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Essays About Attitude: Top 5 Examples Plus Prompts

Your attitude and demeanor affect all aspects of your life. We have found an inspiring list of essays about attitude to help you choose your own angle.

Attitude refers to a person’s way of thinking about something that affects their behavior. One can say that the proper attitude is vital to leading a fruitful life, whatever that might be for specific individuals. A “good” attitude and a positive outlook can better ascertain success, while a “bad” attitude predisposes a person to fail.

One’s attitude is founded upon knowledge, beliefs, and feelings and reflected in behavior. However, it is also shaped by your experiences.

If you want to write an essay about attitude, here are 5 essay examples and 5 prompts we have prepared to make the process easier for you. 

For help with your essays, check out our round-up of the best essay checkers .

1. Attitude changes everything – it can change your life by Kate Darbyshire Evans

2. 6 ways to banish negative thoughts by emily co, 3. our life is a reflection of our attitude. by iqra shehzadi, 4. watch your attitude: your students are counting on you by amber chandler, 5. how to develop a positive attitude in the workplace by jennifer post, 5 writing prompts on essays about attitude, 1. why is a good attitude so important, 2. how can you change your attitude for the better, 3. is a bad attitude really as detrimental as it is said to be, 4. how has your attitude affected your life, 5. does attitude reflect character.

“Attitude changes everything. Change your attitude, and you can change your life. You cannot always control what happens to you in life but you can always control how you respond to the challenges or difficult situations you encounter. The attitude you approach anything with is entirely your choice. The way you choose to respond mirrors your attitude and so by changing your attitude you can change your perspective and change your life.”

Evans talks about how genuinely present one’s attitude is in the different aspects of their life. It can, quite literally, “change your life.” Regardless of your challenges, Evans believes that a positive attitude can help you steady your course and maintain a good life. She also gives readers tips on developing a good attitude and a more positive outlook on life, including being more grateful, not taking life too seriously, and stepping out of your comfort zone. 

“It’s easy to become jaded when life gets tough, but don’t get caught up in negative thoughts because it may hinder your progress. Seeing the world as a glass half empty may lead you to give up easier and not try as hard because you may think that it’s pointless to even make an attempt.”  

In this short essay, Co lists down a few ways in which we can maintain a positive attitude by keeping negative thoughts out of our minds. These include keeping a gratitude journal, keeping good company, being around animals, and looking for new hobbies. Co believes these activities help promote positivity so that we are not as affected when life gets challenging. You might also be interested in these essays about discipline .

“Our mind has sufficient bandwidth to focus on one thought at a time. All you must do is keep it attentive on inspiring thoughts until you achieve your goal or establish a new habit. After adopting a positive attitude, I have noticed amazing changes all around. I also have noticed a major boost in my confidence and I feel more capable of taking on new projects and challenges which might have formerly been outside my comfort zone.”

Shehzadi reflects on the importance of a positive attitude. She briefly goes over its benefits, like increased confidence and reduced stress. To develop a better attitude, surround yourself with positive people. From there, you can practice kindness, patience, and tolerance. As our attitude reflects itself in how we live, a positive attitude leads to a more productive life. Training your mind to be positive is an excellent investment for your well-being, both mentally and physically. 

“It’s human nature to express ourselves, sure, but I think adults underestimate the impact our ‘attitudes’ have on our own children and students. As we deal with the new variants, head back to school and face another uncertain school year, our attitudes are going to shape the experiences of our students. Why not make a concerted, intentional effort to be the one place where your students can let their guard down and take a break from the attitudes that are everywhere?”

Chandler, an educator, discusses the importance of the right attitude in an environment with kids and the importance of setting a good example. She believes that an authentic, positive attitude helps students thrive, but she also stresses the importance of empathy. To her, the ideal attitude is positive, practical, humble, and empathetic. She wants adults to be more mindful of their attitude, especially in front of kids- they may have certain mannerisms or habits that children will quickly pick up on.

“Not everyone is going to be positive all the time. That’s an unrealistic idea. But even when people are down and at their most negative, there are things one can do to deal with those emotions and actions around the office to keep them from impacting others. Even if it’s just one co-worker causing an issue, take matters into your own hands for your own happiness at work.”

Post’s essay elaborates on the importance of having an attitude suited to your work. Like in Co’s essay, Post discusses certain things we can do to improve our attitude and make us more productive in the workplace. Most significantly, she says that simply saying “yes” more can help develop a better attitude. Even if we cannot always be positive, Post wants us to maximize the positivity in every situation, to look at it from a “glass half full” perspective.

Everyone talks about how the proper attitude helps you go far in life, but how does this work? In your essay, you can explore what makes attitude so vital. You can find examples where people have improved their attitude and attribute it to real-life benefits such as happiness or success. You can also check out these essays about character .

Many people often talk about fixing their attitude and getting out of bad habits. You can use the sample essays to decide which methods you can adopt to improve your attitude. Keep your selection short, simple, and meaningful. Do you think they could be successfully applied to anyone?

Would you say that a good attitude is as important as people say it is? And does a bad attitude indeed dictates one’s fortune or misfortune? Based on research and your own beliefs, decide on your position and provide evidence to support your argument.

Write about something as simple as the effects of your attitude on your life. How does your outlook on life affect you? Do you feel that your attitude is helping you live your life well? Do you think there is anything that you can change to optimize your daily life? Try and provide examples of when a different attitude may have produced a different outcome in a scenario.

Often people are told they have a bad attitude and are misjudged for it. However, is their attitude a true reflection of their character or simply masking a hidden agenda? Think of examples when people may be misjudged by their attitude, or perhaps their behavior was misconstrued, and discuss how difficult it is to remedy this after the event. There are numerous examples of this in literature that you can reference. If you cannot think of a real-life example pick one from an appropriate piece and discuss the character’s attitude, and others’ perceptions of them.

Tip: If writing an essay sounds like a lot of work, simplify it. Write a simple 5 paragraph essay instead.

Martin is an avid writer specializing in editing and proofreading. He also enjoys literary analysis and writing about food and travel.

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Psychology Discussion

Essay on attitude: top 8 essays | human behaviour | psychology.

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Here is a compilation of essays on ‘Attitude’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Attitude’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Attitude

Essay Contents:

• Essay on the Theories of Attitude

Essay # 1. Meaning and Definition of Attitude :

Attitudes are learned predispositions and represent cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings and behavioural intentions towards aspects of our environment like a person, object or event. Attitudes are evaluative statements either favourable or unfavourable concerning objects, people or events and are a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular way toward some object.

Measuring the A-B Relationship Recent research indicates that attitudes:

(A) Significantly predict behaviours

(B) When moderating variables are taken into account.

According to G.W. Allport, “Attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related.”

Krech and Crutchfield defined “attitude as an enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual and cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of the individual’s world.”

According to Katz and Scotland, “Attitude is a tendency or predisposition to evaluate an object or symbol of that object in a certain way”. In effect attitude is used in a generic sense, as to what people perceive, feel and express their views about a situation, object or other people. Attitude cannot be seen, but the behaviour can be seen as an expression of attitude.

Essay # 2. Characteristics of Attitude :

The attitude is the evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. More precisely attitudes can be defined as a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular way toward some object which may include events or individuals as well.

Attitude can be characterized in three ways:

(a) They tend to persist unless something is done to change them.

(b) Attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favourable to very unfavourable.

(c) Attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has feelings (sometimes called “affect”) and beliefs.

Essay # 3. Components of Attitudes :

The three basic components of attitude are cognitive, affective and behavioural part:

(a) Cognitive Component:

Cognitive component of attitude is related to value statement. It consists of belief, ideas, values and other information that an individual may possess or has faith in. Quality of working hard is a value statement or faith that a manager may have.

(b) Affective Component:

Affective component of attitude is related to person’s feelings about another person, which may be positive, negative or neutral.

Example: I do not like Maya because she is not hard working, or I like Mina because she is hard working. It is an expression of feelings about a person, object or a situation.

(c) Behavioural Component:

Behavioural component of attitude is related to impact of various situations or objects that lead to individual’s behaviour based on cognitive and affective components.

Example: I do not like Maya because she is not hard working is an affective component, I therefore would like to disassociate myself with her, is a behavioural component and therefore I would avoid Maya.

Development of favourable attitude, and good relationship with Mina is but natural. Individual’s favorable behaviour is an outcome of the fact that Mina is hardworking. Cognitive and affective components are bases for such behaviour. Former two components cannot be seen, only the behaviour component can be seen. Former is important because it is a base for formation of attitude. These components are explained in Figure.

Essay # 4. Formation of Attitude:

Direct Experience with the Object:

Attitudes can develop from the personally rewarding or punishing experience with an object.

(a) Classical Conditioning:

People develop associations between various objects and the emotional reactions that accompany them.

(b) Operant Conditioning:

Attitudes that are reinforced, either verbally or nonverbally, tend to be maintained.

Vicarious Learning:

Where person learns something by the observation of others helps in attitude development where individual has no direct experience with the object of attitude.

Formation of attitudes is influenced by:

(i) Family and Peer Groups:

A person may learn attitude through the imitation of family members and peers.

(ii) Neighbourhood:

The neighbourhood has a certain structure in terms of having cultural facilities, religious groupings and possibly ethnic differences. The neighbours tolerate condone or deny certain attitudes.

Economic Status and Occupations of the Person:

Mass communication like news-paper, TV, radio etc.

These in turn give rise to development of one’s attitudes.

(a) Attitudes Help Predict Work Behavior:

The following example might help to illustrate it. After introducing a particular policy, it is found from an attitude survey, that the workers are not too happy about it. During the subsequent week it is found that the attendance of the employees drops sharply from the previous standard. Here management may conclude that a negative attitude toward new work rules led to increased absenteeism.

(b) Attitudes Help People to Adapt to their Work Environment:

An understanding of attitudes is also important because attitudes help the employees to get adjusted to their work. If the management can successfully develop a- positive attitude among the employees, they will be better adjusted to their work.

Essay # 5. Functions of Attitude :

According to Katz, attitudes serve four important functions from the viewpoint of organizational behaviour.

These are as follows:

(a) The Adjustment Function:

Attitudes often help people to adjust to their work environment. Well-treated employees tend to develop a positive attitude towards their job, management and the organization in general while berated and ill-treated organizational members develop a negative attitude. In other words, attitudes help employees adjust to their environment and form a basis for future behaviour.

(b) Utilitarian Function:

An attitude may develop because either the attitude or the attitude object is instrumental in helping one to obtain rewards or avoid punishments.

(c) Ego-Defensive Function:

Attitudes help people to retain their dignity and self- image. When a young faculty member who is full of fresh ideas and enthusiasm, joins the organization, the older members might feel somewhat threatened by him. But they tend to disapprove his creative ideas as ‘crazy’ and ‘impractical’ and dismiss him altogether.

(d) The Value-Expressive Function:

Attitudes provide individuals with a basis for expressing their values. For example, a manager who values hard and sincere work will be more vocal against an employee who is having a very casual approach towards work.

(e) The Knowledge Function:

Attitudes provide standards and frames of reference that allow people to understand and perceive the world around him. If one has a strong negative attitude towards the management, whatever the management does, even employee welfare programmes can be perceived as something ‘bad’ and as actually against them.

Essay # 6. Change of Attitudes :

Employees’ attitudes can be changed and sometimes it is in the best interests of managements to try to do so. For example, if employees believe that their employer does not look after their welfare, the management should try to change their attitude and help develop a more positive attitude in them.

However, the process of changing the attitude is not always easy. There are some barriers which have to be overcome if one strives to change somebody’s attitude.

There are two major categories of barriers that come in the way of changing attitudes:

1. Prior commitment when people feel a commitment towards a particular course of action that has already been agreed upon and thus it becomes difficult for them to change or accept the new ways of functioning.

2. Insufficient information also acts as a major barrier to change attitudes. Sometimes people simply see any reason to change their attitude due to unavailability of adequate information.

Some of the possible ways of changing attitudes are described below:

(a) Providing New Information:

Sometimes a dramatic change in attitude is possible only by providing relevant and adequate information to the person concerned. Scanty and incomplete information can be a major reason for brewing negative feeling and attitudes.

(b) Use of Fear:

Attitudes can be changed through the use of fear. People might resort to change their work habit for the fear of fear of unpleasant consequences. However, the degree of the arousal of fear will have to be taken into consideration as well.

(c) Resolving Discrepancies:

Whenever “people face” a dilemma or conflicting situation they feel confused in choosing a particular course of action. Like in the case where one is to choose from” between two alternative courses of action, it is often become difficult for him to decide which is right for him.

Even when he chooses one over the other, he might still feel confused. If someone helps him in pointing out the positive points in favour of the chosen course of action, the person might resolve the dilemma.

(d) Influence of Friends and Peers:

A very effective way of changing one’s attitude is through his friends and colleagues. Their opinion and recommendation for something often proves to be more important. If for example, they are all praise for a particular policy introduced in the work place, chances are high that an individual will slowly accept that even when he had initial reservations for that.

(e) Co-Opting:

If you want to change the attitude of somebody who belongs to a different group, it is often becomes very effective if you can include him in your own group. Like in the case of the union leader who are all the time vehemently against any management decision, can be the person who takes active initiative in implementing a new policy when he had participated in that decision making process himself.

Essay # 7. Types of Attitude :

1. Job Satisfaction:

Job satisfaction is related to general attitude towards the job. A person having a high level of satisfaction will generally hold a positive attitude while dissatisfied people will generally display negative attitude towards life. When we talk about attitude, we generally speak about job satisfaction because they are inter-related in organizational behaviour.

2. Job Involvement:

Job involvement refers to the degree to which a person identifies himself (psychologically) with his job, actively participates and considers his perceived performance level important to self-worth. (Robbins). High level of involvement indicates that the individual cares for his job that has an impact on high productivity. Higher the job satisfaction, lower will be absenteeism and employee turnover.

3. Organizational Commitment:

Organizational commitment refers to degree to which an employee identifies himself with the organizational goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. He wants to “belong” to the organization and take an active part in its functioning.

Absenting or resigning from the job versus job satisfaction is a predictor of organizational commitment. The concept has been very popular in the recent times. Organizational commitment depends upon job enrichment factor and degree to which the workers enjoy autonomy and freedom of action while performing.

Nature of Employee Attitudes :

Attitudes are the feelings and beliefs that largely determine how employees will perceive their environment, commit themselves to intended actions and ultimately behave. Managers of organizational behavior are vitally interested in the nature of the attitudes of their employees toward their jobs, toward their careers and toward the organization itself. Employee attitudes which are important to employers are Job satisfaction, Job Involvement, Organizational Commitment and Work moods.

Moderating Variables for Attitude in Organization:

1. Importance of the attitude

2. Specificity of the attitude

3. Accessibility of the attitude

4. Social pressures on the individual

5. Direct experience with the attitude

Essay # 8. Theories of Attitude :

(a) Cognitive dissonance

(b) Self-perception theory

(a) Cognitive Dissonance Theory :

Tension arises when we are aware of two simultaneously inconsistent cognitions. To reduce the dissonance, we change our attitudes so that they will correspond to our actions. We correct discrepancies between attitudes & behaviors. Festinger’s Famous Cognitive Dissonance Study Had Ss perform dull tasks (turning knobs).

Afterwards, Ss were told the study was on how expectations affect performance. Experimenter asked Ss to tell a new S outside that the experiment was really exciting. Ss were either given $1 or $20 to lie. Ss told the new S (confederate) how great the experiment was & then filled out a questionnaire asking how much they liked the study.

Those who earned $1 were more likely to say they liked the study. Why? We often experience dissonance when making big decisions. To reduce the dissonance after making our choice, we upgrade the chosen alternative and downgrade the unchosen option.

(b) Self-Perception Theory :

When unsure of our attitudes, we examine our behavior & the circumstances under which it occurs. Wells & Petty (1980) had Ss test headphone sets by making either vertical or horizontal head movements while listening to a radio editorial. Those nodding their heads up & down agreed with the editorial most as it is associated with “yes” responses.

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The Components of Attitude

Definition, Formation, Changes

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Overview of Attitude

Attitude formation, attitudes and behavior, why attitudes change, frequently asked questions.

In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person, thing, or event.

Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing. They can have a powerful influence over behavior and affect how people act in various situations. While attitudes are enduring, they can also change. The main components of attitude are cognitive, affective, and behavioral, which means they incorporate thoughts, feelings, and actions.

This article explores what attitudes mean in psychology and how they are formed. It also covers how attitudes impact behaviors and factors contributing to attitude change.

Illustration by JR Bee, Verywell 

To understand the meaning of attitudes, it can be helpful to look at a few different examples. Attitude can refer to:

• Your opinion on the death penalty
• Your opinion about which political party does a better job of running the country
• Whether prayer be allowed in schools
• Whether violence on television be regulated

Chances are that you probably have fairly strong opinions on these and similar questions. You've developed attitudes about such issues, and these attitudes influence your beliefs as well as your behavior. Attitudes are an important topic of study within the field of social psychology . But what exactly is an attitude? How does it develop? 

How Psychologists Define Attitudes

Psychologists define attitudes as a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This can include evaluations of people, issues, objects, or events. Such evaluations are often positive or negative, but they can also be uncertain at times.

For example, you might have mixed feelings about a particular person or issue. Researchers also suggest that there are several different characteristics that make up attitudes. The components of attitudes are sometimes referred to as the ABC's of attitude.

3 Components of Attitude

• Affective Component:  How the object, person, issue, or event makes you feel
• Cognitive Component:  Your thoughts and beliefs about the subject
• Behavioral Component:  How attitude influences your behavior

Attitudes can also be explicit and implicit. Explicit attitudes are those that we are consciously aware of and that clearly influence our behaviors and beliefs. Implicit attitudes are unconscious but still have an effect on our beliefs and behaviors.

Several factors can influence how and why attitudes form, including:

Attitudes form directly as a result of experience. They may emerge due to direct personal experience, or they may result from observation.

Social Factors

Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles relate to how people are expected to behave in a particular role or context. Social norms involve society's rules for what behaviors are considered appropriate.

Attitudes can be learned in a variety of ways. Consider how advertisers use classical conditioning to influence your attitude toward a particular product. In a television commercial, you see young, beautiful people having fun on a tropical beach while enjoying a sports drink. This attractive and appealing imagery causes you to develop a positive association with this particular beverage.

Conditioning

Operant conditioning can also be used to influence how attitudes develop. Imagine a young man who has just started smoking. Whenever he lights up a cigarette, people complain, chastise him, and ask him to leave their vicinity. This negative feedback from those around him eventually causes him to develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking and he decides to give up the habit.

Observation

Finally, people also learn attitudes by observing people around them. When someone you admire greatly espouses a particular attitude, you are more likely to develop the same beliefs. For example, children spend a great deal of time observing the attitudes of their parents and usually begin to demonstrate similar outlooks.

Attitudes can form through direct experience, social influence, formal education, conditioning processes, and observation.

We tend to assume that people behave according to their attitudes. However, social psychologists have found that attitudes and actual behavior are not always perfectly aligned.

After all, plenty of people support a particular candidate or political party yet fail to vote. People also are more likely to behave according to their attitudes under certain conditions.

Factors Influencing Attitude Strength

• Are an expert on the subject
• Expect a favorable outcome
• Experience something personally
• Stand to win or lose something due to the issue
• Are repeatedly expressed attitudes

Changing to Match Behavior

In some cases, people may alter their attitudes to better align them with their behavior. Cognitive dissonance is a phenomenon in which a person experiences psychological distress due to conflicting thoughts or beliefs. In order to reduce this tension, people may change their attitudes to reflect their other beliefs or actual behaviors.

Using Cognitive Dissonance

Imagine the following situation: You've always placed a high value on financial security, but you start dating someone very financially unstable. You have two options to reduce the tension caused by conflicting beliefs and behavior.

You can end the relationship and seek a more financially secure partner, or you can de-emphasize the importance of fiscal stability.

In order to minimize the cognitive dissonance between your conflicting attitude and behavior, you either have to change the attitude or change your actions.

While attitudes can have a powerful effect on behavior, they are not set in stone. The same influences that lead to attitude formation can also create attitude change.

Learning Theory

Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning can be used to bring about attitude change. Classical conditioning can be used to create positive emotional reactions to an object, person, or event by associating positive feelings with the target object.

Operant conditioning can be used to strengthen desirable attitudes and weaken undesirable ones. People can also change their attitudes after observing the behavior of others.

Elaboration Likelihood Theory

This theory of persuasion suggests that people can alter their attitudes in two ways. First, they can be motivated to listen and think about the message, thus leading to an attitude shift.

Or, they might be influenced by the characteristics of the speaker, leading to a temporary or surface shift in attitude. Messages that are thought-provoking and that appeal to logic are more likely to lead to permanent changes in attitudes.

Dissonance Theory

As mentioned earlier, people can also change their attitudes when they have conflicting beliefs about a topic. In order to reduce the tension created by these incompatible beliefs, people often shift their attitudes.

Attitudes are not set in stone and may change when people learn new information, when they are persuaded by influential people, or when they experience discomfort due to holding conflicting beliefs.

A Word From Verywell

Attitudes play a pivotal role in shaping human behavior, from the choices people make about living their lives to the health behaviors they engage in daily. Understanding where these attitudes come from and how they sometimes change can help you look for ways to improve your attitudes, whether it means adopting a more positive outlook on life or changing your opinion based on new information.

Attitudes can be positive or negative, and explicit or implicit. Positive attitudes involves good feelings, where negative attitudes are charaterized by hostility, anger, or dislike. Explicit attitudes are conscious, while implicit attitudes are unconscious.

The cognitive component of attitude involves the thoughts that people have about something. The affective component refers to the emotional response tht people have about the attitudinal object. 

International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences. 3 D Model of Attitude.

Chaiklin, H. Attitudes, Behavior, and Social Practice . The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare : Vol. 38 : Iss. 1 , Article 3. 

Perlovsky L.  A challenge to human evolution—cognitive dissonance.  Frontiers in Psychology . 2013;4. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00179.

American Psychological Association.  Teaching tip sheet: Attitudes and behavior change . 

• Chaiklin H. Attitudes, Behavior, and Social Practice.  Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare . 2011. 
• Teaching Tip Sheet: Attitudes and Behavior Change.  American Psychological Association.  http://www.apa.org/pi/aids/resources/education/attitude-change.aspx

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Attitude defined as the view that one has towards an object. It can either be positive, negative or neutral views towards a person, behavior or event. From the theory, of planned behavior (Hogg & Terry, 2000, p. 31), it supports that the intentions of performing certain behaviors can be predicted by the attitudes that one has towards the behavior, the subjective norms, and perceives control of behavior. Therefore, the actual behavior varies considerably as a result of the intentions one has towards the behavior together with the perceptions of behavioral control (Hogg & Terry, 2000, p. 67). By assessing one’s beliefs in regards to the consequences arising from behavior and by evaluating these consequences desirability, this determines the attitude towards behavior.

In the cognitive dissonance theory, it suggests that every person has an inner drive for holding all their attitudes and beliefs in harmony so as to avoid dissonance (Hogg & Terry, 2000, p. 7). This is because the dissonance will lead to the situation where there will be conflicting attitudes, behaviors or beliefs, and as a result, individuals end up feeling pain and cause change in one of the attitudes or beliefs (Hogg & Terry, 2000, p. 227). For example, when one forced, by circumstances, to behave in a way they do not do, their attitude towards their behavior may be re-evaluated to reduce dissonance.

In the self perception theory, it says that people decide on their own attitudes and feelings towards a certain behavior from watching how they behave in different situations. This occurs when a person’s cues are so weak or confusing that they put the same person in the same point, as an exterior observer (Hogg & Terry, 2000, p. 72). Potential implications of a person’s behavior that has a negative attitude towards individual or group would be development of feelings such as anger, frustration, hatred, disgust, sadness. Also, the drainage of energy from a person due to the maintenance of the negative attitude experienced. Implicit attitudes are the thoughts, feelings, or actions towards objects arising due to experiences that one may not be aware of, whereas explicit attitudes are the thoughts, feelings, or actions toward people, objects, or concepts that the person is aware of the feelings he or she holds in a certain context.

Hogg, M. A & Terry, D. J. (2000). Attitudes, Behavior, and Social Context: The Role of Norms and Group Membership. New York: Routledge.

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Attitudes and behavior.

• Geoffrey Haddock , Geoffrey Haddock Department of Psychology, Cardiff University
• Sapphira Thorne Sapphira Thorne Postdoctoral Research Associate, Cardiff University
•  and  Lukas J. Wolf Lukas J. Wolf Department of Psychology, Cardiff University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.449
• Published online: 27 August 2020

Attitudes refer to overall evaluations of people, groups, ideas, and other objects, reflecting whether individuals like or dislike them. Attitudes have been found to be good predictors of behavior, with generally medium-sized effects. The role of attitudes in guiding behavior may be the primary reason why people’s social lives often revolve around expressing and discussing their attitudes, and why social psychology researchers have spent decades examining attitudes.

Two central questions in the study of attitudes concern when and how attitudes predict behavior. The “when” question has been addressed over decades of research that has identified circumstances under which attitudes are more or less likely to predict behavior. That is, attitudes are stronger predictors of behaviors when both constructs are assessed in a corresponding or matching way, when attitudes are stronger, and among certain individuals and in certain situations and domains.

The “how” question concerns influential models in the attitudes literature that provide a better understanding of the processes through which attitudes are linked with behaviors. For instance, these models indicate that other constructs need to be taken into account in understanding the attitude-behavior link, including intentions to perform a behavior, whether individuals perceive themselves to be in control of their behavior, and what they believe others around them think the individual should do (i.e., norms). The models also describe whether attitudes relate to behavior through relatively deliberative and controlled processes or relatively automatic and spontaneous processes. Overall, the long history of research on attitude-behavior links has provided a clearer prediction of when attitudes are linked with behaviors and a better understanding of the processes underlying this link.

• attitude strength
• behavioral intentions
• deliberative and spontaneous behavior

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Home — Essay Samples — Psychology — Positive Attitude — The Power Of Having A Positive Attitude

The Power of Having a Positive Attitude

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Published: Jun 7, 2021

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“Your attitude determines your altitude”

Attitude is a matter of choice

“Weakness of attitude becomes a weakness of character “ Elbert Einstein

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The Importance of Attitude: How Changing Your Attitude Will Change Your Life

In order to consciously evolve and master ourselves, our attitude in each moment is what we should focus on as our gauge of personal mastery. We are beings of perception, and the quality of our perception is determined by our attitude. This is the importance of attitude.

An individual who has the openness, honesty, and subtlety to perceive the nuances of their attitude in each moment, and the concentration necessary to make corrections as necessary is truly an unlimited person. For it is our attitude which determines the reality we live in and the opportunities and experiences we are available to.

Two individuals can be in the pouring rain while one is having the time of their lives, and the other is soaked, cold, and in essence, miserable. The difference is not in the environment, but in their perception of the environment. And that is where attitude comes in.

The reason why attitude is an excellent focal point of our attention is because our attitude is what gives us direct insight into our thoughts, beliefs, and emotions in each moment. Many of our beliefs operate on the level of our subconscious mind, therefore they are nearly invisible to us. Moreover, our emotional state is not always obvious.

If we are habitually depressed or angry or hopeless, a time will come when this feels normal. And when we maintain these energies for long enough, we won’t realize our emotional state until we have felt its opposite. For example we wont realize how bored or listless we were until we have felt radical enthusiasm and inspiration , or we wont realize how empty we have been until we have felt love. Therefore only by the experience of a new way of being can we see how we were and how we have been.

This new experience of being is literally a shift attitude.  A shift in perception and a shift in feeling if you will. If we can pay attention to our attitude, and become aware enough to identify the nuances of our attitudes, then we can discover the limitations of our beliefs, thoughts, and emotional states which may have become so habitual that we may not even notice their detrimental effects and the ways in which they limit us.

Making and Maintaining Attitudinal Shifts

I have found in my life that they key to learning and growth is always consistency. Consistency in our actions, and most importantly in what we focus our attention on. Specifically, our attitude, because it is our attitude which determines our reality, and one of the most efficient way to reprogram our subconscious minds and thus change our lives is to make and maintain attitudinal shifts in each moment.

Our beliefs ultimately determine our attitude and perception of the reality around us, therefore instead of struggling to fish out these deeply ingrained beliefs one by one (and there are multitudes), it is more direct and efficient to change what we perceive by consciously changing our attitude. By doing so we experience literally a different set of energy/information and thus when our subconscious minds are consistently flooding with new perceptual and experiential information, over time new beliefs are formed which are in alignment with the attitudes we have consciously chosen.

We can either consciously shift our attitude in order to change our beliefs, or we can remain unconscious and allow our attitude to be determined subconsciously by our subconscious beliefs. Many of which, possible the majority, are limiting.

By being able to consistently make attitudinal shifts, we will gain the subtlety to be able to do so consciously and in a way where the attitudinal shifts we make are done so in order to align more with source, and align with who we truly are and who we are inspired to become. But even more important than making these attitudinal shifts is the ability to maintain them. And the only way to do so is through consistent and diligent practice ( the power of commitment ).

One way is to literally practice new attitudes, new perspectives, and new ways of feeling.  I am not talking here about artificially creating and adopting attitudes because we have already done that. That is what much of our personality is, and precisely what our ego is. A new way to go about this business of personal transformation is to pay attention in our lives and consciously make the attitudinal shifts necessary so that we can maintain connection to intention (the universe).

Many of our programmed behaviors and beliefs which define our habitual attitude are obstructive and incongruous with who we really are and our highest potential. And when those habitual attitudes set in they distort the flow of the universe and higher consciousness through us. When our personality is incongruous with our true nature, it obstructs our connecting link with spirit when it is engaged and the flow of intention (universal consciousness) through us is hindered.

Once you feel intention, you will know it. Meditation will bring you to this awareness, but even still these attitudinal shifts require subtlety which can only be gained with practice over time. And while it seems a difficult task at first, we have to ask ourselves, isn’t our effort involved completely justifiable if the result is the establishment and maintenance of a conscious connection with the universe, with intention, that grows deeper and more profound over time? Moreover, is it not worth it to train ourselves to live at a level of consciousness where we experience and consistently unleash amazing abilities and potential within us, and truly feel unlimited?

Feeling unlimited is not some vague belief, it is an unquenchable lust for life and excitement that surges from the depths of our being when we consciously feel and sense that we have no limitations. It is not a belief but an experiential fact. And that experience can be achieved through the lens of our attitude.

The importance of attitude is that it is the basis for everything in our lives. Our attitude determines how we react to adversity, our ability to grow and to learn, our ability to overcome challenges, and create bonds with others. And our attitude as it is now is the product of a lifetime of instilled beliefs, programming, and in my opinion, brainwashing.

As sinister as it sounds, it is true, simply because the way we have been taught to perceive reality is so far off from the true nature of reality. And whether it was intentional or the result of ignorance, it really doesn’t matter. The fact is that it happened, and why it happened isn’t all that important to me. What is important however is that we take responsibility for ourselves in this moment so that we can consciously reverse it in order to grow, transform, evolve, and experience these exalted levels of consciousness for ourselves.

Changing Your Attitude

When I talk about attitude what I really mean is how we habitually feel and perceive the world. However, this in turn is determined by our ‘personality’ which in itself is founded on our beliefs as a result of life experiences and our programming. To change our attitude, one way is to change directly how we see the world in our imagination and consciously instill new feelings within ourselves based on these new images (which is a highly effective process for manifestation and transformation which I will cover in-depth in a later article).

The simpler method is to just concentrate on consciously feeling differently where appropriate.

I know this works because I did it for the first time when I was in grade 9. I literally concentrated as much as it was possible for me to concentrate to literally change my attitude and how I habitually felt, and the result was that I changed aspects of my personality. In hindsight I realize that I did this in a direction I would not choose to take today because it led to self-pity. But I have no regrets because I see now that it was an essential learning experience in itself which led down a path of even greater learning experiences (many disguised as misfortune, and suffering).

Changing our attitude is not an event but a continuous process, as everything related to mastery and evolution undoubtedly is. You don’t have to change all at once. Instead just make the most relevant attitudinal shifts to you in your daily life and reinforce them consistently until they become your new attitude. And as you do this you will find yourself naturally moving on to new areas, and new levels of subtlety.

If it is most relevant for you in this moment to get in shape, then create an exercise routine and follow it daily while consciously changing your attitude towards yourself, and even your attitude towards hard work, physical exertion, commitment, and discipline which are all lessons I have personally learned through physical training. Or if you are learning a language or studying a difficult course in school, consciously shift your attitude towards your memory, towards your intelligence and so on.

Notice when you unconsciously adopt the attitude of being overwhelmed, or doubting your intelligence, or perceiving as if your memory is poor when you are learning something new. Or when you adopt the attitude of ‘I Can’t’. Sometimes I notice my attitude first by a face that I feel myself making, and that is a trigger to realizing I am feeling an emotion that doesn’t resonate with my unlimited nature.

In these moments take a second and concentrate with everything you have on feeling differently about what you are facing, whatever it may be. It could be self-doubt, or an uncontrollable nervousness about talking to that girl or boy you are infatuated with.

Remember a time when you felt confident and assume that feeling in your body in this instant. When you change how you feel when confronted with these circumstances you are changing your attitude. And eventually with diligent practice and repetition this new feeling and attitude you have conditioned yourself to feel will be your new response to similar circumstances in the future.

But at very least you will have the ability to change your feelings and attitude consciously which is the height of self-mastery and self-awareness. A superpower that I cannot stress the importance of enough.

The Importance of Attitude

In essence there are a lot of major and truly subtle shifts that we can make regarding our relationship to everything. Our attitude towards financial wealth for example is another important one. Our attitude towards adversity, towards challenges, towards hard work, towards learning from within , towards success, towards self-reliance and independence, towards freedom, towards our dreams, towards people you disagree with, towards people you don’t like, towards parts of yourself you don’t like, and on, and on, and on …

And at is our attitudes towards all things in our lives which determine our reality. This is the importance of attitude. Your attitude towards financial wealth is what determines your financial wealth. Your attitude towards success, or towards love, is what determines your success and determines the love you feel. And it is my conviction that changing our attitude is a practice at the heart not only of personal growth and mastery, but of consciousness evolution . Right alongside self-discipline. For it is our attitude towards reality in general which determines what reality is for us. But if we can consciously shift our attitude over time, we will shift our personality drastically, and we will also change our reality by degrees until we live at a new level of being.

And one day, we will shift our attitude and personality to such a finely tuned degree that we are in complete alignment with the universe. And at that time we will cease to be individuals with an ego ( What is Ego? ), and we will become individuals expressions of universal consciousness.

This thing that we call our personality is but the culmination of our beliefs and social programming, and in no way is it something sacred which is unique to us except  the aspects of our personality that are defined by qualities such as love, kindness, generosity, creativity, and true spiritual power. For those are not qualities of the ego, they are qualities of the universe, our true selves, which is shining through us.

Our uniqueness is found in how we express the divine energies being channeling through us, not in the pettiness and limitations of our ego.

Thus by consistently shifting our attitude we are not battling the ego or living from it either. We are simply opening up new channels for expressing the universe and ourselves, and opening a doorway to new ways of being and to a new experience of reality.

You cannot control what is currently happening to you in your life, but what you can control is your attitude towards what is happening in your life, in every respect. And thus by shifting your attitude, you also shift your perspective and change what you attract into your life. This is the importance of attitude.

What we call our ego is not our individuality, rather it is the aspect of ourselves which stands in contradiction to our true nature: it is the expression of our subconscious programming which opposes our true self. The intention therefore is not to remove the ego, but to align it so well with our infinite nature that our ego and infinite nature become completely congruous.

Then we will always be expressing the truth of who we are, which is invariable divine love, creativity, wisdom, and power. That is the true nature of each and every one of us.

By making and maintaining attitudinal shifts that keep us at levels of higher consciousness, over time these attitudinal shifts become subconscious habits and thus our subconscious mind maintains higher levels of consciousness for us. Instead of fighting with ourselves constantly, in the ongoing battle between our ego and our infinite self, it is much more intelligent (and easier in the long run) to concentrate on aligning them.

Our attitude is the focal point of that alignment.

You are personally responsible for everything in your life, once you become aware that you are personally responsible for everything in your life. – Bruce Lipton

This article was written by Brandon West who is the creator of Project Global Awakening . A website dedicated to the research of a variety of scientific and spiritual disciplines, and applying that knowledge to help you live an inspired life and change the world.

This article is offered under Creative Commons license. It’s okay to republish it anywhere as long as attribution bio is included and all links remain intact.

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Essay on Attitude And Values

Students are often asked to write an essay on Attitude And Values in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Attitude And Values

Understanding attitude and values.

Attitude is the way we think and feel about something. It is our mental outlook on things. For example, we may have a positive attitude towards studying or a negative attitude towards cleaning.

What are Values?

Values are the things that are important to us. They guide our actions and decisions. For example, if honesty is a value, we will always tell the truth.

Link Between Attitude and Values

Our values shape our attitudes. If we value hard work, we will have a positive attitude towards it. Our attitudes also reflect our values.

Importance of Positive Attitude and Values

Having a positive attitude and good values is important. It helps us to be happy and successful. It also helps us to make good choices and be good people.

In conclusion, our attitude and values are very important. They shape who we are and how we act. So, it is important to have a positive attitude and good values.

250 Words Essay on Attitude And Values

Attitude and values are two important parts of our life. They shape our thoughts, actions, and how we see the world. Attitude is how we feel about something or someone. It can be positive or negative. Values are the things we believe are good and important. They guide our behavior and choices.

The Role of Attitude

Attitude is like a mental filter through which we see the world. It can shape our thoughts and actions. For example, if we have a positive attitude towards school, we will enjoy learning. We will be eager to go to school and study. But if we have a negative attitude, we might not like school. We might feel bored or unhappy there. So, our attitude can change our experiences.

The Importance of Values

Values are like a compass that guides us. They help us decide what is right and wrong. For example, if we value honesty, we will always tell the truth. If we value kindness, we will be kind to others. So, our values guide our actions and behavior.

Attitude and Values Together

Attitude and values are closely related. Our values can shape our attitude. For example, if we value hard work, we will have a positive attitude towards challenges. We will see them as opportunities to learn and grow. So, our values can influence our attitude.

In conclusion, attitude and values are very important. They shape our thoughts, actions, and experiences. They help us become better people. So, we should always try to have a positive attitude and good values.

500 Words Essay on Attitude And Values

Introduction to attitude and values.

Attitude and values are two key concepts that help us understand our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Attitude is the way we think and feel about something or someone. It is like a mental filter through which we experience the world around us. On the other hand, values are the beliefs that guide our decisions and behavior. They are like a compass that shows us the right way to act.

Understanding Attitude

Attitude is a mix of thoughts and feelings. It is not something we are born with, but something we learn from our experiences and surroundings. For example, if you have a positive attitude towards studying, you might see it as a chance to learn new things and enjoy the process. But if you have a negative attitude, you might see studying as a boring task.

Our attitude can change depending on the situation and our experiences. This is why it is important to always try to keep a positive attitude. A positive attitude can help us overcome challenges, make us happier, and lead us to success.

The Role of Values

Values are the deep beliefs that we hold about what is right and wrong, good and bad. They are the rules by which we live our lives. For example, if honesty is a value for you, you will always try to tell the truth. If respect is a value, you will treat others with kindness and understanding.

Values are usually learned from our family, culture, religion, and education. They shape our character and influence our choices. They help us decide what is important in life and guide us in our actions.

Connection between Attitude and Values

Attitude and values are closely linked. Our values often shape our attitudes. For example, if you value hard work, you might have a positive attitude towards challenges and see them as opportunities to grow. On the other hand, if you value comfort and ease, you might have a negative attitude towards hard work and see it as something to avoid.

In the same way, our attitudes can influence our values. If we have a positive attitude towards kindness, we might start to value it more. If we have a negative attitude towards dishonesty, we might start to value honesty more.

In conclusion, attitude and values are two important factors that shape our thoughts, feelings, and actions. They interact with each other and influence our behavior. By understanding our attitudes and values, we can better understand ourselves and make better decisions. We can also work on improving our attitudes and values to become better people and lead more fulfilling lives. Remember, a positive attitude and good values can make a big difference in our lives.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Attitudes, Aptitudes, and Aspirations of American Youth: Implications for Military Recruitment (2003)

Chapter: 6. youth values, attitudes, perceptions, and influencers, 6 youth values, attitudes, perceptions, and influencers.

Y outh analysts are increasingly speaking of a new phase in the life course between adolescence and adulthood, an elongated phase of semiautonomy, variously called “postadolescence,” “youth,” or “emerging adulthood” (Arnett, 2000). During this time, young people are relatively free from adult responsibilities and able to explore diverse career and life options. There is evidence that “emerging adults” in their 20s feel neither like adults nor like adolescents; instead, they consider themselves in some ways like each. At the same time, given the wide variety of perceived and actual options available to them, the transition to adulthood has become increasingly “destructured” and “individualized” (Shanahan, 2000). Youth may begin to make commitments to work and to significant others, but these are more tentative than they will be later. Jobs are more likely to be part-time than at older ages, particularly while higher education, a priority for a growing number of youth, is pursued. There is increasing employment among young people in jobs limited by contract, denoted as contingent or temporary. Such jobs are often obtained through temporary job service agencies. Young people are also increasingly cohabiting prior to marriage or as an alternative to marriage.

This extended period of youth or postadolescence is filled with experimentation, suggesting that linking career preparation to military service might be attractive to a wider age range of youth than among traditionally targeted 17–18-year-olds who are just leaving high school (especially extending to youth in their early and mid-20s). But what about their values of citizenship and patriotism? Are young Americans motivated to serve? Are their parents and counselors supportive? Is there a

link between volunteering in the community and a desire to serve in the military?

This chapter is divided into two sections: the first deals with youth values and the second focuses on the individuals and events that influence or reinforce youth values. Our analysis of youth values includes (1) whether and how values have changed over time, (2) what trends can be anticipated in the future, and (3) changes in youth views of the military. Some primary questions regarding trends in youth values are

What are the important life goals for young people?

How do youth think about and act on values related to citizenship, civic participation, and patriotism?

What are their educational goals beyond high school?

What are considered the most important or desirable characteristics of a job?

How do youth feel about work settings?

What do youth believe about military policy and missions and about the military as a place to work?

The data we draw on to address these questions come from three large national survey databases supplemented by a locally based longitudinal study, several cross-sectional studies, and small observational studies as available. 1 The three national databases are

Monitoring the Future , a nationwide study of youth attitudes and behaviors covering drug use plus a wide range of other subjects, conducted annually by the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan (Bachman et al., 2001b; Johnston et al., 2001; see also < http://www.monitoringthefuture.org >). In-school questionnaire surveys of high school seniors have been conducted each year since 1975; similar surveys of 8th and 10th grade students have been conducted since 1991. The survey sample sizes range from approximately 14,000 to 19,000. The study includes follow-up surveys of smaller subsamples of graduates from all classes from 1976 onward.

Youth Attitude Tracking Study , a nationwide survey of youth attitudes about various aspects of military service, their propensity to enlist, and the role of those who influence youth attitudes and behavior, conducted by the Department of Defense from 1975 through 1999. In the

latest survey, approximately 10,000 telephone interviews were conducted. The age range of participants was 16–24.

The Alfred P. Sloan Study , a nationwide longitudinal study of students conducted by the National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago, from 1992 to 1997. The goal was to gain a holistic picture of adolescents’ experiences with the social environments of their schools, families, and peer groups. The methodology included survey, telephone interviews, experience sampling, sociometric reports, and supplemental interviews with those who might influence youth (Schneider and Stevenson, 1999). The sampling was designed to ensure diversity, not to provide population representativeness. Students were drawn from grades 6, 8, 10, and 12. The total sample was 1,211 students.

The locally based study is the Youth Development Study, conducted at the Life Course Center, University of Minnesota (Mortimer and Finch, 1996). The main purpose of this study is to address the consequences of work experience for youth development, mental health, achievement during high school, and the transition to adulthood. One thousand 9th graders were randomly selected in 1987 from the St. Paul, Minnesota, public school district; these youth have been surveyed annually through 2000, from the ages of 14–15 to 27. Selected subsamples of the respondents have been interviewed to develop a better understanding of the subjective transition to adulthood.

The second section of the chapter reviews the scientific literature and data characterizing youth influencers, drawing on (1) the literatures of socialization, attitude formation and change, and youth development as they inform decisions about early career development and (2) information regarding the role of influencers to the extent that it informs early career decisions. The focus of our analysis is on the aspects of the career decision-making process that bear most directly on youth propensity to enlist in the military.

TRENDS IN YOUTH VALUES

Although a primary source of data for this section is the Monitoring the Future survey, we rely more particularly on a report examining these data concerning high school seniors’ and young adults’ views about work and military service (Bachman et al., 2000a). That report covers trends from 1976 through 1998. Where useful, certain findings have been updated through 2001. The dominant finding from that report was stability rather than change over time in youth views about work and about military service, although there were also important changes that are examined in the following sections. The topics presented include: (1) important

goals in life, (2) citizenship, civic participation, and volunteerism, (3) education and work, and (4) views of the military.

Important Goals in Life

What are the life goals of youth, how have they changed over time, and what are the implications for military enlistment? Table 6-1 shows percentages of high school seniors in the Monitoring the Future (MTF) surveys who rated as “extremely important” each of five goals in life (these five were selected from a longer list as being potentially relevant to military service decisions). The table shows young men and women separately and compares recent graduating classes (1994–1998) with classes nearly two decades earlier (1976–1980). Among young men, the percentages shifted only modestly over two decades, and the rank ordering was unchanged. Among young women, the shifts in percentages were small also, and the rank orderings showed only one trivial change (fourth and fifth places reversed). There were, on the other hand, some consistent differences between the male and female ratings, as noted below.

Among the items listed in the table, the highest importance ratings by far were assigned to “finding purpose and meaning in my life.” Just over half of the males in each time period rated it as extremely important, and the proportions of females were even higher. This item showed little correlation with military propensity during the last quarter of the 20th century, and from this we might infer that military service during that period was not seen as superior or inferior to other pursuits as a means for finding purpose and meaning in life. But the fact that most young adults still rate this as extremely important suggests that if military service in future years can provide such opportunities—and be perceived as doing so—the appeal is likely to be strong.

“Having lots of money” grew in importance among young men and young women between the classes of 1976–1980 and the classes of 1994– 1998, as can be seen in the table. The percentage of young people in the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) surveys who, two years after high school, thought having lots of money was very important also increased from 1974 to 1994 from slightly over 10 percent to approximately 35 percent (Larson presentation, 4th Committee Meeting—Irvine, December 2000).

According to data from the MTF surveys, “making a contribution to society” was somewhat less likely than money to be rated as extremely important by young men, whereas among young women it was a bit more likely. So are today’s youth altruistic? Or materialistic? And have young people been shifting in one direction or the other? The data show only modest changes over time, and the gender differences also remain

TABLE 6-1 Importance Placed on Various Life Goals: Comparison of Rank Orders

much the same. “Finding purpose and meaning in one’s life” seems more personal and possibly more selfish than “making a contribution to society,” but it is perhaps also more realistic and less grandiose. However, data from the Sloan study show that participants considered altruism as the most important value among a host of job values (Csikszentmihalyi and Schneider, 2000:50).

Two items relating to geography were included in Table 6-1 because they were hypothesized to affect willingness to enlist in military service. It was expected that propensity and actual enlistment would be below average among those who placed high priority on living close to parents and relatives, but above average among those who considered it important to “get away from this area of the country.” These expectations were correct with respect to the latter dimension, but the findings with respect to living close to parents and relatives were more complex. Specifically, young men who entered military service had been lower on this dimension when they were high school seniors, but after enlistment the importance of this dimension increased significantly, and they no longer were

below average in the importance they attached to living close to parents. (This pattern did not appear consistently among the small numbers of military women in the samples.) In any case, the items concerning geography were at the bottom of the importance rankings for both males and females at both times. It thus appears that military service may have some extra appeal for those who want to move to a different area, but for most individuals that is not a matter of great importance.

Citizenship, Civic Participation, and Patriotism

As shown in Table 6-1 , a substantial portion of youth feels that it is “extremely important” to make a contribution to society. We need to consider how this finding relates to (or manifests itself in) civic participation, volunteerism, and the propensity to enlist in the services. There are many potential determinants of Americans’ national or civic-related attitudes and behaviors and many reasonable indicators of these phenomena. As a result, it is not easy to determine whether change has occurred and, if so, what the sources of such change might be. Some observations, however, are noteworthy. Trust in government, responsiveness to proximal political events, voting in national elections, and many other forces may be pertinent. Some commentators believe that growing materialism and individualism have diminished civic society in America; they provide evidence that political participation and civic engagement in general are declining (Putnam 1995a, 1995b; Bellah et al., 1985; Easterlin and Crimmins, 1991). Survey researchers find that trust in government declined from the 1950s to the 1990s (Alwin, 1998). The attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, may have altered this picture.

At the same time, youth are described as having relatively little interest in national politics, and they have low rates of voting in national and congressional elections (Tables 6-2a and 6-2b ). This has been the case since 1972, when the voting age was lowered to 18 by the 26th amendment to the Constitution. Youth’s relative disinterest in traditional formal politics appears to be a trend that extends beyond U.S. horizons (Youniss et al., 2002). Recent surveys in the United States show that adolescents have little accurate knowledge about global issues or national political processes and at least until recently have felt little sense of threat, or potential threat, to their country (Schneider, 2001). This lack of knowledge may also have been altered by the September 11 events. Furthermore, recent studies at the National Opinion Research Center suggest that middle school and high school students (grades 6, 8, 10, and 12) are the most bored and the least engaged when they are attending history classes (Schneider, 2001; Csikszentmihalyi and Schneider, 2000:152).

TABLE 6-2a Presidential Voting by Age

Those who are more politically active among today’s youth often do not champion causes or goals that could be considered national in focus; instead they tend to direct their energies toward the resolution of global problems or to issues that might be more aptly described as promoting the welfare of humanity at large. Such issues are worldwide, not national, in scope and include human rights, poverty within and between nations, discrimination in all its manifold forms, the eradication of disease, animal rights, and environmental protection.

Table 6-2b Congressional Voting

Although some evidence suggests that civic participation is declining, there also is evidence that volunteerism among youth is on the increase (Wilson, 2000). As Figure 6-1 shows, the MTF surveys provide some confirmation. From 1990 to 2000 the proportion of high school seniors who participated in community affairs or did volunteer work at least a few times a year rose gradually from about 65 to about 75 percent, and the proportion who did so at least once or twice a month also rose by about 10 percentage points—from just over 20 to more than 30 percent. Furthermore, the proportions of MTF seniors who considered it quite or extremely important to be a leader in the community increased from 21 percent in 1976 to 36 percent in 1990 and to 39 percent in 2000. These findings suggest that the avoidance of national concerns has been accompanied by an emphasis on local as well as global problems. While representing a more specific scope, local activities can be a crucial element in the development of civic engagement. Youniss and his colleagues, focus-

FIGURE 6-1 Percentage of high school seniors who participate in community affairs, class years 1976–2001, by gender and survey form number.

SOURCE: Data from Monitoring the Future surveys.

ing on volunteering in the community, stress that civic activity during adolescence has lasting consequences (Youniss et al., 2002; Youniss and Yates, 1997; Youniss, McLellan, and Yates, 1997; Yates and Youniss, 1996). Their work is based on the theory that behavior drives attitude change. For example, high school volunteers in a soup kitchen, over the course of their service, developed empathy for the homeless as fellow human beings, reflected on their own advantages, and more generally began to consider broader political and moral issues as they thought about the circumstances of their own lives. In so doing, these youth had the opportunity to experience themselves as citizens, to develop a sense of efficacy as effective political agents, and to become more highly motivated to engage in their communities as adults.

Confirming evidence for the benefits of volunteerism has been found in data from the Youth Development Study. The data show that volunteer participation during high school is part of the lives of a substantial minority of Minnesota youth; 37 percent reported at least some volunteer activity while in high school (Johnson et al., 1998). Youth select themselves to volunteer on the basis of previous orientations (e.g., high educational aspirations, higher educational plans, higher grade point averages, higher academic self-esteem, and a higher intrinsic motivation toward school work). However, when the effects of previous attitudes are taken into account, participation in volunteer work was found to foster intrinsic work values, including the importance of service to society as well as enhanced anticipation of future involvement in the community as adults (Johnson et al., 1998). Volunteering also reduced the propensity toward later illegal activity as the respondents began the transition to adulthood (Uggen and Janikula, 1999). In this study, volunteering did not exert an independent effect on educational plans, academic self-esteem, or grade point average.

Furthermore, Verba et al. (1995) found that high school extracurricular activities, particularly participation in school government and clubs (but not sports), predict later political participation. Studies of social movement activists likewise support the conclusion that civic participation during adolescence and young adulthood encourages responsibility in youth, as well as more responsible and active political participation in adulthood (e.g., McAdam, 1988; Fendrich, 1993). Moreover, the effect of volunteering in high school on volunteering during the following four years has been shown to be significant, when numerous relevant background variables as well as prior altruistic and community-oriented values are taken into account (Oesterle et al., 1998; Astin, 1993). The extent to which volunteerism influences activities immediately after high school, such as postsecondary education or military service, is not known.

Education and Work

Educational and occupational aspirations.

As discussed in Chapter 5 , high school graduates have a number of competing opportunities open to them in the worlds of both education and work. During the last quarter of the 20th century, aspirations to complete four-year college programs rose dramatically. As Figure 6-2 shows, fewer than 30 percent of MTF high school seniors in the late 1970s expected “definitely” to complete college, but by the mid- to late 1990s about 60 percent of female seniors and about 50 percent of male seniors expected to do so. If those “probably” expecting to complete college are included, the shift is from about 50 percent in the late 1970s to about 80 percent among women and 75 percent among men in the late 1990s.

FIGURE 6-2 Trends in plans to graduate from a four-year college program: High school seniors, 1976–2001.

Looked at another way, it appears that during the space of about two decades the proportions of high school seniors not expecting (“probably” or “definitely”) to complete college was cut in half—from about 50 to less than 25 percent.

If military recruitment were limited to the noncollege-bound, this great reduction in the target population would be exceedingly problematic. In fact, however, in recent years the majority of high school senior males with high military propensity have also planned to complete four years of college (Bachman et al., 2001a). Nevertheless, it is also the case that average levels of military propensity are lower among the college-bound than among others, so the rise in college aspirations has added to recruiting difficulties.

It is important to note that the proportions expecting to complete college in the MTF reached a peak in 1996 and after that changed little through the latest available data (2001). It may be that in a booming economy, some high school seniors feel less certain that college is the only route to high-quality employment. This may be particularly true of high school students who already possess high levels of computer skills, for example.

Consistent with the increase in college aspirations, there has been a rise in proportions of high school students, especially young women, expecting to obtain high status jobs. For example, between 1976 and 1995 the proportions expecting to become “professionals with a doctoral degree” increased by about half among young men and more than doubled among young women, with some decline thereafter ( Figure 6-3 ). However, young people are generally not well informed about the kinds of educational credentials or other experiences that are required in particular kinds of work. Indeed, the National Survey of Working America (Gallup Organization, 1999) shows that 69 percent of young people ages 18–25 would “try to get more information about jobs or career options than [they] did the first time.” Yet adolescents tend to avoid courses or other experiences that could be construed as specific occupational preparation. Apparently, such courses are seen as a diversion from a college degree program and not commensurate with the goal of obtaining high-quality employment. Furthermore, vocational and technical schools and technical certification programs are neither popular nor esteemed (Kerckhoff, 2002).

Youth may realize that the occupational world that they will enter after finishing their education may be quite different than the one that exists while they are in high school (Mortimer et al., 2002). At the same time, the importance of computer literacy in general is widely recognized (Anderson, 2002; Hellenga, 2002). However, instead of regarding technical courses in computer programming or any other technical programs as

FIGURE 6-3 Trends in expectation for kind of job at age 30 among high school seniors, by gender, 1976–2001 (percentage “professional with doctoral degree”).

vocational insurance, there is a tendency to take an all or nothing approach. Thus, the vast majority of youth plan to obtain a baccalaureate degree and do, in fact, enroll in colleges and universities after high school graduation.

These circumstances present challenges, as well as opportunities, for military recruitment. On one hand, the single-minded focus on getting into college and the lack of attention to the kinds of activities or experiences that would constitute useful preparation for high-quality careers lessen teenagers’ serious consideration of opportunities for technical training and related work experience in the military. On the other hand, college dropouts may be more receptive than high school students to these incentives. The decision to leave college may have been prompted by little success in the academic context or by mounting financial pressures. Older youth have had more time to pursue the extended postadolescent moratorium and may have become more attuned to the need for longer-term career planning and preparation. It is noteworthy that among 18–25-

year-old respondents to Gallup’s National Survey of Working America (June 2000), 80 percent thought they needed “more training or education to maintain or increase [their] earning power during the next few years.”

Preferred Job Characteristics

What do youth see as the most desirable characteristics of a job, and have these values changed over time? The most general observation, based on MTF surveys ( Table 6-3 ), is that job characteristics rated as very important by high school graduates for any job they might hold were quite similar for the classes of 1994–1998 and 1976–1980 (indeed, product-moment correlations between the two sets of mean ratings were 0.97 for males and 0.96 for females). Another general observation is that the ratings for males were similar in most respects to those for females; notably, both genders gave highest importance ratings to a job “which is interesting to do” and lowest ratings to jobs with “an easy pace” and jobs “where most problems are quite difficult and challenging.” In other words, it appears that young people prefer interesting jobs that are neither too hard nor too easy.

Participants in the 1999 Youth Attitude Tracking Study (YATS) also gave high marks to “interesting job”—82 percent of the men and 85 percent of the women thought that this feature of work was extremely or very important (figures for the MTF respondents for a job “which is interesting to do” were highly comparable: aggregating data for 1994 to 1998, they were 82 percent for men and 87 percent for women). 2

The Youth Development Study (YDS), conducted in the city of St. Paul, Minnesota, shows that three years after the 9th grade, when most youth were seniors (N = 930), teenagers of both genders placed high value on work that uses their skills and abilities (among males, 36 percent considered this feature “very important” and 44 percent considered it “extremely important”; comparable figures for females were 32 and 53

TABLE 6-3 Preferences Regarding Job Characteristics: Comparison of Rank Orders

percent, respectively. These youth were much less interested in work that could involve a lot of responsibility. (These jobs might be analogous to the jobs the MTF respondents also considered relatively unattractive, jobs “where most problems are quite difficult and challenging.”) Like the MTF seniors, YDS youth of the same age expressed the least interest in jobs that were “easy” (only 16 percent of the total sample attached high importance to easy work).

Against the backdrop of overall stability in work values during the last quarter of the 20th century, as demonstrated by the MTF, there are some changes and other distinctions that may be relevant to military recruiting. Several job characteristics increased in importance, and we note a few of these next.

“Having more than two weeks’ vacation” rose from 24 percent of males in 1976–1980 rating it very important to 34 percent of males in 1994–1998; among females the increase was from 13 to 22 percent. Interestingly, although military service vacation allowances are far above the standard two weeks a year associated with most jobs in the civilian sector, this item was not correlated with enlistment propensity; among those who actually did enter military service, the vacation item remained somewhat important, whereas for others it declined in importance. Perhaps because vacations of more than two weeks are one of the perquisites of military service, those serving come to value that as part of their benefits package. (In general, work values tend to change in directions that make them more congruent with the rewards that are available—Mortimer and Lorence, 1979; Mortimer et al., 1986; Johnson, 2001.) In any case, the rising importance of vacation time among high school seniors has some implications for military recruiting efforts: specifically, advertising may need to stress the vacation benefits of military service.

MTF data show that proportions rating a chance to participate in decision making as very important in a job rose from 30 to 35 percent among males and more sharply from 26 to 37 percent among females. Even higher portions of YATS respondents considered decision making important in 1999:67 percent of men and 62 percent of women. (Differences in endorsement could be linked to variation in question wording: YATS refers to “role in decision-making”; MTF says “Where you get a chance to participate in decision-making.”) However, the ranking of this item is quite close in the two surveys: 14th and 16th for men and women, respectively, in the YATS, and 16th and 19th for men and women in the MTF. Both lists contained 24 items.

Ratings of high status and prestige as very important also rose from 25 to 31 percent of males, and from 22 to 28 percent of females. These changes took place during the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s; there was no further increase (actually, a slight decline) during the 1990s. In the

MTF, having a job that most people look up to and respect was rated as important by increasing proportions of males and females; once again, this increase took place prior to the 1990s. However, this indicator of job status was ranked 11th and 13th of 24 items by males and females, respectively. In the YDS, a “job that people regard highly” was considered relatively unimportant, receiving a ranking of 11 out of 12 criteria.

Having a chance to earn a good deal of money assumed considerable importance by youth responding to the MTF surveys, and the level of importance rose over time among both males and females; here again, the increase occurred throughout the late 1970s and the 1980s, with a slight decline thereafter. In addition, higher portions of YATS respondents considered pay to be extremely or very important compared with MTF participants: 90 percent of men (versus 63 percent of male MTF respondents); and 88 percent of women (versus 52 percent of female MTF respondents). However, the particular wording of the YATS item (“job with good pay”), given its less specific and more modest referent compared to the MTF item (“which provides you with a chance to earn a good deal of money”), could have generated the higher level of endorsement.

In 1999, a large portion of YATS men and women (87 and 91 percent, respectively) considered “job security” important. A comparable item in the MTF “How important is being able to find steady work” also yielded relatively high endorsement in 1994–1998 (70.5 percent of men and 76.4 percent of women). In the YDS, a steady job, good chances to get ahead, and good pay were the highest-rated job features (of 12 criteria). Thus, in all three surveys—MTF, YATS, and YDS—extrinsic rewards of work— that is, those that are obtained as a consequence of having a job rather than from the work itself—rank high in importance.

As Table 6-3 shows, several factors declined in importance among both male and female high school MTF seniors, most notably having a job that provides a chance to make friends and having a job “where you can see the results of what you do.”

Some of the other factors did not change much but show important gender differences. Jobs providing opportunities to be helpful to others, jobs that are worthwhile to society, and jobs that permit contact with a lot of people are rated as very important by higher percentages of women than men. Women YDS participants also considered opportunities to work with people rather than things and the opportunities to be useful to society more important than did men. Finally, according to MTF data, fewer women than men consider it very important to avoid supervision by others—a dimension that correlates negatively with military propensity. However, these values were not as important for either gender as the extrinsic cluster (steady work, getting ahead, good pay) or the use of skills and ability.

Preferred Work Settings

Table 6-4 , taken from the MTF surveys, shows preferences for different work settings among male and female high school seniors, comparing recent classes (1994–1998) with earlier ones (1976–1980). Self-employment was the top choice among males and was high in the ratings of females also. Working for a large corporation was the second most popular setting among both young men and young women; its popularity grew during the late 1970s and early 1980s, with little change thereafter. Schools and universities also gained in popularity, particularly during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Other work settings showed relatively little overall change.

Military service consistently received the lowest ratings among both males and females (although among males social service agencies were about equally unpopular as places to work). Not surprisingly, individuals who considered military service to be a desirable workplace were above average in military propensity and actual enlistment.

Views About the Importance of Work

High school seniors’ views about the importance of work in their lives have been mostly stable, although a few modest changes are worth noting. Overwhelming majorities of MTF respondents agree or mostly agree that work will be a central part of their lives. “Being successful in work” was rated most important (of five worthy objectives) among NCES respondents two years following high school in 1974, 1984, and 1994, with some increase being demonstrated over time (to approximately 90 percent at the last year). It is especially noteworthy how much more important success in general in the work sphere is rated by NCES survey participants, as opposed to the extrinsic indicators of such success (e.g., “having lots of money,” less than 40 percent in 1994).

However, in the MTF, the proportions considering work as a central part of life declined from about 85 percent for the classes of 1976–1985 to about 75 percent for recent classes (1996–1998). During the same period there was a roughly 10 percent increase in proportions of seniors who viewed work as “only a way to make a living.” Also, after the 1970s the proportion of young men who said they would choose not to work if they had enough money to live comfortably rose from about 20 percent to about 30 percent in the late 1990s, whereas among women it remained steady at about 20 percent. Finally, as noted earlier, there has been a modest but steady increase in the proportions of high school seniors who consider it very important to have more than two weeks of vacation per year.

TABLE 6-4 Desirability of Different Working Arrangements and Settings: Comparison of Rank Orders

It must be stressed again that the changes noted here in the MTF study were modest and gradual, not at all abrupt. Furthermore, in the NCES study, the aggregate results show that “being successful in work” also became steadily more important. It is abundantly clear that aspirations and ambitions with respect to educational and occupational attainment actually rose substantially among youth during most of the last quarter-century. These shifts in aspirations have had, and will continue to have, important implications for military recruiting efforts.

Trends in Youth Views About the Military

The findings in this section are based mainly on MTF samples of high school students and young adults (Bachman et al., 2000a, 2000b; Segal et al., 1999). We begin by noting recent trends in military propensity among youth, then we turn to their views about the military service as a workplace, and finally we consider their views about the military and its mission more generally.

Trends and Subgroup Differences in Military Propensity

As Chapter 7 and 8 show, military propensity (i.e., planning or expecting to serve in the armed forces) is correlated with actual enlistment, and these correlations can be quite strong (particularly when propensity is measured near the end of high school). Following the introduction of the All-Volunteer Force in the early 1970s, there has been considerable research focused on propensity among American youth. Here, we illustrate the trends only briefly (see Segal et al., 1999, for further details, discussion, and citation of relevant other research).

Figure 6-4 shows the trends in high school seniors’ propensity to join the military; the plots are cumulative and the spaces between the plots show the proportions in each propensity category. Specifically, the proportions of male high school seniors expecting “definitely” to serve in the armed forces varied somewhat from year to year during the last quarter of the 20th century, averaging about 10 percent throughout that period, but they have been slightly lower in recent years. Roughly equal or slightly higher proportions of young men expected “probably” to serve. However, follow-up data indicate most of them did not actually serve, whereas most of the “definitely” group did (Bachman et al., 1998). The largest percentage shift among young men was an increase in the proportion who expected that they “definitely” would not serve—from fewer than 40 percent in 1983 to more than 60 percent in 1996. This reflects primarily a shift from the “probably won’t serve” category to the “definitely won’t serve” category.

FIGURE 6-4 Trends in high school seniors’ propensity to enter the military: Males, 1976–2001.

NOTE: The spaces between the lines show the percentages in each of the three propensity categories.

One could conjecture that this increased certainty about not serving was simply the result of the growing proportions of young men planning on college. Although that may seem a plausible hypothesis, it is not supported by the data. For example, when the classes of 1976–1983 were compared with the classes of 1992–1998, proportions of male seniors indicating “definitely won’t” serve rose from 43 to 60 percent, whereas among the subsamples of male seniors not expecting to complete college (a category that shrank from nearly half of seniors in 1976–1983 to just over one-quarter in 1992–1998) the corresponding shift in “definitely won’t” was just about as large—from 37 to 53 percent. So it appears that the shift toward increasing certainty about not serving, shown in Figure 6-4 , reflects a fairly pervasive phenomenon: the pool of young men who have not ruled out military service by the end of their senior year of high school

has been shrinking—among noncollege-bound as well as college-bound youth.

Figure 6-5 shows a similar but much smaller narrowing in proportions of female seniors who did not rule out military service. More important, the figure shows consistently very low proportions of young women expecting “probably” or “definitely” to serve; moreover, follow-up data show that even among those women “definitely” expecting to serve, most did not (Bachman et al., 1998). It is perhaps worth noting that when asked whether they would want to serve “supposing you could do just what you’d like and nothing stood in your way,” the proportion of female seniors indicating such a preference for serving was consistently higher than the combined proportions “probably” or “definitely” expecting to serve; among males the reverse was the case (Segal et al., 1999).

FIGURE 6-5 Trends in high school seniors’ propensity to enter the military: Females, 1976–2001.

FIGURE 6-6 Comparison of trends in propensity to enlist: 8th, 10th, and 12th grade males, 1991–2001.

Figures 6-6 and 6-7 make use of MTF data available from 8th and 10th grade students, beginning in 1991, and show how those in lower grades compare with 12th graders. Among males, the 8th and 10th grade data echo the above-mentioned rise in proportions expecting they “definitely won’t” serve. More important, these figures show how propensity tends to firm up as students near the end of high school. The findings for 8th and 10th graders differ little from each other, whereas by 12th grade the proportions expecting they “definitely won’t” serve are sharply higher, the “probably won’t” serve proportions are lower, and there are fewer in the “probably will” category. Among males it appears that at least a few individuals who at lower grades indicated that they “probably will” serve became more “definite” about not serving by the time they reached the end of 12th grade. There is less evidence of that among females.

Arguably, prior to September 11, 2001, World War II was the last large-scale U.S. military effort that was overwhelmingly viewed, by both young people and the population in general, as being “necessary.” None of the U.S. military activities during the last quarter of the 20th century

FIGURE 6-7 Comparison of trends in propensity to enlist: 8th, 10th, and 12th grade females, 1991–2001.

involved that level of support for shared sacrifice. One question included in most of the annual MTF surveys attempts to capture high school seniors’ willingness to serve in a “necessary” war. Specifically, the question asks: “If YOU felt that it was necessary for the U.S. to fight in some future war, how likely is it that you would volunteer for military service in that war?” The question is highly hypothetical and thus must be approached with a good deal of caution. Nevertheless, it is of interest to note that the proportions of young men and women who say they would probably or definitely volunteer under such conditions have been far higher than the proportions probably or definitely expecting to enlist under existing conditions. Figures 6-8 and 6-9 show that during the 1980s half or more of male seniors said they would volunteer for such a “necessary” war, whereas during recent years just over one-third said so; among female

FIGURE 6-8 Trends in high school seniors’ willingness to volunteer to fight in a “necessary” war: Males, 1976–2001.

seniors a similar, albeit smaller, decline was evident. The item includes the response option, “In my opinion, there is no such thing as a ‘necessary’ war,” and about 20 percent or fewer of males and 30 percent or fewer of females chose that option. Probably the most important trend shown by this item is that, among male seniors during the 1980s, substantially more thought they would volunteer than thought they would not— whereas in recent years that pattern was reversed. It is not clear whether this reflects a decline in patriotism, shifting perceptions of how many individuals would be needed in a modern “necessary” war, or some combination of these and perhaps other factors.

Trends in Perceptions of Military Service as a Workplace

Several survey items focusing on aspects of the military work role have shown relatively little in the way of consistent change during the last quarter of the 20th century. There were, however, consistent gender differences, with higher proportions of female than male high school se-

FIGURE 6-9 Trends in high school seniors’ willingness to volunteer to fight in a “necessary” war: Females, 1976–2001.

niors giving high marks to military job opportunities. Thus, about 60 percent of young women, compared with about 50 percent of young men, viewed military service (to “a great extent” or “a very great extent”) as “providing a chance to advance to a more responsible position.” Roughly similar proportions viewed military service as “providing a chance for more education,” although these ratings declined very slightly over the years. Just under half of the women and about 40 percent of the men perceived military service as providing a chance for personally fulfilling work, whereas lower proportions viewed service as providing “a chance to get ahead” or “a chance to get your ideas heard.” Fewer than one in five seniors, male or female, viewed military service as a good place for a person to “get things changed and set right if...being treated unjustly by a superior.”

Two perceptions of military service as a workplace changed in a negative direction in recent years. Figure 6-10 shows a sharp rise in proportions of seniors perceiving that the armed services discriminate to a

FIGURE 6-10 Trends in perceptions that the military discriminates against women in the armed forces among high school seniors, by gender, 1976–2001. Percentage “to a very great extent” and “to a great extent” combined.

“great” or “very great” extent against women. Figure 6-11 shows a similar rise in the (generally smaller) proportions of seniors who perceive “great” or “very great” discrimination against blacks in the armed forces. It comes as no surprise that high-propensity seniors generally saw the military workplace in a more favorable light than other seniors. But it does not appear that high-propensity seniors simply view military service through rose-colored glasses; even among the highest-propensity individuals, the perceptions of discrimination against women and against blacks rose in recent years (Bachman et al., 2000a).

Trends and Patterns in Views About the U.S. Military and Its Mission

The preceding section explored views about the military service as a place to work, and surely such views are important in understanding the

FIGURE 6-11 Trends in perceptions that the military discriminates against blacks in the armed forces among high school seniors, by gender, 1976–2001. Percentage “to a very great extent” and “to a great extent” combined.

propensity to enlist in the armed forces. But other broader views about the U.S. armed forces and their mission may also be relevant to propensity and enlistment and are thus worth considering here. We take advantage of recently completed analyses of MTF data that compared views of high school seniors with their views in a follow-up survey one or two years later, distinguishing between young men who had entered military service, those full-time in college, and those full-time in civilian employment (the numbers of women in the samples who entered military service were too small to permit reliable estimates, so this analysis was limited to males; see Bachman et al., 2000b, for details).

Figure 6-12 shows, for young men in the high school classes of 1976– 1985 and separately for those in the classes of 1986–1995, their senior year and post-high school views about eight aspects of the U.S. military, its mission, and its role in society. All of the attitude dimensions shown in

FIGURE 6-12 Young men’s military attitudes, high school classes of 1976–1985 and 1986–1995, by post-high school occupational groups.

NOTE: A score of 5 = highly promilitary, 3 = neutral, and 1 = not promilitary.

the figure are based on 5-point scales with a neutral midpoint (scored 3) and with the most “promilitary” response scored highest (5) and the least “promilitary” scored lowest (1).

Before reviewing the dimensions separately, we offer a few general observations. First, those who entered military service were consistently more promilitary than those who did not; however, in most respects, these differences were not especially large. Second, the differences were evident before the end of high school, with generally little further change

after actual enlistment (although two important exceptions are noted below). Third, the comparisons across the two decades (classes of 1976–1985 versus classes of 1986–1995) showed a high degree of replication in subgroup differences, and across most dimensions there were only modest overall changes. We now look at each of the dimensions in the figure, with commentary condensed from the earlier report (Bachman et al., 2000b:568–575).

Views About Military Influence and Spending. The first two dimensions shown in Figure 6-12 have to do with military influence and tell fairly similar stories (although they come from different subsamples of the MTF surveys and thus are independent replications). They show that young men in both decades generally considered military influence to be “about right” and that it ought to remain the “same as now.” Among seniors about to enter the armed forces, a slightly higher than average proportion indicated a preference for more military influence; after graduation the differences between subgroups changed only very slightly. The question about adequacy of military spending showed roughly similar differences among high school seniors; however, after enlistment those in the armed forces showed distinct increases in the proportion who viewed current military spending as “too little.” Overall preferences for military spending declined from one decade to the next, except among enlistees from the classes of 1986–1995, who enlisted during a period when military salaries rose less than inflation; these respondents showed sharp increases (averaging about three-quarters of a standard deviation) in their preferences for greater military spending.

Views About U.S. Military Supremacy. Overall, young men during the past two decades favored U.S. military supremacy and showed very little enthusiasm for gradual unilateral disarmament, as shown by the fourth and fifth dimensions in Figure 6-12 . Again, on average seniors headed for military service showed the most strongly promilitary views; they were significantly higher than the college-bound in support for supremacy and significantly higher than those headed for civilian employment in their rejection of unilateral disarmament. All of the military-civilian differences grew a bit larger after high school, so here again there is some evidence of initial differences (self-selection) that were then enlarged after entrance into different post-high school environments (socialization).

Views About Possible Military Intervention. Young men over the past two decades have been fairly supportive of the proposition that “the U.S. should be willing to go to war to protect its own economic interests”; large proportions of young men in all three subgroups agreed, and few

disagreed, with that statement. Support for military intervention was lower when the purpose was to protect “the rights of other countries” rather than U.S. economic interests. Changes between senior year and follow-up (one or two years later) were small and not significant for all groups, indicating no socialization effects attributable to post-high school environments; however, modest selection effects were evident.

Views About Unquestioning Obedience. “Servicemen should obey orders without question: Agree, Disagree, or Neither.” The final entry in Figure 6-12 shows responses to this item. This deceptively simple question is actually a bit like a trick question on a test. A correct answer would be “Yes, servicemen should obey orders provided the orders are lawful .” Such a response was not offered to respondents. In recent decades, high school seniors split their answers nearly evenly between agreement and disagreement, with many choosing the “neither” midpoint (coded 3). As can be seen in the figure, among young men, the agree responses slightly outnumber the disagree ones (among young women, data not shown, the split is even closer, although there is slightly more disagreement than agreement).

The data in Figure 6-12 show modest selection effects; high school seniors headed for military service were significantly more likely than their classmates to endorse unquestioning obedience. But upon actual entry into military, some of the enlistees changed their views, and most such changes were in the direction of lessened support for unquestioning obedience. It thus appears that military socialization largely cancelled the initial differences. The authors of the study commented on this finding as follows (Bachman et al., 2000b:574–575):

Arguably, the changes found with respect to obedience should meet with the approval of the military—and civilian—leadership, because such socialization has the effect of “correcting” some initial misconceptions about whether obedience in the armed forces should be absolute. Military doctrine maintains that service personnel are responsible to obey only lawful orders and to judge whether orders are lawful before following them. Clearly, such guidelines are quite different from the concept of “unquestioning obedience”; therefore, the changes found among servicemen in response to the obedience item suggest socialization consistent with military doctrine and training.

YOUTH INFLUENCERS

Young people’s beliefs, values, and attitudes are learned. They are formed and can be changed in interaction with others. It is therefore useful to inquire about who those influential others might be. In this

section the focus shifts from content to agency, from what beliefs, values, and attitudes influence youth propensity to enlist to who influences their propensity and how youth incorporate those influences into their career plans and decisions. While there are many potential influences on the propensity to enlist, the strongest are from a person’s social environment, particularly family and friends (Strickland, 2000).

The purpose of this review is not to summarize cumulative theory and research on youth development but, more modestly, to identify those nexuses in the career decision-making process that bear most directly on propensity to enlist in the military. We limit our examination of the literature in three ways. First, we define influencers narrowly, i.e., in interpersonal terms. We do not consider impersonal influences, including TV, film, radio, the Internet, print outlets, or associated media. Second, we maintain a close focus on the dependent variable, propensity to enlist in the military. We draw on the literatures of socialization, attitude formation and change, and youth development only to the extent that it informs early career decision making. We recognize that there are youth exposed to lawless influences that result in them being disqualified from military service (Garbarino et al., 1997), but examination of the causes of deviant behaviors are beyond the scope of this study. Third, we limit inquiry to variables that can be manipulated, by which we mean variables admissible to intervention in military recruitment policy and practice.

The primary domains in which youth function are families, schools, neighborhoods or communities, and, to a lesser extent, the workplace. Briefly stated, people influence one another in three basic ways. A person can exert influence on another through the provision of reward and punishment, through teaching or explicit guidance, or by modeling what is perceived as appropriated or desirable behavior. We accept these processes as given.

Over the past 40 years, theory and research on youth influencers has evolved from efforts to understand youth attitudes and behaviors in terms of largely undifferentiated reference groups to more fine-grained significant-other influences. Taking Coleman’s seminal work, The Adolescent Society (1961), as a point of departure, the youth cohort was described as a society unto itself, a “world apart” that differs radically from adult society. Coleman’s adolescent society was a counterculture, even a contra-culture. His youth were rebellious, at odds with their parents and the rest of adult society. He memorably characterized the relationship between adult and youth cultures as a “generation gap,” a caricature that domi-

nated popular conceptions of the nation’s youth through the remainder of the century.

Challenges to the generation gap thesis surfaced in both the popular and technical literature over the decades that followed. For example, in the mid-1970s DeFleur (1978) reported that male and female Air Force cadets experiencing periods of career indecision turned more to their parents (45 percent) and other adults (48 percent) than to siblings (2 percent) or peers (5 percent) for career advice. When asked who had the most influence on their futures, jobs, and careers, the cadets identified their fathers as the biggest influence and their mothers as second in importance.

Soon thereafter, Stanford University issued a news release reporting that 4 out of 5 Stanford juniors sought advice on career planning from their parents, and 9 out of 10 sought parental advice on personal problems (Stanford University News Service, 1980). Rutter (1980) published an extensive meta-analysis of research on parent-child relationships in the United Kingdom and the United States, concluding that “young people share their parents’ values on the major issues of life and turn to their parents on most major concerns.” Taking dead aim at the generation gap thesis, Rutter asserted that “the concept that parent-child alienation is a usual feature of adolescence is a myth.”

MTF findings from 1976 through 1998 consistently show that a bit fewer than half of high school seniors thought their ideas agreed with their parents’ ideas when it comes to how the students spent their money and their leisure time, whereas just over half perceived agreement about what is okay to do on a date. About two-thirds reported that their ideas about what they should wear were mostly or very similar to their parents’ ideas. Although roughly two-thirds reported having a fight or argument with parents three or more times during the past year, about two-thirds also indicated that overall they were more satisfied than dissatisfied with how they got along with their parents. Agreement was stronger on more fundamental issues. About three-quarters thought their ideas and their parents’ ideas were very similar or mostly similar with respect to religion, politics, what values are important in life, and what they, the students, should do with their lives. Finally, views about the value of education showed high and growing agreement with parents between 1976 and the early 1990s; the proportions perceiving mostly or very different views declined from 14 to about 8 percent, whereas proportions perceiving very similar views rose from about 50 to about 65 percent. Notably, this increase in perceived close agreement about the value of education coincided with the increase in proportions of high school seniors reporting that they definitely expected to complete a four-year college program.

Empirical evidence to the contrary, the generation gap definition of parent-youth relations persisted, which may have had the positive effect of intensifying inquiry into generational differences and parent-child relations in both the popular and technical literatures. For example, a Reader’s Digest study of four generations (Ladd, 1995) reported that Americans in every age group share basic values, concluding that the finding “explodes the generation-gap myth—for good.” A Sylvan Learning Centers study (International Communications Research, 1998) asked identical questions of teenagers and their parents about perceived and actual career aspirations and reported remarkable similarities in parent-child responses across a variety of issues.

The persistence of the generation gap definition of parent-youth relations illustrates a noteworthy feature of much literature that characterizes youth. There is a penchant not limited to the popular press to dramatize, sensationalize, and otherwise mythologize youth behaviors and attitudes—to the detriment of youth (Youniss and Ruth, 2002). Adelson illustrated the point some years ago in an article in Psychology Today in which he cited the 1972 national election as an example. There had been talk that Democrat George McGovern would get the youth vote. After all, young people were supposed to be doves. Young people were supposed to be liberals. And young people would turn out to vote. The popular notion was that the youth vote would carry the election for McGovern. At the same time, youth studies were reporting that young people were as divided in their views on Vietnam as were their elders; that young people were probably more hawkish on war issues than were their elders; and that young people were less likely to vote, not more likely to vote, than were their elders. What happened? McGovern lost, convincingly. The conventional wisdom was wrong.

Against this backdrop, it is instructive to examine what is known about youth influencers and how they affect youth career decision making in terms of accumulated theory and empirical research.

The Achievement Process

The social psychological model of the achievement process provides a useful initial framework within which to identify major influencers and key processes that affect youth career decisions. In The American Occupational Structure , Blau and Duncan (1967) documented the fact that sons’ educational and occupational achievements depend largely on their parents’ educational and occupational achievement levels. To be sure, Blau and Duncan were interested in such issues as how much mobility occurred in occupational careers and how sons’ career outcomes compared to their fathers—issues of intra- and intergenerational mobility and strati-

fication. They were not interested in youth influencers and career decision-making processes per se. They asked: What are the ways that family education and occupation advantages or disadvantages transfer from one generation to the next? How is it that family levels of achievement remain relatively stable across generations? Why is there an intergenerational correlation (typically r = 0.3) between fathers’ and sons’ levels of occupational prestige?

Their research and that of others bear directly on the question of who influences youth career decisions. Following Sorokin and Parsons, Blau and Duncan reasoned and provided empirical confirmation for the theses that level of education is the key means by which society selects and distributes youth into occupational roles, and that education serves the critical socialization function of instilling achievement values and orientations in youth. Sewell and colleagues (Sewell et al., 1969, 1970) criticized the Blau and Duncan model for being too structural and too simplistic, as well as for its failure to explain the interpersonal processes that influence youth career decisions. Building on earlier work by Haller and Miller (1971), Sewell and colleagues (Sewell et al., 1969, 1970; Sewell and Hauser, 1975) expanded the model into a social psychological explanation of who influences youth aspirations and achievements and how that process works over time.

Simply stated, the model indicates that parental levels of education, occupational prestige, and income predispose youth in career directions in three ways that sequentially involve a young person’s academic ability and performance, the expectations others have for her or him, and the youth’s own career aspirations. What a young person aspires to is the critical link in the process. Formed and modified in interaction with other people, young people assess their own educational and occupational prospects in terms of their understanding of their abilities and past performance. Independently, influential others also evaluate the young person’s potential and communicate their career expectations to her or him. Because individuals and families live in social networks with similar levels of education, occupational prestige and income, those with influence in a young person’s life—including teachers and peers—tend to have levels of education, occupational prestige, and income similar to the youth’s parents and therefore provide career encouragement, role models, and expectations that complement parental values. Thus formed, career aspirations set a young person on a career trajectory. A young person’s self-reflection (Haller and Portes, 1973) is complemented by the independent evaluations of significant others (Woelfel and Haller, 1971) who communicate their expectations to the young person thus influencing his or her career aspirations, which is the strongest predictor of eventual career achievements.

Sewell and Hauser documented the predictive and explanatory power of the social psychological model of the achievement process at length (1972). Alexander et al. (1975) offered strong independent support based on a national sample. Otto and Haller (1975) provided conceptual replications based on four datasets and, assessing the convergence of theory and research across datasets, concluded that there is strong support for the social psychological explanation of the achievement process (see also Featherman, 1981; Hotchkiss and Borrow, 1996).

Significant-Other Influences

Significant others are people who are important and influential in the lives of others. The social sciences distinguish two kinds of significant others, role-incumbent and person-specific significant others. Role-incumbent significant others have influence because they have power and authority over a young person, who, for that reason, is beholden to them. Examples include parents, teachers, and police officers. Person-specific significant others, by comparison, are chosen by the individual. Examples include best friend, role model, and confidant—relationships based on understanding and trust.

Person-specific significant others have influence not because they have power associated with their role, but because individuals choose to follow them as models and exemplars. Young people follow them not because they have to, but because they want to, which positions person-specific significant others to make a difference in young people’s lives.

The empirical literature on the development of aspirations and achievements sketches the achievement process with broad-brushed strokes, and that literature is largely limited to estimating the effects of parents, teachers, and peers on respondents’ aspirations and achievements. That literature concludes that parents have the critical influence (Sewell and Hauser, 1975) on sons’ career aspirations and achievements. However, the large-scale longitudinal datasets on which achievement research tends to be based do not lend themselves to sharply focused inquiry into youth influencers. It is therefore instructive to intensify inquiry into youth career influencers in two ways: by broadening the inquiry to include more potential influencers and by shifting the focus from selected role-incumbent significant others to person-specific significant others.

Two studies inquired directly of youth about who influenced their occupational choice. Rather than assuming that persons in particular roles influenced youth and then measuring that influence, both studies asked the youth to specify who influenced specific aspects of their career plans.

In the Youth Development Study (Mortimer, 2001) students were surveyed about their experiences in the family, school, peer group, and work-

place each year during high school (1988–1991). Following a question about occupational choice, Mortimer and colleagues asked the high school seniors: “Have any of the following people influenced your choice of this kind of work?” Respondents were instructed to circle all that apply from a list of 15 possibilities.

Several observations follow from the results. Two-thirds of seniors identified a friend as the person who influenced their choice of occupation “very much, much, or somewhat.” Mothers followed closely. An adult working in the same field was chosen third most often, followed by father and teacher or coach at school. Fewer than half of the seniors identified anyone else as having influenced their choice of work—e.g., siblings, aunts and uncles, grandparents, another relative, a guidance counselor, a work-study coordinator, a neighbor or adult friend, or a priest, minister, or rabbi. It is noteworthy how prominently person-specific significant others were identified as influencers—particularly friends and adults working in the same field. Very few youth mention no influencers on their career choices. Clearly, young people seek and find guidance from others in their vocational decision making.

There were no differences in the number of influencers identified by adolescent gender, race, or nativity, but youth from two-parent families reported more influencers than those from other family structures. Their advantage comes from having two parents to draw on for help in thinking through their vocational goals. Other YDS data indicate that sons were particularly influenced by their fathers’ s occupational values. The transmission of values from parents to children was mediated by close, communicative family relationships (Ryu and Mortimer, 1996).

In the Youth and Careers Study, Otto (2000) also examined parent-youth relationships in the context of career development and, like Mortimer, gathered information from the perspective of youth themselves. He asked 362 juniors from six high schools in North Carolina about specific career development attitudes and behaviors that bear on their relations with their parents. A total of 80 to 90 percent of participants reported that they discussed their occupational career plans with their parent or guardian often or sometimes during the past year, and that their ideas regarding the occupation they should enter, the value of a college education, and how they should prepare for a career were all similar to their parents’ ideas. More than three-fourths discussed plans for college, two-thirds discussed career preparation possibilities other than college, and half discussed plans for vocational or trade school often or sometimes with their parents during the past year.

Respondents named their mothers most often as the person who offered the greatest help when discussing career plans and was most aware of their career interests and abilities. That is, respondents talked to their

mothers most seriously about the occupation they wanted to enter and about the training or education required to enter the selected occupation. Friends or fathers were typically ranked second or third. The findings generally held for young women as well as young men, although young women tended to rank friends higher than fathers, whereas young men ranked fathers higher than friends. The findings also are consistent across race, although more blacks than whites reported career assistance from their parents and from their mothers, while fewer blacks reported assistance from their fathers.

A third set of studies is less rigorous but queried Army and Air Force enlistees at selected time points from 1990 to 1999 about who influenced their decisions to join the military (Strickland, 2000). In 1992, 1994, 1996, and 1999, Army enlistees were asked who was their most supportive influencer. Mothers were cited most often and fathers second, followed by significant others, friends, siblings, and educators. The major influencers were the same for Air Force enlistees in 1992, 1996, and 1999. Mothers ranked highest, followed by fathers, then Air Force veterans and spouse or fiancé, siblings, and counselors. Air Force enlistees ranked Air Force veterans highest in support of their enlistment decisions, followed by father, then mother, spouse/fiancé, sibling, and counselor. When asked who was their most supportive influencer, Air Force enlistees ranked parents highest, followed by spouse or fiancé and other family, siblings, recruiters, and counselors.

The Army and Air Force enlistee reports are not directly comparable to the civilian population studies, and they are not representative of all Service branches. Nonetheless, the influence patterns reported by enlistees largely parallel those reported by civilian youth and underscore the influence of parents, mothers as well as fathers, in the youth career decision making process.

Summary of Youth Influencers

Two questions framed our inquiry: Who influences youth propensity to enlist in the military, and how do young people incorporate those influences into their career plans and decisions? The marked trend in theory development and empirical studies is understanding parent-youth relations as compatible and supportive across a range of substantive issues. We reviewed key studies over four decades in three genres of research: intergenerational mobility in the occupational structure, social-psychological processes affecting achievement outcomes, and current cross-sectional research on youth reports of significant-other influences on their careers. Across studies the single most compelling observation is that parents have a critical influence on their sons’ and daughters’ career

aspirations and achievements. The most recent and most carefully conceptualized and executed studies point to the important role mothers play in affecting youth career plans and decisions. Others to whom youth turn include peers, fathers, other adults, and counselors. These results are generally replicated in Army and Air Force enlistee reports.

Close examination of the empirical data suggests that parents, peers, counselors, and recruiters exert different kinds of influence on youth career decisions. Attitude theories traditionally differentiate between two attitude dimensions, direction and intensity. Directionality indicates whether an individual is pro or con on an issue, disposed to act favorably or unfavorably. Intensity indicates whether an individual is likely to act, whether he or she is sufficiently motivated to behave in the direction of the attitude. Lack of clarity on either dimension, uncertainty of direction or lack of commitment to the position, disposes the individual to passivity.

Career aspirations are attitudes (Woelfel and Haller, 1971) that require both direction and intensity if they are to translate into behavior. Formulating direction for a defined occupational career objective or trajectory requires cognitively processing information, but acting in the direction of a particular career requires motivation. Information and reason may persuade, but behavior is driven by commitment and emotion.

There is some suggestion in the recent empirical research that this attitude-behavior paradigm applies to youth career decision making. When youth are asked about such aspects of career decision making as who is “most aware of their abilities and interests,” who is “most helpful to them when talking about career plans,” and who “most often influenced” their choice of work, young people clearly look to their parents, especially their mothers. Army and Air Force enlistees also named their mothers, then their fathers, as their most supportive influencers. Only Air Force veterans were ranked slightly higher than mothers and fathers in support of Air Force enlistment decisions. However, when questions sharpen and require more factually based information—e.g., with whom do young people talk most seriously about the training or education they need to enter the occupation they want, with whom would they like to talk more about their career plans, or who was the most important information source for Army enlistees—then they also attribute importance to information providers, to counselors, and to recruiters. The implication is that recruitment effectiveness may be improved by complementing information with messages designed to activate social support for enlistee decisions.

Parents are uniquely positioned to provide encouragement, affirmation, and legitimization of a young person’s aspirations and career decisions. One notable observation is that when it comes to making career

plans, youth consider parents as more than role-incumbent significant others, but also as person-specific significant others. Youth choose to follow their parents’ career advice not because they have to but because they want to. The implication for military recruitment is that enlisting parental support may yield enlistment dividends.

The important role mothers play in the youth career decision-making process should not be lost. Not only do youth credit their mothers with being especially influential in their career decisions but also, traditionally, mothers have been the family voice on social and expressive issues. Mothers are positioned to support youth career decisions, but they are likely to do so only if their sons and daughters career decisions square with their own beliefs and values.

Mother’s ideological perspective on military service cannot be ignored in designing effective recruitment programs. Traditionally, women have been more pacifist than men. They have been less experienced in military matters, and they may have less knowledge of military life and careers on which to advise their sons and daughters responsibly. Moreover, data from the General Social Survey, by the National Opinion Research Center, indicate that contemporary women have less confidence in military leaders than do men: only 31 percent of women compared with 43 percent of men express a great deal of confidence in the military (Mitchell, 2000:173). It is tenuous to assume, therefore, that mothers are predisposed to support youth propensity and enlistment. In fact, mothers may be more likely to be lukewarm or even oppose military careers—perceived as action-packed carnage—for their own daughters and sons. However, the same mothers may be more favorably disposed toward the nonwarrior definitions of military service—military as peacemaker, peacekeeper, and administrator of humanitarian aid—which suggests that promoting these forms of military service might energize mothers’ support. Mothers are important influencers in the youth career decision-making process, and accurately ascertaining their military ideological stance together with fashioning recruitment messages that appeal to rather than counter their traditional attitudes may hold promise for more effective recruiting.

Young people’s propensity to enlist is based not only on their own evaluations of their past performance and potential, but also on the assessments and expectations that influential others make and communicate to them. Their career aspirations portend their career behaviors. Parents are well positioned to provide support for both their aspirations and their career decisions. This raises the possibility that military recruitment effectiveness may be improved by taking into account major youth influencers and the critical processes that affect youth career decisions.

In this chapter we reviewed three large databases as well as a locally based longitudinal study and a few cross-sectional studies. We also examined the professional literature on socialization, attitude formation, and youth development. Our focus was on (1) youth values and attitudes toward work, education, and the military and (2) the degree of influence that parents, counselors, and peers have on the choices made by youth regarding these options.

Our analysis suggests that, over the past two decades or more, there has been little change in youth ratings of the importance of various goals in life, preferred job characteristics, and work settings. The primary value that has been changing is college aspirations, and this has led to increases in rates of college attendance through the mid-1990s. One useful finding regarding education and military service is that in recent years the majority of high school seniors (both male and female) who reported highest military propensity also expected “probably” or “definitely” to complete a four-year college program. This was also found among young males who actually entered military service (within 5–6 years after high school). Although overall levels of propensity have been shown to be lower among the college-bound, those college aspirants who also plan on military service are just as likely to enter the Service as those without college aspirations. These findings have important implications for military recruiting policy in terms of recruiting college-bound youth and in offering to these youth higher education opportunities in conjunction with military service.

Other aspects of youth attitudes and behavior that provide potential guidance for the design of military recruiting and adverting messages include: (1) the time in which youth make decisions about education and careers has extended well into their 20s; (2) there has been little or no change in youths’ views about the military service as a workplace or the value and appropriateness of military missions; (3) there has been some increase in the desire of youth to have two or more weeks vacation—a benefit of military service over the private sector; (4) there is a possible link between youth attitudes toward civic duty and volunteerism and military service (the potential of this link requires further study); and (5) parents (particularly mothers) and counselors have a strong influence on youth decision making with regard to career and educational choices.

Recruiting an all-volunteer military is a formidable task. To successfully enlist one eligible recruit, the Army must contact approximately 120 young people. The National Research Council explores the various factors that will determine whether the military can realistically expect to recruit an adequate fighting force -- one that will meet its upcoming needs. It also assesses the military’s expected manpower needs and projects the numbers of youth who are likely to be available over the next 20 years to meet these needs.

With clearly written text and useful graphics, Attitudes, Aptitudes, and Aspirations of American Youth offers an overview of important issues for military recruiters, touching on a number of important topics including: sex and race, education and aptitude, physical and moral attributes, and military life and working conditions. In addition, the book looks at how a potential recruit would approach the decision to enlist, considering personal, family, and social values, and the options for other employment or college.

Building on the need to increase young Americans’ “propensity to enlist,” this book offers useful recommendations for increasing educational opportunities while in the service and for developing advertising strategies that include concepts of patriotism and duty to country. Of primary value to military policymakers, recruitment officers, and analysts, Attitudes, Aptitudes, and Aspirations of American Youth will also interest social scientists and policy makers interested in youth trends.

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Essay on Positive Thinking

Positive thinking refers to a belief or mental attitude which makes us think that good things will happen eventually and our efforts will pay off sooner or later. It is the opposite of negative thinking which makes our mind full of stress and fear. Thus, an essay on positive thinking will show us how it reinforces thoughts like optimism and hope and works wonders.

Benefits of Positive Thinking

Let it be clear that positive thinking does not mean you do not notice the bad things in life. It means you try to find a solution in a productive way instead of whining about it. There are many benefits of positive thinking.

The first one is better health. Negative thinking gives rise to anxiety, stress, frustration and more. However, positive thinking helps you avoid all this and focus on staying healthy and doing better in life.

Further, it is essential for us to fight depression which positive thinking helps with. Similarly, it will also help us to relieve stress. Positive thinking overwhelms stress and it will allow you to get rid of stress.

As a result, positive thinking helps you live longer. It is because you will be free from diseases that form due to stress, anxiety and more. Moreover, it is also the key to success. Meaning to say, success becomes easier when you don’t bash yourself up.

Similarly, it also gives us more confidence. It boosts our self-esteem and helps in becoming more confident and self-assured. Therefore, we must certainly adopt positive thinking to make the most of our lives.

How to Build a Positive Thinking

There are many ways through which we can build positive thinking. To begin with, we must inculcate the habit of reading motivational and inspiring stories of people who are successful.

All this will help in motivating and inspiring you and showing you the right path. Moreover, it is important to never let negative thoughts thrive in your mind and work towards putting end to this habit.

You can do so by replacing your negative thoughts with constructive and positive reviews. Start to pay attention to your ideas and don’t pay heed to negative thoughts. Further, it is helpful to use affirmations.

These positive statements will truly sink into your subconscious mind and guide you to take better action. It will also help in visualising your dreams and getting the right means to achieve them fast.

Finally, always stay guard and gatekeep your mind to make important changes in life. In other words, do not be afraid to take actions. Keep yourself busy and do different things to avoid becoming cynical and remaining positive.

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Conclusion of the Essay on Positive Thinking

To conclude, we must change our attitude and believe that we will succeed one day. Moreover, we also need to implement positive thinking techniques which will help us learn from our failures and stay focused. As positive thinking plays an essential role in our lives, we must make sure to adopt in our lives.

FAQ of Essay on Positive Thinking

Question 1: What is positive thinking?

Answer 1: Positive thinking is basically an optimistic attitude. In other words, it is the practice of focusing on the good in any given situation. This kind of thinking can have a big impact on your physical and mental health .

Question 2: Why is positive thinking important?

Answer 2: Positive thinking is important as it helps us with stress management and can even improve our health. Moreover, some studies show that personality traits like optimism can affect many areas of our health and well-being. Thus, positive thinking comes with optimism

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Essay on attitude.

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Attitude is the mental state of individuals, which tends to act or respond or is ready to respond for or against objects, situations, etc. with which their vested feelings or effect, interest, liking, desire and so on are directly or indirectly linked or associated.During the course of development the person acquires tendencies to respond to objects. These learned cognitive mechanisms are called attitudes.

Attitude is an enduring evaluation—positive or negative—of people, objects, and ideas. Thus, attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. Attitude has three components—cognition, affection, and behaviour of people. A particular attitude of a person can be based on one component or the other.

Cognitive-based attitude is primarily based on beliefs and properties of an attitudinal object. Cognitive component of an attitude is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. Cognitive dissonance theory helps us to trace any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes.

Affection-based attitude stems from people’s feelings (e.g., attitudes towards political candidates). Affective component is the emotion or feeling segment of an attitude. Behaviour-based attitude is based on the self-perception of one’s own behaviour when the initial attitude is weak or ambiguous.

Behavioural component of an attitude is an intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something. The affection-behaviour (A- B) relationship acts as moderating variables (i.e., importance, specificity, accessibility, social pressures, and direct experience). The self-perception theory uses attitudes after the event, to make sense out of an action taken. For organizational behaviour, the people’s attitude is especially significant, as job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment largely stem from an individual employee’s attitude.

Job satisfaction refers to the general attitude of employees towards their job. Job involvement helps in psychological identification of people with their job, while organizational commitment is the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. In an organization, people seek consistency among their attitudes and seek to reconcile with divergent attitudes in order to appear rational and consistent.

An attitudinal change in a person takes place with change in the behaviour. The cognitive dissonance theory facilitates change of attitude through behavioural reinforcement. Persuasive communication and focus on a particular issue facilitate such change of attitude.

Haviland et al. proposed the Yale Attitude Change Model, which suggests study of conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes. (The Yale Attitude Change Model focuses on effectiveness of persuasive communication, which depends on the credibility and attractiveness of the speakers.)

These conditions are source of communication (i.e., credible speaker), nature of communication, and the nature of audience, etc. Communication between a doctor and a patient on a medical issue (communication source), communication that does not intend to influence people (nature of communication), and persuasive communication to distract an audience within the age group of 18-25 are likely to yield better results in attitudinal changes.

Elaboration-likelihood model (Petty and Cacioppo 1981), on the other hand, shows that people change their attitudes in two ways—concept (central route to persuasion) and conditions for central route to persuasion (motivation). Central route to persuasion motivates people to pay attention to the facts in a communicated message. When facts are logical and compelling, attitudinal changes take place promptly.

Therefore, the contents of the messages are especially important. On the contrary, when facts are not compelling, people get swayed only by peripheral cues such as mood, emotion, attractiveness of the speaker, etc. Such peripheral cues may facilitate to enhance motivation but not the attitudinal changes. The conditions for central route to persuasion are reinforcing motivation by focusing on personal relevance so that people can pay attention to the arguments.

Emotion’s influence on attitude changes depends on the routes to persuasion. Emotion or mood manipulation is only effective for peripheral route to persuasion. People pay more attention to a speech when the argument is strong and effective in changing their attitudes. People in a sad mood take the central route to persuasion, while in a happy mood they take the peripheral route to persuasion.

Therefore, attitudinal changes take place when people take the central route to persuasion, such as fear, greatness of harm, etc., which give better results in inducing attitudinal changes. Therefore, managers should use the central route to persuasion, duly inducing the arousal of fear and combining it with a persuasive and appealing message.

In managing organizational behaviour, like personality and emotional intelligence, an individual employee also differs in terms of attitude. Eagly and Chaiken (1993) defined attitude as ‘a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or dis-favour’. Yet, from another perspective, attitude is defined as the way we reflect our values. For example, innate value systems of employees may make them optimistic, always looking at the brighter side and working smartly to get a positive outcome.

They not only nurture such value-laden attitudes in their own behaviour but also view others from the same perspective. The concept of attitude has a rich history (Fleming 1967). Once used to describe the spatial orientation of physical objects such as statues, the concept has evolved to refer to a person’s mental and neural state of readiness (Allport 1935).

The function of attitudes is to guide the formation of behavioural intentions. Attitude formation and change is viewed as a process of deliberative evaluation and belief updating. Attitudes are thought to impact behaviour indirectly via behavioural intentions.

Definition and Concepts :

Attitude is the mental state of individuals, which tends to act or respond or is ready to respond for or against objects, situations, etc. with which their vested feelings or effect, interest, liking, desire and so on are directly or indirectly linked or associated. During the course of development the person acquires tendencies to respond to objects. These learned cognitive mechanisms are called attitudes. Changes in knowledge are followed by the change in attitudes.

Attitudes are different from knowledge in the sense that attitudes are emotion-laden. Knowledge reinforces attitudes and reinforced attitudes in the long run reinforce individual and group behaviour. Hence, attitude is neither behaviour nor cause of behaviour but it relates to an intervening pre­disposition or a frame of reference that influences the behaviour of an individual.

When the interest, feeling, etc. of individuals are not connected in any way with the object or situation, their responses (towards the said object or situation) will then constitute their opinions and not their attitudes. In many research works, especially by CIPD, UK, employee attitudes and commitments were found to be strongly associated with business perfor­mance, and managers saw employee voice as contributing to performance via better employee contributions and productivity gains.

The informal cli­mate of involvement and consultation appears to be more strongly associated with employee satisfaction and commitment than the collective machinery for negotiation and consultation. Mechanisms in use for employee voice in­clude two-way communications, project teams, and joint consultation, but there is a growing interest in the electronic media, attitude surveys, and part­nership schemes.

The major constraints on employee voice are lack of skills and enthusiasm by managers and employees. The psychological contract model, validated by successive employee attitude surveys, suggests that HR practices strongly affect the way people feel about their work.

Employees’ trust in the organization, their sense of being fairly treated, and the extent to which they believe their employer has delivered on the implicit deal between them affects their attitudes towards job satisfaction, commitment, work-life balance, and the state of employee relations. Attitude essentially stems from three underlying components: the cognitive component, affective component, and behavioural component.

Social psychologists differentiate between these attitudinal components as under:

1. Cognitive component of an attitude is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. Attitudinal responses of people, which stem from cognitive component, mainly reflect expression of beliefs (e.g., expectancy-value judgments) and nonverbal reactions.

2. Affective component is the emotion or feeling segment of an attitude, and it manifests in verbal expressions of feelings and physiological changes in the organism (e.g., increase of arousal).

3. Behavioural component of an attitude is an intention to behave in a cer­tain way towards someone or something. It is reflected through behavioural intentions and actions.

Attitude theory and research deals with the structure, function, formation, and change of attitudes, and is also concerned with the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. For example, the model of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975) provides a comprehensive approach to all of these aspects.

In this model, the internal structure of an attitude is described in terms of beliefs (expectations), which relate the attitude object (a behavioural alternative) to evaluated attributes. The function of attitudes is to guide the formation of behavioural intentions.

Attitude formation and change is viewed as a process of deliberative evaluation and belief updating. Attitudes are thought to impact behaviour indirectly via behavioural intentions. More recent approaches, however, assume that a deliberative calculation of expectancy and values is not a necessary condition for either intention formation or attitude formation and change.

According to a study conducted by Zajonc in 1980, there is ample evidence to suggest that liking of an attitude object can be enhanced simply by increasing its presentation frequency. Furthermore, attitudes, if they are frequently activated from memory, tend to become activated automatically in the presence of the attitude object and then directly impact behavioural decisions (Fazio 1990).

Related Articles:

• Attitude and Social Cognition (FAQ)
• Attitude: Nature, Components and Formation

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Essay on Attitude in English (1000 Words)

Our attitude characterizes our mood or behavior towards things, circumstances, and people. All people are composed of various indispensable insights, highlights, mental capacities, and nature. While each individual is comparable in structure, what makes them special is their attitude.

Attitude doesn’t just portray your conduct yet it additionally incorporates your feelings, sentiments, and how you take a gander at things.

Having the right attitude is fundamental for a person to continue to move effectively in life. Only one out of every odd circumstance is something similar, however, what is important is your attitude towards it. By feeling good and taking things forward with the right attitude one can transform them.

What is the Right Attitude?

There is the belief that when individuals have the right attitude, they for the most part prevail in their lives and each result comes out decisively. Having an uplifting perspective towards life can assist you with settling on the best choice even in difficult situations. 

We can drive our objectives when we know how to take things with a positive soul and let helpless circumstances outside of life with a sound temper. Assuming that somebody is ridiculing your contemplations, looks, conviction, and that’s only the tip of the iceberg, and you’re decidedly responding to each call, then, at that point, no one can prevent you from getting accomplishment in life. 

Besides, assuming you believe that you can do nothing, you are skeptical with regard to life and abilities. Hence, being hopeful assumes a significant part in passing through life with the right attitude.

All human animals have various abilities, which an individual ought to investigate themselves in the event that you are believing you’re not the perfect individual by hearing a few terrible audits about you. 

You’re settling on an off-base choice since this thing won’t give you the achievement that you merit. Along these lines, having confidence in your looks, abilities, and yourself is something that stands you out from the group. 

Certain individuals accept that being rich or having cash in your pocket can allow you an opportunity to show yourself. Assume you have an ability that doesn’t simply squeeze it under your mouth. 

Show the world what your identity is, and individuals will acknowledge you when you have the right ability, the right stage, and the right attitude to show them.

It doesn’t make any difference assuming you are affluent or jobless, it is just your attitude and viewpoint towards life that has an effect. It is said that when there is tranquility inside you, the external conditions neglect to influence your genuine serenity. 

Listening to this guidance, numerous business visionaries, speakers, instructors, and priests have satisfied the reason for their life. Assuming you have everything like great abundance, wellbeing, strong loved ones however have a pompous attitude towards individuals, no one will regard or like you. 

Along these lines, the moral for ‘attitude is incredible’ is that it is important to settle on a sound and uplifting outlook to endeavor through life and tough spots we face as we age. Stay aware of the uplifting outlook and see your life unfurling for the better soon.

Few Facts/ statements related to Attitude.

• Attitude is the method of one’s reasoning.
• Having the right attitude is the way to progress.
• Living with positive reasoning keeps you glad and tranquil.
• An uplifting outlook simplifies life and is agreeable.
• With the right attitude, life can be hopeful though a bad attitude can obliterate life.
• Attitude likewise characterizes your psychological prosperity.
• Attitude is a mix of reasoning, convictions, conduct, and intentions.
• A positive and negative attitude affects one’s conduct.
• An uplifting outlook gives a feeling of regard and confidence.
• Attitude isn’t just reflected as a part of our character yet in addition in our activities.

Why is a positive attitude important?

At the point when you develop an inspirational perspective, you will begin resting easy thinking about yourself. You will treat yourself with more regard and love, and this thus will help your certainty levels and inward strength. You will take on new difficulties and emerge from your self-restricting convictions.

What is a bad attitude?

A terrible attitude is an inclination, way, or demeanor that isn’t helpful, hopeful, or productive.

Bad attitudes can ruin you from fostering the right point of view about life. They can likewise keep you from expanding those things that give pleasure.

They can turn into the very impediment that blocks you from developing and getting the hang of survival techniques for life’s challenges. They can restrict you from endeavoring new things that might be energizing.

Individuals with bad attitudes might wind up lonely, depressed, and stressed.

Conclusion:

It doesn’t make any difference assuming you are rich or jobless, it is just your attitude and standpoint towards life that has an effect. It is said that when there is smoothness inside you, the external conditions neglect to influence your genuine serenity. 

Paying attention to this guidance, numerous business visionaries, speakers, educators, and priests have satisfied the motivation behind their life. On the off chance that you have everything like good abundance, wellbeing, steady loved ones yet have a pompous attitude towards individuals, no one will regard or like you. 

In this way, the moral for ‘attitude is incredible’ is that it is important to decide on a sound and uplifting perspective to endeavor through life and tough spots we face as we age. Stay aware of the uplifting outlook and see your life unfurling for the better sooner rather than later.

Frequently Asked Questions.

1. Is having the right attitude vital?

Being positive towards life can assist you with getting accomplishments in your life rapidly.

2. How do you develop a good attitude?

To develop a positive or good attitude, you really want to have confidence in yourself and eliminate negative contemplations from the mind.

3. Why is having a positive attitude important?

To lead life joyfully with delight and achievement, then, at that point, having a positive attitude towards life is vital.

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Key facts about the abortion debate in America

The U.S. Supreme Court’s June 2022 ruling to overturn Roe v. Wade – the decision that had guaranteed a constitutional right to an abortion for nearly 50 years – has shifted the legal battle over abortion to the states, with some prohibiting the procedure and others moving to safeguard it.

As the nation’s post-Roe chapter begins, here are key facts about Americans’ views on abortion, based on two Pew Research Center polls: one conducted from June 25-July 4 , just after this year’s high court ruling, and one conducted in March , before an earlier leaked draft of the opinion became public.

This analysis primarily draws from two Pew Research Center surveys, one surveying 10,441 U.S. adults conducted March 7-13, 2022, and another surveying 6,174 U.S. adults conducted June 27-July 4, 2022. Here are the questions used for the March survey , along with responses, and the questions used for the survey from June and July , along with responses.

Everyone who took part in these surveys is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories.  Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

A majority of the U.S. public disapproves of the Supreme Court’s decision to overturn Roe. About six-in-ten adults (57%) disapprove of the court’s decision that the U.S. Constitution does not guarantee a right to abortion and that abortion laws can be set by states, including 43% who strongly disapprove, according to the summer survey. About four-in-ten (41%) approve, including 25% who strongly approve.

About eight-in-ten Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents (82%) disapprove of the court’s decision, including nearly two-thirds (66%) who strongly disapprove. Most Republicans and GOP leaners (70%) approve , including 48% who strongly approve.

Most women (62%) disapprove of the decision to end the federal right to an abortion. More than twice as many women strongly disapprove of the court’s decision (47%) as strongly approve of it (21%). Opinion among men is more divided: 52% disapprove (37% strongly), while 47% approve (28% strongly).

About six-in-ten Americans (62%) say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, according to the summer survey – little changed since the March survey conducted just before the ruling. That includes 29% of Americans who say it should be legal in all cases and 33% who say it should be legal in most cases. About a third of U.S. adults (36%) say abortion should be illegal in all (8%) or most (28%) cases.

Generally, Americans’ views of whether abortion should be legal remained relatively unchanged in the past few years , though support fluctuated somewhat in previous decades.

Relatively few Americans take an absolutist view on the legality of abortion – either supporting or opposing it at all times, regardless of circumstances. The March survey found that support or opposition to abortion varies substantially depending on such circumstances as when an abortion takes place during a pregnancy, whether the pregnancy is life-threatening or whether a baby would have severe health problems.

While Republicans’ and Democrats’ views on the legality of abortion have long differed, the 46 percentage point partisan gap today is considerably larger than it was in the recent past, according to the survey conducted after the court’s ruling. The wider gap has been largely driven by Democrats: Today, 84% of Democrats say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, up from 72% in 2016 and 63% in 2007. Republicans’ views have shown far less change over time: Currently, 38% of Republicans say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, nearly identical to the 39% who said this in 2007.

However, the partisan divisions over whether abortion should generally be legal tell only part of the story. According to the March survey, sizable shares of Democrats favor restrictions on abortion under certain circumstances, while majorities of Republicans favor abortion being legal in some situations , such as in cases of rape or when the pregnancy is life-threatening.

There are wide religious divides in views of whether abortion should be legal , the summer survey found. An overwhelming share of religiously unaffiliated adults (83%) say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, as do six-in-ten Catholics. Protestants are divided in their views: 48% say it should be legal in all or most cases, while 50% say it should be illegal in all or most cases. Majorities of Black Protestants (71%) and White non-evangelical Protestants (61%) take the position that abortion should be legal in all or most cases, while about three-quarters of White evangelicals (73%) say it should be illegal in all (20%) or most cases (53%).

In the March survey, 72% of White evangelicals said that the statement “human life begins at conception, so a fetus is a person with rights” reflected their views extremely or very well . That’s much greater than the share of White non-evangelical Protestants (32%), Black Protestants (38%) and Catholics (44%) who said the same. Overall, 38% of Americans said that statement matched their views extremely or very well.

Catholics, meanwhile, are divided along religious and political lines in their attitudes about abortion, according to the same survey. Catholics who attend Mass regularly are among the country’s strongest opponents of abortion being legal, and they are also more likely than those who attend less frequently to believe that life begins at conception and that a fetus has rights. Catholic Republicans, meanwhile, are far more conservative on a range of abortion questions than are Catholic Democrats.

Women (66%) are more likely than men (57%) to say abortion should be legal in most or all cases, according to the survey conducted after the court’s ruling.

More than half of U.S. adults – including 60% of women and 51% of men – said in March that women should have a greater say than men in setting abortion policy . Just 3% of U.S. adults said men should have more influence over abortion policy than women, with the remainder (39%) saying women and men should have equal say.

The March survey also found that by some measures, women report being closer to the abortion issue than men . For example, women were more likely than men to say they had given “a lot” of thought to issues around abortion prior to taking the survey (40% vs. 30%). They were also considerably more likely than men to say they personally knew someone (such as a close friend, family member or themselves) who had had an abortion (66% vs. 51%) – a gender gap that was evident across age groups, political parties and religious groups.

Relatively few Americans view the morality of abortion in stark terms , the March survey found. Overall, just 7% of all U.S. adults say having an abortion is morally acceptable in all cases, and 13% say it is morally wrong in all cases. A third say that having an abortion is morally wrong in most cases, while about a quarter (24%) say it is morally acceptable in most cases. An additional 21% do not consider having an abortion a moral issue.

Among Republicans, most (68%) say that having an abortion is morally wrong either in most (48%) or all cases (20%). Only about three-in-ten Democrats (29%) hold a similar view. Instead, about four-in-ten Democrats say having an abortion is morally  acceptable  in most (32%) or all (11%) cases, while an additional 28% say it is not a moral issue. 

White evangelical Protestants overwhelmingly say having an abortion is morally wrong in most (51%) or all cases (30%). A slim majority of Catholics (53%) also view having an abortion as morally wrong, but many also say it is morally acceptable in most (24%) or all cases (4%), or that it is not a moral issue (17%). Among religiously unaffiliated Americans, about three-quarters see having an abortion as morally acceptable (45%) or not a moral issue (32%).

• Religion & Abortion

Jane Doe is a a research analyst focusing on social and demographic research at Pew Research Center

What the data says about abortion in the U.S.

Support for legal abortion is widespread in many countries, especially in europe, nearly a year after roe’s demise, americans’ views of abortion access increasingly vary by where they live, by more than two-to-one, americans say medication abortion should be legal in their state, most latinos say democrats care about them and work hard for their vote, far fewer say so of gop, most popular.

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Environment and Human Attitude Towards It Research Paper

People’s attitudes towards the environment, existing gaps, recommendations.

Human beings should protect the environment in order to support the needs of every future generation. Global warming and climate change are unique problems that continue to affect the integrity of different ecosystems. Most of the strategies or initiatives put in place to deal with this problem have not delivered positive results. The use of programs such as educational campaigns and corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a strategy that has failed to transform the situation.

This research paper digs deeper in order to understand people’s relationships with the environment. Existing gaps will be identified in an attempt to propose appropriate recommendations that can transform the situation. Although the issue of attitude towards the environment can address most of the predicaments affecting humanity today, there are various actions and initiatives that can be undertaken to transform the situation and reduce people’s ecological footprints.

Background Information

The role of human beings in the problem of global warming is a topic that continues to be hotly debated by policymakers, citizens, and politicians. Sawitri, Hadiyanto, and Hadi (2015) indicate that most of the activities are responsible for the changes experienced in the world since 1950. This predicament has been associated with the emission of dangerous greenhouse gases that destroy the ozone layer (Lao, Ho, & Yang, 2016). Various human activities have the potential to disorient or affect the integrity of the natural environment. For instance, deforestation is common malpractice that is pursued to get adequate land for farming and construction. The cleared forests affect the integrity of the surrounding environment. This means that the rate of global warming will increase significantly.

Human initiatives can be detrimental to the environment. For example, the use of aerosols and pesticides for agricultural purposes pollutes water and air. Some of the chemicals contained in these products are capable of emitting dangerous materials and gases, thereby affecting the integrity of the ozone layer. The wave of technological change has resulted in many vehicles, airplanes, and trains that emit greenhouse gases (Sachdeva, Jordan, & Mazar, 2015). These compounds or substances have led to the problem of global warming.

Numerous challenges associated with the natural environment, such as increased pollution, heavy downpours, extreme weather patterns, and transformed climatic conditions, continue to trouble people today. These problems have emerged due to peoples’ inability to protect the integrity of the natural environment (Bronfman, Cisternas, Lopez-Vazquez, de la Maza, & Oyanedel, 2015). Typhoons and tsunamis are being recorded in different parts of the world. These observations show conclusively that environmental conservation is an issue that should be taken seriously than ever before.

Current Behaviors and Attitudes

Within the past four decades, many people have been educated and empowered to transform their relationships with the natural environment. Tankha (2017) indicates that numerous initiatives and programs have been implemented in different parts of the world to educate individuals about the importance of protecting natural resources. Evidence-based practices such as conserving materials and recycling have been targeted by different stakeholders. These initiatives have resulted in desirable attitudes towards the environment. Bronfman et al. (2015) acknowledge that a lot needs to be done if positive results are to be realized in different parts of the world. This happens to be the case because many people are yet to embrace desirable practices that have the potential to protect the environment.

Many communities in the developed world have implemented superior initiatives that treat the concept of environmental protection as an ethical value (Sawitri et al., 2015). This means that individuals are informed and sensitized about the relevance of practices and ideas that can protect the environment. The notion of sustainable development has also been popularized, whereby many people are encouraged to focus on initiatives that can meet the demands of future generations.

Zhang et al. (2017) argue that many people in different developed countries focus on desirable practices that can result in the conservation of the natural environment. They have also been promoting specific approaches to empower more people to engage in sustainable initiatives. For example, human beings have been guided to use energy from renewable and sustainable sources such as wind and solar power (Zhang et al., 2017). Those who use electricity also appreciate the fact that natural lighting systems should be put in place.

A survey conducted by Sachdeva et al. (2015) revealed that half of the respondents were willing to engage in superior practices that could promote the integrity and sustainability of the environment. According to them, the idea was appropriate since it was capable of preserving natural resources and ensuring that they were available to many people in the future. They were also willing to plant trees in an attempt to minimize levels of soil erosion. The use of various resources efficiently was a superior practice that was being considered by many individuals to protect the natural environment.

In different companies, managers were implementing superior codes of ethics that focused on sustainable business practices. For instance, many corporations had designed powerful training programs to educate their workers about the relevance of environmentally-friendly practices (Pavalache-Ilie & Cazan, 2017). Some employees were observed to support evidence-based initiatives such as the power of research and development (R&D). This move was being taken seriously in an attempt to deal with the problem of environmental degradation (Sawitri et al., 2015). The companies were also ready to reduce their emissions, such as greenhouse gases. This was being achieved through the use of renewable energy sources. Wastewater was also being treated in an attempt to reduce the levels of pollution.

According to Bronfman et al. (2015), many people have positive attitudes regarding the protection or conservation of the natural environment. Such thoughts are crucial since they can either promote or decrease the quality of the environment (Lao et al., 2016). The introduction of learning courses and programs that revolves around the integrity of the natural resources and surroundings is an approach that has led to positive attitudes. In societies whereby positive mindsets have been taken seriously, it has been possible to record positive or meaningful results. This is the reason why many researchers propose that similar initiatives and ideas should be promoted in the underdeveloped world to maximize environmental quality.

The introduction of powerful campaigns aimed at sensitizing more people about the issue is an approach that has resulted in desirable attitudes. Those who benefit from the process embrace superior practices such as reusing and recycling scarce materials. They understand that such a practice can minimize the level of environmental exploitation and make it beneficial to every future generation. This concept has also been considered to empower more people and make it easier for them to plant trees (Tankha, 2017). The use of biodegradable materials is another positive outcome that arises from the implementation of effective educational initiatives or programs.

Some individuals have developed unique attitudes that dictate the nature and quality of products or services purchased. For instance, customers planning to purchase vehicles have been concerned about the issue of emission since it can have direct influences on the natural environment. This is the reason why many people are currently focusing on cars and trucks that have minimal impacts on the environment (Sawitri et al., 2015). Consequently, many automobile corporations such as Toyota, Honda, and Volkswagen have been on the frontline to consider this emerging demand.

The concept of personal ecological footprint has become common in different regions or states. Many individuals have learned the relevance of engaging in practices that have the potential to promote the integrity of the natural environment. For instance, they use renewable energy sources, recycle food materials, and use bicycles for transportation (Bronfman et al., 2015). They also plant trees and construct houses that require sustainable materials. Water harvesting has also been taken seriously to minimize the level of runoff and reduce the problem of soil erosion.

The above observation appears to be challenged by the fact that the problem of environmental degradation continues to affect many countries and communities. This issue is attributable to the negative attitudes associated with individuals who do not care about the natural environment. Zhang et al. (2017) argue that the ideals of capitalism have created a unique scenario whereby many investors and individuals focus on activities that have the potential to meet their economic goals. This is the reason why they have been destroying forests and overusing natural resources to support their business goals (Neiman & Ades, 2014).

At the individual level, practices such as deforestation, misuse of resources, and overreliance on nonrenewable energy sources have remained common. This is a clear indication that people’s attitudes towards the environment are yet to be improved or reconsidered.

Lao et al. (2016) assert that pro-environmental concepts and attitudes are influenced by a number of forces that must be taken seriously. For instance, a person’s age, socioeconomic status, and education will dictate his or her attitudes towards the surrounding environment. Other forces such as politics, social values, cultural practices, and gender have also been mentioned by different scholars (Tankha, 2017).

This means that individuals below the age of seventeen years might not be keen to engage in practices that have the potential to conserve the natural environment. In cultures whereby the issue is taken seriously, more individuals will be willing to plant trees and recycle various materials. The opposite will be recorded in countries and societies whereby pro-environmental ideas and attitudes are missing.

Environmental education has not been taken seriously in every community. This malpractice has affected the experiences and expectations of many people. Without effective procedures, more people find it hard to monitor or engage in practices that can result in environmental conservation. The absence of social programs and policies aimed at promoting this idea is an issue that continues to affect the attitudes of many people towards the environment negatively (Sawitri et al., 2015). The mass media has also failed to sensitize and educate more people about the role of the natural environment in their lives. These gaps explain why there is a need to implement evidence-based initiatives to improve the situation and support the needs of future generations.

Several approaches should be taken into consideration to empower more people to continue conserving the natural environment. Neiman and Ades (2014) support the power of the planned behavior theory to influence appropriate practices and attitudes that are capable of delivering positive results. For instance, individuals can be informed and guided to engage in meaningful practices such as planting trees and reusing various materials or resources. The use of efficient educational programs can be considered in order to meet the needs of every identified group.

Governments also have a role in supporting the implementation of superior policies that can result in desirable or pro-environmental attitudes (Pavalache-Ilie & Cazan, 2017). This strategy can be achieved through the use of positive behaviors and concepts that encourage more people to preserve various resources and engage in practices that can protect the natural environment. Every person should also be willing to engage in lifelong learning (Lao et al., 2016). This initiative will make it easier for more individuals to be aware of their ecological footprints, changing global conditions, and evidence-based initiatives for improving the integrity of the environment.

The completed study has revealed that the issue of environmental conservation has been taken seriously by some people in different parts of the world. However, positive results are yet to be realized since there are individuals whose attitudes towards the natural environment are underdeveloped. The involvement of different stakeholders such as the government can result in superior policies and educational programs that can transform the current situation. The presented proposals can address the current obstacles and eventually empower more people to promote the integrity of the natural environment.

Bronfman, N. C., Cisternas, P. C., Lopez-Vazquez, E., de la Maza, C., & Oyanedel, J. C. (2015). Understanding attitudes and pro-environmental behaviors in a Chilean community. Sustainability, 7, 14133-14152. Web.

Lao, Y., Ho, S. S., & Yang, X. (2016). Motivators of pro-environmental behavior: Examining the underlying processes in the influence of presumed media influence model. Science Communication, 38 (1), 51-73. Web.

Neiman, Z., & Ades, C. (2014). Contact with nature: Effects of field trips on pro-environmental knowledge, intentions, and attitudes. Ciência & Educação, 20 (4), 889-902. Web.

Pavalache-Ilie, M., & Cazan, A. (2017). Personality correlates of pro-environmental attitudes. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 28 (1), 71-78. Web.

Sachdeva, S., Jordan, J., & Mazar, N. (2015). Green consumerism: moral motivations for a sustainable future. Current Opinion in Psychology, 6, 60-65. Web.

Sawitri, D. R., Hadiyanto, H., & Hadi, S. P. (2015). Pro-environmental behavior from a social cognitive theory perspective. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 23, 27-33. Web.

Tankha, G. (2017). Environmental attitudes and awareness: A psychological perspective. Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Zhang, Y., Zhang, J., Zhang, R., Wang, Y., Guo, Y., & Wei, Z. (2017). Residents’ environmental conservation behavior in the mountain tourism destinations in China: Case studies of Jiuzhaigou and Mount Qingcheng. Journal of Mountain Science, 14 (12), 2555-2567. Web.

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IvyPanda. (2024, February 18). Environment and Human Attitude Towards It. https://ivypanda.com/essays/environment-and-human-attitude-towards-it/

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NPR suspends veteran editor as it grapples with his public criticism

David Folkenflik

NPR suspended senior editor Uri Berliner for five days without pay after he wrote an essay accusing the network of losing the public's trust and appeared on a podcast to explain his argument. Uri Berliner hide caption

NPR suspended senior editor Uri Berliner for five days without pay after he wrote an essay accusing the network of losing the public's trust and appeared on a podcast to explain his argument.

NPR has formally punished Uri Berliner, the senior editor who publicly argued a week ago that the network had "lost America's trust" by approaching news stories with a rigidly progressive mindset.

Berliner's five-day suspension without pay, which began last Friday, has not been previously reported.

Yet the public radio network is grappling in other ways with the fallout from Berliner's essay for the online news site The Free Press . It angered many of his colleagues, led NPR leaders to announce monthly internal reviews of the network's coverage, and gave fresh ammunition to conservative and partisan Republican critics of NPR, including former President Donald Trump.

Conservative activist Christopher Rufo is among those now targeting NPR's new chief executive, Katherine Maher, for messages she posted to social media years before joining the network. Among others, those posts include a 2020 tweet that called Trump racist and another that appeared to minimize rioting during social justice protests that year. Maher took the job at NPR last month — her first at a news organization .

In a statement Monday about the messages she had posted, Maher praised the integrity of NPR's journalists and underscored the independence of their reporting.

"In America everyone is entitled to free speech as a private citizen," she said. "What matters is NPR's work and my commitment as its CEO: public service, editorial independence, and the mission to serve all of the American public. NPR is independent, beholden to no party, and without commercial interests."

The network noted that "the CEO is not involved in editorial decisions."

In an interview with me later on Monday, Berliner said the social media posts demonstrated Maher was all but incapable of being the person best poised to direct the organization.

"We're looking for a leader right now who's going to be unifying and bring more people into the tent and have a broader perspective on, sort of, what America is all about," Berliner said. "And this seems to be the opposite of that."

Conservative critics of NPR are now targeting its new chief executive, Katherine Maher, for messages she posted to social media years before joining the public radio network last month. Stephen Voss/Stephen Voss hide caption

Conservative critics of NPR are now targeting its new chief executive, Katherine Maher, for messages she posted to social media years before joining the public radio network last month.

He said that he tried repeatedly to make his concerns over NPR's coverage known to news leaders and to Maher's predecessor as chief executive before publishing his essay.

Berliner has singled out coverage of several issues dominating the 2020s for criticism, including trans rights, the Israel-Hamas war and COVID. Berliner says he sees the same problems at other news organizations, but argues NPR, as a mission-driven institution, has a greater obligation to fairness.

"I love NPR and feel it's a national trust," Berliner says. "We have great journalists here. If they shed their opinions and did the great journalism they're capable of, this would be a much more interesting and fulfilling organization for our listeners."

A "final warning"

The circumstances surrounding the interview were singular.

Berliner provided me with a copy of the formal rebuke to review. NPR did not confirm or comment upon his suspension for this article.

In presenting Berliner's suspension Thursday afternoon, the organization told the editor he had failed to secure its approval for outside work for other news outlets, as is required of NPR journalists. It called the letter a "final warning," saying Berliner would be fired if he violated NPR's policy again. Berliner is a dues-paying member of NPR's newsroom union but says he is not appealing the punishment.

The Free Press is a site that has become a haven for journalists who believe that mainstream media outlets have become too liberal. In addition to his essay, Berliner appeared in an episode of its podcast Honestly with Bari Weiss.

A few hours after the essay appeared online, NPR chief business editor Pallavi Gogoi reminded Berliner of the requirement that he secure approval before appearing in outside press, according to a copy of the note provided by Berliner.

In its formal rebuke, NPR did not cite Berliner's appearance on Chris Cuomo's NewsNation program last Tuesday night, for which NPR gave him the green light. (NPR's chief communications officer told Berliner to focus on his own experience and not share proprietary information.) The NPR letter also did not cite his remarks to The New York Times , which ran its article mid-afternoon Thursday, shortly before the reprimand was sent. Berliner says he did not seek approval before talking with the Times .

NPR defends its journalism after senior editor says it has lost the public's trust

Berliner says he did not get permission from NPR to speak with me for this story but that he was not worried about the consequences: "Talking to an NPR journalist and being fired for that would be extraordinary, I think."

Berliner is a member of NPR's business desk, as am I, and he has helped to edit many of my stories. He had no involvement in the preparation of this article and did not see it before it was posted publicly.

In rebuking Berliner, NPR said he had also publicly released proprietary information about audience demographics, which it considers confidential. He said those figures "were essentially marketing material. If they had been really good, they probably would have distributed them and sent them out to the world."

Feelings of anger and betrayal inside the newsroom

His essay and subsequent public remarks stirred deep anger and dismay within NPR. Colleagues contend Berliner cherry-picked examples to fit his arguments and challenge the accuracy of his accounts. They also note he did not seek comment from the journalists involved in the work he cited.

Morning Edition host Michel Martin told me some colleagues at the network share Berliner's concerns that coverage is frequently presented through an ideological or idealistic prism that can alienate listeners.

"The way to address that is through training and mentorship," says Martin, herself a veteran of nearly two decades at the network who has also reported for The Wall Street Journal and ABC News. "It's not by blowing the place up, by trashing your colleagues, in full view of people who don't really care about it anyway."

Several NPR journalists told me they are no longer willing to work with Berliner as they no longer have confidence that he will keep private their internal musings about stories as they work through coverage.

"Newsrooms run on trust," NPR political correspondent Danielle Kurtzleben tweeted last week, without mentioning Berliner by name. "If you violate everyone's trust by going to another outlet and sh--ing on your colleagues (while doing a bad job journalistically, for that matter), I don't know how you do your job now."

Berliner rejected that critique, saying nothing in his essay or subsequent remarks betrayed private observations or arguments about coverage.

Other newsrooms are also grappling with questions over news judgment and confidentiality. On Monday, New York Times Executive Editor Joseph Kahn announced to his staff that the newspaper's inquiry into who leaked internal dissent over a planned episode of its podcast The Daily to another news outlet proved inconclusive. The episode was to focus on a December report on the use of sexual assault as part of the Hamas attack on Israel in October. Audio staffers aired doubts over how well the reporting stood up to scrutiny.

"We work together with trust and collegiality everyday on everything we produce, and I have every expectation that this incident will prove to be a singular exception to an important rule," Kahn wrote to Times staffers.

At NPR, some of Berliner's colleagues have weighed in online against his claim that the network has focused on diversifying its workforce without a concomitant commitment to diversity of viewpoint. Recently retired Chief Executive John Lansing has referred to this pursuit of diversity within NPR's workforce as its " North Star ," a moral imperative and chief business strategy.

In his essay, Berliner tagged the strategy as a failure, citing the drop in NPR's broadcast audiences and its struggle to attract more Black and Latino listeners in particular.

"During most of my tenure here, an open-minded, curious culture prevailed. We were nerdy, but not knee-jerk, activist, or scolding," Berliner writes. "In recent years, however, that has changed."

Berliner writes, "For NPR, which purports to consider all things, it's devastating both for its journalism and its business model."

NPR investigative reporter Chiara Eisner wrote in a comment for this story: "Minorities do not all think the same and do not report the same. Good reporters and editors should know that by now. It's embarrassing to me as a reporter at NPR that a senior editor here missed that point in 2024."

Some colleagues drafted a letter to Maher and NPR's chief news executive, Edith Chapin, seeking greater clarity on NPR's standards for its coverage and the behavior of its journalists — clearly pointed at Berliner.

A plan for "healthy discussion"

On Friday, CEO Maher stood up for the network's mission and the journalism, taking issue with Berliner's critique, though never mentioning him by name. Among her chief issues, she said Berliner's essay offered "a criticism of our people on the basis of who we are."

Berliner took great exception to that, saying she had denigrated him. He said that he supported diversifying NPR's workforce to look more like the U.S. population at large. She did not address that in a subsequent private exchange he shared with me for this story. (An NPR spokesperson declined further comment.)

Late Monday afternoon, Chapin announced to the newsroom that Executive Editor Eva Rodriguez would lead monthly meetings to review coverage.

"Among the questions we'll ask of ourselves each month: Did we capture the diversity of this country — racial, ethnic, religious, economic, political geographic, etc — in all of its complexity and in a way that helped listeners and readers recognize themselves and their communities?" Chapin wrote in the memo. "Did we offer coverage that helped them understand — even if just a bit better — those neighbors with whom they share little in common?"

Berliner said he welcomed the announcement but would withhold judgment until those meetings played out.

In a text for this story, Chapin said such sessions had been discussed since Lansing unified the news and programming divisions under her acting leadership last year.

"Now seemed [the] time to deliver if we were going to do it," Chapin said. "Healthy discussion is something we need more of."

Disclosure: This story was reported and written by NPR Media Correspondent David Folkenflik and edited by Deputy Business Editor Emily Kopp and Managing Editor Gerry Holmes. Under NPR's protocol for reporting on itself, no NPR corporate official or news executive reviewed this story before it was posted publicly.

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When It’s Time for an Aging Driver to Hit the Brakes

The “car key conversation” can be painful for families to navigate. Experts say there are ways to have it with empathy and care.

By Catherine Pearson

Sherrie Waugh has been yelled at, insulted and wept upon in the course of her job administering driving tests. Typically these extreme reactions happen when she is forced to render an upsetting verdict: It’s time to hang up the car keys.

Ms. Waugh, a certified driving rehabilitation specialist with The Brain Center, a private neuropsychology practice in Indiana, often works with older drivers, putting them through an assessment that measures things like visual skills, reaction time and processing speed.

“I had one gentleman, who had early onset dementia, who was just sitting here crying,” Ms. Waugh said. “His wife was out in the car and she was crying. And we all came back, and we were all crying. Because it’s so hard.”

Decisions about when an older person (or someone whose physical or mental circumstances make operating a vehicle dangerous) should stop driving are often agonizing. They can rock the driver’s sense of independence and identity, and add to the responsibilities that many family caregivers shoulder.

“It’s a major, major loss for older people,” said Lauren Massimo, an assistant professor at Penn Nursing. “It’s been described to me as dehumanizing.”

But it is important to raise concerns as soon as you have them, experts said, and there are ways to make the car key conversation less painful for older drivers and their loved ones.

Get a good look at the problem.

Before you ask a partner or parent to give up driving, do your research, experts say. Ms. Waugh, for instance, is surprised by the number of caregivers she sees who raise concerns about older drivers they haven’t actually driven with recently.

“If they need to pick up something at the grocery store, hop in the car,” she said. Take note: Are they missing traffic lights or safety signs? Are they struggling to maintain the speed limit or stay in their lane? Are they becoming confused about directions, particularly on familiar routes? Those are all signs that their driving skills may be waning.

And beware of ageism, especially when figuring out how to approach the conversation.

“It’s really not about their age,” said Marvell Adams Jr., the chief executive officer of the nonprofit Caregiver Action Network. “It’s about changes in their ability, which can happen to anyone.”

Mr. Adams suggested this opening gambit for a talk: “‘Hey, you know, I noticed it looks like your tires are getting beat up. Are you hitting the curb more often?’” His own mother made the decision to stop driving herself, he said, after she hit the gas pedal instead of the brake.

Pin the decision on someone else.

The driving conversation is one of the hardest parts of Dr. Massimo’s job as a health care provider who works with patients with neurodegenerative disease, she said. But she is happy to relieve caregivers of that burden.

“Make the provider the bad guy,” she said.

Many of Ms. Waugh’s clients come to her through referrals from primary care doctors, neurologists or eye doctors, though family members also reach out directly. She charges $175 for a 90-minute clinical assessment, and $200 for a road evaluation — fees that she acknowledged might be prohibitive for some families. (She has not succeeded in getting insurance to reimburse her clients.) But, experts say, professional driving evaluations can offer objectivity and clarity.

Ms. Waugh recently saw an older client who used to teach driver’s education and was miffed that his wife and doctor had been urging him to stop driving. During the evaluation, he struggled to finish short-term memory tests, including a simple maze and a counting exercise. When Ms. Waugh showed him his results, he finally understood that he posed a safety risk to himself and others on the road.

Have solutions ready.

Although giving up driving is rarely easy, services such as grocery delivery and ride-sharing apps can lessen the inconvenience and offer continued autonomy and independence, Mr. Adams said.

Make a plan for how you will help a retired driver get around. In addition to ride-sharing apps, the experts also mentioned public transportation and car pools, as well as friends and family members who might be able to give rides.

Consider risk-reduction strategies, too, Mr. Adams said. Maybe your partner or parent is safe to drive during the day, but not at night and not on the highway.

Even though older drivers and their family members may be loath to do it, look ahead.

“Make this a part of the conversation early,” said Cheryl Greenberg, who coaches seniors and their families on life transitions and planning in North Carolina. “You know, ‘You’re 60 years old and you’re driving just fine, but Mom, what would you do if the time came and you were less comfortable and less able?’”

All of the experts said that it was important to make space for big emotions around these conversations.

“Be empathic,” Dr. Greenberg said. “Don’t just go in and say, ‘Well, now you’re done driving.’ Listen. Ask questions that might help them be centered in the process.”

Catherine Pearson is a Times reporter who writes about families and relationships. More about Catherine Pearson

A Guide to Aging Well

Looking to grow old gracefully we can help..

Researchers are investigating how our biology changes as we grow older — and whether there are ways to stop it .

You need more than strength to age well — you also need power. Here’s how to measure how much power you have  and here’s how to increase yours .

Ignore the hyperbaric chambers and infrared light: These are the evidence-backed secrets to aging well .

Your body’s need for fuel shifts as you get older. Your eating habits should shift , too.

People who think positively about getting older often live longer, healthier lives. These tips can help you reconsider your perspective .

The sun’s rays cause the majority of skin changes as you grow older. Here’s how sunscreen helps prevent the damage .

Joint pain, stiffness and swelling aren’t always inevitable results of aging, experts say. Here’s what you can do to reduce your risk for arthritis .

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Panama Papers trial’s public portion comes to an unexpectedly speedy end

The Supreme Court stands in Panama City, Monday, April 8, 2024 as the trial starts for those charged in connection with the worldwide “Panama Papers” money laundering case. (AP Photo/Agustin Herrera)

Juergen Mossack, partner of the law firm Mossack-Fonseca, leaves the Supreme Court during the trial of the “Panama Papers” money laundering case in Panama City, Monday, April 8, 2024. (AP Photo/Agustin Herrera)

Lawyers and court workers leave the Supreme Court during a recess for the trial of the “Panama Papers” money laundering case in Panama City, Monday, April 8, 2024. (AP Photo/Agustin Herrera)

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PANAMA CITY (AP) — The public portion of a trial of more than two-dozen associates accused of helping some of the world’s richest people hide their wealth came to an unexpectedly speedy conclusion Friday when a Panamanian judge said she would take the two weeks of trial arguments and testimony under advisement.

The trial came eight years after 11 million leaked secret financial documents that became known as the “Panama Papers” prompted the resignation of the prime minister of Iceland and brought scrutiny to the then-leaders of Argentina and Ukraine, Chinese politicians, and Russian President Vladimir Putin, among others.

Judge Baloisa Marquínez noted Friday that the case included more than 530 volumes of information. The public trial had been expected to run to the end of the month. The judge has 30 working days to issue a verdict.

Those on trial include the owners of the Mossack Fonseca law firm that was at the heart of the 2016 massive document leak. Jürgen Mossack attended the trial, while his partner Ramón Fonseca did not for health reasons, according to his counsel.

Panamanian prosecutors allege that Mossack, Fonseca and their associates created a web of shell companies that used complex transactions to hide money linked to illicit activities in the “car wash” corruption scandal of Brazilian construction giant Odebrecht .

“This whole process from eight years ago until now … has had a lot of consequences for my family, on my personal situation and truly has been a great injustice not just for me but for all of the people who have worked with me,” Mossack testified Friday. “I trust your honor will know how to evaluate all that has been said here.”

Mossack had said at the start of the trial, as he has for years, that he was not guilty of the money laundering charges.

According to Panamanian prosecutors, the Mossack Fonseca firm created 44 shell companies, 31 of which opened accounts in Panama to hide money linked to the Brazilian scandal.

Fonseca has said the firm, which closed in 2018, had no control over how its clients might use offshore vehicles created for them.

Mossack Fonseca helped create and sell around 240,000 shell companies across four decades in business. It announced its closure in March 2018, two years after the scandal erupted.

The firm’s documents were first leaked to the German daily Suddeutsche Zeitung, and were shared with the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, which began publishing collaborative reports with news organizations in 2016.

“The reputational deterioration, the media campaign, the financial siege and the irregular actions of some Panamanian authorities have caused irreparable damage, whose consequence is the complete cease of operations to the public,” the firm said in a statement at the time.

The Mossack and Fonseca were acquitted on other charges in 2022.