha ke police walo ko sudhar dunga . Lekin Mai form bharunga agar bhagwan daya kar diye to maa kasam Mai India ko to nahi lekin kuchh logo ko jarur sudhar dunga aur kosis karunga ki India ko bhi sudhar du

February 2, 2019 at 1:15 am

Does B.E. (CSE) students can give IAS Exams ??

February 19, 2019 at 7:17 pm

Mai B.s.c first year ka student hu Mujhe ips bnana hai Please help me subject chose Aur kitni class ki book start kru

March 14, 2019 at 7:08 pm

pre me negative marking hoti hai kya?

March 17, 2019 at 6:49 am

How many questions are there exactly in each GS paper prelims

April 17, 2019 at 11:03 am

Sir mai bio strem se hu kya mai upsc ka exam de skta hu

May 18, 2019 at 2:30 pm

Hello sir I am PCB student hu. Graduation bsc. main IPS officer banna chahti hu aage kon se subject choose karu please help me

June 8, 2019 at 3:13 pm

I will write other papers in Assamese. Can I write my optional paper in English ?

July 2, 2019 at 9:36 pm

Sir, I started degree (bcom) in 2012 but I completed my degree in 2019 ,due to few personal reasons I haven’t attended exams, am I eligible to write upsc exams

July 4, 2019 at 4:12 pm

sir i want to prepare for IAS exam, how many subject can take in mains exam out of 26 subject…waiting your positive reply…..

July 6, 2019 at 7:36 am

Hii Friend’s Kya aap me se koi mujhe notes, previous year questions paper, books bhej sakate ho Mera Add. At. Post. Manbda, Tq. Telhara Dist. Akola Maharashtra Pin code – 444 108

July 10, 2019 at 4:26 pm

Sir / mam I am pursuing btech final year i want to became an ias officer can i no that how many papers that the prelims conduct before prelims there is any exams is there clear my confusion sir .

September 11, 2019 at 12:55 pm

Sir i had completed my graduation b.sc 2011 .I want to prepare civil sarvice examination can i do this pls rply

December 16, 2019 at 1:45 am

sir I m final year student of B.A. I want to become an ips officer what should I do plzz help me ………because I don’t know…ki hm kese tyari kre kya padee kya na padee plzz help me

December 18, 2019 at 2:29 pm

meri eng bhot week h kya m upsc clear k lie kosis kr skta hu ….plz tell me

April 23, 2020 at 12:10 pm

Hi, I need small information how many times we can attempt for general cat and how many subjects in ips.

April 28, 2020 at 2:26 pm

Sir , I’m 2nd year student of B.com , my dream is to become’ Ips’ officer , but don’t know how to start , can u guide me sir , please .

May 19, 2020 at 8:49 am

Sir aap hme ghatna chakre ki pdf upload kr do…plz sir🙏🙏🙏

July 3, 2020 at 4:10 pm

How many languages can I select? Any one help me plz.may I select even Bengali?

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Don’t lose out without playing the right game!

Follow the ClearIAS Prelims cum Mains (PCM) Integrated Approach.

Join ClearIAS PCM Course Now

UPSC Online Preparation

• Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
• Indian Administrative Service (IAS)
• Indian Police Service (IPS)
• IAS Exam Eligibility
• UPSC Free Study Materials
• UPSC Exam Guidance
• UPSC Prelims Test Series
• UPSC Syllabus
• UPSC Online
• UPSC Prelims
• UPSC Interview
• UPSC Toppers
• UPSC Previous Year Qns
• UPSC Age Calculator
• UPSC Calendar 2024
• About ClearIAS
• ClearIAS Programs
• ClearIAS Fee Structure
• IAS Coaching
• UPSC Coaching
• UPSC Online Coaching
• ClearIAS Blog
• Important Updates
• Announcements
• Book Review
• ClearIAS App
• Work with us
• Advertise with us
• Privacy Policy
• Terms and Conditions
• Talk to Your Mentor

Featured on

and many more...

We use cookies to enhance our website for you. Proceed if you agree to this policy or learn more about it.

• Essay Database >
• Essays Samples >
• Essay Types >
• College Essay Example

Civil Service College Essays Samples For Students

6 samples of this type

Do you feel the need to check out some previously written College Essays on Civil Service before you start writing an own piece? In this free catalog of Civil Service College Essay examples, you are given a thrilling opportunity to explore meaningful topics, content structuring techniques, text flow, formatting styles, and other academically acclaimed writing practices. Adopting them while crafting your own Civil Service College Essay will surely allow you to complete the piece faster.

Presenting the finest samples isn't the only way our free essays service can help students in their writing efforts – our authors can also compose from scratch a fully customized College Essay on Civil Service that would make a solid foundation for your own academic work.

Essay On The Confucian Civil Service Examination System And Its Impact On Development Of

Administration relationships and the apa and american political life essay samples, administration relationships, good essay on comparison of the governments in the united states and united kingdom, constitutional development.

Don't waste your time searching for a sample.

Get your essay done by professional writers!

Just from $10/page

Good Example Of The Powers Of The Prime Minister Essay

Is too much power given to the prime minister with the british system of government, good essay on the level of democracy in patrimonial countries, such as singapore and south korea, essay on rousseaus origin of inequality.

8th May, 2011

Password recovery email has been sent to [email protected]

Use your new password to log in

You are not register!

By clicking Register, you agree to our Terms of Service and that you have read our Privacy Policy .

Now you can download documents directly to your device!

Check your email! An email with your password has already been sent to you! Now you can download documents directly to your device.

or Use the QR code to Save this Paper to Your Phone

The sample is NOT original!

Short on a deadline?

Don't waste time. Get help with 11% off using code - GETWOWED

No, thanks! I'm fine with missing my deadline

The Moscow Trials and the "Great Terror" of 1937-1938: What the Evidence Shows

Grover Furr July 31 2010

[To be added at the end of Part One of "Stalin and the Struggle for Democratic Reform" ]

Since my two-part essay "Stalin and the Struggle for Democratic Reform" was written in 2004-5, a great deal more evidence has been published concerning the Opposition, the Moscow Trials of 1936, 1937, and 1938, the Military Purges or "Tukhachevsky Affair", and the subsequent "Ezhovshchina", often called "the Great Terror" after the title of the extremely dishonest book by Robert Conquest first published in 1968.

The newly-available evidence confirms the following conclusions:

* The defendants at the Moscow Trials of August 1936, January 1937, and March 1938, were guilty of at least those crimes to which they confessed. A "bloc of Rights and Trotskyites" did indeed exist. It planned to assassinate Stalin, Kaganovich, Molotov, and others in a coup d’�tat , what they called a "palace coup" ( dvortsovyi perevorot ). The bloc did assassinate Kirov.

* Both Rights and Trotskyites were conspiring with the Germans and Japanese, as were the Military conspirators. If the "palace coup" did not work they hoped to come to power by showing loyalty to Germany or Japan in the event of an invasion.

* Trotsky too was directly conspiring with the Germans and Japanese, as were a number of his supporters.

* Nikolai Ezhov, head of the NKVD from 1936 to late 1938, was also conspiring with the Germans.

We now have much more evidence about the role of NKVD chief Nikolai Ezhov than we had in 2005. Ezhov, head of the NKVD (People’s Commissar for Internal Affairs), had his own conspiracy against the Soviet government and Party leadership. Ezhov had also been recruited by German intelligence.

Like the Rights and Trotskyites, Ezhov and his top NKVD men were counting on an invasion by Germany, Japan, or other major capitalist country. They tortured a great many innocent people into confessing to capital crimes so they would be shot. They executed a great many more on falsified grounds or no grounds at all.

Ezhov hoped that this mass murder of innocent people would turn large parts of the Soviet population against the government. That would create the basis for internal rebellions against the Soviet government when Germany or Japan attacked.

Ezhov lied to Stalin, the Party and government leaders about all this. The truly horrific mass executions of 1937-1938 of almost 680,000 people were in large part unjustifiable executions of innocent people carried out deliberately by Ezhov and his top men in order to sow discontent among the Soviet population.

Although Ezhov executed a very large number of innocent people, it is clear from the evidence now available that there were also real conspiracies. The Russian government continues to keep all but a tiny amount of the investigative materials top-secret. We can’t know for sure exactly the dimensions of the real conspiracies without that evidence. Therefore, we don’t know how many of these 680,000 people were actual conspirators and how many were innocent victims.

As I wrote in 2005, Stalin and the Party leadership began to suspect as early as October 1937 that some of the repression was done illegally. From early in 1938, when Pavel Postyshev was sharply criticized, then removed from the Central Committee, then expelled from the Party, tried and executed for mass unjustified repression, these suspicions grew.

When Lavrentii Beria was appointed as Ezhov’s second-in-command Ezhov and his men understood that Stalin and the Party leadership no longer trusted them. They made one last plot to assassinate Stalin at the November 7, 1938 celebration of the 21 st anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution. But Ezhov’s men were arrested in time.

Ezhov was persuaded to resign. An intensive investigation was begun and a huge number of NKVD abuses were uncovered. A great many cases of those tried or punished under Ezhov were reviewed. Over 100,000 people were released from prison and camps. Many NKVD men were arrested, confessed to torturing innocent people, tried and executed. Many more NKVD men were sentenced to prison or dismissed.

Under Beria the number of executions in 1938 and 1940 dropped to less than 1% of the number under Ezhov in 1937 and 1938, and many of those executed were NKVD men, including Ezhov himself, who were found guilty of massive unjustified repression and executions of innocent people.

Some of the most dramatic evidence published since 2005 are confessions of Ezhov and Mikhail Frinovsky, Ezhov’s second-in-command. I have put some of these on the Internet in both the original Russian and in English translation. We also have a great many more confessions and interrogations, mostly partial, of Ezhov, in which he makes many more confessions. These were published in 2007 in a semi-official account by Aleksei Pavliukov.

Anticommunist Scholars Hide the Truth

All "mainstream" – that is, anticommunist – and Trotskyist researchers falsely claim that there were no conspiracies. According to them, all the Moscow Trial defendants, all the military defendants, and all those tried and sentenced for espionage, conspiracy, sabotage, and other crimes, were innocent victims. Some claim that Stalin had planned to kill all these people because they might constitute a "Fifth Column" if the USSR were attacked. Other anticommunists prefer the explanation that Stalin just tried to terrorize the population into obedience.

This is an ideological, anticommunist stance masquerading as an historical conclusion. It is not based upon the historical evidence and is inconsistent with that evidence. Anticommunist historians ignore the primary source evidence available. They even ignore evidence in collections of documents that they themselves cite in their own works.

Why do the anticommunist "scholars", both in Russia and the West, ignore all this evidence? Why do they continue to promote the false notions that no conspiracies existed and that Stalin, not Ezhov, decided to execute hundreds of thousands of innocent people? The only possible explanation is that they do this for ideological reasons alone. The truth, as established by an examination of the primary source evidence, would make Stalin and the Bolsheviks "look good" to most people.

Collectivization of Agriculture Saved The World from Nazis and Japanese…

We have an example of this ideological bias in the way anticommunist scholars and writers treat the Bolshevik collectivization of agriculture. Anticommunists have long attacked it as immoral and unjustified. Yet collectivization provided the capital for the crash industrialization of the USSR. And only industrialization made a modern Red army possible.

Without a technologically-advanced modern army the Nazis would have conquered the USSR. Then, with the resources and manpower of the USSR and the rest of Europe behind them, the Nazis could have invaded the British Isles. Nazi armies would have been a far more formidable foe against all Allied powers. Meanwhile the Japanese, strengthened by the petroleum of the Soviet Far East, would have been a far more formidable enemy for the USA in the Pacific war.

Millions more Slavs and Jews – "Untermenschen" to the Nazis – and millions more Europeans and American soldiers – would have been killed. That this did not occur can be attributed, in large part, to the Soviet collectivization of agriculture. This is an obvious conclusion. There was simply no other way than by collectivizing agriculture that the USSR could have industrialized, and thus stood up to the Nazis and Japanese.

The only alternative was the one promoted by the Right and Trotskyite conspirators: to make peace with the Germans and Japanese, even if that meant granting them huge trade and territorial concessions. That would have greatly strengthened the Axis powers in their war against the U.K. and the USA.

For purely ideological reasons anticommunists cannot admit that collectivization made it possible for the Axis to be defeated.

… And So Did The Defeat of the Conspirators in 1936-1938

Whether they were able to seize political power through a "palace coup", or whether they would have to rely on a German and/or Japanese attack as they only way they might be able to overthrow the Stalin government, the Opposition conspirators were planning some kind of alliance with the Axis.

In fact they would have had no choice, as they realized themselves. A USSR weakened by internal revolt, with or without an invasion from abroad, would have had to make trade, territorial, and ideological concessions to its major potential adversaries simply in order to avoid invasion and inevitable conquest.

At a minimum, a USSR led by some combination of conspirators would have made treaties with Germany and Japan that would have provided the Axis powers with huge natural resources, possibly with manufactured goods as well. The military conspirators were contemplating going much farther than mere trade with the Axis. They were contemplating an outright military alliance with Germany. That would have meant millions more soldiers to fight alongside the German Wehrmacht.

Therefore, in foiling the machinations of the Rights, Trotsky and his supporters, and the Military conspirators, Stalin saved Europe from Naziism – again!

No doubt this is why anticommunist "scholars" insist, in the face of all the evidence, that there were no conspiracies in the USSR and no collaboration with the Germans and Japanese. Once again they refuse to admit these truths on purely ideological grounds because doing so would seem to justify Stalin’s actions.

Bukharin, Not Stalin, To Blame for the Massive Repressions

One interesting aspect of this is that Nikolai Bukharin, leading name among the Rightists and one of its leaders, knew about the "Ezhovshchina" as it was happening, and praised it in a letter to Stalin that he wrote from prison.

It gets even better. Bukharin knew that Ezhov was a member of the Rightist conspiracy, as he himself was. No doubt that is why he welcomed Ezhov's appointment as head of the NKVD -- a view recorded by his widow in her memoirs.

In his first confession, in his now-famous letter to Stalin of December 10, 1937, and at his trial in March 1938 Bukharin claimed he had completely "disarmed" and had told everything he knew. But now we can prove that this was a lie. Bukharin knew that Ezhov was a leading member of the Rightist conspiracy -- but did not inform on him. According to Mikhail Frinovsky, Ezhov's right-hand man, Ezhov probably promised to see that he would not be executed if he did not mention his own, Ezhov's, participation (see Frinovsky's confession of April 11, 1939 ).

If Bukharin had told the truth -- if he had, in fact, informed on Ezhov -- Ezhov's mass murders could have been stopped in their tracks. The lives of hundreds of thousands of innocent people could have been saved.

But Bukharin remained true to his fellow conspirators. He went to execution -- an execution he swore he deserved "ten times over" * -- without revealing Ezhov's participation in the conspiracy.

This point cannot be stressed too much: the blood of the hundreds of thousands of innocent persons slaughtered by Ezhov and his men during 1937-1938, are on Bukharin's hands.

Objectivity and Evidence

I agree with historian Geoffrey Roberts when he says:

In the last 15 years or so an enormous amount of new material on Stalin … has become available from Russian archives. I should make clear that as a historian I have a strong orientation to telling the truth about the past, no matter how uncomfortable or unpalatable the conclusions may be. … I don’t think there is a dilemma: you just tell the truth as you see it. ("Stalin’s Wars", Frontpagemag.com February 12, 2007. At http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/35305.html )

The conclusions I have reached about the "Ezhovshchina" will be unacceptable to ideologically-motivated people. I have not reached these conclusions out of any desire to "apologize" for the policies of Stalin or the Soviet government. I believe these to be the only objective conclusions possible based on the available evidence.

I make no claim that the Soviet leadership was free from error. Stalin’s vision of a socialism leading to communism was obviously faulty in that it did not come to pass. During Stalin’s time, as during the short period of Lenin’s leadership, the Soviets made a great many errors. Error is, of course, inevitable in all human endeavor. And since the Bolsheviks were the first communists to conquer and hold state power, they were in unknown waters. It was inevitable, therefore, that they would make a great many mistakes – and they did.

However, any objective study of the evidence and the historical record shows that there was simply no alternative to forced collectivization and industrialization – except defeat at the hands of some combination of capitalist powers. Likewise, the fact that the Right, Trotskyite, and Military conspiracies really did exist but were snuffed out by the Soviet leadership, which managed to out-maneuver Ezhov and foil his conspiracy as well, proves that once again the USSR – "Stalin" – saved Europe from Naziism and all the Allies from an immense number of additional casualties at the hands of the Axis powers.

* Bukharin's two appeals for clemency, both dated March 13, 1938, were reprinted in Izvestiia September 2, 1992, p. 3. They were rejected, and Bukharin was executed on March 15, 1938. I have put them online in English here.

Additional Bibliography

Ezhov’s interrogations: I have translated all of Ezhov’s interrogations available to me as of July 2010 and put them online here:

http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/ezhovinterrogs.html (Russian original: http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/ezhovpokazaniia.html )

Lubianka. Stalin I NKVD – NKGB – GUKR "SMERSH". 1939 – mart 1946 . Moscow, 2006.

• Frinovsky confession of April 11, 1939, pp. 33-50. http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/frinovskyeng.html (Russian original here: http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/frinovskyru.html )
• Ezhov confession of April 26, 1939, pp. 52-72. http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/ezhov042639eng.html (Russian original: http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/ezhovru.html )

Petrov, Nikita, Mark Jansen. "Stalinskii pitomets" – Nikolai Ezhov . Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2008, pp. 367-379.

• Ezhov confession of August 4, 1939. http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/ezhov080439eng.html (Russian original: http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/ezhov080439ru.html )

Furr, Grover and Vladimir L. Bobrov, "Bukharin's Last Plea: Yet Another Anti-Stalin Falsification." http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/bukhlastplea.html - translation of Russian original published in Aktual’naia Istoriia for February 2009 at http://actualhistory.ru/bukharin_last_plea

Furr, Grover and Vladimir L. Bobrov, "Nikolai Bukharin's First Statement of Confession in the Lubianka" in English translation, Cultural Logic 2007 - http://clogic.eserver.org/2007/Furr_Bobrov.pdf

Furr, Grover and Vladimir L. Bobrov, "Pervye priznatel'nye pokazaniia N.I. Bukharina na Lubianke." Klio No. 1 (2007). http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/furrnbobrov_klio0107.pdf

Furr, Grover and Vladimir L. Bobrov, eds. "Lichnye pokazaniia N. Bukharina." Klio (St. Petersburg), No. 1 (2007). http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/furrnbobrov_klio0107.pdf

Furr, Grover. "Evidence of Leon Trotsky's Collaboration with Germany and Japan." In Cultural Logic for 2009. http://clogic.eserver.org/2009/Furr.pdf

Holmstr�m, Sven-Eric. "New Evidence Concerning the 'Hotel Bristol' Question in the First Moscow Trial of 1936". Cultural Logic 2008. At http://clogic.eserver.org/2008/Holmstrom.pdf

Furr, Grover.Khrushchev Lied: The Evidence That Every "Revelation" of Stalin's (and Beria's) Crimes in Nikita Khrushchev's Infamous "Secret Speech" to the 20th Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on February 25, 1956, is Provably False. Kettering, OH: Erythros Press & Media LLC, 2011. At Amazon.com ; at Erythros Press & Media : at Abebooks.com ; at Abebooks.co.uk (United Kingdom)

Furr (‘Ferr’), Grover Antistalinskaia podlost’ ("Anti-Stalin Villanies"). Moscow: Algoritm, 2007. Home page: http://www.algoritm-kniga.ru/ferr-g.-antistalinskaya-podlost.html Brief summary in this interview: "The Sixty-One Untruths of Nikita Khrushchev" (Interview with Grover Furr). http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/research/litrossiainterv0608_eng.html (original here: http://www.litrossia.ru/article.php?article=3003 )

Pavliukov, Aleksei. Ezhov. Moscow: Zakharov, 2007.

Hugo Dewar Archive    |    ETOL Main Page

The Moscow Trials

(march 1962).

This article was first published in Survey , No. 41, April 1962, pp. 87–95. Prepared for the MIA by Paul Flewers.

AT the twenty-second congress of the CPSU, N.S. Khrushchev once again raised the question of the “great purge”, this time in open session and with more detailed references to individual instances of Stalin’s persecution of his opponents. Khrushchev did not directly mention the three great Moscow trials, but the whole tenor of his reply to the discussion on the party programme made it clear that these trials were frame-ups. His remarks on the Kirov assassination alone were sufficient to demonstrate this, since the Kirov affair was the king-pin of the entire structure of these trials.

The assassination, 25 years ago, of Sergei Mironovich Kirov – Secretary of the Leningrad party organisation and member of the Politbureau – was the signal for the merciless repression of all Stalin’s known, suspected or potential opponents in the party. The range and thoroughness of this action was matched by the domestic and international propaganda campaign that accompanied it: for the Stalinist objective was not merely the physical destruction of all those who might conceivably constitute a rallying point for opposition within the party; not merely the creation in the USSR of an atmosphere of terror in which self-preservation should become the overriding consideration for each individual; it was also the complete moral annihilation of the leading figures of the Russian Revolution. Only Lenin would remain untouched, a great messianic figure; and by his side would rise the figure of Stalin, his sole true disciple. Consciousness of the past history of the Russian Revolution was to be erased from the mind of man and a new history was to take its place, the Stalin legend.

The campaign launched for this purpose – which may truly be termed a brain-washing campaign – was on a colossal scale. Its highlights were the three great Moscow trials in August 1936, January 1937 and March 1938, when almost the entire Bolshevik “old guard” was found guilty of organising the murder of Kirov, of wrecking, sabotage, treason, plotting the restoration of capitalism, etc. And it was precisely the defendants at these trials who, with their self-accusations, their abject penitence, their acceptance and praise of Stalin’s policies, showed themselves as eager as the Stalinists to support this campaign. Never before in history had there been a conspiracy of such dimensions, conspirators of such former eminence, and at the same time conspirators so uniformly anxious to attest the unrighteousness of their cause and the utter criminality of their actions.

At once sordid and deeply tragic, combining the grim reality of apparently normal juridical procedure with the lack of any evidence against the accused other than their own nightmarishly unreal confessions, these trials shocked the liberal conscience of the entire world. Yet it was, strangely enough, in Great Britain, a country proud of its tradition of liberal thought and action, that the most influential voices were raised in their defence.

Thus A.J. Cummings, then a political columnist of considerable standing, although admitting to some difficulty in accepting the guilt of all the accused, wrote of the first trial that “the evidence and the confessions are so circumstantial that to reject both as hocus-pocus would be to reduce the trial almost to complete unintelligibility”. (News Chronicle , 25 August 1936) The Moscow correspondent of the Observer also wrote (23 August 1936) that: “It is futile to think that the trial was staged and the charges trumped up. The government’s case against the defendants is genuine.” Sir Bernard Pares ( Spectator , 18 September 1936) likewise expressed the view that:

As to the trial generally, I was in Moscow while it was in progress and followed the daily reports in the press. Since then I have made a careful study of the verbatim report. Having done that I must give it as my considered judgement that if the report had been issued in a country (that is, other than the USSR) without any of the antecedents I have referred to, the trial would be regarded as one which could not fail to carry conviction ... The examination of the 16 accused by the State Prosecutor is a close work of dispassionate reasoning, in which, in spite of some denials and more evasions, the guilt of the accused is completely brought home.

These statements were made use of by the Anglo-Russian Parliamentary Committee in presenting to the public its summarised version of the official report (itself not verbatim) of the first Moscow trial. Its account of the second trial (compiled by W.P. and Zelda K. Coates) was introduced by Neil Maclean, MP, with a preface by the Moscow correspondent of the Daily Herald , R.T. Miller, and contained two speeches by Stalin, “in that simple and clear style of which Mr Stalin is such a master”, as Maclean put it. Maclean in his introductory foreword asserted that:

... practically every foreign correspondent present at the trial with the exception, of course, of the Japanese and German – have expressed themselves as very much impressed by the weight of evidence presented by the prosecution and the sincerity of the confessions of the accused.

In the course of his preface Miller wrote that “the prisoners appeared healthy, well-fed, well-dressed and unintimidated”; that “Mr Dudley Collard, the English barrister ... considered it perfectly sound from the legal point of view”; and that the accused “confessed because the state’s collection of evidence forced them to. No other explanation fits the facts.” [1]

Leaving aside Mr Collard, whose well-known political sympathies might explain his easy acceptance of surface appearances, it is clear that none of these commentators had the slightest understanding of the political struggle raging in the Soviet Union; a struggle of which these trials and those that had preceded them from 1928 onwards (which these gentlemen had apparently totally forgotten) were a reflection. Nor could any of them have really made a serious study of the official report. The circumstances of the time made many politically conscious people desire above all to think the best of the Soviet Government, and the views quoted above, deriving in part from this very desire, in part from sheer ignorance, were very welcome to the Stalinists. If they did not wholly convince, they at least helped to lull suspicion.

*  *  *

The most outstanding and the most influential supporter of the Stalinist campaign in the country was D.N. Pritt, an MP, a KC, and formerly president of the enquiry set up to investigate the proceedings of the Reichstag fire trial. Pritt entered the campaign with an article in the News Chronicle (27 August 1936), later reprinted in pamphlet form, The Moscow Trial was Fair (with additional material by Pat Sloan). He then expanded his analysis and argument in a booklet of 39 pages entitled The Zinoviev Trial (Gollancz, 1936). In this he first of all suggests that the bulk of the criticism of the trial emanated from the extreme right-wing opponents of the Soviet government. Still, he admits that much of it was made in good faith and came from “newspapers and individuals of very high reputation for fairness”. However, he goes on to imply that these critics had not, as he had, really studied the whole of the available evidence, but had relied upon incomplete reports. Moreover, they had not his advantage of being an eyewitness of the trial and a lawyer into the bargain. Having established in the reader’s mind that all criticism coming from sources hostile to the Soviet regime is ipso facto baseless, and having made plain his own geographical and professional superiority to the “fair-minded” critics, he argues that:

It should be realised at the outset, of course, that the critics who refuse to believe that Zinoviev and Kamenev could possibly have conspired to murder Kirov, Stalin, Voroshilov and others, even when they say themselves that they did, are in a grave logical difficulty. For if they thus dismiss the whole case for the prosecution as a “frame-up”, it follows inescapably that Stalin and a substantial number of other high officials, including presumably the judges and the prosecutor, were themselves guilty of a foul conspiracy to procure the judicial murder of Zinoviev, Kamenev and a fair number of other persons. (pp. 3–4)

The most general and important criticism of the trial, Pritt says, is that it was impossible to believe that “men should confess openly and fully to crimes of the gravity of those in question here”. (p. 5) In fact, of course, the critics” difficulty was not to believe that “men” should confess to “grave crimes”, but that these particular men should confess in that particular manner to crimes so contrary to everything known of their very public political pasts, so contrary to their known political philosophy, and so manifestly incapable of achieving their alleged objectives. For among those 16 accused there were, as Khrushchev has now obliquely reminded us, “prominent representatives of the old guard who, together with Lenin, founded “the world’s first proletarian state”. ( Report on the Programme of the CPSU , Soviet Booklet No. 81, 1961, p. 108) These were now transformed, in the words of the indictment, into “unprincipled political adventurers and assassins striving at only one thing, namely, to make their way to power even through terrorism”. ( Report of Court Proceedings: The Case of the Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Centre , People’s Commissariat of Justice of the USSR, Moscow 1936, p. 18)

Pritt himself, however, does not appear to be wholly at ease about the lack of evidence adduced other than the confessions, for he suggests that the Soviet government would have preferred all or most of the accused to have pleaded not guilty, for then the “full strength of the case” would have been apparent. As it was, “all the available proof did not require to be brought forward”. (p. 9) He assumes the existence of this proof; he writes that we cannot possibly know “what further facts there were in the record that were not adduced at all”. Not, that is, whether further facts were available, but what facts.

Although there is constant mention of facts, Pritt never gets down to a consideration of verifiable factual evidence adduced in alleged corroboration of the confessions. The closest he gets to giving an example of this is when he refers to an alleged conversation between two of the accused in which “a highly incriminating phrase was used”. Each of the accused denied using it, but each said that the other had. Pritt found this highly significant. He does not explain why the accused should have shied at admitting the use of “incriminating phrases” when they had already confessed to capital crimes.

Pritt claims to have reached his conclusion on the basis of a careful study of the official report of the trial. Surely, then, he must have been aware that, when it was not simply a question of “incriminating phrases”, conversations about conversations, but of concrete facts, some very glaring discrepancies were exposed, such as, for example, the flatly contradictory evidence of two of the accused, Olberg and Holtzmann, and the alleged meeting at a non-existent hotel.

It hardly seems possible that a man of Pritt’s professional training could have failed to see that the whole structure of the confessions simply did not hang together. He did not even notice anything strange in the tale of those two desperadoes Fritz David and Bermin-Yurin, who, after spending two and a half years preparing a plan to kill Stalin at the Congress of the Communist International, decided, when it came to the point, that they could not shoot “because there were too many people”!

For Pritt “anything in the nature of forced confessions is intrinsically impossible”; it was “obvious to anyone who watched the proceedings in court that the confessions as made orally in court could not possibly have been concocted or rehearsed”; and not even the keenest critic had been able to find a false note (pp. 12–14). The picture he gives of himself is that of an utterly credulous bumpkin. Any reasonably objective student of Soviet politics must have been aware at the time that this trial and those that followed were frame-ups. It did not require Khrushchev to admit that “thousands of absolutely innocent people perished ... Many party leaders, statesmen and military leaders lost their lives”; that “they were ‘persuaded’, persuaded in certain ways, that they were German, British or some other spies. And some of them ‘confessed’.”

For the Moscow trials were all of a piece with those that had preceded them: the Shakhty trial in 1928; the Industrial Party trial in 1930; the Menshevik trial in 1931; and the Metro-Vickers trial in 1933. [2] No student of these trials would fail to see that they served a definite political purpose and that justice had been perverted to this end. The very occurrence, previous to the Moscow trials, of exactly similar confession trials – with all their “technical” failures (attempted retraction of confessions; an accused going insane; long dead men named as conspirators, etc) – should have been enough to raise doubts in the mind of the most prejudiced. But the supporters of Stalin clearly did not want to see the truth. [3]

Here, as elsewhere, it was the paramount task of the Communist Party to “sell” the trials. For this purpose, in addition to public meetings throughout the country and articles in the Daily Worker and other periodicals, a stream of pamphlets was published. The Moscow correspondent of the Daily Worker , W.D. Shepherd, wrote two pamphlets in 1936: The Truth About the Murder of Kirov (31 pages) and The Moscow Trial (15 pages). In 1937, two leading English communists, Harry Pollitt and R. Palme Dutt, wrote The Truth about Trotskyism: The Moscow Trial (36 pages), and in 1938 R. Page Arnot and Tim Buck dealt with the third trial in Fascist Agents Exposed (22 pages). Supplementing all this there were the so-called verbatim Reports of the Court Proceedings (published in English by the People’s Commissariat of Justice of the USSR), and the abridged version of the official report of the August 1936 trial, published by the Anglo-Russian Parliamentary Committee. This does not, of course, exhaust the list of published matter issued directly or indirectly by the Communist Party in defence at the trials. Party contributors to the Left Book Club publications naturally also supported the campaign. In this respect JR Campbell’s Soviet Policy and its Critics (Gollancz, 1938, 374 pages) and Soviet Democracy (Gollancz, 1937, 288 pages) by Pat Sloan, are notable.

The bulk of this material eschews any attempt at reasoning and concentrates on invective in the verbal knuckleduster style typical of the Stalinist school. Campbell’s book is a much more ambitious effort in that he admits knowledge of the Dewey Commission [4] , quotes from its proceedings, and also uses quotations from Trotsky’s writings, albeit within strict limits. Thus he quotes Trotsky’s words:

Why, then, did the accused, after 25, 30 or more years of revolutionary work, agree to take upon themselves such monstrous and degrading accusations? How did the GPU achieve this? Why did not a single one of the accused cry out openly before the court against the frame-up? Etc, etc. In the nature of the case I am not obliged to answer these questions.

Here Campbell stops and comments: “But if there is no answer then a most important element in the case of the Soviet government is upheld.” (p. 252) He does not follow the quotation further, which runs:

We could not here question Yagoda (he is now being questioned himself by Yezhov), or Yezhov, or Vyshinsky, or Stalin, or, above all, their victims, the majority of whom, indeed, have already been shot. That is why the Commission cannot fully uncover the inquisitorial technique of the Moscow trials. But the mainsprings are already apparent. ( The Case of Leon Trotsky , pp. 482–83)

A very striking illustration of the Stalinist technique – low cunning, contempt for the truth, contempt for the reader’s intelligence – is to be seen on page 213 of Campbell’s book in his quotation from Trotsky’s The Soviet Union and the Fourth International . He begins in the middle of a paragraph:

The first social shock, external or internal, may throw the atomised Soviet society into civil war. The workers, having lost control over the state and economy, may resort to mass strikes as weapons of self-defence. The discipline of the dictatorship would be broken down [5] under the onslaught of the workers and because of the pressure of economic difficulties the trusts would be forced to disrupt the planned beginnings and enter into competition with one another. The dissolution of the regime would naturally be thrown over into the army. The socialist state would collapse, giving place to the capitalist regime, or, more correctly, to capitalist chaos.

And on this, Campbell writes: “This was more than a prophecy. It was the objective of the conspirators.” The very next paragraph in Trotsky’s essay begins: “The Stalinist press, of course, will reprint our warning analysis as a counter-revolutionary prophecy, or even as the expressed ‘desire’ of the Trotskyites.”

Campbell’s book is a long diatribe against “Trotskyism” and of its 374 pages there is hardly one on which the name Trotsky does not appear. Since this was written after the third Moscow trial, he has caught up with the Soviet scenario, successively developed with each trial. The crimes of the accused are now “only a culminating point in the struggle which Trotsky and his followers have been waging against the Bolshevik party since 1903”.

One of the curiosities of this period is the book written by Maurice Edelman from the notes of a Peter Kleist, entitled GPU Justice (1938). [6] According to Edelman, Kleist was “by no means a communist”. Efforts to convey an impression of objectivity are evident. The book dispenses with the usual Stalinist bludgeoning invective and affects a dispassionate, disengaged attitude, but its phraseology and tone are unmistakably pro-Stalinist. The Soviet Union is a classless society; the GPU is simply a police force like any other (only superior, of course); it is a misconception to consider it a secret police; if you are innocent no one can make you guilty; talk of GPU torture is Polish fascist slander; he, Kleist, is treated considerately, without brutality, and, therefore, so is every other suspect. There are many little touches designed to bring out the humanity of Kleist’s captors. The Lubyanka and Butyrki prisons are depicted as rest-homes, where lengthy discussions (reproduced apparently verbatim) permit Stalinists to defend Stalin and Trotskyites to expose themselves as avowed wreckers and saboteurs in collaboration with the White Guards. The book could obviously only have been written by someone with a very clear idea of the party line, and at the same time someone anxious to appear non-partisan. The cloak of non-partisanship is worn pretty thin, however, by the author’s efforts to defend and extol, not merely “GPU justice”, but almost every aspect of Soviet life, including the forced labour camps. Finally, in an appendix, Kleist on the Moscow Trials , all pretence of impartiality is dropped. There one reads: “Why do they confess? was the typical journalistic question, and no one, except the communist papers, supplied the obvious answer: ‘Because they were guilty.’” (p. 211) In this section the stock Stalinist arguments are put forward by Kleist himself and not, as in the main narrative, through the mouths of others.

To these arguments he adds one of his very own. It gives the appearance of having been inserted to show that in spite of his total agreement with the party line, he is nevertheless by no means a communist. For he says that, the GPU having established the guilt of the accused, they were “at this point quite conceivably offered remission of the death sentence”. This, he argues, “would account for the fluency of the confession and for the calm with which the majority of the prisoners heard the sentence of death” (p. 217). Apparently, Kleist regards this kind of double-crossing as a mark of the humanity of GPU justice.

His final sentence is worth noting:

In the years which have passed since this my release , the bursting into flames of the Spanish-Fascist rebellion, the risings and intervention of the Nazis in Austria and the promise of intervention in Czechoslovakia, have convinced me that whatever bewilderment is felt outside the Soviet Union at the unearthing of these Fascist conspirators, Fascist conspiracy in conjunction with Trotskyist conspiracy does exist and that its extirpation, so far from endangering the USSR, marks another peril avoided. (p. 218)

Leaving aside the peculiar logic of this passage, attention is drawn to the words emphasised. The book was published in 1938. Kleist was released in April 1937. Thus, no “years” could have passed since his release. The reader may work out for himself the chronology of the events to which he refers, all of which he says took place after his release.

The verdict of the British press was in general unfavourable to the Moscow trials. Among the dailies the Manchester Guardian stood out as their sharpest critic. In addition to its own editorial comment, it published cables from Trotsky rebutting the evidence and attacking Stalin’s policy, earning what is probably the rarest praise ever bestowed by a revolutionary on a “bourgeois” newspaper. “I know full well”, Trotsky telegraphed from Mexico (25 January 1937), “that the Manchester Guardian will be one of the first to serve the truth and humanity.” Typical of the Manchester Guardian ’s attitude was its statement of 28 August 1936: “He [Stalin] surrounds himself with men of his own making [7] and devotes all the power of the state to removing those who, however remotely, might become rival centres of authority.”

Nothing as bluntly condemnatory as this came, however, from The Times . Indeed, in 1936 and 1937, its attitude might justly be construed as favourable to Stalin. The trials, it thought, reflected the triumph of Stalin’s “nationalist” policy over that of the revolutionary die-hards. The conservative forces, with the overwhelming support of the nation, had now demonstrably gained the day. On this single point it was curiously at one with Trotsky himself, who wrote in an article in the Sunday Express (6 March 1938) that: “From beginning to end his [Stalin’s] programme was that of the formation of a bourgeois republic.” It was only with the 1938 trial that The Times expressed doubts as to the general trend of affairs in the Soviet Union. On balance one cannot say that The Times saw very clearly in this matter. [8]

The labour press was naturally in agreement with the views expressed by the Socialist International and the International Federation of Trade Unions (Louis de Brouckère and F. Adler on behalf of the LSI, and Sir W. Citrine and Walter Schevenels on behalf of the IFTU sent telegrams of protest on the occasion of each of the trials). Writing on the second trial in Reynolds News (7 February 1937), H.N. Brailsford said that it left him “bewildered, doubtful, miserable”; pointed however to the confessions – “If they had been coerced, surely some of them ... would have blurted out the truth”; referred then to the conflict of the evidence with known facts, and concluded: “In one Judas among 12 apostles it is easy to believe. But when there are 11 Judases and only one loyal apostle, the Church is unlikely to thrive.” In the Scottish Forward , Emrys Hughes” witty, ironic articles bluntly exposed the trials as “frame-ups”.

On the other hand, however, it was the communists alone who maintained a campaign consonant with their objectives. There can be little doubt that they did finally succeed in diverting the attention of left-wing opinion and those others whom they courted from the essential issues raised by the trials, and in persuading a very large body of public opinion that Stalin’s policy was right.

In this task they received powerful support from the New Statesman and Nation , which reached an audience not in general susceptible to direct communist approach. This journal gave an exhibition of dithering evasiveness and moral obtuseness rarely displayed by a reputedly responsible publication. The 1936 trial, “if one may trust the available reports, was wholly unconvincing” (28 August 1936). At the same time:

We do not deny ... that the confessions may have contained a substance of truth. We complain because, in the absence of independent witnesses, there is no way of knowing ... When we hear that so close and trusted a friend of Stalin as Radek, is suspected ... we are compelled to wonder that there may not be more serious discontent in the Soviet Union than was generally believed.” (5 September 1936)

An article on the second trial, Will Stalin Explain? (30 January 1937), stated that “the various parts of the plot do not seem to hang together”; but the confessions could not be doubted because that would mean doubting Soviet justice; on the other hand, “to accept them as they stand is to draw a picture of a regime divided against itself”. If there was an escape from this dilemma, would Stalin please tell them what it was?

In the absence of any answer from Stalin to this complaint, the journal had to be, and apparently was, satisfied with matters as they stood. For after the verdict it asserted that: “Few would now maintain that all or any of them were completely innocent.” (6 February 1937) Reference is made to a letter from Mr Dudley Collard (the letter noted earlier in this article) and the comment made: “If he is right, we may hope that the present round-up and the forthcoming trial will mean the final liquidation of ‘Trotskyism’ in the USSR, or at least of the infamous projects to which that word is now applied.”

The third trial again demonstrated the New Statesman and Nation ’s remoteness from reality and indifference to the moral issues raised: “The Soviet trial is undoubtedly very popular in the USSR. The exposure of Yagoda ... pleases everyone and seems to explain a great deal of treachery and inefficiency in the past.” But: “the confessions remain baffling whether we regard them as true or false, and the prisoners as innocent or guilty. There has undoubtedly been much plotting in the USSR.” (12 March 1938)

True or false; innocent or guilty: one could take one’s choice – what was important was that the confessions were baffling. Even more baffling were the mental processes by which an otherwise humane and intelligent man could write in a manner at once so callous and so superficial.

This type of confusion and refusal to face facts dominated the thinking of many left-wing intellectuals and the left wing of the labour movement during the 1930s. The experience of the great Russian purge destroyed no illusions, taught them nothing. And even today it is doubtful if there is a full appreciation of the profound effect those events had on Russian society and the men who lead it.

1. A member of the Fabian Society, Mr Collard performed the same service for the second Moscow trial as Pritt had done for the first (see D. Collard, Soviet Justice and the Trial of Radek , 1937). In 1936 he sent from Moscow a long telegram of protest against the appeal for mercy addressed to the court by Adler and Citrine. Yet in the New Statesman of 6 February 1937 he stated that “English reports of previous trials induced in me certain misgivings as to the genuineness of the charges”.

2. There were 53 accused at the 1928 trial – far too many for its proper staging. Right at the beginning it was announced that one, Nekrasov, had gone mad. Two other accused tried to withdraw their confessions during the course of the trial, giving a sickening glimpse of the preliminary investigation’s “rehearsal” horrors. At the next trial, in 1930, one Osadchy was brought into court under guard to give evidence as a member of the “conspiracy”. Osadchy had been one of the state prosecutors in the 1928 trial. With each trial the staging “improved”, but in the very nature of such trials perfection was impossible. Even at their “best” they could only deceive those suffering from what Ignazio Silone called the disease of juridical cretinism. It is worth noting that at the third Moscow trial the State Prosecutor, Vyshinsky, himself called attention to the connection between all these trials. ( Report of the Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet Bloc of Rights and Trotskyists , Moscow 1938, pp. 636–37)

3. It is worth recording that Moscow University recently conferred on D.N. Pritt the honorary degree of Doctor of Law. During the ceremony Academician Ivan Petrovsky, Rector of the University, praised Pritt as an “outstanding lawyer and selfless defender of the common people”.

4. See The Case of Leon Trotsky and Not Guilty (Secker and Warburg, 1937 and 1938).

5. The original reads: “The discipline of the dictatorship would be broken. Under the ...”, etc.

6. Recommended in Philip Grierson’s Books on Soviet Russia, 1917–1942 (1943) as “sober and matter-of-fact narrative; an admirable corrective to more sensational writings” (p. 125).

7. Among them, of course, N. Khrushchev, who, speaking from the roof of Lenin’s tomb to a parade of 200,000 workers after the 1937 trial, said: “By lifting their hands against Comrade Stalin they lifted them against everything that is best in humanity, because Stalin is the hope, Stalin is the expectation, Stalin is the lighthouse of all progressive humanity. Stalin, our banner! Stalin, our will! Stalin, our victory!” ( Daily Telegraph , 1 February 1937)

8. “Stalin’s policy of nationalism has been amply vindicated. Russia has made much industrial progress, social conditions are improving.” ( The Times , 20 August 1936) “Today the Russian dictatorship stages what is evidently meant to be the most impressive and terrifying of its many exhibitions of despotic power ... The customary overture has already been played by the Soviet press ... howling for the blood of those whom it denounces, in the grimly proleptic phrase, as “this Trotskyist carrion”.” ( The Times , 2 March 1938).

  Top of page

Last updated: 17 February 2023