health benefits of millets essay

• Diet & Weight Management

Health Benefits of Millet

What Is Millet?

Millet is one of the oldest cultivated grains in the world and has been grown throughout Africa and Southeast Asia for thousands of years. Today, it's one of the most important cereals around and is a staple crop for humans and animals. 

The small round grains are so important because they're hardy and easy to store for years without insect damage. 

Pearl, finger, proso, and sorghum varieties are available in the U.S., and they're all full of vitamins and minerals. 

Millet Grains

Even though millet grains vary in size and color, they're all part of the grass family, which also includes wheat, rice, and barley. Millet also has two categories: large (major) and small (minor).

Large millets:

• Pearl is the most common type of millet and is usually white, yellow, gray, or even purple. The grains are among the biggest at about 3-5 millimeters.
• Sorghum millet has several shades, including white, yellow, and red, and they're usually about 4-6 millimeters. 
• Finger (ragi) is almost always brown, and they're small, only 1-2 millimeters per grain.
• Foxtail grains are about 2-3 millimeters long, and they can range from red and black to white or yellow.
• Proso millet grains are about 3 millimeters long with lines running their lengths. They can be white, yellow, or brown. 

Small millets:

• Little millet grains are about 2-3 millimeters long, and they come in shades of gray and white.
• Barnyard millet also comes in shades of gray and white, and they're about 3 millimeters long.
• Kodo grains vary from blackish to dark brown, and the grains are about 3-4 millimeters long.
• Browntop grains are tan to white and about 4-5 millimeters in length.

Millet Benefits

Millet is rich in niacin , which is important for healthy skin and organ function. It also has beta-carotene, especially the dark-colored grains, which converts to vitamin A, helps your body fight free radicals, and supports your immune system.

Millet also has other health benefits: 

Controls blood sugar

Millets are low-glycemic index (GI) foods and can help keep your blood sugar from spiking after you eat. They contain carbs we don't digest that help control blood sugar, plus fiber, and non-starchy polysaccharides, so millets are a good whole grain, especially if you have type 2 diabetes.

Improves digestive health

Millets are rich in dietary fiber, both soluble and insoluble. The insoluble fiber is a prebiotic, which means it supports good bacteria in your gut. The fiber also adds bulk to poop, helping keep you regular and reducing your risk of colon cancer. 

Protects your heart

Millets are full of soluble fiber, which trap fat in your gut and can lower the cholesterol level in your blood. That can help reduce your chances of atherosclerosis , or heart disease. Millets are good sources of magnesium, too, which may prevent heart failure.

Promotes anti-aging  

How your body metabolizes sugars is a major factor in how you age. Millets are full of tannins, phytates, and phenols that help protect your cells against damage and potential diseases like high blood pressure, diabetes, and high cholesterol. 

Builds healthy cells

Finger millet is an excellent source of B vitamins, which play a role in everything from brain function to healthy cell division. You need vitamin B9, also known as folate , to produce healthy red blood cells.

Millet Nutrition

Millet is rich in protein and calcium and has more essential amino acids than most other cereals. 

It’s also an excellent source of:

• Antioxidants

Nutrients per serving

A quarter-cup of dry millet contains:

• Calories: 189
• Protein : 5.5 grams
• Fat: 2 grams
• Carbohydrates: 36.5 grams
• Fiber: 4.25 grams
• Sugar: Less than 1 gram
• Sodium: 2.5 milligrams

Portion sizes 

Like other grains, such as wheat or corn, millet isn't a low-calorie food, so eat it in moderation. A single serving of cooked millet is about 1 cup. Millet expands when cooked, so pay attention to how much you’re serving. 

How to Cook Millet

You can buy millet in grocery stores, health food stores, and online. It’s sold dried, puffed, or ground as flour .

Dried millet can be cooked like couscous or quinoa. Millet flour is a good substitute for whole-wheat flour. You can eat puffed millet as a snack or use it instead of puffed rice cereal. 

To cook millet, combine 2 cups of water and 1 cup of millet in medium saucepan. Bring the mixture to a boil, then reduce the heat and let it simmer with a lid on for about 15 minutes (or until the millet absorbs most of the water). Remove the saucepan from the heat and let it sit for 10 minutes with the lid on until the millet absorbs any remaining liquid. 

Soak the grains in water for several hours before you cook them. This will help decrease some of the grains' phytic acid , which can make you less able to absorb some nutrients. For a nuttier flavor, toast the millet in the saucepan for a few minutes before you cook it. 

Try these ideas for adding millet to your diet:

• Bake some bread with millet flour.
• Try a millet and mushroom risotto.
• Use millet as the filling for stuffed eggplant.
• Mix millet flour in a batch of waffles.
• Snack on puffed millet instead of popcorn .
• Add toasted millet for crunch to your salad.
• Make a millet curry or stew.

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Nutritional and health benefits of millets: a review article

Gahalawat, Preeti 1 ; Lamba, Neha 1 ; Chaudhary, Piyush 2

1 P.G. Department of Kayachikitsa, Shri Krishna Government Ayurvedic College and Hospital, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India

2 MSM Institute of Ayurveda, Bhagat Phool Singh Mahila Vishwavidyalaya, Khanpur Kalan, Sonepat, Haryana, India

Address for correspondence: Dr. Preeti Gahalawat, P.G. Department of Kayachikitsa, Shri Krishna Government Ayurvedic College and Hospital, Umri Road, Sector 8, Kurukshetra, Haryana 136118, India. E-mail: [email protected]

This is an open access journal, and articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License, which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as appropriate credit is given and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.

This review article systematically examines the nutritional composition, health benefits, and economic significance of millets. A comprehensive search of academic databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar, was conducted to collect relevant literature from scientific journals, books, and reports. Millets are small-seeded grasses cultivated globally as cereal crops, and they are recognized for their resilience and adaptability to various climates, particularly in regions with low or erratic rainfall. India stands out as the world’s largest millet producer. This review focuses on the nutritional value of millets, which are high in dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and proteins. Additionally, millets are suitable for individuals with celiac disease or gluten intolerance due to their gluten-free nature. Moreover, millets offer several health benefits, such as preventing diabetes, cardiovascular conditions, and some types of cancer. The cultivation of millets requires relatively low inputs compared to other cereals, as they demand less water and exhibit resilience to diseases and pests. The growing season for millets is very brief. Despite their nutritional and agronomic advantages, millets have received less attention than wheat, rice, and maize. However, there is a growing interest in millets due to its potential to support sustainable agriculture, nutrition, and food security. Observations from the review underscore the importance of millets as a wholesome and sustainable food source with significant health benefits. However, further research is necessary to fully explore their potential and promote their cultivation and consumption on a larger scale.

I ntroduction

Millet is derived from the Latin word “ Millium ,” [ 1 ] meaning tiny seeds. Millets are primitive indigenous food grains that commonly belong to the Poaceae [ 2 ] /Gramineae family. They are unique among food grains, having smaller seeds than major cereals but possessing high nutritional value. The first-ever introduction to these food grains is found in Rigveda , Yajurveda , and Athrvaveda . Ayurveda, the ancient system of medicine, emphasizes the importance of a balanced diet ( Pathya Aahara ) for maintaining good health and preventing illness. Millets are explained in depth under dhanya varga in Ayurveda. [ 3 ] Millets go by a variety of names, including Trina Dhanya (cereals made from Grass ), Kudhanya [ 4 ] (inferior among cereals), and Kshudra Dhanya [ 5 ] (small-sized food grains). Here is an effort to recognize the attributes, qualities, and nutritional values of millets, as well as their therapeutic indications, contraindications, cultivation, and administration.

Since ancient times, millets have been a staple of the Indian diet. Millets have been preferred over other crops for centuries due to various reasons, including their excellent nutritional value as shown in Figure 1 . They require very little water to cultivate compared to other grains, are typically grown in areas with limited water, and can even endure dry spells. [ 6 ] They are also able to survive in less fertile soil. Millets have a very short growing season, maturing in almost half the time required for rice and wheat, typically reaching maturity in 60–100 days. [ 7 ] A significant degree of disease and insect resistance is observed in millets, reducing the burden on farmers and enhancing public health. [ 8 ] They are exceptionally rich in phytochemicals and micronutrients, and they also aid in maintaining the pH balance in the body. [ 9 ] With the increasing incidence of gluten intolerance, a significant cause of gastrointestinal complaints, millets, being gluten-free, have become a preferred food for patients with gluten intolerance. [ 10 ] They act as probiotics that nourish the microflora in the inner ecosystem. Millets are easily digestible and packed with nutrients, making them suitable for consumption by people of all ages. India leads the world in millet production. [ 11 ] By 2020, almost 19% of the world’s production would come from the two varieties grown in India: sorghum (jowar) and pearl millet (bajra).

In 2020, India produced 40.51% of the world’s pearl millet, followed by 8.09% of the sorghum production. Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Uttarakhand are the leading millet-producing states in India, as shown in Figure 2 . These ten states collectively account for almost 98% of India’s millet production in 2020–2021. However, six states account for more than 83% of the world’s millet production: Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Gujarat. [ 13 ] Millets can be classified into three types: major, minor, and pseudo millets, [ 14 ] as shown in Figure 3 and Table 1 .

Major and minor millets are the two categories of millets based on the size of their grains. Pseudo millets are a different variety of millets. They are termed pseudo because they are not related to the Poaceae family of plants, which includes major and minor millets. Nevertheless, pseudo millets are utilized like “actual” grains and have comparable nutritional characteristics [ Table 2 ].

Nutritional Composition of Various Millets [ 26 ]

• Pearl millet contains higher amounts of lipids (4%–6%) and proteins (12%–16%) than other cereals.
• It has 11.5% dietary fiber, which slows down the passage of food through the digestive tract, reducing the risk of developing inflammatory bowel disease.
• Pearl millet contains the highest amount of niacin among all the cereals.
• It also contains folate, magnesium, iron, copper, zinc, folate, and vitamin E, and vitamin B-complex.
• Additionally, it contains a good amount of calcium and unsaturated fats.
• The bulk of sorghum protein, known as kafirin or prolamin, has the peculiar quality of being less digestible when cooked, which may be beneficial for particular dietary groups.
• Sorghum is rich in thiamine, folic acid, carotene, riboflavin, protein, and fiber.
• It has adequate levels of iron, zinc, and sodium, along with high levels of potassium, phosphorus, and calcium.
• (3) Finger millet ( ragi ):
• Finger millet stands as the most plentiful source of calcium (300–350 mg/100g).
• Less protein (6%–8%) and fat (1.5%–2%) are present. Due to the presence of amino acids high in sulfate, finger millet proteins are distinctive.
• The grains are commonly used in weaning meals and exhibit good malting qualities.
• Finger millet possesses potent antioxidant qualities.

Minor millets

• (1) Foxtail millet ( Kakum ):

The carbohydrate content is high.

Its protein content is double that of rice.

Minerals like copper and iron are present.

• It has a rich nutritional profile, is among the easiest grains to digest, and is free of allergies. It has a nutty and sweet flavor.
• (2) Kodo millet:
• It contains a significant amount of protein (11%), little fat (4.2%), and high fiber (14.3%).
• High concentrations of minerals like calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, and zinc are present in kodo millet, along with niacin, pyridoxine, and folic acid.
• It strengthens the neurological system and has a high lecithin content.
• (3) Barnyard ( Sanwa ) millet:
• It is the most plentiful source of dietary fiber and iron.
• Other valuable components found in its grains include gamma amino butyric acid (GABA; beta-glucan and GABA), which are antioxidants and help lower blood lipid levels.
• (4) Kutki / Shavan :
• Compared to other millets, it is smaller in size.
• It contains good amounts of iron.
• It exhibits strong antioxidant properties.
• It has a 38% dietary fiber content.
• (5) Proso millet ( Barri/Chenna ):
• Proso millet’s special attributes add to its health advantages.
• It has the highest amount of proteins (12.5%) among all cereals.
• It contains a sizable amount of fatty acids and carbohydrates.
• Compared to other traditional sources of manganese like nuts and spices, it is a less expensive supply of the mineral.
• It has significant calcium content necessary for maintaining and growing bones.
• It lowers cholesterol levels and the risk of developing cardiac problems.

Pseudo millet

• (1) Amaranath ( Ramdana / Rajgira ):

Amaranath is a great source of lysine, an amino acid that is either missing or very little in many other cereals, and high protein content (13%–14% of total calories).

• It contains more oil, between 6% and 9%, than the majority of other cereals.
• Considerable linoleic acid content is found in amaranth oil, with about 77% unsaturated fatty acids.
• It contains a high amount of dietary fiber.
• It is high in calcium and contains significant levels of the minerals iron, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium.
• A nutrient-dense source of phytosterols that can reduce cholesterol.
• It contains a peptide that resembles lunasin and other bioactive peptides known to have antihypertensive and cancer-preventive activities.
• It is high in the amino acid lysine and contains 13%–15% protein.
• It is rich in starch and other carbohydrates.
• Vitamins B 1 , C, and E are present.
• It is abundant in essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including linoleic acid.
• It has greater concentrations of zinc, copper, and manganese than other cereal grains, and these minerals are highly bioavailable.
• It possesses a lot of soluble fiber.
• It contains a rich supply of compounds with polyphenols.
• It contains the bioflavonoid rutin, which has anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic properties and may be useful in controlling blood pressure.

Millets in Ayurveda

In classical Ayurveda treatises, the Trayaupstambha [ 28 ] is predominantly described. The meaning of Trayaupstambha is “three pillars” or “triad of life,” which includes Aahar (dietary habits), Nidra (sleep), and Brahmacharya (abstinence). Here, the first pillar is Aahara , which shows its importance for life. Additionally, Aahara is considered Mahaushadha in Ayurveda, which means Aahara helps in maintaining the health of a healthy person and plays a therapeutic role in diseased conditions. Back then, millet was a staple of the ancient diet. Even in Ayurvedic Samhitas, detailed descriptions of millets are found in Trindhanya , Kudhanya , and Kshurdhanya . Charak has mentioned millets like shamyaka and kordusha under Dhanya varga . [ 4 ] Description of millets is also found in various other Samhitas. In Bhavprakash Nighantu , millets are described in Dhanya varga like Kshudra dhanya ( Kanguni , Cheenak , and Shamyaka ), Kodo , Yavanala , and Gvedhuka . [ 5 ] In Kaidev nighantu , millets are mentioned as Trindhnyam under Dhanya varga . [ 3 ] Vagbhatta explained millets as Trindhanya in Annaswaroopvigyaniyam Adhyaya . [ 29 ] Millets with Laghu and Ruksha Gunas are Kashaya and Madhura in Rasa and have Sheet Veerya and Katu Vipaka . Because of these Gunas and Karmas , millets have properties like Lekhan, Vrishya, Kleda Shoshan , and Baddhamalakara , as shown in Table 3 .

D iscussion

Millets possess special qualities and a nutritional composition that makes them beneficial for various aspects of health. As millets are inherently gluten-free, individuals with celiac disease or gluten intolerance can incorporate them into their diet as a grain alternative.

Millets are also the least allergenic and most easily digested foods. They are essential crops in semiarid and tropical regions worldwide due to their short growing seasons, resistance to pests, low input requirements, disease tolerance, and productivity in hot, dry conditions where primary cereals cannot be relied upon to produce yields that can be sustained. Regular consumption of millets can lower the risk of developing diabetes mellitus due to the low glycemic index (GI) and their ability to induce a delayed release of glucose over time. [ 32 ] A meta-analysis conducted in a study provides compelling evidence that consuming millet can enhance blood lipid profile, which can help manage and prevent hyperlipidemia, lower high blood pressure, weight, and body mass index, and lessen the overall risk of cardiovascular disease. [ 33 ] Analyzing the general characteristics and effects of millets, it becomes clear that millets are most beneficial for Rakta dushti , Kaphaja , and Pittaja rogas . However, millets must always be avoided when treating Vataja rogas as they make the situation worse. In Ayurveda, the indications for each millet are not listed separately, but we can infer the indications by knowing their properties like guna , karma , rasa , veerya , and vipaka .

Pearl millet is characterized by its ruksha and usna gunas, with a madhura rasa, and possesses balya, and agnideepak properties. Therefore, it is indicated for patients suffering from daurbalya and agnimandya. In an in vivo assessment, it was found that vitamin A supplementation may increase the bioavailability of electrolytic iron, and this combination may help fortify supplemental diets based on pearl millet to prevent iron insufficiency. [ 34 ] Another in vitro study determined that the biofortified pearl millet diet increased the absorption of Fe, thereby increasing the bioavailable Fe intakes in populations relying on this staple grain, making it a feasible alternative. This study revealed a clear significant polyphenolic inhibitory effect on Fe-bioavailability. [ 35 ]

Finger millet ( ragi ) due to its Tikta, Madhura , Kashaya rasa, Snigdha Guna , and Sheet Veery a helps to cure Raktapitta , Amalpitta , and Twak Vikara . Its natural calcium content promotes bone growth and reduces the risk of bone fractures. The iron naturally present in finger millet helps in the treatment of anemia. Due to its high calcium content, finger millet is recommended for young children, the elderly, and expectant mothers. It also supports lactating mothers in producing enough milk for their babies. [ 36 ]

Foxtail millet ( Kangu ) is indicated in Atisara, Grahani , and Asthibhagna due to its Sangrahi property. It is found beneficial in Kaphapitta Pradhan Twak Vikara . Studies conducted both in vitro and in vivo showed that extrusion, steaming, and boiling promoted the formation of digestible starch, thereby increasing the GI values. Additionally, consumption of cooked foxtail millet, including millet pancakes, has been observed to mildly stimulate β-cell activity. Therefore, nutraceuticals and functional foods that aid in delaying the onset of type 2 diabetes may be derived from cooked foxtail millet in particular. [ 37 ]

Proso millet ( Cheena ) is characterized as Guru , Ruksha , and Kaphahara in nature, making it suitable for treating all Santarpanjanya Vyadhies . Additionally, it is Sandhankar in nature and helps in the treatment of Asthibhagna . Niacin (a form of vitamin B 3 ) deficiency leads to pellegra, a condition that cab be alleviated with the consumption of proso millet. Niacin is abundant in proso millet, thereby aiding in the treatment of pellagra. [ 38 ]

Kordusha , being Param Grahi in nature, is suitable for patients with Grahani and Atisara . With its Kleda Shoshan , Lekhana , Rukshana , and Pitta - Rakta Shamaka properties, it proves beneficial in the treatment of Sthaulya , Medo Roga , Premeha , and all Santarpanjanya Vyadhies . Kodo millet is a typical rice-like dish that helps people lose weight. It is high in antioxidants and phytochemicals, which help protect against a variety of illnesses caused by a sedentary lifestyle. It is also easily absorbed. Additionally, kodo millet eases knee and hip pain, and promotes more regular menstrual cycles in women. [ 39 , 40 ]

Shyamaka ( barnyard millet ) exhibits Sangrahi property and is recommended for Atisara and Grahani conditions. Its Shoshan property helps in curing Sthaulya , Premeha , Medoroga , and Santarpanjanya Vyadhies . With a low GI, it helps controlling diabetes mellitus. High in fiber, carbohydrate, and protein content, it is utilized for weight loss. Additionally, it is rich in calcium and phosphorus, essential minerals for bone growth. [ 39 ]

Sorghum ( Yavanala ) is Tikta and Kashaya in Rasa , thus pacifying Pitta and Rakta . Based on these properties it is best advised in Raktapitta, hyperacidity, diabetes, obesity, and skin disorders.

Little millet is enriched with essential minerals like calcium, potassium, iron, and zinc. Additionally, this grain is an excellent source of vitamin B3, which lowers cholesterol, promotes a fast metabolism, repairs tissue, and produces energy. Furthermore, it is also a very good source of minerals like iron, zinc, calcium, and potassium. Moreover, it provides essential lipids to support weight loss and is rich in dietary fiber, providing an added advantage.

This study also sheds light on the contraindications of millets. As most millets possess Ruksha (which decreases unctuousness) and Vatakara (which raises Vata) properties, they are not suitable for conditions like osteoarthritis, pain, Karshya (underweight), emaciation, etc., that are caused by Vata Pradhana Vyadhi. However, if millets need to be consumed in the aforementioned circumstances, they should be used by Samskara (processing) to balance Vata and aid digestion. This includes millets soaking millets in warm water before cooking, including ghee in the dish, and including Deepana-Pachana (drugs that promotes digestion). [ 41 ] Millets offer numerous benefits compared to rice and wheat. Regular consumption of millets can help combat malnutrition, benefiting people worldwide.The vitamins, minerals, and antioxidant properties can boost the immune system and provide protection against infections and diseases. In conclusion, incorporating millets into your diet can be a healthy choice due to their nutritive value and potential health advantages [ Figure 4 ].

C onclusion

The substantial nutritional and physiological benefits of millets are highlighted in this review, underscoring their potential as valuable components of a balanced diet. With their nutrient-rich profile, gluten-free properties, and diverse culinary uses, millets emerge as promising options for addressing malnutrition, promoting overall health, and contributing to sustainable food systems. Future research could explore the role of millets in enhancing soil health and biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems, as well as their potential as sustainable alternatives in the food and feed industries.

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R eferences

Kshudra Dhanya ; millets; nutrition; Trindhanya

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Millets: The Ancient Grain for Modern Health

• First Online: 29 August 2024

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• Niharika Shanker 3  

Part of the book series: World Sustainability Series ((WSUSE))

Millets are a family of small-seeded grasses that have been farmed for thousands of years, making them among the oldest crops that humans have ever grown. While millets have long been consumed around the world, especially in Asia and Africa, they have recently attracted a lot of interest because of their outstanding nutritional profile and many health advantages. Sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, foxtail millet, proso millet, and barnyard millet are a few of the many varieties of millets. They are well known for being tolerant of low soil quality, needing little water, and being resilient to harsh environmental conditions. A sustainable way to lessen the negative effects of environmental stresses on agriculture is through the development of millets, as climate change poses a rising danger to the world's food security. Moreover, because millets need less resources to cultivate than traditional cereal crops like wheat and rice, including them in the diet can help promote sustainable agricultural practices. Communities may improve food security, protect agro-biodiversity, and build climate change resistance by expanding their food production and encouraging the growth of native crops like millets. The broad inclusion of millets in contemporary diets is confronted with several obstacles, nevertheless its nutritional worth and cultural importance. This chapter examines the obstacles that millets face when attempting to become a part of modern food systems and suggests ways to get beyond them. This abstract delves into the historical roots of millet and examines its recent comeback as a mainstay in contemporary diets.

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Shanker, N. (2024). Millets: The Ancient Grain for Modern Health. In: Thakur, M. (eds) Millets: The Multi-Cereal Paradigm for Food Sustainability. World Sustainability Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64237-1_2

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Millets – good for people, the environment, and farmers

Millets are resilient cereals that can provide an affordable and nutritious option and help guarantee food security. They are also deeply rooted in Indigenous Peoples’ culture and traditions. The United Nations General Assembly at its 75th session in March 2021 declared 2023 the International Year of Millets (IYM 2023) with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) as the lead agency.

Why are millets a smart food?

Millets encompass a diverse group of cereals including pearl millet, proso millet, foxtail millet, barnyard, kodo, browntop, finger and Guinea millets, as well as fonio, sorghum (or great millet) and teff.

Millets can grow in both low and high altitudes and across a wide latitudinal range, on arid lands, under non-irrigated conditions, in very low rainfall regimes, and have a low water footprint. Millets require less water than rice and wheat. They are very tolerant of heat (up to 64 degrees Celsius), drought and flood and it makes the crop an obvious choice for farmers in an era of climate change and depleting natural resources.

Millets are an ideal solution for countries to increase self-sufficiency and reduce reliance on imported cereal grains. They need minimal inputs, are resistant to diseases and pests and offer a reduced dependence on synthetic fertilisers and pesticides. They are also more resilient to changes in climate than any other cereals. On top of diversifying the food system, millets can help enhance livelihoods for small farmers, including women, nationally and regionally.

Nutritional and health benefits of millet consumption

Millets are among the first plants to be domesticated and are considered “nutri-cereals” due to their high nutritional content . They are rich in vitamins and minerals, including iron and calcium; are high in protein, antioxidants, resistant starch, and have a low glycaemic index, which can help prevent or manage diabetes. Millets are also gluten-free. As whole grains, millets provide different amounts of fibre. Dietary fibre has a role in regulating bowel function, blood sugar and lipids, and satiation.

Millet production in the world

Millets have served as a traditional staple for hundreds of millions of people in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia (particularly in India, China, and Nigeria) for 7000 years and are now cultivated across the world. Estimates show that more than 90 million people in Africa and Asia depend on millets in their diets.

Africa accounts for more than 55 percent of global millet production, followed by Asia with nearly 40 percent, while Europe represents around three percent of the world market. In recent years, their production has gradually declined due to market distortions, a lack of appreciation of the benefits of millets and policies that have favored the production of the so-called Big Three cereals – rice, wheat and maize. Farmers have switched to cultivate more remunerative crops grown to sell for profit. They moved away from subsistence agriculture responding to changing consumer preferences and markets inputs.

Millets in Europe

Millet cultivation began in Europe around 3,500 years ago. The oldest cereals come from the eastern part of Europe, including Ukraine, which is consistent with the concept of the arrival of domesticated grain from Asia. Thanks to millets’ wide range of growing conditions and a lifecycle shorter than three summer months, they offer an additional harvest and therefore surplus food and fodder. It was likely a transformative innovation in European prehistoric agriculture previously based mainly on (winter) cropping of wheat and barley.

Revitalisation of millets

As the cultivation of millets is declining in many countries, their potential to address climate change and food security is not being realised in full. With a deepening climate crisis and multiple environmental stresses, this recently forgotten and underutilised crop could be the crucial link in the sustainable food supply chain as well as one of the climate resilient solutions. Contributions of millets to nutrition, livelihoods and incomes of family farmers, especially small-scale family farmers, can play an important role in contributing to food security and eradicating poverty. The popularisation of millets is also an effort to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) , and in particular: SDG 2 (zero hunger), SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production), and SDG 13 (climate action).

The International Year of Millets 2023 will focus on:

• Raising awareness of the nutritional and health benefits of millets and promoting millets as a key component of the food basket.
• Raising awareness of the contribution of millets to food security and their important role in keeping a check on food wastage. Some of the millets are good for consumption even after 10-12 years of growing !
• Promoting the sustainable cultivation of millets, also under adverse and changing climatic conditions and improving their quality.
• Highlighting their potential to provide new sustainable market opportunities for producers and consumers. Greater millet production can support the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and can provide decent jobs for women and youth.
• Promoting a better utilization of crop rotations.
• Enhancing investment in research and development.

More information:

International Year of Millets: Unleashing the potential of millets for the well-being of people and the environment

Millets prove tasty solution to climate and food security challenges

Millet seeds, a powerful weapon against hunger

International Year of Millets 2023 – Building momentum for the year

Sorghum and millets in human nutrition

2023 : Année internationale du mil, une céréale « durable »

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Essay on Millets

Students are often asked to write an essay on Millets in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Millets

What are millets.

Millets are small-seeded grasses widely grown as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. They are not just one type of grain but include several similar small-seeded grains from different grass species.

Nutrition in Millets

Millets are nutritious, offering protein, dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals. They are especially good for health because they have high iron, calcium, and magnesium. Plus, they don’t have gluten, so they are great for people who can’t eat wheat.

Types of Millets

There are many kinds of millets. Some common ones are pearl millet, finger millet, and foxtail millet. Each type has its own unique taste and benefits, making them versatile for cooking.

Growing Millets

Millets are tough plants. They can grow in poor soil conditions and need less water than crops like rice or wheat. This makes them a smart choice for farmers in dry areas.

Benefits for Farmers

250 words essay on millets.

Millets are small-seeded grasses widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. They are not just one plant but a group of plants. People have been growing millets for thousands of years, and they are very important for feeding people in many countries, especially in Asia and Africa.

There are several types of millets. Some common ones include pearl millet, finger millet, and foxtail millet. Each type has its own unique taste and is used in different dishes. For example, pearl millet is often used to make bread in India.

Benefits of Millets

Millets are very good for your health. They are rich in nutrients like vitamins, minerals, and fiber. They can help your body in many ways, like keeping your heart healthy and helping you digest food better. Because they don’t need much water to grow, they are also good for the environment.

How Millets Grow

Millets are strong plants that can grow in tough environments where other crops might not survive. They can grow with little water and in poor soil. This makes millets very useful for farmers in dry areas where it’s hard to grow other grains.

Using Millets

People use millets to make different kinds of foods. You can cook them like rice or make porridge. Millets can also be ground into flour to bake bread or cakes. They are a tasty and healthy choice for meals and snacks.

500 Words Essay on Millets

Millets are small-seeded grasses widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Unlike rice and wheat that might need lots of water, millets don’t require much. They are hardy and can grow in tough environments where other crops might not survive. This makes them an excellent choice for farmers who live in places with less rain or poor soil.

There are several types of millets, each with its own unique qualities. Some of the most common types include pearl millet, finger millet, and foxtail millet. Pearl millet is known for its ability to grow in very hot places. Finger millet has a high amount of calcium, which is good for bones. Foxtail millet is rich in dietary fiber, which helps in digestion.

Nutritional Value

Environmentally friendly.

Millets are not only good for our health but also for our planet. They need less water and can grow in poor soils, which reduces the need for fertilizers and other chemicals. By requiring fewer resources, millets are more sustainable and can help in the fight against climate change.

Uses of Millets

Millets can be used in many ways. People can cook them just like rice or make porridge. They can be ground into flour and used for baking bread, cakes, and biscuits. In some cultures, millets are used to make traditional drinks or even popped like popcorn.

Challenges and Opportunities

Millets are a group of highly nutritious, environmentally friendly grains that offer a variety of health benefits. They are versatile in their use and can be a great addition to our diets. By choosing millets, we can take a step towards a healthier lifestyle and a better planet. It is important for schools, parents, and governments to teach children about the importance of millets so that they can make smarter food choices for their future.

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• DOI: 10.31254/jsir.2016.5204
• Corpus ID: 33627823

Potential of Millets: Nutrients Composition and Health Benefits

• Sarita , E. Singh
• Published in Journal of Scientific and… 25 April 2016
• Agricultural and Food Sciences

Figures and Tables from this paper

132 Citations

Hsoa journal of food science and nutrition minor millets: abandoned grains with promising prospects, nutritional quality of millets and their value added products with the potential health benefits: a review, nutritional and health-promoting attributes of millet: current and future perspectives., varietal and processing influence on nutritional and phytochemical properties of finger millet: a review, significance of millets for food and nutritional security—an overview, assessment of sensory and nutritional attributes of foxtail millet-based food products, health-promoting potential of millet: a review, millets: the nutritious and climate change compliant food crop, millets: the choice of food in 21st century, nutritional advantages of barnyard millet and opportunities for its processing as value-added foods, 46 references, millet grains: nutritional quality, processing, and potential health benefits, millet grain phenolics and their role in disease risk reduction and health promotion: a review.

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Modern Processing of Indian Millets: A Perspective on Changes in Nutritional Properties

N. a. nanje gowda.

1 Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Life and Allied Health Sciences, Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences, Bangalore 560054, India; [email protected] (Y.B.); moc.liamg@dellaparten (B.P.N.); [email protected] (C.G.)

Kaliramesh Siliveru

2 Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA

P. V. Vara Prasad

3 Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; ude.usk@arav

Yogita Bhatt

B. p. netravati, chennappa gurikar, associated data.

Not applicable.

Globally, billions of people are experiencing food insecurity and malnutrition. The United Nations has set a global target to end hunger by 2030, but we are far from reaching it. Over the decade, climate change, population growth and economic slowdown have impacted food security. Many countries are facing the challenge of both undernutrition and over nutrition. Thus, there is a need to transform the food system to achieve food and nutrition security. One of the ways to reach closer to our goal is to provide an affordable healthy and nutritious diet to all. Millets, the nutri-cereals, have the potential to play a crucial role in the fight against food insecurity and malnutrition. Nutri-cereals are an abundant source of essential macro- and micronutrients, carbohydrates, protein, dietary fiber, lipids, and phytochemicals. The nutrient content and digestibility of millets are significantly influenced by the processing techniques. This review article highlights the nutritional characteristics and processing of Indian millets, viz. foxtail, kodo, proso, little, and pearl millets. It also envisages the effect of traditional and modern processing techniques on millet’s nutritional properties. An extensive literature review was conducted using the research and review articles related to processing techniques of millets such as fermentation, germination, dehulling, extrusion, cooking, puffing, popping, malting, milling, etc. Germination and fermentation showed a positive improvement in the overall nutritional characteristics of millets, whereas excessive dehulling, polishing, and milling resulted in reduction of the dietary fiber and micronutrients. Understanding the changes happening in the nutrient value of millets due to processing can help the food industry, researchers, and consumers select a suitable processing technique to optimize the nutrient value, increase the bioavailability of nutrients, and help combat food and nutrition security.

1. Introduction

Millets are termed as “yesterday’s coarse grains and today’s nutri-cereals.” Millets are considered to be “future crops” as they are resistant to most of the pests and diseases and adapt well to the harsh environment of the arid and semi-arid regions of Asia and Africa [ 1 ]. Millets are small-seeded grains, the most common and important for food being sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor L.), pearl millet ( Pennisetum glaucum ), finger millet ( Eleusine carocana ), teff ( Eragrostis tef ), proso millet ( Panicum miliaceum ), kodo millet ( Paspalum scrobiculatum ), foxtail millet ( Setaria italica ), little millet ( Panicum sumatrense ) and fonio ( Digitaris exilis ) [ 1 ]. After decades of negligence, nutri-cereals are making a strong comeback in the Indian cereal’s production segment. India dominates the global production of millets with a total share of about 40.62% and an estimated production of about 10.91 million tonnes during 2018–2019 [ 2 ]. Although India ranks first in nutri-rich millet production and second in rice and pulses across the globe, it also—unfortunately—ranks second in child malnutrition incidences. India is home to more than one-third of the world’s malnourished children [ 3 ]. By contrast, the country has also become a hub for diabetic and overweight populace, putting the country under a double burden of malnutrition [ 4 ]. The majority of millets are three to five times more nutritious than most cereals (rice, Oryza sativa ; wheat, Triticum aestivum ; maize, Zea mays ) in terms of vitamins, fiber, proteins, and minerals (calcium and iron) and are gluten-free; hence, they are known as “superfoods” [ 2 ]. The nutri-rich millets are the viable solution to reduce the rising incidences of malnutrition and metabolic disorders and can enhance the nutrition and food security of the country.

Millets are a highly nutritious crop and contain considerable amounts of vitamins and minerals. Millets are a good source of energy, dietary fiber, slowly digestible starch, and resistant starch, and thus provide sustained release of glucose and thereby satiety [ 5 , 6 ]. Compared to cereals, millets are a good source of protein- and sulphur-containing amino acids (methionine and cysteine) and have a better fatty acid profile [ 5 , 7 ]. However, millets contain a limited amount of lysine and tryptophan, which varies with the cultivar. Millets are rich in vitamin E and vitamin B and in minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, potassium, and iron [ 1 , 8 ]. The abundant nutrients of millets provide multiple benefits such as reducing the incidence of cancer [ 9 , 10 ], obesity and diabetes [ 11 ], cardiovascular diseases [ 12 , 13 ], gastrointestinal problems [ 14 ], migraine, and asthma [ 1 , 15 ]. Consumption of millets helps manage hyperglycemia due to their lente carbohydrate and high dietary fiber content, thus making millets a perfect food for the diabetic populace [ 3 , 15 ]. Therefore, millets play an important role in the modern diet as a potential source of essential nutrients, especially in underdeveloped and developing countries [ 16 ]. Although millets have a diversified and high food value, their consumption, especially by the Indian populace, has not reached a significant level due to various factors, depicted in Figure 1 . Recently, these grains have been slowly fueling the start-up revolution to improve nutri-rich food availability and create employment.

Millets: health benefits, production, and challenges in India. Data taken from various issues [ 17 ].

Millets are usually processed before consumption to remove the inedible portions, extend the shelf life, and improve nutritional and sensory properties. Primary processing techniques such as dehulling, soaking, germination, roasting, drying, polishing and milling (size reduction) are followed to make millets fit for consumption. At the same time, modern or secondary processing methods such as fermenting, parboiling, cooking, puffing, popping, malting, baking, flaking, extrusion, etc., are used to develop millet-based value-added processed food products [ 8 ]. Although these processing techniques aim to enhance the digestibility and nutrient bioavailability, a significant amount of nutrients are lost during subsequent processing [ 18 ]. This review article aims to provide an overview of the effect of processing techniques on the nutritional properties of important Indian millets, viz. pearl millet, proso millet, kodo millet, foxtail millet, and little millet.

2. Methodology

Review was conducted based on the methodology reported earlier with slight modification [ 19 ]. The current topic was selected based on a literature survey to identify the gap between the available literature resources pertaining to the effect of processing treatment on specific nutrient components of millet with respect to the Indian scenario. The objective of the review was to evaluate the millet processing treatments in order to identify the appropriate processing treatment for maximum retention of nutrients. The review includes peer-reviewed research articles published in the English language after the year 2016. The articles exclusive to dehulling, fermenting, germination, parboiling, cooking, puffing, popping, malting, and extrusion millet processing were included. The literature review was carried out using databases such as PubMed and Google Scholar as search engines. The common search terms used were millets processing, millet nutrition, dehulling, nutri-cereals processing, value addition to millets, fermenting, germination, parboiling, cooking, puffing, popping, malting, extrusion of millets, etc.

3. Nutritional Characteristic of Selected Indian Millets

3.1. nutritional profile of millets.

The nutritional content of food is an important factor in the maintenance of a human body’s metabolism and wellness. The nutritional content is critical for developing and maximizing the human genetic potential. Millet’s nutrition is comparable to major staple cereals (rice, wheat, and maize), since they are an abundant source of carbohydrates, protein, dietary fiber, micronutrients, vitamins and phytochemicals. Millets provide energy ranging from 320–370 kcal per 100 g of consumption ( Table 1 ). Millets have a larger proportion of non-starchy polysaccharides and dietary fiber compared to staple cereals and comprise 65–75% carbohydrates. Millets with high dietary fiber provide multiple health benefits such as improving gastrointestinal health, blood lipid profile, and blood glucose clearance. Millets with minimal gluten and low glycemic index are healthy options for celiac disorder and diabetes [ 20 ]. Millets are also rich in health-promoting phytochemicals such as phytosterols, polyphenols, phytocyanins, lignins, and phyto-oestrogens. These phytochemicals act as antioxidants, immunological modulators, and detoxifying agents, preventing age-related degenerative illnesses such as cardiovascular diseases, type-2 diabetes, and cancer [ 1 ]. A study [ 21 ] reported that millets contain about 50 different phenolic groups and their derivatives with potent antioxidant capacity, such as flavones, flavanols, flavononols, and ferulic acid. A significant amount of phenolic components, which are important antioxidants in millets, are found in bounded form in proso and finger millet and in free form in pearl millet [ 22 ]. Another study [ 23 ] reported that proso millet comprises various phytochemicals such as syringic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, and p-coumaric. It has also been reported that almost 65% of the phenolics are present in the bound fraction. The presence of these phytochemicals and important antioxidants indicates the potential benefits of millets to human health. A detailed summary of the nutritional profile of selected Indian millets is discussed below and highlighted in Table 1 .

Nutritional profile of millets in comparison with cereals (per 100 g).

Source: Indian Food Composition Tables and nutritive value of Indian foods [ 30 , 31 ] .

• Proso millet has a higher nutritional value when compared with staple cereals as it contains a higher concentration of minerals and dietary fiber ( Table 1 ). Proso millet is a rich source of vitamins and minerals such as iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), zinc (Zn), magnesium (Mg), vitamin B-complex, niacin, and folic acid. Proso millet contains essential amino acids in significantly higher quantities, except for lysine, the limiting amino acid. However, proso millet has an almost 51% higher essential amino acid index than wheat [ 24 ]. Moreover, the products prepared from proso millet exhibit a lower glycemic response than staple cereal-based products. A review reported that products prepared from proso millet show a significantly lower glycemic index (GI) compared to wheat- and maize-based products [ 25 ].
• Pearl millet shows an energy value comparable to the staple cereals. Pearl millet contains a lesser amount of carbohydrates than the staple cereals, and it mainly contains high amylose starch (20–22%), and the insoluble dietary fiber fraction helps in exhibiting a lower glycemic response. Pearl millet protein is gluten-free and contains a higher prolamin fraction, making it suitable for people with gluten sensitivity. The amino acid score in pearl millet is good; however, it is poor source of lysine, threonine, tryptophan, and other sulphur-containing amino acids [ 23 , 26 ]. Pearl millet is high in omega-3 fatty acids and also important nutritional fatty acids such as alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid. It also contains other micronutrients such as Fe, Zn, copper (Cu), K, Mg, P, manganese (Mn), and B-vitamins [ 23 ].
• Kodo millet provides an energy value similar to the other millets and staple cereals. However, with the exception of finger millet, the protein content of kodo millet is lower than that of other selected millets and it provides gluten-free protein ( Table 1 ). Kodo millets contains high amounts of vitamins and minerals, especially B-complex vitamins, B6, niacin and folic acid, Fe, Ca, Mg, K, and Zn. Kodo millet is very easy to digest and thus can be beneficial for infant and geriatric product formulation.
• Foxtail millet has a greater nutritional value compared to major cereals such as wheat and rice due to its copious dietary fiber content, resistant starch, vitamins, minerals, and essential amino acids, except for lysine and methionine, but it is richer than most cereals. Among the selected millets, foxtail millet contains the highest protein ( Table 1 ). Foxtail millet also contains a high amount of stearic and linoleic acids, which helps in maintaining a good lipid profile.
• Finger millet has the highest carbohydrate content among the selected millets. However, carbohydrates consist primarily of slowly digestible starch, dietary fiber, and resistant starch and thus offer a low glycemic index compared to most common cereals such as rice and wheat [ 27 ]. Finger millet contains around 7% protein ( Table 1 ), which is less than that of other millets, but it has a good amino acid score and contains more threonine, lysine, and valine than other millets. Subsequently, micronutrients such as Ca, Fe, Mg, K, and Zn, as well as B-vitamins, especially niacin, B6, and folic acid, are abundantly available.
• The nutritional value of little millet is comparable to other cereal and millet crops. It contains around 8.7% protein and balanced amino acids, and it is a rich source of sulphur-containing amino acids (cysteine and methionine) and lysine, which is lacking in most cereals [ 28 ]. It is generally considered to induce a lower glycemic response due to the presence of abundant dietary fiber, resistant starch, and slowly digestible starch [ 29 ]. It is also a good source of micronutrients such as Fe, P, and niacin. Recently, many value-added products have been prepared using little millet to capitalize on the health benefits of little millet.

3.2. Antinutrient Profile of Millets

Antinutrients are phytochemical compounds that plants produce naturally for their defense. These antinutritional factors hinder nutrient absorption, leading to reduced nutrient bioavailability and utilization [ 32 ]. When consumed uncooked, products containing antinutrients and chemical compounds may be detrimental or even pose health issues in humans, such as micronutrient malnutrition, nutritional deficiency, and bloating. Plant-based foods mainly contain antinutrients such as tannins, phytates, oxalates, trypsin, and chymotrypsin inhibitors [ 33 ]. One of the disadvantages of millets is a higher concentration of antinutritional factors compared to wheat and rice. Finger millet contains polyphenols, tannins (0.61%), phytates (0.48%), trypsin inhibitors, and oxalates, which may interfere with the bioavailability of micronutrients and protein digestibility. The goitrogenic compounds in pearl millet are derivatives of phenolic flavonoids, such as C-glycosyl flavones, and their metabolites are responsible for the development of off-odors in the flour during storage [ 34 ]. Antinutritional factors due to metal chelation and enzyme inhibition capacity decrease nutrients bioavailability, mainly of minerals and proteins. However, in recent years, antinutritional factors such as polyphenolic compounds have been reported as nutraceuticals for their contribution to antioxidant properties [ 1 ]. Most secondary metabolites that function as antinutrients may cause extremely detrimental biological reactions, while others are actively used in nutrition and pharmacologically active drugs. The need of eliminating antinutrients is fulfilled by pretreatment or processing techniques of food grains, such as debranning, soaking, germination, fermentation, and autoclaving. These methods add value to food by enhancing the bioavailability of a few cations such as Ca, Fe, and Zn and also the proteins absorption [ 8 ].

4. Mechanical Processing for Millets

Because global food security is at risk, effective utilization of available millet crops to develop an affordable, palatable, and nutrient-rich product is the need of the hour. Millet grains must be processed to remove inedible portions and convert them into cooked and edible form. Therefore, processing is a crucial task, as it increases the bioavailability of nutrients and organoleptic properties and decreases antinutrients [ 1 ]. Processing involves multiple techniques such as dehusking/decortication, milling, soaking, germination, fermentation, malting, cooking, and roasting. These operations cause changes in physicochemical attributes that alter the nutrition, function, and physical characteristics of food [ 15 ]. Processing may be of two types, namely, primary and secondary processing. Processes such as cleaning, washing (soaking/germination), dehulling, milling (into flour and semolina), and refining to remove the undesired seed coat and antinutritional factors are termed as primary processing, while secondary processing involves converting primary processed raw materials into “ready-to-cook” (RTC) or “ready-to-eat” (RTE) products by flaking, popping, extrusion, and baking [ 1 ]. The traditional processing technologies include debranning, milling, roasting, soaking, steaming germination, popping, flaking, ready-to-eat salted grains, and fermented products [ 35 , 36 ]. These processing techniques aim to convert grains into edible forms, with an extended shelf life, improved texture, specific flavor, taste, as well as improved nutritional quality and digestibility [ 37 ]. Millet consumption and utilization can be increased by processing them into various by-products, which also reduces the phytate and tannin levels, increases the minerals and amino acids bioavailability, and improves starch and protein digestibility [ 38 ]. Processing imparts specific morphological, anatomical, or modulated changes in these bioactive compounds present in whole grains. The processing methods may have positive as well as negative impacts on the nutrient and antinutrient profile. Various research studies on millet processing have shown positive results on the effective usage of millets in a variety of traditional and convenience health foods. Significant levels of phytates, tannins, phenols, and trypsin inhibitors decrease nutrient bioavailability and quality, limiting maximum utilization of nutritional potential in millets [ 1 ]. Certain millets contain higher concentrations of unsaturated fatty acids; hence rancidity and off-flavors occur in millet flour during storage due to lipolysis followed by oxidation of “de-esterified fatty acids” [ 32 ]. Thus, understanding the influence of processing on nutritional properties is extremely important for effective utilization of millets. It also assists in choosing an appropriate processing technique for millets to maximize nutrient availability, improve palatability, and increase shelf life. The changes in nutritional composition and digestibility with respect to different mechanical processing methods are discussed ( Table 2 ) and summarized ( Figure 2 ).

Inference on nutritional properties changes during different processing methods.

Changes in millets nutritional properties with respect to processing methods.

5. Effect of Processing on Nutritional Properties of Millets

5.1. proteins.

Millets are a rich source of proteins and are widely consumed by vegans. They are regarded as an excellent plant protein with negligible amounts of saturated fats compared to animal proteins. The presence of antinutrients inhibits protein digestibility; hence, reducing the antinutrients level is important. Simple techniques such as dehulling, milling, soaking, and heating decrease the antinutrient levels and increase the in vitro protein digestibility. The impact of various processing methods on the protein digestibility of foxtail millets has been studied [ 20 ]. The alkaline cooking, fermentation, germination (40 h at 25 °C), and popping of foxtail millet resulted in improved protein quality. In another study, pan-frying showed increased protein content in proso millet by 9.5% [ 18 ]. The puffing or popping of kodo millet increased the protein concentration from 7.92 to 8.12% [ 53 ]. The separation of starch granules from the protein matrix during thermal treatment, as well as the destruction of antinutritional components such as trypsin inhibitors and phytate acid, resulted in enhanced protein digestibility as a result of heat treatment or high pressure.

Protein digestibility in cereals, millets, and legumes has been shown to improve throughout the germination and fermentation processes. The germination of foxtail millet resulted in an increment in the protein concentration due to the synthesis of new amino acids [ 39 ]. Similar results for the increase of protein during germination of two cultivars of pearl millet, namely Gadarif (11.4% to 13.2%) and Gazeera (14.4% to 16.3%) were observed [ 54 ]. A study [ 55 ] showed that following germination, the protein concentration of pearl millet increased from 14% to 26%, whereas another study [ 43 ] reported the increased protein in proso millet after sprouting for 96 h. A research study on the impact of fermenting pearl millet flour with pure cultures revealed enhanced protein efficiency ratios, true and apparent protein digestibility, and utilizable protein values [ 55 ]. In another study, the combined effect of germination, fermentation (12 h and 24 h, respectively) and dry heating of pearl millets resulted in improved “in vitro protein digestibility” (IVPD), indicating that fermentation enhances protein digestibility [ 54 ]. The natural fermentation of pearl millet may significantly enhance the protein content [ 47 ]. During fermentation, antinutritional factors such as phytate gets degraded and the insoluble protein get converted to soluble protein due to the synthesis of proteolytic enzymes by microflora [ 56 ]. The simple technique of soaking pearl millet for 24 h resulted in increased protein due to the mobilization of stored nitrogen [ 46 ]. Similarly the malting of pearl millet (24 h soaking, followed by 18 h germination) significantly enhanced the protein [ 43 ]. These reports suggest that the soaking, malting germination, and fermentation processes lead to an increment in the total protein and improved protein digestibility, and thus can be used as an effective processing treatment in the development of protein-rich foods. Because these processes do not necessitate sophisticated equipment, they can be employed at the domestic level as well, assisting in the fight against protein–energy malnutrition, which is primarily a concern in underdeveloped nations.

Decortication removes about 12% to 30% of the outer husk, bran, and germ portion of grains, limiting the significant loss of proteins and amino acids such as histidine, lysine, and arginine. According to a study [ 49 ], dehulling of pearl millet up to 17.5% had a significant impact on the nutritional contents, increasing protein and digestibility. However, dehulling beyond this point, a substantial decrease in protein occurred. In another study [ 57 ] on the milling of pearl millet, bran-rich milled grains showed the highest percentage of IVPD. Similar improvements in millet’s IVPD were reported by other authors [ 53 ]. Since most of the polyphenolic compounds and antinutrients which precipitate proteins and reduce protein digestibility are present in the hull of millets, the decortication process substantially eliminates them and result in improved protein digestibility.

5.2. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates of the millets range around 60–75%, with foxtail millet containing the minimum carbohydrate and little millet containing the maximum carbohydrate ( Table 1 ). Starch is the principal carbohydrate of the millets like other cereals. The amount of available carbohydrates in food grains is affected by various domestic processing and cooking methods such as soaking, sprouting, pressure cooking, autoclaving, and so on [ 1 ]. The carbohydrate content of foxtail millet increased significantly, by 1.29% [ 58 ]. By contrast, the carbohydrates of pearl millet flour increased non-significantly during the first 24 and 48 h of germination but decreased significantly after 72 h [ 45 ]. The increase in carbohydrates during the germination of foxtail millet is associated with the decrease in moisture, ash, crude protein, and fat, because the carbohydrate levels depend on these attributes of the grains [ 58 ]. The effect of fermentation and germination on the carbohydrates of pearl millet revealed that germination greatly increases the total soluble sugar concentration, as well as the reducing and non-reducing sugar concentration. When homogenized and autoclaved, the germinated slurry substantially increased the soluble sugars and decreased starch [ 49 , 59 ]. The main reason for reduced starch could be due to the starch hydrolysis during the germination and autoclaving process, resulting in a higher concentration of soluble sugars. In a similar study, fermented pearl millet grains also showed lower levels of starch and higher levels of soluble carbohydrates than native pearl millet grain [ 60 ]. Another study revealed a significant rise in the total amount of sugars in proso millet during germination, which could be attributed to starch breakdown [ 61 ]. These results indicate that the germination and fermentation processes improve the carbohydrate digestibility by breaking down the complex starch into simple soluble sugars. This shows the importance of germination and fermentation in the development of energy-dense, easily digestible food products such as infant formula. A study [ 62 ] reported the effect of decortication and hydrothermal processing on finger millet. They observed that decortication significantly increased the total carbohydrates by around 16%. The reduction in carbohydrates due to decortication is apparent due to the removal of the seed coat. However, no change in total carbohydrates due to hydrothermal treatment was reported, but a slight change in amylose fraction was noted. Furthermore, due to leaching during steeping and the Maillard process during steaming, the sugar concentration reduced from 1.085 to 0.71 g/100 g after hydrothermal processing. These results indicate that carbohydrates behave differently with different processing techniques. An extensive study [ 32 ] on the starch digestibility of pearl and proso millet revealed that parboiling significantly reduced the total starch by 5–10% due to starch leaching out during soaking and boiling process. They also observed that parboiled proso and pearl millet had a reduced readily digestible starch fraction (18.2–19.1% to 17.4–18.3%) and thus a lower glycemic index by 1.6–3.9%. These results suggest that parboiling can significantly reduce starch digestibility and therefore can be utilized to formulate products for metabolic diseases such as diabetics and obesity.

5.3. Dietary Fiber

The millet bran fraction is a major and abundant source of dietary fiber, which is characterized as complex polysaccharides that are not readily available. Therefore, removal of the bran fraction during decortication/dehulling results in substantial reduction in fiber component. It was reported that dehulling of about 12% to 30% to remove the kernel is suitable for millet grains as it does not result in significant loss of fiber. However, dehulling of grains beyond 30% results in the substantial loss of dietary fiber [ 37 ]. Since most of the millets are consumed in their decorticated form, it is very important to control the extent of dehulling so as to maximize the fiber content. A study [ 20 ] on the impact of milling on the fiber components of foxtail millet revealed that the insoluble dietary fiber content of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose in the milled fraction was lower than that of whole millet flour, while in foxtail millets the fiber content increases significantly with increasing germination time [ 39 ]. This is perhaps due to a change in the structure of the seeds’ cell wall polysaccharides, which may affect the tissue histology and disrupt protein carbohydrate interactions. In addition, the results of cell wall biosynthesis leads to increased production of dietary fiber. A study of solid-state fermentation (SSF) on pearl millet with Rhizopus oligosporus and Yarrowia lipolytica [ 63 ] increased the soluble dietary fiber by 176%. Another study revealed that, fermenting the dietary fiber from foxtail millet bran with Bacillus natto enhanced the soluble dietary fiber (DF) content by 10.9% and increased the ratio of soluble DF to insoluble DF by 16.8% [ 64 ]. Following fermentation, cellulose and hemicellulose breakdown resulted in more porous structure polysaccharides, which explains the changes in DF. Similarly, malting pearl millet for 24 h boosted the fiber level from 0.77% to 0.87% [ 44 ]. A study [ 65 ] on maize and finger millet-based extruded product showed that the non-starchy polysaccharides reduced from 2.5 g/100 g for raw blend to 1.5 g/100 g for unfermented-extruded blend. The values were further reduced to 0.9 for fermented blends and 1.4 g/100 g for blends treated with lactic or citric acid (different molarities) prior to extrusion. It was also observed that high extrusion temperatures and severe mechanical shear disrupt glycosidic networks and weak bonds between polysaccharide chains of dietary fiber polysaccharides, resulting in a reduction in total NSP. Similarly, the thermal processing of biscuits prepared from pearl millet flour resulted in a change in crude fiber content from 1.26% to 1.75% [ 63 ]. Roasting of pearl millet grains at different times and temperatures reduced crude fiber content. Other thermal processes such as puffing and popping on millets resulted a decline in crude fiber by 1.71% and from 18.9 to 15.8 g/100 g, respectively [ 66 ]. This could be mainly attributed to the fact that the outer grain layer has the majority of the fiber that is exposed to thermal degradation. To summarize, the reports suggest that dehulling and milling (debranning) operations reduce dietary fiber, while high temperature extrusion processes lead to thermal degradation of dietary fiber. Dietary fiber, particularly that accumulated in the outer bran layer, plays a vital role in reducing type 2 diabetes and constipation. For a healthy millet diet, it is important to discourage millers from polishing millets and to advise consumers to prefer whole millets (unpolished) and their by-products.

5.4. Minerals

Millets are an abundant source of minerals such as K, Mg, Fe, Ca, and Zn, along with vitamins that are mainly accumulated in the aleurone, germ, and pericarp [ 1 ]. Soaking millet grains prior to cooking helps to reduce antinutrients while also improving mineral bioavailability. Millet grains soaked in water were shown to have reduced Zn and Fe content, which might be attributed to minerals leaching into the soaking water [ 67 ]. Soaking millet grains boosts the “in vitro solubility” of minerals such as Fe and Zn by 2–23%. Soaking the millet grains in hot water (45 to 65 °C) with a pH of 5–6 resulted in a significant increase in bioavailability and a decrease in phytic acid [ 68 ]. The mineral content in pearl millet flour was affected by germination and fermentation [ 49 ]. Germination of foxtail millet improved and modified the nutrient profile by increasing the mineral compounds availability [ 20 , 49 ]. Germination increased the availability of minerals by the catabolism process of antinutrients such as saponins and polyphenols, which inhibit the mineral bioavailability [ 39 ]. A similar increase in the mineral concentration in germinated foxtail millet was reported [ 69 ]. Germination also activate phytase-specific phosphatases enzyme called phytases, which hydrolyze phytate into inositol and orthophosphate and release minerals. Therefore, increased levels of minerals such as Mg (101.16 to 107.16 mg/kg), sodium (Na) (63.34 to 69.45 mg/kg), Ca (17.43 to 25.62 mg/kg), and Fe (16.01 to 54.23 mg/kg) were reported for foxtail millet [ 39 ]. The mineral content of kodo millet increased from 232.82 to 251.73 mg/100 g after 36 h of germination at 38.75 °C [ 41 ]. According to [ 70 ], fermentation improved the availability of Ca by 20%, Fe by 27%, and P and Zn by 26%. Bleaching pearl millet for 90 s increased Fe availability from 2.19 to 3.29 mg/100 g in vitro [ 49 ].

The decorticated millet grains decreased the total mineral content: Ca by 40%, Fe by 50%, and Zn by 12%; however, it increased the bio-accessibility of the minerals Ca (15 g/100 g), Fe (26 g/100 g), and Zn (24 g/100 g) [ 53 ]. The decortication process reduces the antinutrients, which inhibit mineral bioavailability by creating complexes. The antinutrient level reduction leads to an improvement in the bioavailability of minerals [ 53 ]. Another study discovered that the whole grain flour of foxtail millet after milling was mineral-rich, while the polished grain flour showed reduced mineral content but with a higher protein content [ 20 ]. Semi-polished pearl millet has been shown to significantly reduce ash content (1.5% to 1.3%), which represents the noncombustible portion of minerals. The decrease in the ash content was associated with removal of bran. Minerals such as Ca and P, along with antinutrients, are accumulated in the bran fraction of pearl millet [ 70 ]. However, semi-refining reduces the phytate content, which results in improved in vitro bio-accessibility of Fe and Ca. Milling and sieving of finger millet caused a reduction in some minerals such as Fe (6.52 to 3.29 mg), Zn (2.50 to 1.98 mg), and Ca (404.3 to 294.8 mg) [ 71 ].

The total Fe content of roasted pearl millet grains increased by 274 percent, which was due to leaching from the roasting iron-pan into millet samples during the high-temperature roasting process [ 72 ]. Similar studies on finger millet roasting increased the minerals such as Ca (337.31 to 341.24 mg/100 g) and Fe (3.45 to 3.91 mg/100 g) [ 73 ]. Foxtail millets processed through solid-state fermentation (SSF) were rich in important minerals and amino acids [ 63 ]. The mineral content was enhanced when fermented foxtail millet flour was incorporated with a single strain of L. acidophilus [ 20 ]. Studies also indicate that pure culture fermented products increase the bioavailability of minerals [ 53 ].

The dark gray color of pearl millet grains restricts their usage in food preparation. This drawback can be overcome by treating millet grains with organic acids (fumaric, acetic, and tartaric acid) or natural acidic materials (tamarind). Various researchers have studied the effect of acid treatment. A study on acid treatment, which includes soaking the grains in 0.2 N HCl solution for 24 h, subsequent washing, blanching (98 °C for 30 s), and sun-drying (2 days), significantly improved the P, Ca, and Fe extractability [ 74 ]. This increase in HCl extractability was accompanied by an increase in mineral bioavailability. When compared to native grains, pearl millet treated with acid for 18 h significantly improved the in vitro Fe bio-accessibility. The Fe concentration decreased because of the leaching of minerals naturally accumulated in the pericarp portion during processing [ 49 , 53 ]. The millet-based composite flour incorporated with skimmed-milk powder and vegetables showed a substantial increase in Zn (2.1–4.2 mg/100 g), Ca (143.6–667.8 mg/100 g) and Cu (0.5–0.9 mg/100 g), but no significant changes in Fe (3.4–3.6 mg/100 g) and Mg (4.3–4.4 mg/100 g) [ 75 ]. The report suggests that the majority of minerals are accumulated in the germ and bran layer which will be lost during dehulling and sieving operations. However, the process of germination and fermentation was found to increase the mineral content to some extent which could be exploited to develop value-added products.

5.5. Vitamins

Millets when polished/debranned contain a lower nutritional value since the bran and germ components of refined millet flour are eliminated, resulting in a loss of vitamins. Millets are considered superior to wheat, sorghum, and maize in terms of vitamin content and other nutrients that include fats, proteins, and minerals ( Table 1 ). Vitamins along with minerals are naturally accumulated in the aleurone, germ, and pericarp.

Millet grains are high in vitamins such as riboflavin, thiamine, niacin, and folic acid [ 76 ]. It has been noted that the germination and fermentation processes in pearl millet affect the vitamin content of the grains. Improved vitamin levels (thiamin) after the fermentation process were reported [ 49 ]. Little millet decortication resulted in a 67% reduction in vitamin E [ 77 ]. The milling affects the bran portion of the millet grains, which reduces vitamins that are mainly accumulated in the outer bran layer of grains. Milling pearl millet grains resulted in a considerable decrease in vitamin B and a modest reduction in vitamin E, but milling and sieving of finger millet flour tends to decrease vitamins such as thiamine (0.552 to 0.342 mg/100 g) and riboflavin (0.243 to 0.196 mg/100 g) [ 71 ]. The germination of finger millet showed increased vitamin C content, from 0.04 to 0.06 mg/100 g [ 66 ]. Similarly, increased levels of vitamins (thiamine, niacin) after germination and probiotic fermentation were reported [ 49 , 55 ]. The elevation of some vitamins levels, especially thiamine, niacin, and riboflavin, was observed during finger millet fermentation [ 78 ]. Biscuits prepared by replacing refined wheat flour with 45% of foxtail millet flour resulted in an increased value of vitamin content such as niacin (1.41%) and thiamin (0.1836%), except riboflavin (0.09%) [ 79 ]. The nutritional and storage characteristics of nutritious millet food of the West African region were studied. It was found that vitamin B2 concentration was likely reduced by 31.4%, 34.3%, and 45.7% after the processing of grain to a meal, flour, and fura, respectively [ 55 ]. The studies on milling or dehulling suggest that the vitamins are lost during these processing operations as the majority of vitamins are accumulated in the outer layer of millets. The availability of important vitamins can be improved by germinating the millets and developing by-products from germinated millets.

Fats are necessary for calorie supply, brain development, and the absorption and transport of vitamins A, D, E, and K in the body. The germination time has an impact on fat content. For instance, the raw and optimized flour of germinated foxtail millet had 4.4% and 3.6% fat, respectively which was substantially lower than the non-germinated sample. This is due to the fact that the fat is used as an energy source throughout the germination process, which leads to the reduction after germination [ 39 ]. A study to investigate the effect of high-pressure soaking on the nutritional characteristics of foxtail millet revealed that the fat content is reduced by 27.98% [ 40 ]. This was attributable to the enzymatic activity that creates free and soluble nutrients throughout the germinated phase in foxtail millets. Similarly, another study reported that malting of pearl millet for 24 h resulted in a reduction in fat by 6.34 to 5.55% [ 44 ]. During germination the increased enzyme and fat consumption as an energy source might explain the reduction in fat content. According to a study on the influence of different cooking techniques on the characteristic changes of foxtail millet [ 18 ], the fat content was highest in the roasted sample (3.2 g), followed by the raw (2.9 g), pressure cooked (2.8 g), germinated (2.6 g), and boiled sample (1.9 g). The effect of pearl millet fermentation on crude fat, reduced its value from 2.25 to 1.70% [ 63 ]. Another study on fermentation of pearl millet reported an increase in crude fat content from 1.83 to 3.71% [ 37 , 49 ]. Germination of foxtail millet was found to reduce the fat content, which is related to lipid hydrolysis and fatty acid oxidation that occurs during germination [ 55 ]. The foxtail millet grains were germinated at 30 °C and little millet at 35 °C for 24 h after overnight steeping, then tray dried at 60 °C for 6 h and milled for further analysis. The fat content reduced by 17.84% in foxtail millet and increased in little millet by 25.95% [ 58 ]. This was due to the changes in energy values since the fat content includes approximately double the energy values of protein and carbohydrate.

Thermal processing of biscuits made from pearl millet flour resulted in a percentage change in crude fat content from 2.25 to 18.77% [ 63 ]. Another study focused on thermal processing such as pan cooking and microwave heating on proso millet results showed a decreased level of fat content from 3.24 to 2.3 g/100 g (pan cooking) and from 3.24 to 3.05 g/100 g (microwave cooking), while for little millet, fat content decreased from 1.91 to 1.56 g/100 g (pan cooking) and from 1.91 to 1.79 g/100 g (microwave cooking) [ 52 ]. Similarly, roasting decreased the crude fat content by 0.71%, puffing and popping decreased fat content by 0.06% and 1.3–0.63 g/100 g, respectively [ 66 ]. The study on the popping of foxtail millet reported having lower value of crude fat content than raw millet [ 55 ]. Bleaching of pearl millet for 90 s resulted in a greater drop in free fatty acids level from 44.56 to 20.59 mg/100 g [ 49 ].

The use of roller mills for the production of low-fat pearl millet grits was investigated, and it was observed that decortication, tempering, and milling using finer corrugated rollers offered an average output of 61% grits (from whole grains) and 1.2% fat content [ 49 ]. By contrast, another study stated that decortication of pearl millet had no significant changes in fat content. It was also observed that when moisture content and milling time increase, the fat, ash, and fiber content reduces [ 55 ]. Development of composite millet flour had a higher rate of oil and water absorption capacity than that of millet flour [ 75 ]. The oil absorption capacity (OAC) and water absorption capacity (WAC) of the composite flour of different millets increased from 59.2% to 77.9% and from 117% to 225%, respectively. The OAC refers to flour protein’s capacity to physically bind fat through capillary attraction, which is essential since fats function as flavor retainers and improve the mouthfeel of foods. The studies provide sufficient evidence on degradation or denaturation of fat at high temperature processing (cooking and popping) as well as reduction in fat content during milling, malting and fermentation processes. The simple processing techniques such as soaking, germination and malting could be the ideal option for manufacturers to develop low-fat food products from millets. The high temperature processing would damage the fat quality and might reduce the taste and flavor of the processed foods.

6. Conclusions

Millets have an energy value similar to staple cereals. Additionally, they provide more significant health benefits due to their high fiber, minerals, vitamins, macro- and micronutrients, and phytochemicals and can help combat chronic disorders. Making millets part of a regular diet can provide an affordable, complete, and healthy meal. It was observed that during germination and fermentation of millets, the dietary fiber, mineral, and vitamin content of most millets improved. Simple processing techniques such as soaking, germination/malting, and fermentation can help tackle the problem of protein–energy malnutrition by improving protein digestibility and the bioavailability of the minerals. However, it was observed that decortication, dehulling, milling, extrusion resulted in a reduction of total proteins, total dietary fiber, and micronutrients. Thus, care should be taken during the decortication of millets, as excessive dehulling can result in lower fiber content and loss of micronutrients due to the loss of nutrient-rich bran and germ portion.

Looking into the variability of the impact of processing on the nutritional characteristics of millets, there is still a need to focus on optimizing the processing techniques for minor millets to make them more acceptable without compromising the health benefits. Moreover, to combat food insecurity and malnutrition, awareness needs to be created at both commercial and household levels regarding the impact of processing methods on the nutritional properties of millets and the health benefits of millets.

Acknowledgments

This paper is contribution number 22-178-J from the Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, supervisor lead, writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, N.A.N.G.; conceptualization, writing—review and editing, K.S.; writing—review and editing, P.V.V.P.; writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, Y.B.; writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, B.P.N.; writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, C.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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10 Reasons Why Pregnant Women Should Add Millets To Their Diet

Published By : Nishad Thaivalappil

Trending Desk

Last Updated: September 04, 2024, 11:35 IST

Mumbai, India

Millets have been a part of many traditional diets around the world for generations and are known for their amazing health advantages and great nutritional content.

During the pregnancy stage, a woman’s diet should be well-balanced and full of nutrients.

In recent times, millets have become a healthy and nutritious food option, making them an ideal addition to a weight-loss diet. These little grains have been a part of many traditional diets around the world for generations and are known for their amazing health advantages and great nutritional content. But did you know that millets like Jowar (sorghum) and Foxtail can be beneficial for expecting mothers too?

During the pregnancy stage, a woman’s diet should be well-balanced and full of nutrients. Therefore, it is important to add millet to an expecting mother’s meal.

Benefits of Millets During Pregnancy:

• High in essential nutrients like calcium, magnesium, potassium, vitamin B6, and other vitamins, millets improve digestion and prevent acid reflux by promoting smooth bowel motions.
• Additionally, these small grains have a low glycemic index which makes them suitable for the diabetic.
• These millets are alkaline, thus they can help balance stomach acid and reduce acidity issues in expecting mothers.
• For pregnant women who are too health conscious, these millets are gluten-free and are less likely to cause digestive problems like bloating, diarrhea, nausea, stomach cramps, etc.
• Pregnant women are often advised to eat a diet that is rich in folic acid and iron. Folic acid can help prevent brain and spine abnormalities at birth, while iron helps to prevent anemia. Rich in both folic acid and iron, millets are one of the healthiest food items for them.
• Millets during pregnancy are nutrition-dense and provide numerous health benefits. They’re high in fibre, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants.
• Constipation and other digestive problems are common during pregnancy and millet being a good source of fibre can help overcome these issues.
• Jowar contains zinc and copper, which can reduce the risk of pregnancy issues like hypertension, preterm birth, and miscarriages.
• Also, Jowar helps balance the cholesterol levels in the blood, which increases due to less physical activity and high blood pressure during pregnancy.
• Millets can also help in reducing cardiovascular problems.

Millets are easy to prepare and can be served during breakfast, as salads, soups, or snacks. These can be a healthy replacement for traditional wheat roti and rice.