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Choosing Inspiring Historical Events to Write About

Greetings, students of history! Unearthing the hidden corners of the past, appreciating the turns of events, and critically analyzing different perspectives are integral to studying history. With many eras, events, and figures, picking the right topic for your research paper might seem daunting. But fret not! This blog will guide you through an engaging journey into the annals of history, presenting a diverse list of topics across various epochs and geographical settings.

Before we delve into a comprehensive list of historical events, let’s discuss the significance of history and the process of writing a research paper.

Table of content

The Significance of History and Research Writing

Studying history is more than just memorizing dates and events. It offers a treasure trove of lessons about humanity, society, and our world. History opens our eyes to different cultures, ideologies, and epochs, fostering a deeper understanding of our shared past. It serves as a reservoir of our collective memory, recording human triumphs, failures, and aspirations.

Writing research papers, on the other hand, sharpens your skills in critical thinking, analysis, argumentation, and articulation. It offers the platform to delve deeper into a topic, analyze varying perspectives, and develop a coherent argument based on evidence.

Steps to Writing a Research Paper

• Choose Your Topic

For a historical research paper, select a topic that genuinely interests you and offers ample resources for exploration.

• Conduct Thorough Research

Engage with primary and secondary sources. Websites like JSTOR or Project Muse provide access to scholarly articles and primary documents.

• Create an Outline

Organize your thoughts and main points. This will guide your writing process and ensure a coherent structure.

• Write Your Paper

Begin writing, focusing on clarity and accuracy. Remember, revision is key to a polished paper.

• Cite Your Sources

Adhere to the required citation style. Always give credit where it’s due to maintaining academic integrity.

Interesting Historical Events to Write About

Below is a list of fascinating historical events spanning different periods and regions, sure to inspire your research and captivate your audience.

Ancient History

Ancient history spans the period from the earliest human civilizations to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. It covers vast societies, from Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilization to Classical Greece and the Roman Empire. Scholars rely on historical texts, archeological finds, and other evidence to piece together our understanding of this distant past.

Topic Examples for Ancient History:

• The Construction and Symbolism of the Sphinx in Ancient Egypt
• The Role of Women in Spartan Society
• The Impact of Hammurabi’s Code on Later Legal Systems
• The Role of Oracle in Ancient Greek Religion and Decision Making
• The Military Tactics of Hannibal Barca and the Second Punic War
• The Mauryan Empire and Its Contributions to Indian Civilization
• The Influence of Roman Architecture on Later Western Architectural Styles
• The Function and Impact of the Silk Road on Ancient Civilizations
• The Significance of Confucianism in Ancient Chinese Society
• The Art and Culture of the Minoan Civilization
• The Transition from Republic to Empire in Rome
• The Decline and Fall of the Aztec Empire
• Julius Caesar and the End of the Roman Republic
• Daily Life in Ancient Athens
• The Pharaohs of the New Kingdom in Ancient Egypt
• The Social Structure of the Ancient Mayan Civilization
• The Philosophies of Ancient Greek Thinkers: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
• The Role of Gladiatorial Games in Roman Society
• The Importance of the Nile River to Ancient Egyptian Civilization
• The Historical Accuracy of Homer’s “The Iliad”
• The Reign and Impact of Cyrus the Great on the Persian Empire
• The Impact of Agriculture on the Rise of Ancient Civilizations
• The Formation and Development of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs

Medieval History

The medieval period, often called the Middle Ages, spanned from the 5th to the 15th Century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. This era saw the rise of Islam in the Middle East, the Age of Chivalry in Europe, the Mongol Empire in Asia, and significant cultural and technological changes worldwide.

Topic Examples for Medieval History:

• The Impact of the Viking Raids on European Society
• The Formation and Influence of the Byzantine Empire
• The Development and Spread of Feudalism
• The Role of the Church in Medieval Europe
• The Black Death and Its Impact on Medieval Society
• The Cultural Achievements of the Carolingian Renaissance
• The Crusades: Motives and Consequences
• The Life and Rule of Charlemagne
• The Architectural Evolution of Medieval Castles
• The Role and Rights of Women in Medieval Society
• The Power Struggle Between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor
• The Mongol Conquest: Causes and Consequences
• The Impact of the Magna Carta on English Law and Civil Liberties
• The Golden Age of Islam and Its Contributions to Science and Art
• The Gothic Architecture: Characteristics and Examples
• The Importance of Knights and Knighthood in Medieval Society
• The Influence of Thomas Aquinas on Medieval Philosophy
• The Hundred Years’ War and the Concept of National Identity
• The Role and Power of the Medieval Guilds
• The Formation and Influence of the Hanseatic League
• The Daily Life and Challenges of a Medieval Peasant
• The Influence of the Norman Conquest on England
• The Culture and Achievements of the Moorish Rule in Spain

Modern History

Modern history generally encompasses the period from the late 15th Century to the late 20th Century. This era includes the Renaissance, Enlightenment, Industrial Revolution, and the Age of Imperialism, and it has seen dramatic changes in society, technology, and global power structures.

Topic Examples for Modern History:

• The Social and Political Impact of the French Revolution
• The Causes and Consequences of the American Revolution
• The Evolution and Impact of Colonialism in Africa
• The Industrial Revolution and Its Influence on Modern Economic Systems
• The Influence of Enlightenment Philosophers on Modern Democratic Thought
• The Life and Legacy of Napoleon Bonaparte
• The Role of Women in the 19th Century
• The Causes and Impact of the American Civil War
• The Effect of the Meiji Restoration on Japan’s Modernization
• The Impact of the Scientific Revolution on Society and Religion
• The Role of the British Empire in Shaping the Modern World
• The Political and Social Consequences of the Treaty of Versailles
• The Transformation of Social Norms in the Victorian Era
• The Effect of Steam Power on 19th-Century Industry and Transport
• The Evolution of Nationalism in the 19th Century
• The Legacy and Impact of the Ottoman Empire
• The Causes and Effects of the Russian Revolution
• The Contribution of Nikola Tesla and Thomas Edison to Modern Electricity
• The Exploration and Colonization of the New World: Impact on Indigenous Cultures
• The Influence of Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation
• The Spread and Impact of Marxism
• The Abolitionist Movement and Its Effect on Slavery in America
• The Impressionist Movement and Its Impact on Art History

Contemporary History

Contemporary history begins with the end of World War II in 1945 and continues into the present day. This period has seen unprecedented global interconnectivity, rapid technological innovation, and meaningful sociopolitical changes.

Topic Examples for Contemporary History:

• The Rise and Fall of the Berlin Wall: Causes and Consequences
• The Civil Rights Movement in America: Leaders, Events, and Impact
• The Causes and Effects of the Cold War on Global Politics
• The Internet Revolution and Its Influence on Society and Economy
• The Influence of Feminism on Contemporary Society
• The Formation and Role of the United Nations
• The Evolution of Environmental Movements and Their Impact on Policy
• The Causes and Impact of the Arab Spring
• The Historical Background and Consequences of the War on Terror
• The Impact of Globalization on Culture and Economy
• The Role of the European Union in Shaping Modern Europe
• The Rise of China as a Global Power
• The Development and Impact of Nuclear Technology
• The Legacy of Apartheid in South Africa
• The Political and Social Impact of the Vietnam War
• The Historical Causes and Impact of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
• The Influence of Pop Culture on Society and Identity
• The Development and Influence of Artificial Intelligence
• The Causes and Effects of the Financial Crisis of 2008
• The Ongoing Struggle for LGBTQ+ Rights
• The Political and Social Changes in Post-Soviet Russia
• The Humanitarian, Political, and Environmental Impact of Climate Change
• The Role and Influence of Social Media on Politics and Society

The above topics only touch the surface of our rich past. Each topic opens up multiple sub-themes and perspectives you can explore in depth. Choose a topic that piques your interest, resonates with your academic goals, or adds a fresh dimension to your understanding of history.

Whether you explore ancient civilizations, pivotal wars, or transformative social movements, remember that studying history offers invaluable insights into our present and future. So dig into these historical events, and let the writing begin!

📎 Related Articles

1. Dive into History: Intriguing 20th Century Research Paper Topics 2. Navigating the Historical Labyrinth of Ancient Rome: Essay Topics 3. Discovering Ancient Egypt: A Guide to Essay Topics 4. Unlocking the Past: World History Research Topics 5. Unleashing Your Potential: Choosing a History IA Topic

Cool History Topics: 151 Great Historical Events & Ideas

History is one of the most fascinating and influential fields of study. It’s not merely a narration of the events of the past but a constant search for answers. It’s a re-examination of our human experience and understanding of how far we have come.

There are thousands of interesting history topics that a student can write an essay about. From ancient tribes to the modern world issues, there are plenty of things to explore. However, you might still find it challenging to work on your history project, presentation, or research paper.

There are a few reasons why:

First of all, there are too many choices to pick one. Secondly, when it comes to history, saying something new and genuinely original is tough. A lot of people try to find a research topic that will be fun to write about. You can feel as if all the ideas were already examined.

This is why our team has come together to provide you with this list of cool history topics to write about. Find some unique and fresh ideas on our page!

For some students, picking a popular topic in history is not enough. They want something unique and cool. If you are one of these students, this list can give you some fresh ideas on cool history topics to write about.

• ✨ Top Interesting Topics
• 😎 What Idea is Cool?
• 🥇 Important Events
• 📌 10 Cool Events
• ✨ Popular Topics
• 💡 American History
• 🌍 World History
• 🏺 Ancient History

✨ 15 Interesting History Topics

• World Wonders.
• Chernobyl Disaster.
• Ancient Egypt.
• The Cold War.
• The Red Scare.
• The Holocaust.
• Edo Period.
• Famous Italian Painters.
• The Civil War.
• The 20 th Century.
• Thirty Years’ War.
• South African Apartheid.
• Modern World History.
• Eiffel Tower.
• The Great Depression.

😎 What Is a Cool History Topic?

You may still wonder whether the topic you chose to talk about is cool enough. Well, you can ask people around you to determine. Don’t settle for a random history topic. Make sure it is worth your time.

Talk to your friends, your family, and people you know. Question them about the most important event in world history. It is a good topic to talk about with your friends and learn about exciting events in history. Another great option would be looking up free college essays collected in a samples database. They usually cover a variety of topics and include numerous paper types.

If you don’t have time, this list will give you ideas about some cool history topics to write about. Consider the options, pick the most engaging one, and start your paper.

🥇 Most Important Historical Events

Selecting one of the events that changed the world is a daunting task for anyone. You might ask, with everything that has happened in the past 5000 years, how can you choose what was the most important?

Here is our list of the most important historical events ever:

• Alexander the Great: the political and cultural impact of Alexander the Great’s Conquest . Alexander the Great was one of the most influential kings of the ancient world. In the essay about his political and cultural impact, talk about his military campaigns. How did he, by the age of 30, create one of the biggest Empires in the world? Allow the readers to see how big and powerful the empire was. Elaborate on the legacy that Alexander the Great left after his death.
• The Factors that contributed to the dissolution of the Roman Empire . Historians agree on several factors that contributed to it. At the beginning of the essay, identify them. You can also decide to focus on several factors that seem the most important.
• Islam and Christianity Impact on the Middle Ages
• Nudity in the paintings of the Italian Renaissance
• Leonardo Da Vinci: Artist, Scientist, Inventor . An essay about this person is destined to be intriguing. Leonardo Da Vinci was one of the most captivating figures in the history of humankind. Just imagine: he was an artist, a scientist, and an inventor at the same time. You can pick several most important paintings to talk about. How about The Mona Lisa or The Last Supper?
• Could World War II be prevented?
• How will historians remember the 2010s?
• Heroes after the Middle Ages
• Impact of the Black Death: the greatest population disaster
• American family’s changes since the 20th century
• Racism and Education in the United States . In this essay, students should focus on the history of discrimination in the United States. You can talk about Brown versus The Board of Education but try to go a bit further. Think about disproportionate funding in the public education sector. See if there is a connection with the minorities. Where do they live and go to school?
• Was there a need to drop the bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki?
• The Fall of Constantinople – the greatest capital in the world. Your tutor will most probably expect you to write about the greatness of the city. But this essay topic should focus on the fall of it. Talk about the last decades of the city and about the most important factors that contributed to the fall of it.
• What were the effects of Gutenberg’s Printing Press? The printing revolutions started after Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press. It’s another transformational event in world history. It was crucial in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, and the Age of Enlightenment. This topic has a lot of things you can talk about.
• The Ideology of Colonialism
• Paradoxicality of Christianity and Slavery. Not many people know, but Christian slaveholders used religion to justify slavery. They usually picked up verses from the book of Genesis and interpreted them in the manner that served their needs. Sometimes they used the New Testament to justify slavery. You could compare the attitude early Christians had towards slaves and how it changed.
• The scar of colonialism and the presence of post-colonialism
• Impact of the American revolution on women. Women played an integral part during the revolution. Depending on their social status, their involvement varied. They affected the revolution a lot, but also the revolution had a great impact on them. Women did not have any political voice in Colonial America. So, see how it changed after the American Revolution was over.

• The Rise and Fall of Napoleon
• Culture, work, and social change after the Industrial Revolution
• Why was the Declaration of Independence written?
• French Revolution: why Marie Antoinette lost her head?
• The importance of the Berlin Wall in the Cold War
• Communism Collapse in the USSR . Write about what caused the collapse of the Soviet Union. Discuss Gorbachev’s decision to democratize the Soviet Union and how people reacted to it. Write about the impact that the collapse of the Soviet Union had around the world.

📌 10 Cool Events in History to Write About

• The Apollo 11 Landing – 1969.
• Formation of the UN – 1945.
• The Suffrage Movement – 1847-1920.
• The American Revolution – 1775-1783.
• Fall of the Wall – 1989.
• The Gunpowder Plot – 1605.
• Discover of DNA – 1860s.
• 20th Century Space Race – 1955-1975.
• The Trojan War – 12th Century BCE.
• The Renaissance – 15th-16th Century.

✨ Most Popular History Topics

This list is great if those who want to pick one of the famous topics in history. The selected ideas have a great depth to them. They are relevant and will be excellent to write about. You will be able to find information in history encyclopedias, journals, articles, and podcasts.

Moreover, your classmates and teacher will like your research too. Here’s our list of popular history essay topic:

• The Industrial Revolution and how did it change England
• The Civil Rights Movement in the United States . Elaborate on the political climate before the civil rights movements. Discuss the events that triggered it in the United States. What was the movement able to achieve? If you choose this essay topic, be ready to have a strong opinion about it.
• Martin Luther King: the life and death. Another idea that, in a way, relates to the civil rights movement essay topic. It’s impossible to explore race relationships without talking about Martin Luther King. He was a bright and influential individual. For sure, this essay topic is among the most popular ones.
• The autobiography of Malcolm X
• French Revolution and the Napoleonic Era
• Causes of the 1812 war . Write about the immediate causes and the remote causes of the 1812 war. You can also talk about the groups that opposed the war and the groups that supported it.
• Why did William win the battle of Hastings?
• Mongol’s Conquest Causes, Battles, and Results
• Music and paintings during the Renaissance in Italy
• Compare British and American slavery. Examine the differences and similarities between British and American slavery. For a very long time, historians believed that the Southern type of slavery was harsher. Think about it and examine the evidence that you have. You can use slave diaries and the novels they wrote about their experiences.
• Dehumanizing psychology of slavery: does it still exist?
• Transatlantic Slave Trade: from West Africa to the Americas
• African-American cultural identity
• The history of Buddhism
• The lasting impact of Karl Marx’s works. Karl Marx was not a politician, nor he ever considered implementing his ideas. However, not that long after his death, his works were picked up. They were interpreted and revolutionized. This is a great essay topic for everyone who is looking for an engaging theme to write about.

• The history of math
• The fall of the Roman Empire and the rise of feudalism
• When did Pearl Harbor become a naval base?
• Economic Recession in the United States in the 2000s
• Mental Illness in America: Nellie Bly, Kate Chopin, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman
• Canadian history through sports. Canada is all about sports. In this essay, write about how the image of Canada was continuously shaped by sports victories. It’s a fascinating and cool topic to explore.
• The space race during the Cold War
• Positive and Negative Effects of the Cold War. The Cold War was a different type of conflict. While it created a lot of calamity and negativity, there were some positive sides to it as well. Talk about those effects. For instance, focus on political stability, or economic growth, or the space race.
• The history of aviation
• Post-Civil war reconstruction in American history
• The role of Capitalism and the life of workers
• Arab-Israeli conflict

🔥 Top 76 Coolest History Topics

If you are looking for the coolest history topic, you are in the right place. Find a title that interests you personally and start writing. Be sure the process of writing won’t be tedious. Instead, it should make you curious about more historical events of the past.

We combined this list of topics to help you get inspired.

💡 Cool American History Topics

• How did the Civil War affect the distribution of wealth in the United States?
• The 1992 Los Angeles Riots
• African Communities in America . African Communities in America have a long history. It’s full of discrimination, slavery, the oppression. Despite all of that, African communities in the United States are among the fastest-growing.
• Condition of Women and Minorities During the War
• The first wave of immigration to the United States
• Racism and segregation in the US
• The first civilizations of the Native Americans
• Did Barack Obama change America? Barack Obama was the first African American President in the United States. Look at the political reforms, foreign and immigration policies implemented during his presidency. Then, try to answer this question for yourself.
• A bill of rights and an amendment
• The origins of automobile drag racing in the U.S.

• How did the highway system change US culture? America has one of the best highways in the world. All thanks to the 1921 Federal-Aid Highway Act and 1956 Federal-Aid Highway Acts. They led to a highway system to become faster and even more efficient. It allowed America to be interconnected. Talk about the effects it had on economic, political, cultural life.
• Events after the Pearl Harbor invasion
• The American red and blue state divide . Every single state had both conservative and liberal voters. However, since the 2000 United States Presidential elections, blue and red states were referred. The respective voters predominantly choose the Democratic party or the Republican party. In this essay, write about this divide. Talk about the differences between both groups of voters.
• The development of clinical psychology in America
• The founders of clinical psychology in the United States. In this essay, talk about the founders of clinical psychology in the United States. Discuss what is clinical psychology and what makes it different from general psychology. Explore how this field evolved in the world and how it started in the United States.
• African American soldiers during the Vietnam War
• Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War
• How did the media shape Americans’ perceptions of the Vietnam War?
• Native American Weaponry
• History of American Stock Market
• How did the Great Depression end?

🌍 Cool World History Topics

• How Capitalism beat Communism
• The Cold war and its consequences for the world
• How Genghis Khan conquered Persia
• How Aborigines made Australia
• The history of the Mayan Civilization
• How did women’s rights in America change over the last century. In this essay, talk about how far women’s rights advanced in the previous century. Look at the 1920 and 2020 to see what actual steps were taken and what has been changed.

• The most important events in the history of the Ottoman Empire.
• Enlightening and Revolution: Europe and India
• Gender Inequality and Socio-Economic Development
• The Decolonization of Africa. The road to independence for African countries was paved with blood and tears. The decolonization of Africa is a period between 1950 and 1975. During this time, African countries fought for independence. Examine the external and internal causes. Elaborate on the economic and political effects of decolonization.
• The influences between Greece, Egypt, and Rome.
• Nuclear Arms Race between the US and the USSR
• Chairman Mao and the Great Chinese Revolution
• History of Modern South Africa. This beautiful Southern African nation had extremely upsetting pages in its modern history. From nationalism to apartheid, terrorism, and racial segregation and oppression. Nowadays, South Africa is among one of the strongest economies in Africa. In this essay topic, you have a lot to talk about.
• The importance of teaching boys and girls about gender equality
• The social psychology of gender inequality
• Women in World War II
• China in Revolution
• History of Jews and the Holocaust
• European Image of the African 1400-1600
• American and French Revolution
• What happened at the Nuremberg trials? Talk about the Nuremberg trials and what is the importance of it. Gladly, we have the trials recorded, so you can just see it for yourself.
• History of the Cuban Missile Crisis. This moment during the Cold War is crucial. The confrontation is considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a nuclear war. Comment on the blockade, the international response. How did the crisis end? What effect did this event have for the people of Cuba?
• The European Union and the European crisis
• East versus West
• Totalitarian regimes in Germany and USSR

🏺 Cool Ancient History Topics

• Mesopotamian influence on the Oman Peninsula
• Why were the pyramids built? This essay will be fun to write about. Who isn’t intrigued by the Egyptian pyramids? There are plenty of legends, stories, and myths that surround the architectural monuments. We suggest you look into the facts. Make your arguments based on proven historical findings and evidence.
• The kings of Ancient Egypt
• Alexander the Great’s Reign
• Fall of the Ancient Roman Empire. The fall of the Ancient Roman Empire, without any doubt, is one of the most important historical topics. Explore how gradual the process of decline was. Discuss the military, political, and financial reasons for the fall.
• The culture of Ancient Greece
• Race in Ancient Egypt
• Religion in Ancient Greece
• The government organization of Ancient Rome
• Life of Julius Caesar. Julius Caesar wasn’t only an Emperor. He was a writer, philosopher, and historian. In this essay, talk about military victories of the Roman leader. Explore his influence on the rise of the Roman empire and the demise of the Roman Republic.
• Agricultural aspects of ancient Egypt
• Social issues of ancient Egyptians
• History of Athenian democracy
• Factors that influenced the development of human civilizations
• The military forces of the Roman Empire
• Famous scholars of Ancient Greece. Some of the most influential and prominent philosophers of all time were from Ancient Greece. Socrates, Sophocles, Plato, Aristotle, and many others. Don’t try to write about each one of them. Instead, elaborate on the position the poets and the philosophers had in the Ancient Greek Society.
• Evolution of Greek Acropolis

• The societies of Ancient Mesoamerica
• Romans and Barbarians: the decline of the Roman Empire
• The daily life of the ancient Maya
• Maya, Aztec, and Inca collapse
• Civilization in Mesopotamia and Egypt
• Historical analysis of Sparta and its pop-culture depiction. Do you have a favorite movie or a book about Sparta? Compare the depiction with historical facts. Write about the differences and similarities between these two representations. Think about why it is so frequently used in pop culture.
• Hunting and gathering societies in the Americas
• The fall of Pompeii. Pompeii was an ancient city buried under the ashes left after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Due to this sudden event, historians can examine the life of the people of Pompeii. It remained almost untouched. Several historians recorded first-hand accounts of Mount Vesuvius’ eruption. Read them to have a vivid picture of what was going on in the city before the tragedy.
• The battle of Pharsalus
• The Western Roman Empire: the significance of its collapse
• The Great Wall of China: cultural and historical analysis

Being able to select your essay topic can seem like a lot of fun at the beginning. However, it is also a big responsibility and a challenge at times. Hopefully, one of these essay topics will help you with the ideas for your essay.

Thank you for reading it, and the best of luck with your assignment! Leave a comment below and share the article with those who may need it.

🔗 References

• The 10 Most Important Moments and Events in History: Rebecca Graf for Owlcation
• Psychology Research Paper Topics, 50+ Great Ideas: Kendra Cherry for Verywell Mind
• Historical Topics: In-Depth Articles from HistoryExtra
• History Topics: National Women’s History Museum
• Hot Topics in World History: World History Center, University of Pittsburgh
• World History Topic: Newspapers.com
• Effective Writing: Grammar Rules
• Cliché, Examples and Definition of Cliché: Literary Devices
• Writing Guides: Colorado State University
• What Good Writers Know: Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning
• Resources: University of Alberta
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Princeton Correspondents on Undergraduate Research

How to Write a History Research Paper

In my last post, I shared some tips on how to conduct research in history and emphasized that researchers should keep in mind a source’s category (transcript, court document, speech, etc.). This post is something of a sequel to that, as I will share some thoughts on what often follows primary-source research: a history research paper. 

1. Background Reading   The first step to a history research paper is of course, background reading and research. In the context of a class assignment, “background reading” might simply be course readings or lectures, but for independent work, this step will likely involve some quality time on your own in the library. During the background reading phase of your project, keep an eye out for intriguing angles to approach your topic from and any trends that you see across sources (both primary and secondary).

2. T hemes and Context Recounting the simple facts about your topic alone will not make for a successful research paper. One must grasp both the details of events as well as the larger, thematic context of the time period in which they occurred. What’s the scholarly consensus about these themes? Does that consensus seem right to you, after having done primary and secondary research of your own?

3. Develop an Argument  Grappling with answers to the above questions will get you thinking about your emerging argument. For shorter papers, you might identify a gap in the scholarship or come up with an argumentative response to a class prompt rather quickly. Remember: as an undergraduate, you don’t have to come up with (to borrow Philosophy Professor Gideon Rosen’s phrase) ‘a blindingly original theory of everything.’ In other words, finding a nuanced thesis does not mean you have to disprove some famous scholar’s work in its entirety. But, if you’re having trouble defining your thesis, I encourage you not to worry; talk to your professor, preceptor, or, if appropriate, a friend. These people can listen to your ideas, and the simple act of talking about your paper can often go a long way in helping you realize what you want to write about.

4. Outline Your Argument  With a history paper specifically, one is often writing about a sequence of events and trying to tell a story about what happened. Roughly speaking, your thesis is your interpretation of these events, or your take on some aspect of them (i.e. the role of women in New Deal programs). Before opening up Word, I suggest writing down the stages of your argument. Then, outline or organize your notes to know what evidence you’ll use in each of these various stages. If you think your evidence is solid, then you’re probably ready to start writing—and you now have a solid roadmap to work from! But, if this step is proving difficult, you might want to gather more evidence or go back to the thesis drawing board and look for a better angle. I often find myself somewhere between these two extremes (being 100% ready to write or staring at a sparse outline), but that’s also helpful, because it gives me a better idea of where my argument needs strengthening.

5. Prepare Yourself   Once you have some sort of direction for the paper (i.e. a working thesis), you’re getting close to the fun part—the writing itself. Gather your laptop, your research materials/notes, and some snacks, and get ready to settle in to write your paper, following your argument outline. As mentioned in the photo caption, I suggest utilizing large library tables to spread out your notes. This way, you don’t have to constantly flip through binders, notebooks, and printed drafts.

In addition to this step by step approach, I’ll leave you with a few last general tips for approaching a history research paper. Overall, set reasonable goals for your project, and remember that a seemingly daunting task can be broken down into the above constituent phases. And, if nothing else, know that you’ll end up with a nice Word document full of aesthetically pleasing footnotes!

— Shanon FitzGerald, Social Sciences Correspondent

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A Step-by-Step Guide to Doing Historical Research [without getting hysterical!] In addition to being a scholarly investigation, research is a social activity intended to create new knowledge. Historical research is your informed response to the questions that you ask while examining the record of human experience. These questions may concern such elements as looking at an event or topic, examining events that lead to the event in question, social influences, key players, and other contextual information. This step-by-step guide progresses from an introduction to historical resources to information about how to identify a topic, craft a thesis and develop a research paper. Table of contents: The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Secondary Sources Primary Sources Historical Analysis What is it? Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Choose a Topic Craft a Thesis Evaluate Thesis and Sources A Variety of Information Sources Take Efficient Notes Note Cards Thinking, Organizing, Researching Parenthetical Documentation Prepare a Works Cited Page Drafting, Revising, Rewriting, Rethinking For Further Reading: Works Cited Additional Links So you want to study history?! Tons of help and links Slatta Home Page Use the Writing and other links on the lefhand menu I. The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Back to Top Every period leaves traces, what historians call "sources" or evidence. Some are more credible or carry more weight than others; judging the differences is a vital skill developed by good historians. Sources vary in perspective, so knowing who created the information you are examining is vital. Anonymous doesn't make for a very compelling source. For example, an FBI report on the antiwar movement, prepared for U.S. President Richard Nixon, probably contained secrets that at the time were thought to have affected national security. It would not be usual, however, for a journalist's article about a campus riot, featured in a local newspaper, to leak top secret information. Which source would you read? It depends on your research topic. If you're studying how government officials portrayed student activists, you'll want to read the FBI report and many more documents from other government agencies such as the CIA and the National Security Council. If you're investigating contemporary opinion of pro-war and anti-war activists, local newspaper accounts provide a rich resource. You'd want to read a variety of newspapers to ensure you're covering a wide range of opinions (rural/urban, left/right, North/South, Soldier/Draft-dodger, etc). Historians classify sources into two major categories: primary and secondary sources. Secondary Sources Back to Top Definition: Secondary sources are created by someone who was either not present when the event occurred or removed from it in time. We use secondary sources for overview information, to familiarize ourselves with a topic, and compare that topic with other events in history. In refining a research topic, we often begin with secondary sources. This helps us identify gaps or conflicts in the existing scholarly literature that might prove promsing topics. Types: History books, encyclopedias, historical dictionaries, and academic (scholarly) articles are secondary sources. To help you determine the status of a given secondary source, see How to identify and nagivate scholarly literature . Examples: Historian Marilyn Young's (NYU) book about the Vietnam War is a secondary source. She did not participate in the war. Her study is not based on her personal experience but on the evidence she culled from a variety of sources she found in the United States and Vietnam. Primary Sources Back to Top Definition: Primary sources emanate from individuals or groups who participated in or witnessed an event and recorded that event during or immediately after the event. They include speeches, memoirs, diaries, letters, telegrams, emails, proclamations, government documents, and much more. Examples: A student activist during the war writing about protest activities has created a memoir. This would be a primary source because the information is based on her own involvement in the events she describes. Similarly, an antiwar speech is a primary source. So is the arrest record of student protesters. A newspaper editorial or article, reporting on a student demonstration is also a primary source. II. Historical Analysis What is it? Back to Top No matter what you read, whether it's a primary source or a secondary source, you want to know who authored the source (a trusted scholar? A controversial historian? A propagandist? A famous person? An ordinary individual?). "Author" refers to anyone who created information in any medium (film, sound, or text). You also need to know when it was written and the kind of audience the author intend to reach. You should also consider what you bring to the evidence that you examine. Are you inductively following a path of evidence, developing your interpretation based on the sources? Do you have an ax to grind? Did you begin your research deductively, with your mind made up before even seeing the evidence. Historians need to avoid the latter and emulate the former. To read more about the distinction, examine the difference between Intellectual Inquirers and Partisan Ideologues . In the study of history, perspective is everything. A letter written by a twenty- year old Vietnam War protestor will differ greatly from a letter written by a scholar of protest movements. Although the sentiment might be the same, the perspective and influences of these two authors will be worlds apart. Practicing the " 5 Ws " will avoid the confusion of the authority trap. Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Back to Top Historians accumulate evidence (information, including facts, stories, interpretations, opinions, statements, reports, etc.) from a variety of sources (primary and secondary). They must also verify that certain key pieces of information are corroborated by a number of people and sources ("the predonderance of evidence"). The historian poses the " 5 Ws " to every piece of information he examines: Who is the historical actor? When did the event take place? Where did it occur? What did it entail and why did it happen the way it did? The " 5 Ws " can also be used to evaluate a primary source. Who authored the work? When was it created? Where was it created, published, and disseminated? Why was it written (the intended audience), and what is the document about (what points is the author making)? If you know the answers to these five questions, you can analyze any document, and any primary source. The historian doesn't look for the truth, since this presumes there is only one true story. The historian tries to understand a number of competing viewpoints to form his or her own interpretation-- what constitutes the best explanation of what happened and why. By using as wide a range of primary source documents and secondary sources as possible, you will add depth and richness to your historical analysis. The more exposure you, the researcher, have to a number of different sources and differing view points, the more you have a balanced and complete view about a topic in history. This view will spark more questions and ultimately lead you into the quest to unravel more clues about your topic. You are ready to start assembling information for your research paper. III. Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Back to Top Because your purpose is to create new knowledge while recognizing those scholars whose existing work has helped you in this pursuit, you are honor bound never to commit the following academic sins: Plagiarism: Literally "kidnapping," involving the use of someone else's words as if they were your own (Gibaldi 6). To avoid plagiarism you must document direct quotations, paraphrases, and original ideas not your own. Recycling: Rehashing material you already know thoroughly or, without your professor's permission, submitting a paper that you have completed for another course. Premature cognitive commitment: Academic jargon for deciding on a thesis too soon and then seeking information to serve that thesis rather than embarking on a genuine search for new knowledge. Choose a Topic Back to Top "Do not hunt for subjects, let them choose you, not you them." --Samuel Butler Choosing a topic is the first step in the pursuit of a thesis. Below is a logical progression from topic to thesis: Close reading of the primary text, aided by secondary sources Growing awareness of interesting qualities within the primary text Choosing a topic for research Asking productive questions that help explore and evaluate a topic Creating a research hypothesis Revising and refining a hypothesis to form a working thesis First, and most important, identify what qualities in the primary or secondary source pique your imagination and curiosity and send you on a search for answers. Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive levels provides a description of productive questions asked by critical thinkers. While the lower levels (knowledge, comprehension) are necessary to a good history essay, aspire to the upper three levels (analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Skimming reference works such as encyclopedias, books, critical essays and periodical articles can help you choose a topic that evolves into a hypothesis, which in turn may lead to a thesis. One approach to skimming involves reading the first paragraph of a secondary source to locate and evaluate the author's thesis. Then for a general idea of the work's organization and major ideas read the first and last sentence of each paragraph. Read the conclusion carefully, as it usually presents a summary (Barnet and Bedau 19). Craft a Thesis Back to Top Very often a chosen topic is too broad for focused research. You must revise it until you have a working hypothesis, that is, a statement of an idea or an approach with respect to the source that could form the basis for your thesis. Remember to not commit too soon to any one hypothesis. Use it as a divining rod or a first step that will take you to new information that may inspire you to revise your hypothesis. Be flexible. Give yourself time to explore possibilities. The hypothesis you create will mature and shift as you write and rewrite your paper. New questions will send you back to old and on to new material. Remember, this is the nature of research--it is more a spiraling or iterative activity than a linear one. Test your working hypothesis to be sure it is: broad enough to promise a variety of resources. narrow enough for you to research in depth. original enough to interest you and your readers. worthwhile enough to offer information and insights of substance "do-able"--sources are available to complete the research. Now it is time to craft your thesis, your revised and refined hypothesis. A thesis is a declarative sentence that: focuses on one well-defined idea makes an arguable assertion; it is capable of being supported prepares your readers for the body of your paper and foreshadows the conclusion. Evaluate Thesis and Sources Back to Top Like your hypothesis, your thesis is not carved in stone. You are in charge. If necessary, revise it during the research process. As you research, continue to evaluate both your thesis for practicality, originality, and promise as a search tool, and secondary sources for relevance and scholarliness. The following are questions to ask during the research process: Are there many journal articles and entire books devoted to the thesis, suggesting that the subject has been covered so thoroughly that there may be nothing new to say? Does the thesis lead to stimulating, new insights? Are appropriate sources available? Is there a variety of sources available so that the bibliography or works cited page will reflect different kinds of sources? Which sources are too broad for my thesis? Which resources are too narrow? Who is the author of the secondary source? Does the critic's background suggest that he/she is qualified? After crafting a thesis, consider one of the following two approaches to writing a research paper: Excited about your thesis and eager to begin? Return to the primary or secondary source to find support for your thesis. Organize ideas and begin writing your first draft. After writing the first draft, have it reviewed by your peers and your instructor. Ponder their suggestions and return to the sources to answer still-open questions. Document facts and opinions from secondary sources. Remember, secondary sources can never substitute for primary sources. Confused about where to start? Use your thesis to guide you to primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources can help you clarify your position and find a direction for your paper. Keep a working bibliography. You may not use all the sources you record, but you cannot be sure which ones you will eventually discard. Create a working outline as you research. This outline will, of course, change as you delve more deeply into your subject. A Variety of Information Sources Back to Top "A mind that is stretched to a new idea never returns to its original dimension." --Oliver Wendell Holmes Your thesis and your working outline are the primary compasses that will help you navigate the variety of sources available. In "Introduction to the Library" (5-6) the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers suggests you become familiar with the library you will be using by: taking a tour or enrolling for a brief introductory lecture referring to the library's publications describing its resources introducing yourself and your project to the reference librarian The MLA Handbook also lists guides for the use of libraries (5), including: Jean Key Gates, Guide to the Use of Libraries and Information Sources (7th ed., New York: McGraw, 1994). Thomas Mann, A Guide to Library Research Methods (New York: Oxford UP, 1987). Online Central Catalog Most libraries have their holdings listed on a computer. The online catalog may offer Internet sites, Web pages and databases that relate to the university's curriculum. It may also include academic journals and online reference books. Below are three search techniques commonly used online: Index Search: Although online catalogs may differ slightly from library to library, the most common listings are by: Subject Search: Enter the author's name for books and article written about the author. Author Search: Enter an author's name for works written by the author, including collections of essays the author may have written about his/her own works. Title Search: Enter a title for the screen to list all the books the library carries with that title. Key Word Search/Full-text Search: A one-word search, e.g., 'Kennedy,' will produce an overwhelming number of sources, as it will call up any entry that includes the name 'Kennedy.' To focus more narrowly on your subject, add one or more key words, e.g., "John Kennedy, Peace Corps." Use precise key words. Boolean Search: Boolean Search techniques use words such as "and," "or," and "not," which clarify the relationship between key words, thus narrowing the search. Take Efficient Notes Back to Top Keeping complete and accurate bibliography and note cards during the research process is a time (and sanity) saving practice. If you have ever needed a book or pages within a book, only to discover that an earlier researcher has failed to return it or torn pages from your source, you understand the need to take good notes. Every researcher has a favorite method for taking notes. Here are some suggestions-- customize one of them for your own use. Bibliography cards There may be far more books and articles listed than you have time to read, so be selective when choosing a reference. Take information from works that clearly relate to your thesis, remembering that you may not use them all. Use a smaller or a different color card from the one used for taking notes. Write a bibliography card for every source. Number the bibliography cards. On the note cards, use the number rather than the author's name and the title. It's faster. Another method for recording a working bibliography, of course, is to create your own database. Adding, removing, and alphabetizing titles is a simple process. Be sure to save often and to create a back-up file. A bibliography card should include all the information a reader needs to locate that particular source for further study. Most of the information required for a book entry (Gibaldi 112): Author's name Title of a part of the book [preface, chapter titles, etc.] Title of the book Name of the editor, translator, or compiler Edition used Number(s) of the volume(s) used Name of the series Place of publication, name of the publisher, and date of publication Page numbers Supplementary bibliographic information and annotations Most of the information required for an article in a periodical (Gibaldi 141): Author's name Title of the article Name of the periodical Series number or name (if relevant) Volume number (for a scholarly journal) Issue number (if needed) Date of publication Page numbers Supplementary information For information on how to cite other sources refer to your So you want to study history page . Note Cards Back to Top Take notes in ink on either uniform note cards (3x5, 4x6, etc.) or uniform slips of paper. Devote each note card to a single topic identified at the top. Write only on one side. Later, you may want to use the back to add notes or personal observations. Include a topical heading for each card. Include the number of the page(s) where you found the information. You will want the page number(s) later for documentation, and you may also want page number(s)to verify your notes. Most novice researchers write down too much. Condense. Abbreviate. You are striving for substance, not quantity. Quote directly from primary sources--but the "meat," not everything. Suggestions for condensing information: Summary: A summary is intended to provide the gist of an essay. Do not weave in the author's choice phrases. Read the information first and then condense the main points in your own words. This practice will help you avoid the copying that leads to plagiarism. Summarizing also helps you both analyze the text you are reading and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses (Barnet and Bedau 13). Outline: Use to identify a series of points. Paraphrase, except for key primary source quotations. Never quote directly from a secondary source, unless the precise wording is essential to your argument. Simplify the language and list the ideas in the same order. A paraphrase is as long as the original. Paraphrasing is helpful when you are struggling with a particularly difficult passage. Be sure to jot down your own insights or flashes of brilliance. Ralph Waldo Emerson warns you to "Look sharply after your thoughts. They come unlooked for, like a new bird seen on your trees, and, if you turn to your usual task, disappear...." To differentiate these insights from those of the source you are reading, initial them as your own. (When the following examples of note cards include the researcher's insights, they will be followed by the initials N. R.) When you have finished researching your thesis and you are ready to write your paper, organize your cards according to topic. Notecards make it easy to shuffle and organize your source information on a table-- or across the floor. Maintain your working outline that includes the note card headings and explores a logical order for presenting them in your paper. IV. Begin Thinking, Researching, Organizing Back to Top Don't be too sequential. Researching, writing, revising is a complex interactive process. Start writing as soon as possible! "The best antidote to writer's block is--to write." (Klauser 15). However, you still feel overwhelmed and are staring at a blank page, you are not alone. Many students find writing the first sentence to be the most daunting part of the entire research process. Be creative. Cluster (Rico 28-49). Clustering is a form of brainstorming. Sometimes called a web, the cluster forms a design that may suggest a natural organization for a paper. Here's a graphical depiction of brainstorming . Like a sun, the generating idea or topic lies at the center of the web. From it radiate words, phrases, sentences and images that in turn attract other words, phrases, sentences and images. Put another way--stay focused. Start with your outline. If clustering is not a technique that works for you, turn to the working outline you created during the research process. Use the outline view of your word processor. If you have not already done so, group your note cards according to topic headings. Compare them to your outline's major points. If necessary, change the outline to correspond with the headings on the note cards. If any area seems weak because of a scarcity of facts or opinions, return to your primary and/or secondary sources for more information or consider deleting that heading. Use your outline to provide balance in your essay. Each major topic should have approximately the same amount of information. Once you have written a working outline, consider two different methods for organizing it. Deduction: A process of development that moves from the general to the specific. You may use this approach to present your findings. However, as noted above, your research and interpretive process should be inductive. Deduction is the most commonly used form of organization for a research paper. The thesis statement is the generalization that leads to the specific support provided by primary and secondary sources. The thesis is stated early in the paper. The body of the paper then proceeds to provide the facts, examples, and analogies that flow logically from that thesis. The thesis contains key words that are reflected in the outline. These key words become a unifying element throughout the paper, as they reappear in the detailed paragraphs that support and develop the thesis. The conclusion of the paper circles back to the thesis, which is now far more meaningful because of the deductive development that supports it. Chronological order A process that follows a traditional time line or sequence of events. A chronological organization is useful for a paper that explores cause and effect. Parenthetical Documentation Back to Top The Works Cited page, a list of primary and secondary sources, is not sufficient documentation to acknowledge the ideas, facts, and opinions you have included within your text. The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers describes an efficient parenthetical style of documentation to be used within the body of your paper. Guidelines for parenthetical documentation: "References to the text must clearly point to specific sources in the list of works cited" (Gibaldi 184). Try to use parenthetical documentation as little as possible. For example, when you cite an entire work, it is preferable to include the author's name in the text. The author's last name followed by the page number is usually enough for an accurate identification of the source in the works cited list. These examples illustrate the most common kinds of documentation. Documenting a quotation: Ex. "The separation from the personal mother is a particularly intense process for a daughter because she has to separate from the one who is the same as herself" (Murdock 17). She may feel abandoned and angry. Note: The author of The Heroine's Journey is listed under Works Cited by the author's name, reversed--Murdock, Maureen. Quoted material is found on page 17 of that book. Parenthetical documentation is after the quotation mark and before the period. Documenting a paraphrase: Ex. In fairy tales a woman who holds the princess captive or who abandons her often needs to be killed (18). Note: The second paraphrase is also from Murdock's book The Heroine's Journey. It is not, however, necessary to repeat the author's name if no other documentation interrupts the two. If the works cited page lists more than one work by the same author, include within the parentheses an abbreviated form of the appropriate title. You may, of course, include the title in your sentence, making it unnecessary to add an abbreviated title in the citation. > Prepare a Works Cited Page Back to Top There are a variety of titles for the page that lists primary and secondary sources (Gibaldi 106-107). A Works Cited page lists those works you have cited within the body of your paper. The reader need only refer to it for the necessary information required for further independent research. Bibliography means literally a description of books. Because your research may involve the use of periodicals, films, art works, photographs, etc. "Works Cited" is a more precise descriptive term than bibliography. An Annotated Bibliography or Annotated Works Cited page offers brief critiques and descriptions of the works listed. A Works Consulted page lists those works you have used but not cited. Avoid using this format. As with other elements of a research paper there are specific guidelines for the placement and the appearance of the Works Cited page. The following guidelines comply with MLA style: The Work Cited page is placed at the end of your paper and numbered consecutively with the body of your paper. Center the title and place it one inch from the top of your page. Do not quote or underline the title. Double space the entire page, both within and between entries. The entries are arranged alphabetically by the author's last name or by the title of the article or book being cited. If the title begins with an article (a, an, the) alphabetize by the next word. If you cite two or more works by the same author, list the titles in alphabetical order. Begin every entry after the first with three hyphens followed by a period. All entries begin at the left margin but subsequent lines are indented five spaces. Be sure that each entry cited on the Works Cited page corresponds to a specific citation within your paper. Refer to the the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (104- 182) for detailed descriptions of Work Cited entries. Citing sources from online databases is a relatively new phenomenon. Make sure to ask your professor about citing these sources and which style to use. V. Draft, Revise, Rewrite, Rethink Back to Top "There are days when the result is so bad that no fewer than five revisions are required. In contrast, when I'm greatly inspired, only four revisions are needed." --John Kenneth Galbraith Try freewriting your first draft. Freewriting is a discovery process during which the writer freely explores a topic. Let your creative juices flow. In Writing without Teachers , Peter Elbow asserts that "[a]lmost everybody interposes a massive and complicated series of editings between the time words start to be born into consciousness and when they finally come off the end of the pencil or typewriter [or word processor] onto the page" (5). Do not let your internal judge interfere with this first draft. Creating and revising are two very different functions. Don't confuse them! If you stop to check spelling, punctuation, or grammar, you disrupt the flow of creative energy. Create; then fix it later. When material you have researched comes easily to mind, include it. Add a quick citation, one you can come back to later to check for form, and get on with your discovery. In subsequent drafts, focus on creating an essay that flows smoothly, supports fully, and speaks clearly and interestingly. Add style to substance. Create a smooth flow of words, ideas and paragraphs. Rearrange paragraphs for a logical progression of information. Transition is essential if you want your reader to follow you smoothly from introduction to conclusion. Transitional words and phrases stitch your ideas together; they provide coherence within the essay. External transition: Words and phrases that are added to a sentence as overt signs of transition are obvious and effective, but should not be overused, as they may draw attention to themselves and away from ideas. Examples of external transition are "however," "then," "next," "therefore." "first," "moreover," and "on the other hand." Internal transition is more subtle. Key words in the introduction become golden threads when they appear in the paper's body and conclusion. When the writer hears a key word repeated too often, however, she/he replaces it with a synonym or a pronoun. Below are examples of internal transition. Transitional sentences create a logical flow from paragraph to paragraph. Iclude individual words, phrases, or clauses that refer to previous ideas and that point ahead to new ones. They are usually placed at the end or at the beginning of a paragraph. A transitional paragraph conducts your reader from one part of the paper to another. It may be only a few sentences long. Each paragraph of the body of the paper should contain adequate support for its one governing idea. Speak/write clearly, in your own voice. Tone: The paper's tone, whether formal, ironic, or humorous, should be appropriate for the audience and the subject. Voice: Keep you language honest. Your paper should sound like you. Understand, paraphrase, absorb, and express in your own words the information you have researched. Avoid phony language. Sentence formation: When you polish your sentences, read them aloud for word choice and word placement. Be concise. Strunk and White in The Elements of Style advise the writer to "omit needless words" (23). First, however, you must recognize them. Keep yourself and your reader interested. In fact, Strunk's 1918 writing advice is still well worth pondering. First, deliver on your promises. Be sure the body of your paper fulfills the promise of the introduction. Avoid the obvious. Offer new insights. Reveal the unexpected. Have you crafted your conclusion as carefully as you have your introduction? Conclusions are not merely the repetition of your thesis. The conclusion of a research paper is a synthesis of the information presented in the body. Your research has led you to conclusions and opinions that have helped you understand your thesis more deeply and more clearly. Lift your reader to the full level of understanding that you have achieved. Revision means "to look again." Find a peer reader to read your paper with you present. Or, visit your college or university's writing lab. Guide your reader's responses by asking specific questions. Are you unsure of the logical order of your paragraphs? Do you want to know whether you have supported all opinions adequately? Are you concerned about punctuation or grammar? Ask that these issues be addressed. You are in charge. Here are some techniques that may prove helpful when you are revising alone or with a reader. When you edit for spelling errors read the sentences backwards. This procedure will help you look closely at individual words. Always read your paper aloud. Hearing your own words puts them in a new light. Listen to the flow of ideas and of language. Decide whether or not the voice sounds honest and the tone is appropriate to the purpose of the paper and to your audience. Listen for awkward or lumpy wording. Find the one right word, Eliminate needless words. Combine sentences. Kill the passive voice. Eliminate was/were/is/are constructions. They're lame and anti-historical. Be ruthless. If an idea doesn't serve your thesis, banish it, even if it's one of your favorite bits of prose. In the margins, write the major topic of each paragraph. By outlining after you have written the paper, you are once again evaluating your paper's organization. OK, you've got the process down. Now execute! And enjoy! It's not everyday that you get to make history. VI. For Further Reading: Works Cited Back to Top Barnet, Sylvan, and Hugo Bedau. Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing: A Brief Guide to Argument. Boston: Bedford, 1993. Brent, Doug. Reading as Rhetorical Invention: Knowledge,Persuasion and the Teaching of Research-Based Writing. Urbana: NCTE, 1992. Elbow, Peter. Writing without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Gibladi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1995. Horvitz, Deborah. "Nameless Ghosts: Possession and Dispossession in Beloved." Studies in American Fiction , Vol. 17, No. 2, Autum, 1989, pp. 157-167. Republished in the Literature Research Center. Gale Group. (1 January 1999). Klauser, Henriette Anne. Writing on Both Sides of the Brain: Breakthrough Techniques for People Who Write. Philadelphia: Harper, 1986. Rico, Gabriele Lusser. Writing the Natural Way: Using Right Brain Techniques to Release Your Expressive Powers. Los Angeles: Houghton, 1983. Sorenson, Sharon. The Research Paper: A Contemporary Approach. New York: AMSCO, 1994. Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New York: MacMillan, 1979. Back to Top This guide adapted from materials published by Thomson Gale, publishers. For free resources, including a generic guide to writing term papers, see the Gale.com website , which also includes product information for schools.

How to Write a History Research Paper

• How do I pick a topic?
• But I can’t find any material…

Research Guide

Writing guide.

See also: How to Write a Good History Essay

1. How do I pick a topic?

Picking a topic is perhaps the most important step in writing a research paper. To do it well requires several steps of refinement. First you have to determine a general area in which you have an interest (if you aren’t interested, your readers won’t be either). You do not write a paper “about the Civil War,” however, for that is such a large and vague concept that the paper will be too shallow or you will be swamped with information. The next step is to narrow your topic. Are you interested in comparison? battles? social change? politics? causes? biography? Once you reach this stage try to formulate your research topic as a question. For example, suppose that you decide to write a paper on the use of the films of the 1930’s and what they can tell historians about the Great Depression. You might turn that into the following question: “What are the primary values expressed in films of the 1930’s?” Or you might ask a quite different question, “What is the standard of living portrayed in films of the 1930’s?” There are other questions, of course, which you could have asked, but these two clearly illustrate how different two papers on the same general subject might be. By asking yourself a question as a means of starting research on a topic you will help yourself find the answers. You also open the door to loading the evidence one way or another. It will help you decide what kinds of evidence might be pertinent to your question, and it can also twist perceptions of a topic. For example, if you ask a question about economics as motivation, you are not likely to learn much about ideals, and vice versa.

2. But I can’t find any material…

No one should pick a topic without trying to figure out how one could discover pertinent information, nor should anyone settle on a topic before getting some background information about the general area. These two checks should make sure your paper is in the realm of the possible. The trick of good research is detective work and imaginative thinking on how one can find information. First try to figure out what kinds of things you should know about a topic to answer your research question. Are there statistics? Do you need personal letters? What background information should be included? Then if you do not know how to find that particular kind of information, ASK . A reference librarian or professor is much more likely to be able to steer you to the right sources if you can ask a specific question such as “Where can I find statistics on the number of interracial marriages?” than if you say “What can you find on racial attitudes?”

Use the footnotes and bibliographies of general background books as well as reference aids to lead you to special studies. If Carleton does not have the books or sources you need, try ordering through the library minitex. Many sources are also available on-line.

As your research paper takes shape you will find that you need background on people, places, events, etc. Do not just rely on some general survey for all of your background. Check the several good dictionaries of biography for background on people, or see if there is a standard book-length biography. If you are dealing with a legal matter check into the background of the judges who make the court decision and the circumstances surrounding the original incident or law. Try looking for public opinions in newspapers of the time. In other words, each bit of information you find should open the possibility of other research paths.

Learn to use several research techniques. You cannot count on a good research paper coming from browsing on one shelf at the library. A really pertinent book may be hidden in another section of the library due to classification quirks. The Readers’ Guide (Ref. A13 .R4) is not the only source for magazine articles, nor the card catalog for books. There are whole books which are listings of other books on particular topics. There are specialized indexes of magazine articles. Modern History Journals are indexed in the Social Studies and Humanities Index (Ref. A13 .R282) before 1976 After 1976 use the Social Sciences Index (REF A13 .S62) and the Humanities Index (Ref. A13 .H85). See also Historical Abstracts (Ref. D1 .H5). Reference Librarians would love to help you learn to use these research tools. It pays to browse in the reference room at the library and poke into the guides which are on the shelves. It also pays to browse the Internet.

3. Help! How do I put this together?

A. preliminary research:.

If you do not already have a general background on your topic, get the most recent good general source on the topic and read it for general orientation. On the basis of that reading formulate as clearly focused question as you can. You should generally discuss with your professor at that point whether your question is a feasible one.

B. Building a Basic Bibliography:

Use the bibliography/notes in your first general source, MUSE, and especially Historical Abstracts on cd-rom in the Library Reading Room (the computer farthest to the left in the front row as you walk past the Reference Desk — or ask there). If there is a specialized bibliography on your topic, you will certainly want to consult that as well, but these are often a bit dated.

C. Building a Full Bibliography:

Read the recent articles or chapters that seem to focus on your topic best. This will allow you to focus your research question quite a bit. Use the sources cited and/or discussed in this reading to build a full bibliography. Use such tools as Historical Abstracts (or, depending on your topic, the abstracts from a different field) and a large, convenient computer-based national library catalog (e.g. the University of California system from the “Libs” command in your VAX account or the smaller University of Minnesota library through MUSE) to check out your sources fully. For specific article searches “Uncover” (press returns for the “open access”) or possibly (less likely for history) “First Search” through “Connect to Other Resources” in MUSE can also be useful.

D. Major Research:

Now do the bulk of your research. But do not overdo it. Do not fall into the trap of reading and reading to avoid getting started on the writing. After you have the bulk of information you might need, start writing. You can fill in the smaller gaps of your research more effectively later.

A. Outline:

Write a preliminary thesis statement, expressing what you believe your major argument(s) will be. Sketch out a broad outline that indicates the structure — main points and subpoints or your argument as it seems at this time. Do not get too detailed at this point.

B. The First Draft:

On the basis of this thesis statement and outline, start writing, even pieces, as soon as you have enough information to start. Do not wait until you have filled all the research gaps. Keep on writing. If you run into smaller research questions just mark the text with a searchable symbol. It is important that you try to get to the end point of this writing as soon as possible, even if you leave pieces still in outline form at first and then fill the gaps after you get to the end.

Critical advice for larger papers: It is often more effective not to start at the point where the beginning of your paper will be. Especially the introductory paragraph is often best left until later, when you feel ready and inspired.

C. The Second Draft:

The “second draft” is a fully re-thought and rewritten version of your paper. It is at the heart of the writing process.

First, lay your first draft aside for a day or so to gain distance from it. After that break, read it over with a critical eye as you would somebody else’s paper (well, almost!). You will probably find that your first draft is still quite descriptive, rather than argumentative. It is likely to wander; your perspective and usually even the thesis seemed to change/develop as you wrote. Don’t despair. That is perfectly normal even for experienced writers (even after 40 years and a good deal of published work!). You will be frustrated. But keep questioning your paper along the following lines: What precisely are my key questions? What parts of my evidence here are really pertinent to those questions (that is, does it help me answer them)? How or in what order can I structure my paper most effectively to answer those questions most clearly and efficiently for my reader?

At this point you must outline your paper freshly. Mark up your first draft, ask tough questions whether your argument is clear and whether the order in which you present your points is effective! You must write conceptually a new paper at this point, even if you can use paragraphs and especially quotes, factual data in the new draft.

It is critical that in your new draft your paragraphs start with topic sentences that identify the argument you will be making in the particular paragraph (sometimes this can be strings of two or three paragraphs). The individual steps in your argument must be clearly reflected in the topic sentences of your paragraphs (or a couple of them linked).

D. The Third or Final Draft:

You are now ready to check for basic rules of good writing. This is when you need to check the diction, that is, the accuracy and suitability of words. Eliminate unnecessary passive or awkward noun constructions (active-voice, verbal constructions are usually more effective); improve the flow of your transitions; avoid repetitions or split infinitives; correct apostrophes in possessives and such. Make the style clear and smooth. Check that the start of your paper is interesting for the reader. Last but not least, cut out unnecessary verbiage and wordiness. Spell-check and proof-read.

– Diethelm Prowe, 1998

Writing a Good History Paper

• Top Ten Reasons for Negative Comments
• Making Sure your Paper has Substance

Common Marginal Remarks on Style, Clarity, Grammar, and Syntax

Word and phrase usage problems, analyzing a historical document, writing a book review, writing a term paper or senior thesis, top ten reasons for negative comments on history papers.

(Drawn from a survey of the History Department ) 10. You engage in cheap, anachronistic moralizing .  9. You are sloppy with the chronology .  8. You quote excessively or improperly .  7. You have written a careless “one-draft wonder.” (See revise and proofread)  6. You are vague or have empty, unsupported generalizations .  5. You write too much in the passive voice.  4. You use inappropriate sources .  3. You use evidence uncritically.  2. You are wordy .  1. You have no clear thesis and little analysis.

Making Sure your History Paper has Substance

Get off to a good start..

Avoid pretentious, vapid beginnings. If you are writing a paper on, say, British responses to the rebellion in India in 1857, don't open with a statement like this: “Throughout human history people in all cultures everywhere in the world have engaged in many and long-running conflicts about numerous aspects of government policy and diplomatic issues, which have much interested historians and generated historical theories in many areas.” This is pure garbage, bores the reader, and is a sure sign that you have nothing substantive to say. Get to the point. Here’s a better start: “The rebellion in 1857 compelled the British to rethink their colonial administration in India.” This sentence tells the reader what your paper is actually about and clears the way for you to state your thesis in the rest of the opening paragraph. For example, you might go on to argue that greater British sensitivity to Indian customs was hypocritical.

State a clear thesis.

Whether you are writing an exam essay or a senior thesis, you need to have a thesis. Don’t just repeat the assignment or start writing down everything that you know about the subject. Ask yourself, “What exactly am I trying to prove?” Your thesis is your take on the subject, your perspective, your explanation—that is, the case that you’re going to argue. “Famine struck Ireland in the 1840s” is a true statement, but it is not a thesis. “The English were responsible for famine in Ireland in the 1840s” is a thesis (whether defensible or not is another matter). A good thesis answers an important research question about how or why something happened. (“Who was responsible for the famine in Ireland in the 1840s?”) Once you have laid out your thesis, don’t forget about it. Develop your thesis logically from paragraph to paragraph. Your reader should always know where your argument has come from, where it is now, and where it is going.

Be sure to analyze.

Students are often puzzled when their professors mark them down for summarizing or merely narrating rather than analyzing. What does it mean to analyze? In the narrow sense, to analyze means to break down into parts and to study the interrelationships of those parts. If you analyze water, you break it down into hydrogen and oxygen. In a broader sense, historical analysis explains the origins and significance of events. Historical analysis digs beneath the surface to see relationships or distinctions that are not immediately obvious. Historical analysis is critical; it evaluates sources, assigns significance to causes, and weighs competing explanations. Don’t push the distinction too far, but you might think of summary and analysis this way: Who, what, when, and where are the stuff of summary; how, why, and to what effect are the stuff of analysis. Many students think that they have to give a long summary (to show the professor that they know the facts) before they get to their analysis. Try instead to begin your analysis as soon as possible, sometimes without any summary at all. The facts will “shine through” a good analysis. You can't do an analysis unless you know the facts, but you can summarize the facts without being able to do an analysis. Summary is easier and less sophisticated than analysis—that’s why summary alone never earns an “A.”

Use evidence critically.

Like good detectives, historians are critical of their sources and cross-check them for reliability. You wouldn't think much of a detective who relied solely on a suspect’s archenemy to check an alibi. Likewise, you wouldn't think much of a historian who relied solely on the French to explain the origins of World War I. Consider the following two statements on the origin of World War I: 1) “For the catastrophe of 1914 the Germans are responsible. Only a professional liar would deny this...” 2) “It is not true that Germany is guilty of having caused this war. Neither the people, the government, nor the Kaiser wanted war....”  They can’t both be right, so you have to do some detective work. As always, the best approach is to ask: Who wrote the source? Why? When? Under what circumstances? For whom? The first statement comes from a book by the French politician Georges Clemenceau, which he wrote in 1929 at the very end of his life. In 1871, Clemenceau had vowed revenge against Germany for its defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War. As premier of France from 1917 to 1920, he represented France at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. He was obviously not a disinterested observer. The second statement comes from a manifesto published by ninety-three prominent German intellectuals in the fall of 1914. They were defending Germany against charges of aggression and brutality. They too were obviously not disinterested observers. Now, rarely do you encounter such extreme bias and passionate disagreement, but the principle of criticizing and cross-checking sources always applies. In general, the more sources you can use, and the more varied they are, the more likely you are to make a sound historical judgment, especially when passions and self-interests are engaged. You don’t need to be cynical as a historian (self-interest does not explain everything), but you do need to be critical and skeptical. Competent historians may offer different interpretations of the same evidence or choose to stress different evidence. You will not find a single historical Truth with a capital “T” on any matter of significance. You can, however, learn to discriminate among conflicting interpretations, not all of which are created equal. (See also: Analyzing a Historical Document )

Be precise.

Vague statements and empty generalizations suggest that you haven't put in the time to learn the material. Consider these two sentences: “During the French Revolution, the government was overthrown by the people. The Revolution is important because it shows that people need freedom.” What people? Landless peasants? Urban journeymen? Wealthy lawyers? Which government? When? How? Who exactly needed freedom, and what did they mean by freedom? Here is a more precise statement about the French Revolution: “Threatened by rising prices and food shortages in 1793, the Parisian sans-culottes pressured the Convention to institute price controls.” This statement is more limited than the grandiose generalizations about the Revolution, but unlike them, it can open the door to a real analysis of the Revolution. Be careful when you use grand abstractions like people, society, freedom, and government, especially when you further distance yourself from the concrete by using these words as the apparent antecedents for the pronouns they and it. Always pay attention to cause and effect. Abstractions do not cause or need anything; particular people or particular groups of people cause or need things. Avoid grandiose trans-historical generalizations that you can’t support. When in doubt about the appropriate level of precision or detail, err on the side of adding “too much” precision and detail.

Watch the chronology.

Anchor your thesis in a clear chronological framework and don't jump around confusingly. Take care to avoid both anachronisms and vagueness about dates. If you write, “Napoleon abandoned his Grand Army in Russia and caught the redeye back to Paris,” the problem is obvious. If you write, “Despite the Watergate scandal, Nixon easily won reelection in 1972,” the problem is more subtle, but still serious. (The scandal did not become public until after the election.) If you write, “The revolution in China finally succeeded in the twentieth century,” your professor may suspect that you haven’t studied. Which revolution? When in the twentieth century? Remember that chronology is the backbone of history. What would you think of a biographer who wrote that you graduated from Hamilton in the 1950s?

Cite sources carefully.

Your professor may allow parenthetical citations in a short paper with one or two sources, but you should use footnotes for any research paper in history. Parenthetical citations are unaesthetic; they scar the text and break the flow of reading. Worse still, they are simply inadequate to capture the richness of historical sources. Historians take justifiable pride in the immense variety of their sources. Parenthetical citations such as (Jones 1994) may be fine for most of the social sciences and humanities, where the source base is usually limited to recent books and articles in English. Historians, however, need the flexibility of the full footnote. Try to imagine this typical footnote (pulled at random from a classic work of German history) squeezed into parentheses in the body of the text: DZA Potsdam, RdI, Frieden 5, Erzgebiet von Longwy-Briey, Bd. I, Nr. 19305, gedruckte Denkschrift für OHL und Reichsleitung, Dezember 1917, und in RWA, Frieden Frankreich Nr. 1883. The abbreviations are already in this footnote; its information cannot be further reduced. For footnotes and bibliography, historians usually use Chicago style. (The Chicago Manual of Style. 15th edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.) On the Writing Center’s website you can find a useful summary of Chicago citation style prepared by a former history major, Elizabeth Rabe ’04 ( Footnotes ). RefWorks (on the library’s website) will convert your citations to Chicago style. Don’t hesitate to ask one of the reference librarians for help if you have trouble getting started on RefWorks.

Use primary sources.

Use as many primary sources as possible in your paper. A primary source is one produced by a participant in or witness of the events you are writing about. A primary source allows the historian to see the past through the eyes of direct participants. Some common primary sources are letters, diaries, memoirs, speeches, church records, newspaper articles, and government documents of all kinds. The capacious genre “government records” is probably the single richest trove for the historian and includes everything from criminal court records, to tax lists, to census data, to parliamentary debates, to international treaties—indeed, any records generated by governments. If you’re writing about culture, primary sources may include works of art or literature, as well as philosophical tracts or scientific treatises—anything that comes under the broad rubric of culture. Not all primary sources are written. Buildings, monuments, clothes, home furnishings, photographs, religious relics, musical recordings, or oral reminiscences can all be primary sources if you use them as historical clues. The interests of historians are so broad that virtually anything can be a primary source. (See also: Analyzing a Historical Document )

Use scholarly secondary sources.

A secondary source is one written by a later historian who had no part in what he or she is writing about. (In the rare cases when the historian was a participant in the events, then the work—or at least part of it—is a primary source.) Historians read secondary sources to learn about how scholars have interpreted the past. Just as you must be critical of primary sources, so too you must be critical of secondary sources. You must be especially careful to distinguish between scholarly and non-scholarly secondary sources. Unlike, say, nuclear physics, history attracts many amateurs. Books and articles about war, great individuals, and everyday material life dominate popular history. Some professional historians disparage popular history and may even discourage their colleagues from trying their hand at it. You need not share their snobbishness; some popular history is excellent. But—and this is a big but—as a rule, you should avoid popular works in your research, because they are usually not scholarly. Popular history seeks to inform and entertain a large general audience. In popular history, dramatic storytelling often prevails over analysis, style over substance, simplicity over complexity, and grand generalization over careful qualification. Popular history is usually based largely or exclusively on secondary sources. Strictly speaking, most popular histories might better be called tertiary, not secondary, sources. Scholarly history, in contrast, seeks to discover new knowledge or to reinterpret existing knowledge. Good scholars wish to write clearly and simply, and they may spin a compelling yarn, but they do not shun depth, analysis, complexity, or qualification. Scholarly history draws on as many primary sources as practical. Now, your goal as a student is to come as close as possible to the scholarly ideal, so you need to develop a nose for distinguishing the scholarly from the non-scholarly. Here are a few questions you might ask of your secondary sources (bear in mind that the popular/scholarly distinction is not absolute, and that some scholarly work may be poor scholarship). Who is the author? Most scholarly works are written by professional historians (usually professors) who have advanced training in the area they are writing about. If the author is a journalist or someone with no special historical training, be careful. Who publishes the work? Scholarly books come from university presses and from a handful of commercial presses (for example, Norton, Routledge, Palgrave, Penguin, Rowman & Littlefield, Knopf, and HarperCollins). If it’s an article, where does it appear? Is it in a journal subscribed to by our library, listed on JSTOR , or published by a university press? Is the editorial board staffed by professors? Oddly enough, the word journal in the title is usually a sign that the periodical is scholarly. What do the notes and bibliography look like? If they are thin or nonexistent, be careful. If they are all secondary sources, be careful. If the work is about a non-English-speaking area, and all the sources are in English, then it's almost by definition not scholarly. Can you find reviews of the book in the data base Academic Search Premier? If the book was published within the last few decades, and it’s not in there, that’s a bad sign. With a little practice, you can develop confidence in your judgment—and you’re on your way to being a historian. If you are unsure whether a work qualifies as scholarly, ask your professor. (See also: Writing a Book Review )

Avoid abusing your sources.

Many potentially valuable sources are easy to abuse. Be especially alert for these five abuses: Web abuse. The Web is a wonderful and improving resource for indexes and catalogs. But as a source for primary and secondary material for the historian, the Web is of limited value. Anyone with the right software can post something on the Web without having to get past trained editors, peer reviewers, or librarians. As a result, there is a great deal of garbage on the Web. If you use a primary source from the Web, make sure that a respected intellectual institution stands behind the site. Be especially wary of secondary articles on the Web, unless they appear in electronic versions of established print journals (e.g., The Journal of Asian Studies in JSTOR). Many articles on the Web are little more than third-rate encyclopedia entries. When in doubt, check with your professor. With a few rare exceptions, you will not find scholarly monographs in history (even recent ones) on the Web. You may have heard of Google’s plans to digitize the entire collections of some of the world’s major libraries and to make those collections available on the Web. Don’t hold your breath. Your days at Hamilton will be long over by the time the project is finished. Besides, your training as a historian should give you a healthy skepticism of the giddy claims of technophiles. Most of the time and effort of doing history goes into reading, note-taking, pondering, and writing. Finding a chapter of a book on the Web (as opposed to getting the physical book through interlibrary loan) might be a convenience, but it doesn’t change the basics for the historian. Moreover, there is a subtle, but serious, drawback with digitized old books: They break the historian’s sensual link to the past. And of course, virtually none of the literally trillions of pages of archival material is available on the Web. For the foreseeable future, the library and the archive will remain the natural habitats of the historian. Thesaurus abuse. How tempting it is to ask your computer’s thesaurus to suggest a more erudite-sounding word for the common one that popped into your mind! Resist the temptation. Consider this example (admittedly, a bit heavy-handed, but it drives the point home): You’re writing about the EPA’s programs to clean up impure water supplies. Impure seems too simple and boring a word, so you bring up your thesaurus, which offers you everything from incontinent to meretricious. “How about meretricious water?” you think to yourself. “That will impress the professor.” The problem is that you don’t know exactly what meretricious means, so you don’t realize that meretricious is absurdly inappropriate in this context and makes you look foolish and immature. Use only those words that come to you naturally. Don’t try to write beyond your vocabulary. Don’t try to impress with big words. Use a thesaurus only for those annoying tip-of-the-tongue problems (you know the word and will recognize it instantly when you see it, but at the moment you just can’t think of it).  Quotation book abuse. This is similar to thesaurus abuse. Let’s say you are writing a paper on Alexander Hamilton’s banking policies, and you want to get off to a snappy start that will make you seem effortlessly learned. How about a quotation on money? You click on the index of Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations , and before you know it, you’ve begun your paper with, “As Samuel Butler wrote in Hudibras ,  ‘For what is worth in anything/ But so much money as ’t will bring?’” Face it, you’re faking it. You don’t know who Samuel Butler is, and you’ve certainly never heard of Hudibras , let alone read it. Your professor is not fooled. You sound like an insecure after-dinner speaker. Forget Bartlett’s, unless you're confirming the wording of a quotation that came to you spontaneously and relates to your paper.  Encyclopedia abuse. General encyclopedias like Britannica are useful for checking facts (“Wait a sec, am I right about which countries sent troops to crush the Boxer Rebellion in China? Better check.”). But if you are footnoting encyclopedias in your papers, you are not doing college-level research.

Dictionary Abuse. The dictionary is your friend. Keep it by your side as you write, but do not abuse it by starting papers with a definition. You may be most tempted to start this way when you are writing on a complex, controversial, or elusive subject. (“According to Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary , liberalism is defined as...”). Actually, the dictionary does you little good in such cases and makes you sound like a conscientious but dull high-school student. Save in the rare case that competing dictionary definitions are the subject at hand, keep dictionary quotations out of your paper.

Quote sparingly

Avoid quoting a secondary source and then simply rewording or summarizing the quotation, either above or below the quotation. It is rarely necessary to quote secondary sources at length, unless your essay focuses on a critical analysis of the author’s argument. (See also: Writing a Book Review ) Your professor wants to see your ability to analyze and to understand the secondary sources. Do not quote unless the quotation clarifies or enriches your analysis. When in doubt, do not quote; instead, integrate the author’s argument into your own (though be sure to acknowledge ideas from your sources, even when you are paraphrasing). If you use a lot of quotations from secondary sources, you are probably writing a poor paper. An analysis of a primary source, such as a political tract or philosophical essay, might require lengthy quotations, often in block format. In such cases, you might need to briefly repeat key points or passages as a means to introduce the author’s ideas, but your analysis and interpretation of the text’s meaning should remain the most important aim. (See also: Using primary sources and Use scholarly secondary sources .)

Know your audience

Unless instructed otherwise, you should assume that your audience consists of educated, intelligent, nonspecialists. In fact, your professor will usually be your only reader, but if you write directly to your professor, you may become cryptic or sloppy (oh well, she’ll know what I’m talking about). Explaining your ideas to someone who doesn't know what you mean forces you to be clear and complete. Now, finding the right amount of detail can, admittedly, be tricky (how much do I put in about the Edict of Nantes, the Embargo Act, or President Wilson’s background?). When in doubt, err on the side of putting in extra details. You’ll get some leeway here if you avoid the extremes (my reader’s an ignoramus/my reader knows everything).

Avoid cheap, anachronistic moralizing

Many of the people and institutions of the past appear unenlightened, ignorant, misguided, or bigoted by today’s values. Resist the temptation to condemn or to get self-righteous. (“Martin Luther was blind to the sexism and class prejudice of sixteenth-century German society.”) Like you, people in the past were creatures of their time; like you, they deserve to be judged by the standards of their time. If you judge the past by today’s standards (an error historians call “presentism”), you will never understand why people thought or acted as they did. Yes, Hitler was a bad guy, but he was bad not only by today’s standards, but also by the commonly accepted standards of his own time. Someday you’re going to look pretty foolish and ignorant yourself. (“Early twenty-first century Hamilton students failed to see the shocking inderdosherism [that’s right, you don’t recognize the concept because it doesn’t yet exist] implicit in their career plans.”)

Have a strong conclusion

Obviously, you should not just stop abruptly as though you have run out of time or ideas. Your conclusion should conclude something. If you merely restate briefly what you have said in your paper, you give the impression that you are unsure of the significance of what you have written. A weak conclusion leaves the reader unsatisfied and bewildered, wondering why your paper was worth reading. A strong conclusion adds something to what you said in your introduction. A strong conclusion explains the importance and significance of what you have written. A strong conclusion leaves your reader caring about what you have said and pondering the larger implications of your thesis. Don’t leave your reader asking, “So what?”

Revise and proofread

Your professor can spot a “one-draft wonder,” so don't try to do your paper at the last moment. Leave plenty of time for revising and proofreading. Show your draft to a writing tutor or other good writer. Reading the draft aloud may also help. Of course, everyone makes mistakes, and a few may slip through no matter how meticulous you are. But beware of lots of mistakes. The failure to proofread carefully suggests that you devoted little time and effort to the assignment. Tip: Proofread your text both on the screen and on a printed copy. Your eyes see the two differently. Don’t rely on your spell checker to catch all of your misspellings. (If ewe ken reed this ewe kin sea that a computer wood nut all ways help ewe spill or rite reel good.)

Note: The Writing Center suggests standard abbreviations for noting some of these problems. You should familiarize yourself with those abbreviations, but your professor may not use them.  

Remarks on Style and Clarity

Wordy/verbose/repetitive..

Try your hand at fixing this sentence: “Due to the fact that these aspects of the issue of personal survival have been raised by recently transpired problematic conflicts, it is at the present time paramount that the ultimate psychological end of suicide be contemplated by this individual.” If you get it down to “To be or not to be, that is the question,” you’ve done well. You may not match Shakespeare, but you can learn to cut the fat out of your prose. The chances are that the five pages you’ve written for your history paper do not really contain five pages’ worth of ideas.

Misuse of the passive voice.

Write in the active voice. The passive voice encourages vagueness and dullness; it enfeebles verbs; and it conceals agency, which is the very stuff of history. You know all of this almost instinctively. What would you think of a lover who sighed in your ear, “My darling, you are loved by me!”? At its worst, the passive voice—like its kin, bureaucratic language and jargon—is a medium for the dishonesty and evasion of responsibility that pervade contemporary American culture. (“Mistakes were made; I was given false information.” Now notice the difference: “I screwed up; Smith and Jones lied to me; I neglected to check the facts.”) On history papers the passive voice usually signals a less toxic version of the same unwillingness to take charge, to commit yourself, and to say forthrightly what is really going on, and who is doing what to whom. Suppose you write, “In 1935 Ethiopia was invaded.” This sentence is a disaster. Who invaded? Your professor will assume that you don't know. Adding “by Italy” to the end of the sentence helps a bit, but the sentence is still flat and misleading. Italy was an aggressive actor, and your passive construction conceals that salient fact by putting the actor in the syntactically weakest position—at the end of the sentence as the object of a preposition. Notice how you add vigor and clarity to the sentence when you recast it in the active voice: "In 1935 Italy invaded Ethiopia." I n a few cases , you may violate the no-passive-voice rule. The passive voice may be preferable if the agent is either obvious (“Kennedy was elected in 1960”), irrelevant (“Theodore Roosevelt became president when McKinley was assassinated”), or unknown (“King Harold was killed at the Battle of Hastings”). Note that in all three of these sample sentences the passive voice focuses the reader on the receiver of the action rather than on the doer (on Kennedy, not on American voters; on McKinley, not on his assassin; on King Harold, not on the unknown Norman archer). Historians usually wish to focus on the doer, so you should stay with the active voice—unless you can make a compelling case for an exception.

Abuse of the verb to be.

The verb to be is the most common and most important verb in English, but too many verbs to be suck the life out of your prose and lead to wordiness. Enliven your prose with as many action verbs as possible. ( “In Brown v. Board of Education it was the opinion of the Supreme Court that the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ was in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment.”) Rewrite as “ In Brown v. Board of Education the Supreme Court ruled that the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ violated the Fourteenth ”

Explain/what’s your point?/unclear/huh?

You may (or may not) know what you’re talking about, but if you see these marginal comments, you have confused your reader. You may have introduced a non sequitur ; gotten off the subject; drifted into abstraction; assumed something that you have not told the reader; failed to explain how the material relates to your argument; garbled your syntax; or simply failed to proofread carefully.  If possible, have a good writer read your paper and point out the muddled parts. Reading your paper aloud may help too.

Paragraph goes nowhere/has no point or unity.

Paragraphs are the building blocks of your paper. If your paragraphs are weak, your paper cannot be strong. Try underlining the topic sentence of every paragraph. If your topic sentences are vague, strength and precision—the hallmarks of good writing—are unlikely to follow. Consider this topic sentence (from a paper on Ivan the Terrible): “From 1538 to 1547, there are many different arguments about the nature of what happened.”  Disaster looms. The reader has no way of knowing when the arguing takes place, who’s arguing, or even what the arguing is about. And how does the “nature of what happened” differ from plain “what happened”? Perhaps the writer means the following: “The childhood of Ivan the Terrible has provoked controversy among scholars of Russian history.” That's hardly deathless prose, but it does orient the reader and make the writer accountable for what follows in the paragraph. Once you have a good topic sentence, make sure that everything in the paragraph supports that sentence, and that cumulatively the support is persuasive. Make sure that each sentence follows logically from the previous one, adding detail in a coherent order. Move, delete, or add material as appropriate. To avoid confusing the reader, limit each paragraph to one central idea. (If you have a series of supporting points starting with first, you must follow with a second, third , etc.) A paragraph that runs more than a printed page is probably too long. Err on the side of shorter paragraphs.

Inappropriate use of first person.

Most historians write in the third person, which focuses the reader on the subject. If you write in the first person singular, you shift the focus to yourself. You give the impression that you want to break in and say, “Enough about the Haitian revolution [or whatever], now let’s talk about me!” Also avoid the first person plural (“We believe...”). It suggests committees, editorial boards, or royalty. None of those should have had a hand in writing your paper. And don’t refer to yourself lamely as “this writer.” Who else could possibly be writing the paper?

Tense inconsistency.

Stay consistently in the past tense when you are writing about what took place in the past. (“Truman’s defeat of Dewey in 1948 caught the pollsters by surprise.”) Note that the context may require a shift into the past perfect. (“The pollsters had not realized [past perfect] that voter opinion had been [past perfect] changing rapidly in the days before the election.”) Unfortunately, the tense problem can get a bit more complicated. Most historians shift into the present tense when describing or commenting on a book, document, or evidence that still exists and is in front of them (or in their mind) as they write.  (“de Beauvoir published [past tense] The Second Sex in 1949. In the book she contends [present tense] that woman....”) If you’re confused, think of it this way: History is about the past, so historians write in the past tense, unless they are discussing effects of the past that still exist and thus are in the present. When in doubt, use the past tense and stay consistent.

Ill-fitted quotation.

This is a common problem, though not noted in stylebooks. When you quote someone, make sure that the quotation fits grammatically into your sentence.  Note carefully the mismatch between the start of the following sentence and the quotation that follows:  “In order to understand the Vikings, writes Marc Bloch, it is necessary, ‘To conceive of the Viking expeditions as religious warfare inspired by the ardour of an implacable pagan fanaticism—an explanation that has sometimes been at least suggested—conflicts too much with what we know of minds disposed to respect magic of every kind.’” At first, the transition into the quotation from Bloch seems fine. The infinitive (to conceive) fits. But then the reader comes to the verb (conflicts) in Bloch’s sentence, and things no longer make sense. The writer is saying, in effect, “it is necessary conflicts.” The wordy lead-in and the complex syntax of the quotation have tripped the writer and confused the reader. If you wish to use the whole sentence, rewrite as “Marc Bloch writes in Feudal Society , ‘To conceive of...’” Better yet, use your own words or only part of the quotation in your sentence. Remember that good writers quote infrequently, but when they do need to quote, they use carefully phrased lead-ins that fit the grammatical construction of the quotation.

Free-floating quotation.

Do not suddenly drop quotations into your prose. (“The spirit of the Progressive era is best understood if one remembers that the United States is ‘the only country in the world that began with perfection and aspired to progress.’”) You have probably chosen the quotation because it is finely wrought and says exactly what you want to say. Fine, but first you inconvenience the reader, who must go to the footnote to learn that the quotation comes from The Age of Reform by historian Richard Hofstadter. And then you puzzle the reader. Did Hofstadter write the line about perfection and progress, or is he quoting someone from the Progressive era? If, as you claim, you are going to help the reader to judge the “spirit of the Progressive era,” you need to clarify. Rewrite as “As historian Richard Hofstadter writes in the Age of Reform , the United States is ‘the only country in the world...’” Now the reader knows immediately that the line is Hofstadter’s.

Who’s speaking here?/your view?

Always be clear about whether you’re giving your opinion or that of the author or historical actor you are discussing. Let’s say that your essay is about Martin Luther’s social views. You write, “The German peasants who revolted in 1525 were brutes and deserved to be crushed mercilessly.” That’s what Luther thought, but do you agree?  You may know, but your reader is not a mind reader. When in doubt, err on the side of being overly clear.

Jargon/pretentious theory.

Historians value plain English. Academic jargon and pretentious theory will make your prose turgid, ridiculous, and downright irritating. Your professor will suspect that you are trying to conceal that you have little to say. Of course, historians can’t get along without some theory; even those who profess to have no theory actually do—it’s called naïve realism. And sometimes you need a technical term, be it ontological argument or ecological fallacy. When you use theory or technical terms, make sure that they are intelligible and do real intellectual lifting.  Please, no sentences like this: “By means of a neo-Althusserian, post-feminist hermeneutics, this essay will de/construct the logo/phallo/centrism imbricated in the marginalizing post-colonial gendered gaze, thereby proliferating the subjectivities that will re/present the de/stabilization of the essentializing habitus of post-Fordist capitalism.”

Informal language/slang.

You don’t need to be stuffy, but stay with formal English prose of the kind that will still be comprehensible to future generations. Columbus did not “push the envelope in the Atlantic.” Henry VIII was not “looking for his inner child when he broke with the Church.” Prime Minister Cavour of Piedmont was not “trying to play in the major leagues diplomatic wise.” Wilson did not “almost veg out” at the end of his second term. President Hindenburg did not appoint Hitler in a “senior moment.” Prime Minister Chamberlain did not tell the Czechs to “chill out” after the Munich Conference, and Gandhi was not an “awesome dude.”

Try to keep your prose fresh. Avoid cliches. When you proofread, watch out for sentences like these: “Voltaire always gave 110 percent and thought outside the box. His bottom line was that as people went forward into the future, they would, at the end of the day, step up to the plate and realize that the Jesuits were conniving perverts.” Ugh. Rewrite as “Voltaire tried to persuade people that the Jesuits were cony, step up to the plate and realize that the Jesuits were conniving perverts.” Ugh. Rewrite as “Voltaire tried to persuade people that the Jesuits were conniving perverts.”

Intensifier abuse/exaggeration.

Avoid inflating your prose with unsustainable claims of size, importance, uniqueness, certainty, or intensity. Such claims mark you as an inexperienced writer trying to impress the reader. Your statement is probably not certain ; your subject probably not unique , the biggest, the best, or the most important. Also, the adverb very will rarely strengthen your sentence. Strike it. (“President Truman was very determined to stop the spread of communism in Greece.”) Rewrite as “President Truman resolved to stop the spread of communism in Greece.”

Mixed image.

Once you have chosen an image, you must stay with language compatible with that image. In the following example, note that the chain, the boiling, and the igniting are all incompatible with the image of the cold, rolling, enlarging snowball: “A snowballing chain of events boiled over, igniting the powder keg of war in 1914.” Well chosen images can enliven your prose, but if you catch yourself mixing images a lot, you're probably trying to write beyond your ability. Pull back. Be more literal.

Clumsy transition.

If your reader feels a jolt or gets disoriented at the beginning of a new paragraph, your paper probably lacks unity. In a good paper, each paragraph is woven seamlessly into the next. If you find yourself beginning your paragraphs with phrases such as “Another aspect of this problem...,” then you are probably “stacking note cards” rather than developing a thesis.

Unnecessary relative clause.

If you don’t need to restrict the meaning of your sentence’s subject, then don’t. (“Napoleon was a man who tried to conquer Europe.”) Here the relative clause adds nothing. Rewrite as “Napoleon tried to conquer Europe.” Unnecessary relative clauses are a classic form of wordiness.

Distancing or demeaning quotation marks.

If you believe that a frequently used word or phrase distorts historical reality, don’t put it in dismissive, sneering quotation marks to make your point (“the communist ‘threat’ to the ‘free’ world during the Cold War”). Many readers find this practice arrogant, obnoxious, and precious, and they may dismiss your arguments out of hand. If you believe that the communist threat was bogus or exaggerated, or that the free world was not really free, then simply explain what you mean.

Remarks on Grammar and Syntax

Ideally, your professor will help you to improve your writing by specifying exactly what is wrong with a particular passage, but  sometimes you may find a simple awk in the margin. This all-purpose negative comment usually suggests that the sentence is clumsy because you have misused words or compounded several errors. Consider this sentence from a book review:

“However, many falsehoods lie in Goldhagen’s claims and these will be explored.”

What is your long-suffering professor to do with this sentence? The however contributes nothing; the phrase falsehoods lie is an unintended pun that distracts the reader; the comma is missing between the independent clauses; the these has no clear antecedent ( falsehoods? claims? ); the second clause is in the passive voice and contributes nothing anyway; the whole sentence is wordy and screams hasty, last-minute composition. In weary frustration, your professor scrawls awk in the margin and moves on. Buried under the twelve-word sentence lies a three-word idea: “Goldhagen often errs.” When you see awk, check for the common errors in this list. If you don’t understand what’s wrong, ask.

Unclear antecedent.

All pronouns must refer clearly to antecedents and must agree with them in number. The reader usually assumes that the antecedent is the immediately preceding noun. Do not confuse the reader by having several possible antecedents. Consider these two sentences:

“Pope Gregory VII forced Emperor Henry IV to wait three days in the snow at Canossa before granting him an audience. It was a symbolic act.”

To what does the it refer? Forcing the Emperor to wait? The waiting itself? The granting of the audience? The audience itself? The whole previous sentence? You are most likely to get into antecedent trouble when you begin a paragraph with this or it , referring vaguely back to the general import of the previous paragraph. When in doubt, take this test: Circle the pronoun and the antecedent and connect the two with a line. Then ask yourself if your reader could instantly make the same diagram without your help. If the line is long, or if the circle around the antecedent is large, encompassing huge gobs of text, then your reader probably will be confused.  Rewrite. Repetition is better than ambiguity and confusion.

Faulty parallelism.

You confuse your reader if you change the grammatical construction from one element to the next in a series. Consider this sentence:

“King Frederick the Great sought to expand Prussia, to rationalize agriculture, and that the state support education.”

The reader expects another infinitive, but instead trips over the that . Rewrite the last clause as “and to promote state-supported education.” Sentences using neither/nor frequently present parallelism problems. Note the two parts of this sentence:

“After 1870 the cavalry charge was neither an effective tactic, nor did armies use it frequently.”

The sentence jars because the neither is followed by a noun, the nor by a verb. Keep the parts parallel.

Rewrite as “After 1870 the cavalry charge was neither effective nor frequently used.”

Sentences with not only/but also are another pitfall for many students. (“Mussolini attacked not only liberalism, but he also advocated militarism.”) Here the reader is set up to expect a noun in the second clause, but stumbles over a verb. Make the parts parallel by putting the verb attacked after the not only .

Misplaced modifier/dangling element.

Do not confuse the reader with a phrase or clause that refers illogically or absurdly to other words in the sentence. (“Summarized on the back cover of the American paperback edition, the publishers claim that...”) The publishers are not summarized on the back cover. (“Upon finishing the book, many questions remain.”) Who finished the book? Questions can’t read. Avoid following an introductory participial clause with the expletives it or there . Expletives are by definition filler words; they can’t be agents. (“Having examined the origins of the Meiji Restoration in Japan, it is apparent that...”) Apparent to whom?  The expletive it didn’t do the examining. (“After going on the Long March, there was greater support for the Communists in China.”) Who went on the Long March? There didn’t go on the Long March. Always pay attention to who’s doing what in your sentences.

Run-on sentence.

Run-on sentences string together improperly joined independent clauses. Consider these three sentences:

“Galileo recanted his teaching that the earth moved privately he maintained his convictions.” “Galileo recanted his teaching that the earth moved, privately he maintained his convictions.” “Galileo recanted his teaching that the earth moved, however, privately he maintained his convictions.”

The first fuses two independent clauses with neither a comma nor a coordinating conjunction; the second uses a comma but omits the coordinating conjunction; and the third also omits the coordinating conjunction (however is not a coordinating conjunction). To solve the problem, separate the two clauses with a comma and the coordinating conjunction but. You could also divide the clauses with a semicolon or make separate sentences. Remember that there are only seven coordinating conjunctions ( and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet ).

Sentence fragment.

Write in sentences. A sentence has to have a subject and a predicate. If you string together a lot of words, you may lose control of the syntax and end up with a sentence fragment. Note that the following is not a sentence:

“While in Western Europe railroad building proceeded rapidly in the nineteenth century, and in Russia there was less progress.”

Here you have a long compound introductory clause followed by no subject and no verb, and thus you have a fragment. You may have noticed exceptions to the no-fragments rule. Skilful writers do sometimes intentionally use a fragment to achieve a certain effect. Leave the rule-breaking to the experts.

Confusion of restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses.

Consider these two versions of the same sentence:

1. “World War I, which raged from 1914-1918, killed millions of Europeans.” 2. “World War I that raged from 1914-1918 killed millions of Europeans.”

The first sentence has a nonrestrictive relative clause; the dates are included almost as parenthetical information. But something seems amiss with the second sentence. It has a restrictive relative clause that limits the subject (World War I) to the World War I fought between 1914 and 1918, thus implying that there were other wars called World War I, and that we need to distinguish among them. Both sentences are grammatically correct, but the writer of the second sentence appears foolish.  Note carefully the distinction between that (for use in restrictive clauses, with no comma) and which (for use in nonrestrictive clauses, with a comma).

Confusion about who’s doing what.

Remember—history is about what people do, so you need to be vigilant about agency. Proofread your sentences carefully, asking yourself, “Have I said exactly who is doing or thinking what, or have I inadvertently attributed an action or belief to the wrong person or group?” Unfortunately, there are many ways to go wrong here, but faulty punctuation is among the most common. Here’s a sentence about Frantz Fanon, the great critic of European imperialism. Focus on the punctuation and its effect on agency: “Instead of a hierarchy based on class, Fanon suggests the imperialists establish a hierarchy based on race.” As punctuated, the sentence says something absurd: that Fanon is advising the imperialists about the proper kind of hierarchy to establish in the colonies. Surely, the writer meant to say that, in his analysis of imperialism, Fanon distinguishes between two kinds of hierarchy. A comma after suggests fixes the immediate problem. Now look at the revised sentence. It still needs work. Better diction and syntax would sharpen it.  Fanon does not suggest (with connotations of both hinting and advocating); he states outright. What’s more, the comparison of the two kinds of hierarchy gets blurred by too many intervening words. The key point of the sentence is, in effect, “instead of A, we have B.” Clarity demands that B follow A as closely as possible, and that the two elements be grammatically parallel. But between the elements A and B, the writer inserts Fanon (a proper noun), suggests (a verb), imperialists (a noun), and establish (a verb). Try the sentence this way: “Fanon says that the imperialists establish a hierarchy based on race rather than class.” Now the agency is clear: We know what Fanon does, and we know what the imperialists do. Notice that errors and infelicities have a way of clustering. If you find one problem in a sentence, look for others.

Confusion about the objects of prepositions.

Here’s another one of those common problems that does not receive the attention it merits. Discipline your prepositional phrases; make sure you know where they end. Notice the mess in this sentence: “Hitler accused Jewish people of engaging in incest and stating that Vienna was the ‘personification of incest.’” The reader thinks that both engaging and stating are objects of the preposition of. Yet the writer intends only the first to be the object of the preposition. Hitler is accusing the Jews of engaging , but not of stating ; he is the one doing the stating . Rewrite as “Hitler accused the Jews of incest; he stated that Vienna was the ‘personification of incest.’” Note that the wordiness of the original encouraged the syntactical mess. Simplify. It can’t be said too many times: Always pay attention to who’s doing what in your sentences.

Misuse of the comparative.

There are two common problems here. The first might be called the “floating comparative.” You use the comparative, but you don’t say what you are comparing. (“Lincoln was more upset by the dissolution of the union.”) More upset than by what? More upset than who? The other problem, which is more common and takes many forms, is the unintended (and sometimes comical) comparison of unlike elements. Consider these attempts to compare President Clinton to President George H. W. Bush. Often the trouble starts with a possessive:

“President Clinton’s sexual appetite was more voracious than President Bush.”

You mean to compare appetites, but you've forgotten about your possessive, so you absurdly compare an appetite to a man. Rewrite as “more voracious than President Bush’s.” A variation of this problem is the unintended comparison resulting from the omission of a verb:

“President Clinton liked women more than President Bush.”

Re-write as “more than did President Bush.”

A misplaced modifier may also cause comparison trouble: “Unlike the Bush administration, sexual scandal nearly destroyed the Clinton administration.” Rewrite as  “Unlike the Bush administration, the Clinton administration was nearly destroyed by sexual scandal.” Here the passive voice is better than the misplaced modifier, but you could rewrite as “The Bush administration had been free of sexual scandal, which nearly destroyed the Clinton administration.”

Misuse of apostrophe.

Get control of your apostrophes. Use the apostrophe to form singular or plural possessives (Washington’s soldiers; the colonies’ soldiers) or to form contractions (don’t; it’s). Do not use the apostrophe to form plurals. (“The communists [not communists’] defeated the nationalists [not nationalists’] in China.”)

Comma after although.

This is a new error, probably a carryover from the common conversational habit of pausing dramatically after although . ( “Although , coffee consumption rose in eighteenth-century Europe, tea remained far more popular.”) Delete the comma after although . Remember that although is not a synonym for the word however , so you cannot solve the problem in the sentence by putting a period after Europe . A clause beginning with although cannot stand alone as a sentence.

Comma between subject and verb.

This is a strange new error. (“Hitler and Stalin, agreed to a pact in August 1939.”) Delete the comma after Stalin. Finally, two hints: If your word-processing program underlines something and suggests changes, be careful. When it comes to grammar and syntax, your computer is a moron. Not only does it fail to recognize some gross errors, it also falsely identifies some correct passages as errors. Do not cede control of your writing decisions to your computer. Make the suggested changes only if you are positive that they are correct. If you are having trouble with your writing, try simplifying. Write short sentences and read them aloud to test for clarity. Start with the subject and follow it quickly with an active verb. Limit the number of relative clauses, participial phrases, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases. You will win no prizes for eloquence, but at least you will be clear. Add complexity only when you have learned to handle it.

An historical/an historian.

The consonant “H” is not silent in historical and historian , so the proper form of the indefinite article is “A.”

Avoid the common solecism of using feel as a synonym for think, believe, say, state, assert, contend, argue, conclude, or write. (“Marx felt that the bourgeoisie exploited the proletariat.” “Emmeline Pankhurst felt that British women should be able to vote.”) The use of feel in these sentences demeans the agents by suggesting undisciplined sentiment rather than carefully formulated conviction. Concentrate on what your historical actors said and did; leave their feelings to speculative chapters of their biographies. As for your own feelings, keep them out of your papers. (“I feel that Lincoln should have freed the slaves earlier.”) Your professor will be delighted that the material engages both your head and your heart, but your feelings cannot be graded. If you believe that Lincoln should have acted earlier, then explain, giving cogent historical reasons.

The fact that.

This is a clumsy, unnecessary construction. ( “The fact that Nixon resigned in disgrace damaged the Republican Party.”) Re-word as “Nixon resigned in disgrace, damaging the Republican Party.” Never use the hideous phrase due to the fact that.

In terms of.

This phrase is filler. Get rid of it. (“Bismarck was a success in terms of uniting Germany.) Rewrite as “Bismarck successfully united Germany.”

Attend carefully to the placement of this limiting word. Note, for example, these three sentences:

“The government only interred Japanese Americans during World War II.” “The government interred only Japanese Americans during World War II.” “The government interred Japanese Americans only during World War II.”

The first limits the action to interring (as opposed to, say, killing); the second limits the group interred (i.e., not Italian Americans); the third limits the time of interring (i.e., not during other wars).

Thus and therefore.

More than likely, you have not earned these words and are implying that you have said more than you actually have. Use them sparingly, only when you are concluding a substantial argument with a significant conclusion.

Misuse of instead.

Instead is an adverb, not a conjunction. Consider this sentence: “Charles Beard argued that the framers of the constitution were not idealists, instead they promoted their economic interests.” Revise as “The framers of the constitution, Charles Beard argued, did not uphold ideals; instead , they promoted their economic interests.” Now the instead appears properly as an adverb. (Note also that the two clauses are now parallel—both contain transitive verbs.)

Essentially and basically.

These are usually either filler words (the written equivalent of “uh” or “um”) or weasel words that merely call attention to your vagueness, lack of conviction, or lazy unwillingness to qualify precisely. (“ Essentially , Churchill believed that Nazi Germany presented a grave danger to Britain.”) Delete essentially and basically unless you are writing about essences or bases.

Both share or both agree.

These are redundant. If two people share or agree , they are both involved by definition. (“Stalin and Mao both agreed that capitalism belonged in the dustbin of history.”) Delete both .

This word means one of a kind. It is an absolute. Something cannot be very unique, more unique, or somewhat unique.

Incredible.

In casual conversation incredible often means extraordinary, astonishing, or impressive (“Yesterday’s storm was incredible.”). To avoid confusion in historical prose, you should stick with the original meaning of incredible : not believable. If you write that “William Jennings Bryan gave incredible speeches,” you’re saying that you don’t believe his speeches, or that his audiences didn’t believe them at the time—in other words, that he appeared to be lying or mistaken. You probably mean that he gave great speeches. If you write that “It’s incredible that Japan attacked Pearl Harbor,” you’re calling into question the very existence of a historical event. You probably mean that the Japanese attack was unwise or reckless. English is rich with adjectives. Finding the best one forces you to think about what you really mean.

As a synonym for subject matter, bone of contention, reservation, or almost anything else vaguely associated with what you are discussing, the word issue has lost its meaning through overuse. (“There were many issues involved with Truman’s decision to use the atomic bomb, and some historians have issues with his decision.”) Stop talking about issues and get to the point.

Beware of the word literally . It’s commonly misused, and you almost never need it in historical prose. Literally means actually, factually, exactly, directly, without metaphor. The careful writer would never say, “Roosevelt literally swamped Landon in the election of 1936.” One imagines Roosevelt (in his wheelchair no less!) dumping the hapless Landon off a pier in the Everglades on election night. The swamping was figurative, strictly a figure of speech. The adverb literally may also cause you trouble by falsely generalizing the coverage of your verb. “London was literally destroyed by the blitz.” This suggests that the whole city was destroyed, when, in fact, only parts were destroyed. Rewrite as “The blitz destroyed parts of London.” Now you’ve qualified properly (and gotten rid of the passive).

When you’re tempted to use this word, resist. Like issue , involve tells the reader too little. (“Erasmus was involved in the Renaissance.”) This statement could mean virtually anything. Delete it and discuss specifically what Erasmus said or did.

This is a fine old word with many precise meanings, but as an overused synonym for feature, side, or part, it is usually a sign of insipid prose (“Another aspect of the issues in this area is the fact that...”). Just get directly to the point.

Most good writers frown on the use of this word as a verb.(“Eisenhower’s military background impacted his foreign policy.”) Affected, influenced, or shaped would be better here. Impacted suggests painfully blocked wisdom teeth or feces. Had an impact is better than impacted , but is still awkward because impact implies a collision.

Here is another beloved but vapid word. (“Many factors led to the Reformation.”) Such a sentence usually opens a vague, boring, weaseling paragraph. If you believe (quite reasonably) that the Reformation had many causes, then start evaluating them.

Meaningful.

Overuse has drained the meaning from meaningful . (“Peter the Great took meaningful steps to westernize Russia.”) Just get to the point.

Interesting.

The adjective interesting is vague, overused, and does not earn its keep. (“Burckhardt had an interesting perspective on the Renaissance.”) This sentence is filler. Delete it and explain and analyze his perspective.

The events that transpired.

Your professor will gag on this one. Events take place or happen by definition, so the relative clause is redundant. Furthermore, most good writers do not accept transpire as a synonym for happen. Again, follow the old rule of thumb: Get right to the point, say what happened, and explain its significance. You don’t need any filler about events and transpiring .

The reason is because.

This phrase is awkward and redundant. Replace it with the reason is, or better still, simply delete it and get right to your reason.

For all intensive purposes.

The phrase is for all intents and purposes , and few good writers use it in formal prose anyway.

Take for granite.

This is an illiteracy. The phrase is “ take for granted .”

Should of/could of.

You mean should have or could have .

Center around.

Good writers frown on this phrase because it’s illogical and jarring. Use center on or center in. Attention to a small detail like this indicates that you’re thinking carefully about what you’re saying, so when the big problems confront you, you’ll be disciplined and ready.

Begs the question.

Recently, many people have started to use this phrase to mean raises, invites, or brings up the question. (“Stalin’s purges beg the question of whether he was paranoid.”) Actually, begging the question is the common logical fallacy of assuming your conclusion as part of your argument. (“In the late nineteenth century, many Americans moved to the cities because of urbanization.”) Note that the use of abstractions (e.g., urbanization) encourages begging the question . Understanding this fallacy is central to your education. The formal Latin term, petitio principii, is too fancy to catch on, so you need to preserve the simple English phrase. If something raises a question, just say so.

Historic/historical confusion.

Everything in the past or relating to the past is historical. Resist the media-driven hype that elevates the ordinary to the historic . (“A three-alarm fire last night destroyed the historic site of the first Portuguese-owned dry cleaners in Cleveland.”) Reserve the word historic for the genuinely important events, persons, or objects of the past. The Norman invasion of England in 1066 was indeed historic . Historically , historians have gathered annually for a historical convention; so far, none of the conventions has been historic .

Affect/effect confusion.

The chances are that the verb you want is affect , which means to have an influence on (“The Iranian hostage crisis affected [not effected] the presidential election of 1980”). Effect as a verb means to bring about or cause to exist ( effect change). Effect as a noun means result or consequence (“The effect of the Iranian hostage crisis on the election...”).

While/whereas confusion.

If you’re stressing contrast, the word you want is whereas . While stresses simultaneity. “Hobbes had a dismal view of human nature, whereas [not while] Rousseau believed that man had a natural sense of pity.”

It’s/its confusion.

This is the classic bonehead error. Note that the spell checker won’t help you. And remember— its’ is not a word at all.

Reign/rein confusion.

A queen reigns during her reign. You rein in a horse with reins.

Their/there/they’re confusion.

You do know the difference. Pay attention.

Everyday/every day confusion.

As an adjective, everyday (one word) means routine. If you wish to say that something happened on every successive day, then you need two words, the adjective every and the noun day . Note the difference in these two sentences: “Kant was famous for going on the same constitutional at the same time every day . For Kant, exercise and thinking were everyday activities.”

Refer/allude confusion.

To allude means to refer to indirectly or to hint at. The word you probably want in historical prose is refer , which means to mention or call direct attention to. “In the first sentence of the ‘Gettysburg Address’ Lincoln refers [not alludes ] to the fathers of the nation [he mentions them directly]; he alludes to the ‘Declaration of Independence’ [the document of four score and seven years earlier that comes to the reader’s mind, but that Lincoln doesn’t directly mention].”

Novel/book confusion.

Novel is not a synonym for book. A novel is a long work of fiction in prose. A historical monograph is not a novel —unless the historian is making everything up.

Than/then confusion.

This is an appalling new error. If you are making a comparison, you use the conjunction than . (“President Kennedy’s health was worse than [not then ] the public realized.”)

Lead/led confusion.

The past tense of the verb to lead is led (not lead ). “Sherman led [not lead ] a march to the sea.”

Lose/loose confusion.

The opposite of win is lose , not loose . “Supporters of the Equal Rights Amendment suspected that they would lose [not loose ] the battle to amend the constitution.”

However/but confusion.

However may not substitute for the coordinating conjunction but. (“Mussolini began his career as a socialist, but [not however ] he later abandoned socialism for fascism.”) The word however has many proper uses; however , [note the semicolon and comma] graceful writers use it sparingly.

Cite/site/sight confusion.

You cited a source for your paper; ancient Britons sited Stonehenge on a plain; Columbus’s lookout sighted land.

Conscience/conscious confusion.

When you wake up in the morning you are conscious , though your conscience may bother you if you’ve neglected to write your history paper.

Tenet/tenant confusion.

Your religion, ideology, or worldview all have tenets —propositions you hold or believe in. Tenants rent from landlords.

All are not/not all are confusion.

If you write, “ All the colonists did not want to break with Britain in 1776,” the chances are you really mean, “ Not all the colonists wanted to break with Britain in 1776.” The first sentence is a clumsy way of saying that no colonists wanted to break with Britain (and is clearly false). The second sentence says that some colonists did not want to break with Britain (and is clearly true, though you should go on to be more precise).

Nineteenth-century/nineteenth century confusion.

Historians talk a lot about centuries, so you need to know when to hyphenate them. Follow the standard rule: If you combine two words to form a compound adjective, use a hyphen, unless the first word ends in ly. (“ Nineteenth-century [hyphenated] steamships cut the travel time across the Atlantic.”) Leave out the hyphen if you’re just using the ordinal number to modify the noun century. (“In the nineteenth century [no hyphen] steamships cut the travel time across the Atlantic.”) By the way, while you have centuries in mind, don’t forget that the nineteenth century is the 1800s, not the 1900s. The same rule for hyphenating applies to middle-class and middle class —a group that historians like to talk about.

Bourgeois/bourgeoisie confusion.

Bourgeois is usually an adjective, meaning characteristic of the middle class and its values or habits. Occasionally, bourgeois is a noun, meaning a single member of the middle class. Bourgeoisie is a noun, meaning the middle class collectively. (“Marx believed that the bourgeoisie oppressed the proletariat; he argued that bourgeois values like freedom and individualism were hypocritical.”)

Your professor may ask you to analyze a primary document. Here are some questions you might ask of your document. You will note a common theme—read critically with sensitivity to the context. This list is not a suggested outline for a paper; the wording of the assignment and the nature of the document itself should determine your organization and which of the questions are most relevant. Of course, you can ask these same questions of any document you encounter in your research.

• What exactly is the document (e.g., diary, king’s decree, opera score, bureaucratic memorandum, parliamentary minutes, newspaper article, peace treaty)?
• Are you dealing with the original or with a copy? If it is a copy, how remote is it from the original (e.g., photocopy of the original, reformatted version in a book, translation)? How might deviations from the original affect your interpretation?
• What is the date of the document?
• Is there any reason to believe that the document is not genuine or not exactly what it appears to be?
• Who is the author, and what stake does the author have in the matters discussed? If the document is unsigned, what can you infer about the author or authors?
• What sort of biases or blind spots might the author have? For example, is an educated bureaucrat writing with third-hand knowledge of rural hunger riots?
• Where, why, and under what circumstances did the author write the document?
• How might the circumstances (e.g., fear of censorship, the desire to curry favor or evade blame) have influenced the content, style, or tone of the document?
• Has the document been published? If so, did the author intend it to be published?
• If the document was not published, how has it been preserved? In a public archive? In a private collection? Can you learn anything from the way it has been preserved? For example, has it been treated as important or as a minor scrap of paper?
• Does the document have a boilerplate format or style, suggesting that it is a routine sample of a standardized genre, or does it appear out of the ordinary, even unique?
• Who is the intended audience for the document?
• What exactly does the document say? Does it imply something different?
• If the document represents more than one viewpoint, have you carefully distinguished between the author’s viewpoint and those viewpoints the author presents only to criticize or refute?
• In what ways are you, the historian, reading the document differently than its intended audience would have read it (assuming that future historians were not the intended audience)?
• What does the document leave out that you might have expected it to discuss?
• What does the document assume that the reader already knows about the subject (e.g., personal conflicts among the Bolsheviks in 1910, the details of tax farming in eighteenth-century Normandy, secret negotiations to end the Vietnam war)?
• What additional information might help you better interpret the document?
• Do you know (or are you able to infer) the effects or influences, if any, of the document?
• What does the document tell you about the period you are studying?
• If your document is part of an edited collection, why do you suppose the editor chose it? How might the editing have changed the way you perceive the document? For example, have parts been omitted? Has it been translated? (If so, when, by whom, and in what style?) Has the editor placed the document in a suggestive context among other documents, or in some other way led you to a particular interpretation?

Your professor may ask you to write a book review, probably of a scholarly historical monograph. Here are some questions you might ask of the book. Remember that a good review is critical, but critical does not necessarily mean negative. This list is not meant to be exhaustive, nor is it a suggested outline. Of course, you can ask these same questions of any secondary historical work, even if you’re not writing a review.

• Who is the author, and what are his or her qualifications? Has the author written other books on the subject?
• When was the book written, and how does it fit into the scholarly debate on the subject? For example, is Smith writing to refute that idiot Jones; to qualify the work of the competent but unimaginative Johnson; or to add humbly to the evidence presented by the redoubtable Brown’s classic study? Be sure not to confuse the author’s argument with those arguments he or she presents only to criticize later.
• What is the book’s basic argument? (Getting this right is the foundation of your review.)
• What is the author’s method? For example, does the author rely strictly on narrative and anecdotes, or is the book analytical in some way?
• What kinds of evidence does the author use? For example, what is the balance of primary and secondary sources? Has the author done archival work? Is the source base substantial, or does it look thin? Is the author up-to-date in the scholarly literature?
• How skillfully and imaginatively has the author used the evidence?
• Does the author actually use all of the material in the bibliography, or is some of it there for display?
• What sorts of explicit or implicit ideological or methodological assumptions does the author bring to the study? For example, does he or she profess bland objectivity? A Whig view of history? Marxism?
• How persuasive is the author’s argument?
• Is the argument new, or is it old wine in new bottles?
• Is the argument important, with wide-ranging implications, or is it narrow and trivial?
• Is the book well organized and skillfully written?
• What is your overall critical assessment of the book?
• What is the general significance, if any, of the book? (Make sure that you are judging the book that the author actually wrote, not complaining that the author should have written a different book.)

Here are some tips for those long, intimidating term papers or senior theses:

• Start early. If you don’t, none of these tips will matter. Big trouble is looming if you don’t have a specific topic by the end of the first week. You should be delving into the sources during the second week.
• Keep in mind all of the dos and don’ts in this booklet.
• Work closely with your professor to assure that your topic is neither too broad nor too narrow.
• Set up a schedule with your professor and check his or her policy about reading rough drafts or parts of rough drafts. Then keep your professor informed about what you’re doing. You don’t want any unpleasant surprises. You certainly don’t want to hear, “I haven’t seen you for weeks, and it sounds like you’re way off base. How can you possibly get this done with only two weeks left in the semester?”
• Make an appointment with Kristin Strohmeyer, the history reference librarian in Burke Library. She will help you to find and use the appropriate catalogs and indexes.
• Use your imagination in compiling a bibliography. Think of all of the possible key words and subjects that may lead you to material. If you find something really good, check the subjects under which it is cataloged. Comb the notes and bibliographies of books and articles you’ve already found.
• Much of what you need will not be in our library, so get to know the friendly folks in the Interlibrary Loan department.
• Start early. This can’t be said too often.
• Use as many primary sources as you can.
• Jot down your ideas as they come to you. You may not remember them later.
• Take careful notes on your reading. Label your notes completely and precisely. Distinguish meticulously and systematically between what you are directly quoting and what you are summarizing in your own words. Unintended plagiarism is still plagiarism. Stay clean as a hound’s tooth. Write down not just the page of the quotation or idea, but also the whole run of pages where the matter is discussed. Reread all of your notes periodically to make sure that you still understand them and are compiling what you will need to write your paper. Err on the side of writing down more than you think you will need. Copious, precise notes won’t come back to haunt you; skimpy, vague notes will. Just accept that there is something anal about good note-taking.
• If you take notes directly into your computer, they will be easy to index and pull up, but there are a couple of downsides. You will not be able to see all of them simultaneously, as you can note cards laid out on a big table. What you gain in ease of access may come at the price of losing the big picture. Also, if your notes are in your computer, you may be tempted to save time and thought by pasting many of them directly into your paper. Note cards encourage you to rethink and to rework your ideas into a unified whole.
• Don’t start to write until you have a good outline.
• Make sure that your paper has a thesis. (See the entry State a clear thesis. )
• Check and recheck your facts.
• Footnote properly. (See the entry Cite sources carefully .)
• Save plenty of time to proofread.
• Start early.

Top Ten Signs that you may be Writing a Weak History Paper

10. You’re overjoyed to find that you can fill the required pages by widening all margins.

9. You haven’t mentioned any facts or cited any sources for several paragraphs.

8. You find yourself using the phrase “throughout history mankind has...”

7. You just pasted in another 100 words of quotations.

6. You haven’t a clue about the content of your next paragraph.

5. You’re constantly clicking on The Britannica, Webster’s, and Bartlett’s.

4. Your writing tutor sneaks another look at her watch as she reminds you for the third time to clarify your thesis.

3. Your main historical actors are this, it, they, the people, and society, and they are all involved with factors, aspects, impacts, and issues.

2. You just realize that you don’t understand the assignment, but it’s 3:00 A.M, the paper is due at 9:00, and you don’t dare call your professor.

1. You’re relieved that the paper counts for only 20 percent of the course grade.

Final Advice

You guessed it — start early.

Studying History at Hamilton

Students will learn to use interdisciplinary methods from the humanities and social sciences to probe the sources of the past for answers to present questions. They will learn to draw comparisons and connections among diverse societies across a range of historical eras. They will further learn to convey their findings through writing that is clearly structured, precise, and persuasive.

Tutor Appointments

Peer tutor and consultant appointments are managed through TracCloud (login required). Find resources and more information about the ALEX centers using the following links.

Office / Department Name

Nesbitt-Johnston Writing Center

Contact Name

Jennifer Ambrose

Writing Center Director

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The Writing Place

Resources – historical writing essentials, introduction to the topic.

Are you taking your first history class at Northwestern and struggling to write that 4-6 page argumentative essay that your professor just assigned you? Or maybe you are a seasoned history major and just need a refresher on how to write an extended research paper? Don’t fret—anyone can learn the essentials of good history writing. I’ve collected the wisdom of four Northwestern history professors (Ed Muir, Brodwyn Fischer, Amy Stanley, and Daniel Immerwahr) and a history PhD student (Joel Penning). I’ve synthesized their wisdom into the following ten essentials of good history writing.

The following quotations are from email messages from these scholars; December 11, 2012.

*Note: This text and its corrected version are not meant to convey historically true information

10 Essentials of Writing a Good History Paper

1. argument.

Though essential to most academic writing, good history writing always contains a strong argument. According to professor Muir, history writing isn’t about coming up with an opinion; instead, “what matters is proving a provable thesis.”  An argument isn’t an argument unless you can disagree with it. Professor Fischer adds, “In the best papers, the argument will also be creative, and make me think about the material in a new way.” Oftentimes students try to be overly comprehensive in their response to a prompt. Their argument may be a list of historically true things, but a “list is not an argument,” says professor Stanley. A prompt may ask you to discuss why the colonists rebelled against Britain in the 1770s. You should not say, “The colonists rebelled against Britain in the 1770s because they favored republican government, did not like Britain’s taxation policies, and were outraged at oppressive events like the Boston Massacre.” While most historians consider these three items true, this statement is not a sufficient historical argument because it does not explain how these three items relate to one another. Joel Penning, a grad student in history, says, “don’t be afraid to go out on a limb.” It’s better to say something with which many people will disagree than something that does not really capture anyone’s attention.

2. Counter-arguments

A good argumentative history paper must address counter-arguments. According to professor Immerwahr, “The claim that  X happened  is rarely interesting. By contrast,  X happened, when we might have expected Y to happen , is rarely not interesting.”

3. Evidence

Because good history writing makes an argument, you must have relevant evidence to back up your argument. Penning puts it well in saying that “every paragraph must contain both assertions and evidence which supports them. A paragraph with only assertions is bad scholarship. A paragraph with only evidence is boring.” Referencing good evidence does not mean that you should write about every fact relating to your topic; instead, only use the evidence that supports your argument. Immerwahr goes even further and says that the evidence must provide an “intellectual pathway that the reader must follow to be convinced of the thesis.” Thus, the formula is not  argument+supporting evidence=good history writing . Each piece of evidence should ideally relate to what comes before and what comes next.

4. Avoid Generalizations

Penning puts it well: “For the most part, historians don’t care about whether dictatorship always leads to corruption, or if government intervention helps or hinders the economy.  So students writing papers for historians shouldn’t care either.  Comparison is becoming an increasingly important part of the discipline, but generally historians are interested in specific cases.  Do talk about whether Mussolini’s dictatorship led to corruption, or how much the New Deal helped or hurt Depression-era America.  For almost anything you write at Northwestern, you won’t have the evidence to say anything broader than that, whether it’s true or not.  If you want to talk about universal rules of dictatorship, you’d probably like political science or sociology better.”

5. Conclude Well

In a history paper, your last paragraph should just restate your argument and your evidence, albeit in a different way, right? Wrong. Writing a solid conclusion may be the most overlooked aspect of good history writing. Professor Stanley suggests, “use your conclusion to make one final, elegant point, or point out an irony, or direct the reader to look at the implications of your argument for the next historical period, or suggest some additional avenues for exploration.” Summary isn’t bad, of course, but provide your reader with something interesting to leave him or her feeling good about your paper!

6. No Passive Voice!

Along with having a good argument, any history professor will tell you not to use the passive voice in your history writing. Using the active voice is a good practice in general in your writing, but history seeks to be precise with agency—that is, it seeks to discover what happened and who did it. The passive voice often overlooks this precision. Take, for example, the following sentence written in passive voice: “President Bob was killed on Tuesday.” This sentence says nothing about who killed Bob, which may be essential to your historical argument. The following sentence in active voice reveals more information: “Senator Joe killed President Bob on Tuesday.” In editing your history paper, keep a close look out for passive verbs.

7. Avoid Excessive Use of "To Be" Verbs

Do you find yourself using “was” and “were” too much in your history paper? There’s nothing grammatically wrong with using these past tense forms of “to be,” but your writing may be weak if you do. Instead, use stronger verbs that more descriptively capture what you are trying to say. You could say, “In Boston in 1776, the colonists were angry with British taxation policy.” It’s better to say, “In Boston in 1776, the colonists revolted against British taxation policy.” “Revolted” is stronger and describes more accurately what happened than “were angry.”

8. Past Tense

This should be self-explanatory. In your history paper, your task is to talk about something that happened in the past, so talk about it as if it happened in the past.

9. Wordiness

Have you ever struggled to reach those 6 pages and make up for it by repeating some phrases and adding unnecessary words to make your sentences a little bit longer? History professors know the temptation, and you won’t fool them. Professor Stanley warns, “If you find yourself adding words because you’re worried about making the minimum, that’s a bad sign. You need a new idea to add to your analysis; you don’t need wordier or repetitive sentences.” Instead of saying, “At the end of the eighteenth century, the people who identified themselves as colonists sought to rebel against the British rule of government in 1776,” say, “The colonists rebelled against the British in 1776.”

10. Write Out What Century You Are Referring To

This last history essential may seem small, but not incorporating it into your writing won’t make a good impression on your professor or TA. Always write out the century. Don’t say “the 18 th  century.” Instead say, “the eighteenth century.” Moreover use the following grammatical convention when you want to talk about the early, mid, or late part of a century: “the mid-eighteenth century” or “the late-eighteenth century.”

Exercise: Finding Mistakes in a Sample Passage

Practice: diagnosing mistakes.

With practice, you can incorporate these ten essentials of good history writing into your own writing. In the meantime, review the following writing excerpt and see if you can diagnose the mistakes it is making.

Sample Excerpt: Suburban Development

Suburbs were established extensively in the United States in the 20 th  century. Suburban expansion was result of rich people wanting to move away from inner cities for new work opportunities, the development of rail lines, the automobile, and new jobs away from inner cities. Suburbs now make up a large part of metropolitan areas.

In the early 1900s, rich people who previously lived in inner cities sought out to move to the suburbs because they thought through the ramifications of potentially losing their jobs if they stayed in the inner cities. Paul Johnson said, “I think it’s really fascinating that in 1925 people moved from downtown Chicago to new suburbs like Naperville and Wilmette.”[1] In addition, “the automobile clearly helped people who had previously lived in inner cities commute to work everyday from their suburban homes.”[2] Cars were manufactured and driven very often from suburbs to the cities. One can assume from all of this that economic decisions and transportation opportunities helped people move to the suburbs.

In conclusion, the suburb was the development of several factors. There were rich people wanting to move away from the city, new railroads were constructed that extended into the outer periphery of the city in places that we now can suburbs, automobile production was greatly expanded, and new jobs rose up in cities for these rich people. It is clear that suburbs have led to the democratization of the United States .

Commentary on the Sample Excerpt

Suburbs were established extensively in the United States in the 20 th  century. (Passive voice. “Were established” is passive. Hypothetically, this sentence could say, “Business and government leaders established…” In addition, “20 th  century” should be twentieth century.) Suburban expansion was result of rich people wanting to move away from inner cities for new work opportunities, the development of rail lines, the automobile, and new jobs away from inner cities. (Argumentation. This sentence, intended to be the thesis statement, merely lists a variety of factors that led to the rise of suburbs; it does not contain a coherent argument. A revised thesis statement could be the following: “New economic opportunities in city peripheries, coupled with new transportation developments, sparked the growth of suburbs.”) Suburbs now make up a large part of metropolitan areas. (Argumentation. This sentence is slightly out of place; if it were intended to be the argument, it would not suffice as you can’t really argue with it.)

In the early 1900s, rich people who previously lived in inner cities sought out to move to the suburbs because they thought through the ramifications of potentially losing their jobs if they stayed in the inner cities. (Wordiness. This sentence is too wordy; here is a more condensed version:  “In the early 1900s, wealthy people moved to suburbs because they feared losing their jobs in the inner cities.”) Paul Johnson said, “I think it’s really fascinating that in 1925 people moved from downtown Chicago to new suburbs like Naperville and Wilmette.” (Evidence. Who is Paul Johnson, and how does this quote relate to the overall point?) In addition, “the automobile clearly helped people who had previously lived in inner cities commute to work everyday from their suburban homes.” (Evidence. This quote seems to introduce a new idea—one about automobiles—that seems out of place; also, it’s not clear if this quote comes from a different source.) Cars were manufactured and driven very often from suburbs to the cities. (Passive Voice. Here’s a corrected version: “Companies such as Ford and Oldsmobile manufactured cars, and suburban dwellers drove these cars very often.”) One can assume from all of this that economic decisions and transportation opportunities help people move to the suburbs. (Past tense. This sentences breaks out of the past tense.)

In conclusion, the rise of the suburb was the development of several factors. (Past tense of “to be.” Pick a stronger verb than “was” that is more descriptive.) There were rich people wanting to move away from the city, new railroads were constructed that extended into the outer periphery of the city in places that we now can suburbs, automobile production was greatly expanded, and new jobs rose up in cities for these rich people. (Conclusion. This conclusion merely restates the introduction paragraph; in addition, the passive voice appears several times.) It is clear that suburbs have led to the democratization of the United States. (Generalization.)

(Counter-argument: In general, this excerpt did not address any counter-arguments, thus weakening its already weak argument.)

-Developed by Adam Dominik for The Writing Place at Northwestern University.

Printable version of this resource  , click here to return to the “writing place resources” main page..

American History Research Paper Topics

This page presents an exhaustive guide for students exploring American history research paper topics . American history, rich in its complexity and breadth, spans across centuries of transformative events, influential figures, and groundbreaking policies. Our comprehensive list of 100 research paper topics is systematically divided into ten categories, each showcasing a distinctive era or theme in American history. Our expert advice on choosing appropriate American history research paper topics is also included, followed by invaluable tips on crafting an engaging and academically sound American history research paper. Furthermore, we introduce iResearchNet’s bespoke writing services.

100 American History Research Paper Topics

American history offers a rich and diverse landscape for research, with a multitude of captivating topics to explore. Whether you’re interested in the founding of the nation, major historical events, influential figures, social movements, or cultural transformations, there is a wide range of research paper topics available to delve into. In this section, we present a comprehensive list of American history research paper topics, divided into 10 categories, each containing 10 topics. Let’s embark on a journey through the fascinating tapestry of American history.

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Colonial America

• The impact of the Mayflower Compact on the development of self-governance in the colonies.
• The role of religion in shaping the colonies’ social and political structures.
• The economic motivations behind English colonization and their effects on Native American populations.
• The development and significance of the Jamestown settlement.
• The impact of the French and Indian War on the relationship between the colonies and Britain.
• The Salem Witch Trials: Causes, consequences, and the wider societal context.
• The role of slavery in the colonial economy and its influence on the American Revolution.
• The Great Awakening and its impact on colonial society.
• The significance of the Albany Plan of Union in fostering colonial unity.
• The effects of the Proclamation of 1763 on colonial expansion and Native American relations.

American Revolution

• The ideological roots of the American Revolution and the influence of Enlightenment thinkers.
• The impact of key battles, such as Lexington and Concord or Saratoga, on the outcome of the Revolution.
• The contributions of influential figures like George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin.
• The role of women in the Revolutionary War and their fight for equal rights.
• The impact of the Declaration of Independence on American society and its lasting significance.
• The experiences and perspectives of African Americans during the Revolution.
• The role of Native American tribes in the conflict and their alliances with the British or Americans.
• The impact of foreign support, such as from France, on the American Revolution.
• The economic consequences of the Revolution and the challenges of nation-building.
• The legacy of the Revolutionary War and its influence on the formation of the American government.

Westward Expansion and Manifest Destiny

• The motivations behind westward expansion and the concept of Manifest Destiny.
• The Oregon Trail: Challenges, opportunities, and its impact on migration.
• The experiences of Native American tribes during westward expansion.
• The California Gold Rush and its impact on the development of the West.
• The significance of the Louisiana Purchase in shaping the nation’s territorial expansion.
• The role of the transcontinental railroad in connecting the East and West.
• The Homestead Act of 1862 and its impact on land settlement.
• The conflicts between settlers and Native American tribes during westward expansion.
• The impact of the Mexican-American War on territorial acquisitions.
• The closing of the American frontier and its implications for American identity.

Civil War and Reconstruction

• The causes of the Civil War: Slavery, states’ rights, and sectionalism.
• The experiences of soldiers and civilians during the Civil War.
• The Emancipation Proclamation and its impact on the course of the war.
• The role of women in the Civil War, both on the home front and in military service.
• The leadership and strategies of key figures like Abraham Lincoln and Robert E. Lee.
• The impact of the Gettysburg Address and its enduring significance.
• The Reconstruction era: Challenges, successes, and failures in rebuilding the nation.
• The experiences of African Americans during Reconstruction and the fight for civil rights.
• The impact of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments on the nation.
• The legacy of the Civil War and Reconstruction on American society and race relations.

Gilded Age and Progressive Era

• The rise of industrialization and its impact on American society and the economy.
• The influence of prominent industrialists like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller.
• The labor movement and the fight for workers’ rights during the Gilded Age.
• The impact of urbanization and immigration on American cities.
• The Progressive Era: Social reforms, political activism, and the push for government intervention.
• The women’s suffrage movement and the fight for women’s rights.
• The impact of muckraking journalism on public opinion and government action.
• The Progressive presidents: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson.
• The role of the Populist Party and its influence on political discourse.
• The conservation movement and the establishment of national parks.

World War I and Roaring Twenties

• The causes and consequences of U.S. involvement in World War I.
• The impact of the Treaty of Versailles on the United States and its foreign policy.
• The experiences of soldiers in the trenches during World War I.
• The women’s suffrage movement and its achievement of the 19th Amendment.
• The cultural transformations of the Roaring Twenties: Jazz, flappers, and the Harlem Renaissance.
• Prohibition and its effects on society, crime, and the rise of organized crime.
• The Red Scare and the fear of communism in the aftermath of World War I.
• The economic boom of the 1920s and the stock market crash of 1929.
• The Scopes Trial and the clash between science and religion.
• The impact of the Great Migration on African American communities and culture.

Great Depression and New Deal

• The causes and effects of the Great Depression on American society and the economy.
• The policies and programs of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal.
• The Dust Bowl and its impact on agricultural communities.
• The role of government intervention in addressing the economic crisis.
• The experiences of everyday Americans during the Great Depression.
• The cultural impact of the Depression on literature, art, and music.
• The impact of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) on employment and infrastructure.
• The Social Security Act and the establishment of a social safety net.
• The role of women in the workforce during the Great Depression.
• The legacy of the New Deal and its impact on American government and social programs.

World War II and Post-War Era

• The causes and consequences of U.S. involvement in World War II.
• The impact of the attack on Pearl Harbor on American society and entry into the war.
• The experiences of soldiers on the battlefront and the home front during World War II.
• The Holocaust and the American response to Nazi persecution.
• The role of women in the workforce and the military during World War II.
• The impact of Japanese internment on Japanese Americans.
• The emergence of the United States as a superpower in the post-war world.
• The Marshall Plan and American efforts to rebuild Europe after World War II.
• The beginning of the Cold War and the tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union.
• The civil rights movement and its connection to the experiences of African American veterans.

Civil Rights Movement and Social Change

• The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the rise of Martin Luther King Jr. as a civil rights leader.
• The sit-ins, freedom rides, and other forms of nonviolent protest during the civil rights movement.
• The role of grassroots activism in the fight for equal rights.
• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and its impact on desegregation and equal opportunity.
• The Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the fight for African American suffrage.
• The Black Power movement and its influence on the broader civil rights movement.
• The impact of the women’s rights movement and the push for gender equality.
• The Stonewall Riots and the beginnings of the LGBTQ+ rights movement.
• The Chicano Movement and the fight for Mexican American civil rights.
• The American Indian Movement and the struggle for indigenous rights and sovereignty.

Contemporary Issues and Movements

• The impact of the Vietnam War on American society and political activism.
• The Watergate scandal and its consequences for American politics and trust in government.
• The feminist movement and its ongoing fight for gender equality.
• The environmental movement and the challenges of climate change.
• The LGBTQ+ rights movement and the fight for marriage equality and nondiscrimination laws.
• The Black Lives Matter movement and the struggle against systemic racism.
• The immigration debate and the quest for comprehensive immigration reform.
• The rise of social media and its impact on political discourse and activism.
• The challenges of income inequality and the fight for economic justice.
• The ongoing debates over gun control and Second Amendment rights.

This comprehensive list of American history research paper topics showcases the vast array of subjects available for exploration. From the early days of colonial America to contemporary social movements, American history is filled with significant events, influential figures, and thought-provoking themes. As students of history, you have the opportunity to delve into these topics, analyze primary sources, and contribute to the understanding of the American experience. By selecting a research paper topic that resonates with your interests and curiosity, you can embark on a rewarding journey of discovery and contribute to the ongoing scholarship in American history.

American History: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

American history is a rich and diverse field that encompasses a wide range of topics, events, and individuals that have shaped the nation’s past. From the colonial era to the present day, the United States has experienced significant political, social, economic, and cultural transformations. Researching and writing about American history offers an opportunity to delve into the complexities and nuances of the nation’s past, uncovering lesser-known stories, analyzing key moments, and gaining a deeper understanding of the forces that have shaped the United States. This section will explore the diverse range of research paper topics in American history and provide inspiration for students studying this fascinating subject.

• Colonial America : The period of colonial America is characterized by the arrival of European settlers, the establishment of the thirteen colonies, and the interactions between colonizers and Native American tribes. Research paper topics within this category can explore themes such as early encounters, the development of colonial society, the impact of colonialism on Native American populations, religious beliefs and practices, and the roots of American identity.
• Revolutionary Era : The Revolutionary Era marks a pivotal moment in American history, encompassing the struggle for independence from British rule and the birth of a new nation. Research paper topics within this category can explore the causes and consequences of the American Revolution, key figures such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, the Declaration of Independence, the formation of the United States Constitution, and the challenges of establishing a new government.
• Westward Expansion and Manifest Destiny : The 19th century witnessed a period of rapid territorial expansion as the United States extended its borders from coast to coast. Research paper topics within this category can delve into themes such as the Louisiana Purchase, the Lewis and Clark expedition, the Oregon Trail, the Mexican-American War, the California Gold Rush, the impact on Native American tribes, and the concept of Manifest Destiny.
• Civil War and Reconstruction : The American Civil War was a defining moment in the nation’s history, testing the unity of the United States and leading to significant social and political changes. Research paper topics within this category can explore the causes and consequences of the Civil War, key battles and military strategies, the Emancipation Proclamation, the experiences of soldiers and civilians, the Reconstruction era, and the challenges of rebuilding a divided nation.
• Gilded Age and Progressive Era : The Gilded Age and Progressive Era marked a period of rapid industrialization, urbanization, and social reform in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Research paper topics within this category can examine themes such as the rise of big business, labor movements and workers’ rights, immigration and urbanization, women’s suffrage, the Progressive movement, and the impact of technological advancements on society.
• World Wars and the Interwar Period : The United States played a significant role in both World War I and World War II, shaping its trajectory on the global stage. Research paper topics within this category can explore the causes and consequences of each war, the experiences of American soldiers and civilians, the impact of war on American society, the role of women and minorities, technological advancements in warfare, and the United States’ emergence as a global superpower. Additionally, examining the interwar period provides insights into the challenges and changes that occurred between the two world wars.
• Civil Rights Movement : The Civil Rights Movement was a transformative period in American history, marked by significant social and political changes. Research paper topics within this category can explore key figures such as Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, and Malcolm X, significant events like the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the March on Washington, the impact of the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act, and the ongoing struggle for racial equality. Examining the Civil Rights Movement allows for an exploration of the challenges, triumphs, and ongoing quest for equality in American society.
• Cold War and the Space Race : The Cold War era was defined by the geopolitical tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. Research paper topics within this category can delve into the origins and ideologies of the Cold War, major events such as the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Berlin Wall, the arms race and nuclear proliferation, the space race and the Apollo program, and the cultural impact of the Cold War on American society. Exploring this era provides insights into the complexities of international relations and the influence of the Cold War on American policies and culture.
• Post-9/11 America : The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, marked a significant turning point in American history, leading to major shifts in foreign and domestic policies. Research paper topics within this category can explore the impact of 9/11 on national security measures, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, the rise of terrorism and its implications, the changing dynamics of international relations, and the debates surrounding civil liberties and surveillance. Understanding the post-9/11 era allows for an examination of the challenges and transformations in American society and the ongoing effects of these events.
• Contemporary America : The study of contemporary America offers an opportunity to analyze current social, political, and cultural issues and their historical context. Research paper topics within this category can include themes such as immigration, race relations, environmental concerns, healthcare, technology, and the evolving role of the United States in the global arena. Exploring contemporary American history allows for a deeper understanding of the nation’s ongoing development and the challenges it faces.

The study of American history is a rewarding and important endeavor, allowing us to explore the rich tapestry of events, individuals, and ideas that have shaped the nation. This section has provided a comprehensive list of research paper topics in American history, spanning a wide range of categories and periods. Whether delving into the colonial era, the Civil Rights Movement, or contemporary America, students have the opportunity to delve into fascinating topics, conduct in-depth research, and contribute to our understanding of the nation’s past. By exploring these research paper topics, students can uncover new perspectives, challenge existing narratives, and develop a deeper appreciation for the complexities of American history.

Choosing American History Research Paper Topics

Choosing a research paper topic in American history can be an exciting but challenging task. With such a vast and diverse field of study, it’s important to select a topic that aligns with your interests, fits within the scope of your assignment, and offers opportunities for in-depth research. In this section, we will provide expert advice on choosing American history research paper topics that will help you navigate the process and select a compelling and relevant subject for your project.

• Understand Your Assignment Requirements : Before selecting a topic, carefully review the assignment guidelines provided by your instructor. Pay attention to any specific themes, time periods, or events that you are required to focus on. This will help you narrow down your options and ensure that your chosen topic meets the requirements of your assignment.
• Follow Your Interests : Select a topic that genuinely interests you. American history offers a vast array of subjects to explore, ranging from political events and social movements to cultural phenomena and biographical studies. By choosing a topic that aligns with your interests, you will be more motivated to delve into the research and produce a well-crafted paper.
• Conduct Preliminary Research : Once you have a general idea of the direction you want to take, conduct preliminary research to familiarize yourself with the existing literature and scholarly discussions surrounding your potential topic. This will help you refine your focus, identify any gaps in the research, and gain a better understanding of the available sources and perspectives.
• Consider Different Perspectives : American history is a complex and multifaceted subject, and it’s important to consider different perspectives when selecting a research paper topic. Think beyond the traditional narratives and explore topics that shed light on marginalized voices, lesser-known events, or alternative interpretations of familiar themes. This will not only make your research paper more interesting but also contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of American history.
• Narrow Down Your Topic : Once you have conducted preliminary research, narrow down your topic to a specific research question or thesis statement. Avoid broad and overly general topics, as they can make it difficult to delve deeply into the subject matter. Instead, focus on a specific aspect or aspect of American history that allows for a more focused and nuanced analysis.
• Utilize Primary and Secondary Sources : To develop a strong research paper, it’s crucial to utilize a combination of primary and secondary sources. Primary sources provide firsthand accounts, documents, or artifacts from the time period you are studying, while secondary sources offer interpretations and analyses of those primary sources. A combination of both will give your research paper depth and credibility.
• Explore Untapped Archives and Collections : Consider exploring untapped archives and collections related to your chosen topic. Many libraries, museums, and historical societies hold unique and lesser-known materials that can provide fresh insights and contribute to original research. Don’t hesitate to reach out to librarians and archivists for assistance in locating relevant sources.
• Consult with Your Instructor or Advisor : If you’re struggling to choose a research paper topic or need guidance, don’t hesitate to consult with your instructor or academic advisor. They can provide valuable insights, suggest potential topics, and offer advice based on their expertise in the field of American history. Their feedback can help you refine your ideas and ensure that your chosen topic aligns with your academic goals.
• Consider the Significance and Relevance : When selecting an American history research paper topic, consider its significance and relevance. How does your chosen topic contribute to our understanding of American history? Does it address important historical debates or shed light on underrepresented aspects of the past? Choosing a topic with significance and relevance will make your research paper more impactful and engaging.
• Stay Organized and Manage Your Time : Researching and writing a history research paper requires careful organization and time management. Create a research plan, establish a timeline, and break down the tasks into manageable steps. Stay organized by keeping track of your sources, notes, and citations. By managing your time effectively, you’ll be able to conduct thorough research and produce a well-structured and polished research paper.

Choosing an American history research paper topic requires careful consideration and a balance between personal interest and academic requirements. By following these expert tips, you can navigate the process with confidence, select a compelling and relevant topic, and embark on a research journey that contributes to our understanding of American history. Remember to choose a topic that aligns with your interests, conduct thorough research, consider different perspectives, and stay organized throughout the process. With these strategies in mind, you’ll be well-equipped to embark on your American history research paper and produce a thought-provoking and well-crafted piece of academic work.

How to Write an American History Research Paper

Writing an American history research paper requires careful planning, thorough research, and effective writing strategies. In this section, we will guide you through the process of writing an American history research paper, from formulating a strong thesis statement to organizing your research and crafting a compelling argument. Whether you’re a seasoned historian or a student new to the field, these tips will help you produce a well-structured and insightful research paper on American history.

• Understand Your Assignment Guidelines : Before you begin writing, thoroughly review the assignment guidelines provided by your instructor. Pay attention to the formatting requirements, citation style, and any specific instructions related to the content and structure of your research paper. Understanding the expectations will help you tailor your approach and meet the requirements of the assignment.
• Develop a Strong Thesis Statement : A strong thesis statement is the foundation of your research paper. It should clearly state the main argument or central idea of your paper and guide the direction of your research. Take the time to formulate a well-crafted thesis statement that is specific, arguable, and supported by evidence. This will provide focus and coherence to your paper.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : Conducting thorough research is essential for writing a comprehensive and authoritative American history research paper. Utilize a variety of sources, including books, scholarly articles, primary documents, and reputable online resources. Take detailed notes and organize your sources for easy reference. Remember to critically evaluate the reliability and credibility of your sources.
• Organize Your Research : Organizing your research is key to maintaining clarity and coherence in your research paper. Create an outline that outlines the main sections and subtopics of your paper. Group related information together and ensure a logical flow of ideas. This will make the writing process smoother and help you stay focused on your main argument.
• Craft a Compelling Introduction : The introduction of your research paper should grab the reader’s attention and provide necessary background information. Start with a hook or an engaging anecdote to draw the reader in. Provide context for your research topic and present your thesis statement clearly. Outline the scope and objectives of your research paper to set the stage for the subsequent sections.
• Support Your Arguments with Evidence : Throughout your research paper, support your arguments and claims with credible evidence. Use a combination of primary and secondary sources to provide a well-rounded analysis. Quote and paraphrase your sources, and always provide proper citations. Remember to critically analyze and interpret the evidence to strengthen your arguments.
• Analyze Multiple Perspectives : American history is complex and multifaceted, and it’s important to consider multiple perspectives when crafting your research paper. Engage with different scholarly interpretations, historical debates, and contrasting viewpoints. This will demonstrate your understanding of the subject matter and contribute to a more nuanced analysis.
• Structure Your Paper Effectively : Organize your research paper into clear sections, including an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each paragraph should focus on a specific point and contribute to the overall argument. Use topic sentences and transitions to ensure a smooth flow of ideas. Consider using subheadings within the body of your paper to further organize your content.
• Write Clear and Concise Sentences : Use clear and concise language to communicate your ideas effectively. Avoid excessive jargon and complex sentence structures that may confuse your readers. Break down complex concepts into simpler terms and ensure that your writing is accessible to a wide audience.
• Revise and Edit : Once you have completed the initial draft of your research paper, take the time to revise and edit it thoroughly. Check for clarity, coherence, and logical progression of ideas. Review your citations and ensure they are accurate and properly formatted. Pay attention to grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Consider seeking feedback from peers or professors to gain valuable insights for improvement.

Writing an American history research paper requires a combination of in-depth research, critical analysis, and effective writing strategies. By understanding the assignment guidelines, developing a strong thesis statement, conducting thorough research, and organizing your paper effectively, you can produce a compelling and well-structured research paper on American history. Remember to support your arguments with credible evidence, consider multiple perspectives, and write in a clear and concise manner. With careful planning and attention to detail, you’ll be able to craft an insightful and impactful research paper that contributes to our understanding of American history.

iResearchNet’s Writing Services

At iResearchNet, we understand the challenges that students face when tasked with writing American history research papers. We recognize the importance of producing high-quality, well-researched, and original work that meets the academic standards of excellence. Our writing services are designed to provide students with the support they need to excel in their American history studies. With a team of expert writers, a commitment to in-depth research, and a focus on delivering top-quality papers, we are your trusted partner in American history research papers.

• Expert Degree-Holding Writers : Our team of writers consists of highly qualified professionals with advanced degrees in American history. They possess in-depth knowledge of the subject and are experienced in conducting rigorous research and writing academic papers. With their expertise, they can provide you with well-written and thoroughly researched American history research papers.
• Custom Written Works : We understand that each research paper is unique and requires a personalized approach. Our writers craft custom written papers tailored to your specific requirements and instructions. They follow your guidelines and incorporate your desired research topics, thesis statements, and argumentative approaches, ensuring that your paper is original and meets your academic needs.
• In-Depth Research : Our writers are skilled in conducting in-depth research on a wide range of American history topics. They have access to reputable scholarly databases, historical archives, and reliable online resources, allowing them to gather comprehensive and up-to-date information for your research paper. They meticulously analyze and synthesize the gathered data to provide a thorough and well-supported analysis.
• Custom Formatting : Our writers are well-versed in various citation styles, including APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. They will format your research paper according to the specified style guidelines, ensuring that your citations and references are accurate and properly formatted. This attention to detail enhances the professionalism and credibility of your paper.
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• Customized Solutions : We understand that each student has unique needs and preferences. Our writing services offer customized solutions to accommodate your specific requirements. Whether you need assistance with selecting a research topic, refining your thesis statement, or organizing your paper, our writers can provide personalized guidance and support throughout the research paper writing process.
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How to Write a Paper on a Historically Significant Event

Writing a paper on a historically significant event is an excellent way to learn. It trains you to gather information, interpret it, and persuasively present an informed opinion. The researching process itself teaches you a great deal, but it also equips you to contribute to ongoing discussions on a given topic.

Here are the basic steps of writing a paper on a significant event, either for a class or for your own personal research:

• Select an event
• Do your research
• Construct an outline
• Write your paper
• Revise and refine

1. Select an Event

Unless you’ve been assigned a historically significant event to research, you’re most likely going to begin the process from a position of interest. The event you want to explore will be interesting to you for one reason or another (or maybe for many reasons). But it’s important to discover the particular lens through which you want to view it. Do you want to see the historical context that led up to it? Do you want to look back at the event through the filter of contemporary debates? Do you want to focus on the way the event influenced later events?

Having a lens in mind will help you to be aware of the perspective you bring to your studies by default, because the reality is that no one approaches their study or research in a vacuum. We all have particular ways of viewing the world, and attending to those—and being intentional about them—can help us to be intellectually honest and gracious.

Remember, you don’t have to be an expert before you begin—that’s what the research process will accomplish.

For more on the process of researching and writing a paper, check out these resources:

• Article:   Work with Librarians to Help Students Write Better Papers
• The Craft of Research  — particularly chapter 5 (Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M. Williams, Joseph Bizup, and William T. Fitzgerald)

Writing & Research: A Guide for Theological Students  by Kevin Gary Smith

Written in a simple yet engaging style, Dr. Kevin Smith applies his years of experience and expertise in scholarly writing and research in this one-volume guide. Perfect as an introduction for new and continuing undergraduate or postgraduate students, this publication provides helpful guidelines and illustrations on all the elements that go into producing an academic work. Combining specific instruction on researching and preparing an academic work, as well as practical advice for task management, makes this an ideal go-to guide for students and supervisors alike.

The Timeline Tool displays a unified graphical timeline of historical events.

Learn more about the Timeline

2. Do Your Research

With an event selected, it’s time to find the resources you’re going to use and dig into them. You may find that one resource offers the best discussion of your chosen event, but you can’t stop there! Researching well means considering opinions that differ from each other (and probably from your own). It’s in the conversation that emerges from engaging with multiple perspectives that real insight and understanding emerge

Conduct a literature review and build your bibliography

The process of conducting a literature review and building a bibliography is an iterative process. It’s not a one-time step but a step you’ll return to over and over again as you move through your research.

Essentially, in this step, you’re discovering what resources exist and cataloging them. As you begin to read the resources you discover, you’ll likely find references to other works that you’ll then want to read.

Chapter 5 of  The Craft of Research  is particularly helpful here.

Consult standard sources

If the event you want to research is part of church history, then encyclopedias, theological dictionaries, concordances, and other theological reference tools contain useful information that will orient you to the event you’ve selected and its context. But the biggest help these resources will offer you at this stage is their bibliographies. Be sure to check the cross-references.

The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, rev. ed.

The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, since its first appearance in 1957, has established itself as the indispensable one-volume reference work on all aspects of the Christian Church. This Revised Edition, published in 2005, builds on the unrivaled reputation of the previous editions. Revised and updated, it reflects changes in academic opinion and Church organization.

Encyclopedia of Ancient Christianity (3 vols.)

The Encyclopedia of Ancient Christianity covers eight centuries of the Christian church and comprises 3,220 entries by a team of 266 scholars from 26 countries representing a variety of Christian traditions. It draws upon such fields as archaeology, art and architecture, biography, cultural studies, ecclesiology, geography, history, philosophy, and theology.

Consult peer-reviewed journals

You need to see what your contemporaries have to say about the event you’re examining in order to situate your research in its context. This means consulting peer-reviewed journals. As you read, you’ll discover where scholars agree and disagree, and how the study of that event has advanced over time.

Academic Journal Bundle 7.4 (575+ vols.)

Study pivotal issues in history, critical biblical interpretation, and archaeology with distinguished scholars from around the world with the Academic Journal Bundle 7.4. Including journals that zoom in on a specific field, as well as eclectic journals that provide commentary and insight on a diversity of topics, this bundle adds impressive breadth to your library.

Consult primary sources

After completing all the previous steps, you will likely have become acquainted with the most important books for your chosen event, both primary and secondary. Primary sources are firsthand historical documents, whereas secondary sources are books and articles that analyze or interpret the primary sources. Reading primary sources, particularly those written by people directly involved in the event you’re researching, is especially important.

Visit  logos.com  to find the sources you need, and while you’re there, check out the  Logos Academic packages !

3. Construct an Outline

This step is incredibly important, but it is often overlooked. It’s time to refine your angle of approach based on your research, then arrange your notes and research materials into a clear outline that will guide you as you craft a convincing and coherent argument.

See chapters 8 and 9 of  The Craft of Research  for more guidance on constructing your outline.

4. Draft Your Paper

You are now ready to draft your paper. Your initial focus is to expand your outline into paragraph form as straightforwardly as possible. While your outline will be essential as you draft, don’t feel you need to stick to it absolutely. You may discover as you write that a different structure or organization will better advance your argument. Make use of relevant quotations from your research to clarify your points or add support for your arguments.

5. Revise and Refine

Notice the word “draft” in the previous step. That word is intentionally selected because, arguably, the most important part of the writing process is in your revisions. Drafting gets the ball rolling, but revising is where you refine and revise your previous drafts, ensuring your argument is clear and forceful.

SBL Handbook of Style, Second Edition

The SBL Handbook of Style is the definitive style manual on writing and publishing in the field of biblical studies and related disciplines. The updated second edition reflects the latest practices and trends among scholars, editors, and publishers. It also includes key style changes, expanded abbreviation and spelling sample lists, a list of archaeological site names, material on qur’anic sources, detailed information on citing electronic sources, and expanded guidelines for the transliteration and transcription of 17 ancient languages.

The Elements of Style  by William Strunk Jr

Learn to write clear and accurate prose from a master of English style—William Strunk. This little book, originally circulated amongst Strunk’s students at Cornell, has become a desktop stalwart of engineers, managers, students, pastors, and writers of every variety. Strunk’s seven rules of usage and 11 principles of composition have been creating clear communicators for almost a century.

While this structure is helpful, you may find that some variation of it works better for you. Go with what works because, at the end of the day, a thoroughly-researched and well-written paper is what you’re after.

Logos Staff

Logos is the largest developer of tools that empower Christians to go deeper in the Bible.

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100 History Research Paper and Essay Topics

15 August, 2021

13 minutes read

Author:  Richard Pircher

History is reasonably one of the most important subjects every student encounters in their school, college, or university life. Some students adore it and prioritize history among all other subjects, while others hate it and find it ultimately boring. The truth is, history class is quite essential: it teaches you how to think critically, reflect on the events, find links between cases and occasions, and gives you a valuable opportunity to develop analytical skills. Indeed, studying what happened in the past is critical for understanding the future and being able to interpret current events. Moreover, learning history can make us capable of controlling the things happening around us and contributing to the better quality of our own lives.

As a history student, you are certainly expected to compose sound essays on world history topics as well as elaborate on any American history topic. To make sure you write quality essays , you need to learn how to process history essay topics, outline your arguments, and depict historical events in a convincing and accurate way. All in all, keeping some pieces of advice in mind can do you good if your goal is to come up with interesting history topics and craft excellent essays. In the following guide, we will talk about the key features of a history research paper, discuss how to choose history topics to write about, and provide you with sample history topics.

What Is a History Research Paper?

A history research paper challenges students with analyzing literature sources that are relevant to a particular historical event or historical era. Writing such a paper requires thorough preparation as well as in-depth research. Just like other types of college essays, a history essay follows a standard structure, where you need to develop a thesis statement and support it with relevant arguments and respective data. Thus, the only difference between a history research paper and other types of academic essays is that the first one analyzes solely historical events.

When writing a history research paper, it is critical to keep several points in mind, namely:

• Relevance of the topic: why is it worth being discussed these days?
• How is the topic related to the current times?
• Why was the topic critical in the past?
• How can a topic contribute to solving current economic and social issues?

Once you consider all the tips outlined above, you’ll become a pro at mastering any subject, from United States history research paper topics to the history of the middle ages.

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A Quick Guide to Choosing the Right Topic

If your goal is to craft an amazing history research paper with a strong thesis statement and not a less strong argument, there is a lot of effort to be made. A huge component of success lies in choosing the right topic. If you select a good and interesting one, you facilitate the writing process for yourself as well as make sure you will ultimately grab the reader’s attention. You might need to step out of your comfort zone and avoid limiting yourself to typical topics that have already been discussed thousands of times. Take a look at some tips that will help you come up with interesting but at the same time controversial topics in history:

It is always helpful if you take a look at existing, ongoing research topics. Coming up with your topic might be quite a challenge if you have no idea of what is going on in History research. For instance, find 20-30 US history topics, take a look at them, and think for a while. Which one has grabbed your interest the most? Which topic has the most potential  and the biggest importance to you?

Do some prior research

Once you know the approximate direction of your research, go to the Internet and discover what others write about it. Try to search for some evidence you might need to apply in your paper. Once you find enough support and information, you will be able to narrow down the research topic and come up with your arguments for an essay.

Select the best sources

Writing a history research paper has a lot to do with literature research. You will need to find a bunch of online sources and select only the ones that are most relevant to your research topic. Make sure you use only the most reliable sources and always apply appropriate citations to avoid plagiarism.

Start outlining

Once you’re all set with a research paper topic, don’t forget to structure your history paper. Outlining is the key to writing a proficient, coherent, well-argumented paper. You will need to follow standard outlining: introduction, main body paragraphs, and a summary paragraph at the end. Make sure you have reasonable arguments and evidence for each point of your outline.

Develop multiple thesis statements

A thesis statement plays a critical role when we talk about history research papers. First, it gives the reader an idea of what you will be talking about in the essay. Additionally, it does let the reader know which line of arguments you will follow later on and helps them understand why you decided to talk about a specific historical event. To make it easier for you to structure body paragraphs, develop several statements. If you do so, you will develop several different arguments and finally choose the best ones.

Without further ado, take a look at 100 history research paper topics that will serve you as a basis for your own piece of writing:

Ancient History

• Ancient Rome vs. ancient Greece: which one had more power in the past, and whose impact can be traced better today?
• The philosophy of ancient greeks and its impact today
• How the voting system of ancient Greece was organized
• Protests in the ancient era: how demonstrations were organized in the past
• The political system of ancient Rome
• The military forces in ancient Greece
• How Gladiator games were organized and which goal they pursued?
• The society organization in ancient Egypt
• Alexander the Great as one of the most leading figures in ancient History
• Ancient Rome and civilian life

Middle Ages History Research Paper Topics

• Crimes in the middle ages and how criminal behavior was treated
• European Cities’ infrastructure during the medieval times
• Philosophers of Medieval times and their impact on life today
• The role of interfaith marriages in Medieval Europe
• The most meaningful discoveries during the Middle Times and their contribution to the world economy
• Revival of the Byzantine: the role and importance of the notion
• Quran and its role in Medieval Europe
• Middle Ages and the impact on the history of Europe
• Why do some historians associate the Middle Ages with the era of discoveries?

Modern History

• The bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: the reasons and possible prevention mechanisms
• Native Americans in the US today
• US immigrant policy: the challenges that are being put on the foreign residents
• Social movements and the role of the industrialization
• Social movements in the US today
• The notion of Westward Expansion
• The most prominent inventions of the 21st century and their inventors
• Industrialization and its consequences for the US
• Great Recession: tracing the adverse consequence of the crisis today
• The role of NATO in the modern society

World History Research Paper Topics

• The war between the United States and Mexico: the reasons and outcomes
• The colonization of South America
• The famous battle at sea Spain and Great Britain
• How Medieval Europe shaped and perceived social interactions and personal relationships
• The long-term consequences of the Cold War between the countries of the Soviet Bloc and the United States
• The Chernobyl explosion: one of the biggest nuclear catastrophes of the mankind
• 1968 student revolts
•  Formation of the European Union and the key events that contributed to it

European History

• French revolution and the force distribution that followed
• The history of the European economy
• Early Modern Europe
• Muslims of Europe
• The propaganda of western theories in the 20th century
• England of the 17th century and the problem of gender bias
• The analysis of Mid-Tudor Crises in Europe
• The history of Nazi Germany: comparing German government of the past to the government of today

World War I

• The Treaty of Versailles and its impact on the events of World War I
• The Gallipoli campaign and the World War I
• The image of eastern and western fronts in ​​World War I
• Chemical Weapon in World War I: economic necessity or a hazard?
• The entrance of America into the World War
• Most influential alliances during the times of World War I
• World War I and the Russian revolution
• Battle at sea vs battle in the air: which countries used which strategies and why?
• People and World War I: the cost of lives

World War II

• How the Soviet army entered World War II and why its entry was critical for the World history
• Child labor during the times of World War II
• Africa and the World War II
• Why did America decide to take a neutral role during World War II?
• The fate of Germany after the end of the World War II
• The state of diplomacy during World War II
• The occupation of Japan
• The events of the final year of World War II
•  Resistance towards Hitler in Germany during the times of World War II

African American History Research Paper Topics

• The role of the 14th Amendment in the lives of African American society
• Attempts to end slavery via Abolitionist Movement: success and failure factors
• Angela Davis – one of the greatest civil rights activists in African American society
• How Black Codes were designed to limit the freedoms of African Americans
• Black History month: the roots of an opportunity to fight racism and learn the history of African Americans
• Dr. Martin Luther King and his impact that finds reflection in the African American society today
• Malcolm X and the rights of the people of color
• How cultural movements of African Americans contributed to the cultural diversity of the United States
• Robert F. Kennedy and the success of his speech

United States History

• The causes of civil war in the United States
• 1776: the years of independence declaration
• The key personalities during the times of revolutionary war
• American social movements and the consequences that industrialization has had on the first
• The history of slavery and human rights deprivation in the United States
• The role of indigenous people: how is modern culture shaped by the impact of native Americans?
• Analyzing the period between the wars
• Emancipation Proclamation of 1863
• Alcohol prohibition in the US: the roots and long-term consequences for the economy
• Some of the most prominent historical events that took place during the times of Cold War
• The Image of the United States during the Cold War
• Cold War ar the period of uncertainty, fear, and resilience
• The reason why Europe’s impact has been constantly shrinking at the times of cold war
• Countries involved in the cold war and their role in it
• Was it possible to prevent the Cold War or reduce its duration?
• The influence of the Cold War in the current era: comparison of Russian vs. American pop cultures
• The culture of the Soviet Union at the times of the Cold War
• Chinese Communist Revolution during the Cold War

20th Century History Topics

• American history of the 21st century
• Ronald Reagan and the impact of the Mixed Legacies
• The Holocaust and Roosevelt’s administration
• Vietnam war: the role of females
• Political Risks in American History during the reign of Harry Truman
• Dictatorship in North Korea: the reasons behind it
• The uprising of democratic movements
• The history of organized crime in the 1920s in America
• The greatest causes and consequences of the Great Depression
• The death of the Soviet Union: how the world’s biggest country came to an end

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278 Interesting History Essay Topics and Events to Write about

A history class can become a jumble of years, dates, odd moments, and names of people who have been dead for centuries. Despite this, you’ll still need to find history topics to write about. You may have no choice!

Our specialists will write a custom essay specially for you!

But once in a while, your instructor may let you pick a history essay topic. Are you clueless about where to start? If you are, don’t worry. You’ve come to the right place! In this article, you’ll see 278 cool historical events to write about. You’ll also discover some sources for good research on our ideas.

Before you read further:

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Top 10 History Essay Topics

• The US’s role in World War I.
• Child labor during the Puritan era.
• Religion during the Aztec times.
• Causes of the Battle of Germantown.
• The economic impact of the Titanic ’s sinking.
• The economic effect of the Bracero Program.
• Cultural impact of the Spanish-American War.
• Industrial Revolution’s impact on the environment.
• The goal of Protestors at the 1968 Democratic Convention.
• Women’s employment during the Great Depression.

How to Pick the Best History Essay Topic

Most of this article is devoted to listing history topics that are ideal for essays, but first, it’s important to have a simple process for using a list of possible essay topics like this.

• Before you start writing, brainstorm. Read this list. Scan lists of history essay prompts. Maybe even skim a history essay example or 2 (or 10, or 25). When you find a topic you like even a bit, write it down in your personal list. Add any other topics that come to your mind.
• Pick a topic that will satisfy your instructor and you can write well about. After you have a long list, review the assignment instructions. Then, eliminate the most inappropriate topics from your list. Lastly, reread the remaining topics. At this point, decide the topics you know enough about to write about wisely.

This 2-step process will make sure you get started on the right foot, but don’t forget the basics of sound writing. Remember these two rules. First, always plan your essay by using an outline. Second, stick to a well-structured essay with an introduction, body, and conclusion (use a 5-paragraph essay if it’s suitable).

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Here’s one further tip that is notably helpful for history essays. Use Wikipedia to explore historical events that you don’t understand well. (But of course use primary sources if you are writing a true research paper.) Alternatively, if you have some keywords in mind, you can find a random topic generator for writing and see what it can offer you.

Here’s the list of history essay prompts that you’ve been waiting for.

The Ultimate List of Historical Events to Write about

• An Industrial Revolution in England essay is an excellent Industrial Revolution essay. Use this essay to explain some Industrial Revolution effects. Or perhaps give a brief but analytical overview of the Industrial Revolution timeline.
• Alternatively, you could write an Industrial Revolution in Europe essay . England was the first nation to industrialize. But it wasn’t the last. In this Industrial Revolution essay, perhaps discuss differences among European nations in industrialization. (This kind of comparative approach yields an especially fine Industrial Revolution research paper as well.)
• Or use a markedly different topic by writing a Martin Luther King essay . This key historical figure still shapes how we think about race, social justice, and the power of nonviolent protest. His death was tragic.
• One way to avoid making your essay a Martin Luther King biography is to focus on a specific event or impact of this man’s life. For example, your Martin Luther King essay could be about a specific Martin Luther King speech or quote . (But if you’re going to write about King’s famous “ I Have a Dream ” speech, make sure you have something unique to say!)
• Instead, you could write a broader Civil Rights Movement essay . In this, you must go beyond a basic Civil Rights Movement summary and focus on the meaning of this period over time or some specific change caused by it. (Again, don’t let your Civil Rights Movement essay become a Civil Rights Movement research paper.)
• You could write about another period of dramatic change in a French Revolution essay . This violent revolution filled with imprisonments, trials, and beheadings was caused by immense suffering by the poorest people in France. As such, when writing this essay, provide only a brief French Revolution summary, and focus on the impact and triggers of specific events.

• Similarly, you could write an American Revolution essay . Both events involved overthrowing a monarch, but unlike a French Revolution essay, an American Revolution essay is effectively about a war, the build up to war, and the recovery from a war.
• Perhaps your historical essay could focus on a person who was instrumental to the American Revolution . For example, consider Ben Franklin , a famous early American statesman, diplomat, scientist, and inventor.
• The War of 1812 was the conflict between America and Britain directly following the American Revolutionary War . It’s a fine essay topic for those seeking to understand early American history.
• Wars make notable topics for historical essay, but the aftermath can be even more interesting. The Weimar Republic was the terribly failed German government created after World War I. A critique of this government could be a superb essay subject.
• In contrast, post-war Vietnam has been a relative success story. The nation reunified following the defeat of South Vietnam. The modern Vietnamese people possess a higher quality of life than citizens of many nearby nations.
• You could also write about the Post-World War II 1950s . During this time, America exhibited surprising growth and prosperity. However, the United States began to wage a deadly Cold War with the USSR.
• Another quite related topic is the messy late 21 st century American foreign policy . You could focus on the rise of terrorism after America’s invasion of Iraq , the worldwide US military bases, or any number of military dictators that the US has supported. These are all very provocative topics.
• Or you could focus on a more specific military event, such as the Battle of Hastings . This battle shaped the whole history of England, as kings from continental Europe invaded English.

• The time of the Battle of Hastings was also characterized by the heavy influence of knights and feudal law in daily life. Knights were more than heavily armed warriors. They were also lords that controlled the land and subjugated peasants. This was a major cause of uprisings such as the French Revolution.
• Many medieval knights were also involved in the Crusades . This invasion of the Holy Land by European kingdoms represented a violent period. During these conquests, European nobility pillaged sacred sites and artifacts; with the goal of controlling the birthplace of their Christian faith.
• Following this time, Europe entered a period of Renaissance Humanism . Humans began to think about their humanity a bit more deeply. In doing so, many works of fine art, such as the first realistic paintings and sculptures, were produced.
• Your essay could focus on slightly later events, such as the fall of great empires . At various times in the past, nations such as Rome, China, Portugal, England, and the Holy Roman Empire controlled huge areas of our globe. Your essay could survey the implosion of these once great powers.
• The abolition of slavery is a fascinating and important historical essay topic. You may focus on this process within a single country, or you can write a comparative essay in which you compare and contrast the process of abolition across the globe or between two societies.
• Another highly relevant topic is the impact of Karl Marx . Few historical figures have had as huge an impact on society as Marx. Accordingly, you can consider how his writings were used (or abused) in a variety of nominally communist parties, movements, uprisings, and nations.
• Of course, you should always consider writing an integrative history essay . You can’t pick just one topic? Why not pick two or more! This is a nice approach for selecting compare and contrast essay topics . In this type of essay, you compare or contrast, people, events, or countries. In choosing this path, you make it possible to write a totally unique essay. The sky is the limit!
• A more human-focused approach could be an interesting hook for the paper. A paper based on the writing of the soldiers in World War I could outline what war was like at the beginning of the 20th century.

• A personal look at World War II could be just as interesting and with more available documents.
• One of the possible hooks for such papers may be the plight of the African American soldiers who fought in World War I and II .
• Another topic may be dedicated to soldiers from India who fought for the British in World War I .
• The economics of Europe after World War I may show the causes and effects that led to further conflict.
• You may dedicate your project may to the changes in fashion in the 20th century .
• More obscure topics like the Canadian history of film can make for an interesting thesis.
• American art of the 20th century is a big topic that has many interesting examples.
• History of math can show the timeline of math’s evolution.
• The conclusion of the British rule in India caused many positive and negative effects on the country which can make for an interesting project.
• The history of Roman sport provides fascinating examples of contests through the ages.
• History of architecture during renaissance can show the differences between the eras.
• Life before the invention of photography could be a topic that outlines how people preserved images back in the day.
• You can compare and contrast the history of Roman and British empires .
• Examples of music created for political causes could be an interesting hook for a music history essay.
• T he history of medicine can provide some striking facts about the bizarre antique cures.
• “What are the events that led to the fall of Roman Empire ?” is one of the more common history essay questions.
• Summary of the achievements of the American civil rights movement can provide an impression of what a dream of one man could do.
• An argumentative essay topic about the value of public communication can be chosen and created by using examples from the world history.
• A paper on the music of ancient civilizations can shine a light on prehistoric cultures.
• Your project can be about the anti-fascist activists in the US before WW II .
• It is possible for high school students to write about the events of the year when they were born .
• A thematic paper answering the question “ what started the worst wars in world history? ” could compare and contrast different wars to find similar causes and effects.
• The hippie culture of the 1960s can be presented as a response to the events of the era.
• Also, the fashion of hippies can be explored in your project with examples of real clothing.
• The New Wave movement in cinema was revolutionary for its time and can be an interesting essay topic.
• The same could be said about the New Wave genre of music that became popular in the 1980s.

• Another music genre that captured the imagination of the public can be explored in an essay on the history of rock music .
• History of propaganda in films can help explore some pivotal moments in world history.
• Canadian history of sport is an interesting topic to explain why hockey is so popular in the Great White North.
• Economics of sport throughout history may also interest the reader due to the massive commercial expansion of sport in recent decades.
• Education during the renaissance was booming and could serve as a great topic for an essay.
• Education during the middle ages was rare and could contrast the previous topic.
• The justifications that the US used for the drop of the nuclear bombs during World War II is a controversial topic but an interesting one.
• American involvement in the Korean War is an often overlooked topic, but it deserves attention.
• To show how turbulent history of a single country may be, the causes and effects of the military coups in Nigeria could be fascinating.
• The war between Iran and Iraq could be seen as one of the most critical proxy wars of the modern history.
• The space race was an iconic element of the Cold War, and it is related to many history essay topics.
• Events that led to the rise of the Saudi Arabia can show how fast a country can develop when money is not an issue.
• The British music invasion into the US market has had a significant effect on American music and can be an interesting topic.
• History of American worker unions could serve as a topical essay in today’s political climate.
• The process of reparations for the Maori people in New Zealand in a rare success story of an ex-British colonial country making up for the discrimination its natives endured.
• Roman graffiti is a lighthearted topic that describes a less discussed aspect of Roman culture.
• The gender roles of Roman society can be compared and contrasted with the gender roles of the people of Gaul that often fought each other.
• The prominent figures of the American Revolution include a great variety of people who would later compose the most important documents of the US.
• A compare and contrast essay about the similarities of American and Bolshevik revolutions can show how the most prominent opponents of the Cold War had similar beginnings.
• The history of Japanese isolationism could be interesting to explore as a unique moment in world history.
• The Millerites believed that the world would end on a specific date, but it only led to the events known as “The Great Disappointment” which could make for a great history topic.
• The Carnation Revolution of 1974 was an almost bloodless coup and represents one of the few examples of peaceful transitions to democracy.
• The golden age of piracy is an interesting topic about an era that is often glamorized in fiction.
• The Copper Country Strike was one of the most tragic cases of death due to anti-strike action, and its events are still discussed today.
• The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre was a gruesome murder committed in broad daylight and emblematic of the gangster activity of the era.
• The Yalta Conference was one of the most important events of World War II with British, Soviet, and American leaders discussing post-war plans.
• British colonization of Africa was one of the most tragic; the causes and effects of it could be interesting to examine.

• A paper on the evolution of flight could provide a timeline of marvelous engineering throughout history.
• Operation Paperclip was a secret plan to integrate scientists of Nazi Germany after the end of World War II which events lead to the beginning of the space race.
• Historical events that were predicted in fiction can be one of the more exciting history essay topics.
• African-American music history can be explored to show how oppression influenced culture.
• Biography of Julius Caesar is filled with dramatic events and is one of the most exciting history essay topics.
• Aztec life before the arrival of the colonists was filled with horrible sacrifices and deserves examination.
• The causes and effects of Manifest Destiny are bizarre and tragic by modern standards but were considered righteous in their day.
• You could compare and contrast the life of the Roman leader Julius Caesar and Nicholas II of Russia because they were almost mirrored images of each other.
• The actions of Churchill led to some of the worst defeats for the British forces during World War I , but are overshadowed by his later leadership.
• The transition from the 50s to 60s fashion can be explored to show the drastic change in the culture of those years.
• The events that led to the emergence of teenage culture after World War II can be outlined.
• The economics of international trade during the Renaissance period can be described to show the complex relationships of Europe.
• American Revolution in film rarely receives accurate portrayals. A look at its depictions can be interesting.
• A paper on the causes and effects of Cold War paranoia could show how quickly people can be overwhelmed by fear.
• Ronald Reagan’ s policy of a winnable nuclear war launched a chain of events that could end the world.
• The diversity of the Roman Empire is a rarely explored topic and could lead to an interesting paper.
• Medieval medicine is a fascinating topic. It combines the ideas from Ancient Greece and Rome, pagan medicine, and many religious superstitions.
• Another interesting history topic is the history of dystopian art . In turbulent times, it may be especially fascinating to trace the development of dystopian art and see what shaped the ideas of dystopian worlds in different eras. Moreover, you may find it interesting to see the predictions about the modern era in dystopian literature and cinema.
• Medicine in the early XX century is an excellent topic for an essay. At the turn of the century, there was a major change in the way people treated medical technology , hygiene, and chemistry. Groundbreaking achievements, such as the discovery of X-rays and penicillin , shaped modern medicine as we know it.
• The history of video games is an exciting essay topic. See how video games developed from the most primitive forms into the glorious, hyper-realistic works of art that we enjoy now.
• The history of quantum mechanics is a history topic that can teach us a lot about the world around us. You can write about the groundbreaking experiments that changed the way we think about nature, and learn about great minds who were not afraid to question even the most fundamental laws of physics.
• Alternatively, you can write about the development of astronomy . Another fascinating scientific field that can show us how people in different eras were discovering the beauty and complexity of the Universe .
• Similarly, you can write about the history of evolutionary theory . All ancient cultures had their ideas about the origin of life. See how Darwin’s idea of natural selection revolutionized not just science, but human thought in general.
• Another outstanding example of a revolution of human thought is the history of psychology. From the ancient idea of spirits and possession to the groundbreaking ideas of Freud and the discovery of conditioning – see how the cultural perception of the human psyche changed over time.
• A topic closely related to the current issues, pandemics that changed history can be explored to see the effects of epidemics on nature, science, and society as a whole. It may also be interesting to write about how viral infections spread around the world.
• The history of transport is a fascinating topic. Starting from the earliest of times, humans are continually developing new ways of traveling as far and safe as possible. See how technology evolved from the discovery of a wheel to rocket science, and how it changed history and the world around us.
• The history of the punk subculture is an excellent topic for presentation. Show how punk philosophy, fashion, and music changed the culture in the U.K. and around the world.
• Another interesting research topic for high school students is the Great Depression . Learn what caused the severe economic crisis, and what socio-economic effects it had on countries all around the world.
• From the first settlements built by ex-convicts to the outbreaks of smallpox and aboriginal resistance – the history of Australia is full of dramatic events and stories that we can learn a lot from.
• Or you can choose the exploration of Africa as the subject of your history essay. The story of two extraordinary individuals in search of a path into the heart of the continent inspired the novel Heart of Darkness .
• Historical figures in Shakespeare’s plays is a great history research paper topic. You could compare the lives of real historical figures, such as Julius Caesar and Henry V , to those of their fictional counterparts.
• Voyages of Christopher Columbus is one of the most critical events in history before 1500. While the discovery of the New World had an enormous influence on the colonization era, Columbus’s legacy remains controversial.
• Or you can write an essay on Hernán Cortés , a pivotal figure in the colonization of South America. His actions against native civilizations are highly controversial, and his life story is full of myths and mysteries.
• The Civil War was the defining event in the U.S. history before 1877. It had an enormous impact on American society and led to major changes in the Constitution.
• One of the world history topics that everyone needs to know about is the culture and society of ancient Greece . Incredible art, philosophy, politics, and scientific ideas of the ancient Greeks continue to inspire us today.
• Similarly, an essay on the Greek Dark Ages can shine a light on the fall of the great civilization. It is also the period during which Homer’s famous poems Odyssey and Iliad were composed.
• Chivalry in the Middle Ages is an interesting history topic, and it is often romanticized. Learn about the chivalric code, tournaments, and epic legends about famous Medieval knights.
• Also, it may be interesting to write a world history essay on King Arthur . Explore the real events that inspired stories about the legendary British leader and the Knights of the Round Table.
• The history of Easter Island is a very intriguing history topic. You can talk about the mysteries surrounding the culture, language, and the eventual demise of the inhabitants of one of the world’s most isolated islands.
• The history of nuclear weapons is an excellent controversial topic for an essay and a discussion. The stories of research, development, and the use of atomic bombs can be used as cautionary tales for people today.
• From cave paintings and letters to telephone and the Internet – the history of communication is one of the best topics for a research paper. See how the means of communication evolved throughout human history.
• Also, the history of the Internet can be explored in your research paper. What was initially created for research and military use became one of the defining elements of modern life.
• The history of animation is an interesting topic for high school students. Learn about the evolution of animation – from the ancient Egyptian murals depicting motion to the first CGI cartoons and everything in-between.
• The history of museums has many exciting twists and turns. Discover how people of different eras were preserving art and other extraordinary objects. Also, it may be interesting to learn about the most significant art thefts in history.
• The history of cosmetics is an excellent topic for a research paper with a presentation. See how makeup was used in different eras, what it was made of, and how historical figures influenced makeup trends of the past epochs.
• Amelia Earhart is a wonderful role model whose life you can research in your history essay. She was an aviator pioneer and a best-selling author. Her disappearance in 1937 remains a mystery.
• History of Eurovision song contest is a lighthearted topic with serious political undertones. It was originally intended to unite all countries of post-war Europe in one song contest, broadcast live on television.
• The history of theater is a fascinating subject for a research paper. Theater first appeared in Ancient Greece, went through significant changes during the Renaissance, and it remains a popular art form that covers many genres.
• The history of the death penalty is an interesting topic for an essay that you can have a discussion about. The death penalty has a fascinating and gruesome history and remains a controversial subject even today.
• You can write an outstanding research paper on the history of whaling . People have been hunting whales since prehistoric times for various reasons, including perfume and candle manufacturing.
• Another exciting world history topic is Gold Rush . While the California Gold Rush is by far the most famous, there were many other cases throughout history, dating as far back as ancient Egypt.
• One of the more mysterious history topics that you can write about is Stonehenge . This majestic stone structure has been for a long time associated with druids. The latest discoveries suggest that it was used as an observatory.
• Maybe an even more mysterious history research paper topic is the Pyramids of Egypt . The only surviving Wonder of the Ancient World, they are some of the largest structures ever built, and their history remains intriguing.
• Or you can choose to write about all the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World ! They are remarkable buildings and constructions, all but one of which are entirely destroyed, and some are speculated to have never existed.
• Similarly, you can write a paper on other beautiful buildings, such as the picturesque Machu Picchu. An iconic citadel of the Inca civilization, it is now considered one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.
• A paper on Joan of Arc can show how one extraordinary individual is capable of changing the course of history. Her life is surrounded by many legends, and she remains a popular subject in art.
• Similarly, you can write about Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address and what impact it had on the entire American nation. Delivered during the Civil War, it is considered to be the greatest speech ever.
• A history research paper on feminism could provide a timeline of the fight for equality. Closely connected to the current issues, this topic covers everything from the women’s suffrage movement to the modern Women’s Marches .
• One of the most exciting history topics that everyone needs to know about is the Minoan Civilization – the first highly advanced society in Europe. You can talk about its discovery in the late XIX, the incredible art of Knossos, and its numerous legends, including the famous Labyrinth.
• You can choose to write an essay on history of Indigenous Australians . The timeline of first humans populating Australia is full of mysteries, and their culture remains fascinating.
• An interesting essay can be written on the earliest universities . They were founded long before 1500 in Asia and Africa for educating government officials, and are a fascinating subject to explore.
• You can write an exciting research paper on Alexandria – a city in Egypt founded by Alexander the Great. In ancient times, it was a city like no other, and had an enormous influence on the Mediterranean culture.
• Middle Ages are full of interesting history topics – for example, you can choose to write about medieval magic. From alchemy and astrology to inquisition and witch trials, it’s an existing subject to explore.
• One of the best topics on the history of explorations is the North Pole expeditions . It is full of dramatic events, and it took numerous failed attempts until the North Pole was finally reached in the XX century.
• The first English settlements in America are among the essential parts of the U.S. history before 1877. It includes stories of hardships of the first settlers, bad weather, hunger, and conflicts with native inhabitants.
• Napoleon is an incredibly interesting historical figure. You can write a stunning paper on the rise and fall of his empire.

• You can focus on a specific era in your essay – for example, Victorian England. This period of history, both fascinating and terrifying, still inspires countless novels, movies, and T.V. series.
• Titanic is an excellent topic for an essay and a discussion. A cautionary tale about a luxurious ship that sank due to criminal negligence.
• Death of the Romanovs is an interesting history topic that is still being investigated. This gruesome story inspired many myths, including that of the survival of Anastasia.
• Similarly, you can choose an essay on the assassination of J.F. Kennedy . Learn about what caused it and what long-term effects it had on the American nation.
• Similarly, the assassination of Martin Luther King was an enormous tragedy for the whole country. The circumstances of this event are still not entirely clear, and there are several different theories as to what happened.
• Chernobyl disaster is a fascinating topic that is very popular today. See what led to the tragedy, and what long-term consequences it had on nature and society.
• The fall of the Berlin Wall is a crucial event in modern history. You can write about life in GDR and FRG prior to the fall of the Wall and compare it to what happened afterward.
• Another history topic that you can choose for your essay is the history of berserkers. These Old Norse warriors were fighting in what’s often described as a trans-like state, and their name became synonymous with uncontrolled rage.
• Education in the modern world. The new opportunities of the globalized world influence quality and expectations towards studying. A historical essay can analyze the significant inventions that impacted education. For example, you may focus on the Internet .
• South African Apartheid . The racial segregation regime threw South Africa into poverty and conflicts. Your essay might discuss the historical events that led it. Or you can trace the Apartheid’s timeline from setting to abolishment.
• The founding of the United Nations . The organization’s support of equal human rights is crucial for modern society. The history of the UN is a broad topic with many key events. You may also study the influence of countries such as the USSR on its establishment.
• Cultural trends during World War II. Music, fashion, and art reflected humanity’s hopes and fears of the world. They also supported people when life was tough. In a research paper, you can choose and describe specific examples. Discuss the impact of entertainment during that period, or compare it to World War I.
• The creation of the United States’ Constitution is an interesting US history essay topic. The road to the first national frame of government includes many events. You can analyze the contents of the original Constitution articles based on their drafts.
• Changes in European economies following the discovery of America . After Columbus’ return from his journey, the most powerful empires started to occupy new lands. Later, economic progress led the world to its current conditions. An essay that highlights these milestones can be fascinating!
• Fight against terrorism . After September 11, 2001, the world enforced its war on terrorism. Governments applied measures such as peacemaking interventions to unstable areas. A historical assignment might include the most significant attacks. You can also discuss the UN’s campaigns against terrorism under this topic.
• Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The attacks were crucial events that finished World War II . Your essay might address the events that led to the attacks. Discuss if there could have been other ways of stopping Japan’s aggression.
• Urbanization in the US is an interesting essay topic. The most significant change took place in the 19th century. The railroads connected the whole country, and trading opportunities grew. Discuss why people moved from rural areas to cities and the consequences of it.
• History of railroads in the United States. Broad territories were the major obstacles to American economic development. In 1827, the first railway journey took place in the US. The roads were rapidly built during the following century. A discussion these events is a fun historical assignment topic.
• Immigration and scientific progress in the 20th century. Back then, thousands of Europeans were forced to migrate to the US. Many of them were responsible for important discoveries and inventions. Discuss its effect of immigration on science and technology in a historical essay.
• The three most important inventions of the 19th century. The 1800s are full of creations that changed humanity’s history. Typewriters, bicycles, and telephones were first made in that period. For an essay, you can pick the inventions based on their historical value.
• The stock market crash in 1929 was the worst experience for the industrialized world at the time. Entertainment during the Great Depression played an essential role in supporting America. It is also an interesting historical topic to write about.
• The history behind today’s foreign affairs . Despite prolonged peace, governments still have political disagreements. Choose two conflicting countries and identify the events that led to the current situation.
• The history of the LGBTQ community in the United States. Modern American society praises equity and respects the rights of minority groups. However, it wasn’t always like this. LGBTQ is a broad discussion topic influenced by past events. It might also be interesting to compare the US community to the European one.
• The global financial crisis of 2008 is a great modern history essay topic . An economy can crash for multiple reasons. If it happens worldwide, the effects are severe. An argumentative essay can be a basis for analyzing the causes of the crisis. Compare it to other economic disasters such as the Great Depression.
• Cultural progress led humanity to important social developments. One of them is the legalization of same-sex marriages . Historical analysis can include a timeline of such marriages. Social activism related to the topic is an excellent basis for an essay.
• The Holocaust . One of the darkest events in the 20th century’s history is the European Jews’ genocide . Analyze the chain of events leading to it in a historical essay. How did it impact human rights enforcement during the post-war period?
• Space exploration in the 21st century is a historical topic that develops right now. Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin was founded in 2000, and Elon Musk started SpaceX in 2002. An essay can highlight the milestones of space exploration after the Cold War.
• The history of Thanksgiving . Pilgrims established the holiday based on celebrating the harvest. Discuss the tradition’s roots and the impact of English colonists on American culture . An essay can also describe similar feasts around the world.
• Another good history essay topic is Antarctica. The impactful exploration of ice lands only began in the late 19th century. Today, scientists study Antarctica’s land, resources, and animals. Trace the past events and discoveries of the region in your historical essay.
• The history of infections. Our lives have changed in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. There were similar events in the past, where plague and flu diseases killed millions of people. A comparison can help you learn about the development of today’s healthcare practices.
• Women’s suffrage . In August 1920, the US Congress ratified the 19th Amendment that gave women the right to vote. Many campaigns and protests preceded the event. The perception of women by society started transforming since then. An essay might describe the challenges leading to these changes.
• History of the Olympic Games is a fascinating topic for middle school . The legacy of ancient Greece was revived only in the 19th century. Study the events that took place throughout the Olympic Games’ history.
• If you need a world history essay topic, try writing about the International Red Cross . In 1863, Swiss businessman Henry Dunant established the Red Cross. He was influenced by the terrifying experience of seeing thousands of wounded men at war. A persuasive essay can highlight the organization’s historical importance.
• Weapon development during World War II . Military weapons contributed to technological progress in the 20th century. A research paper might focus on the weapons invented during the War. You can also discuss the impact of military innovations on post-war life.
• An essay on Korean history can analyze how one nation can change if divided into separate regimes. North and South Korea started making peace only in 2018. Try and determine the reasons for the 1948 separation and political instability.
• Ku Klux Klan as a resistance movement is an important topic. Four million citizens nationwide joined the group in the 1920s. Such popularity revealed the demand for change. Your historical essay might include crucial outcomes of Klan’s activities. A comparison to the medieval inquisition might lead to interesting conclusions.
• Globalization is another excellent history essay topic for high school students. The world has never had so many cultural and economic connections as it does today. Your essay can go through historical events that caused globalization . Or, you may analyze its benefits and downsides.
• History of climate change . In 2009, the UN Climate Change Conference stated that the world is in danger due to human impact on climate. A historical essay can focus on the environmental factors of the topic. Alternatively, you may trace the discoveries and studies about climate change.
• Labor Day is a national holiday first celebrated in the industrial era. It originated in the 19th century when workers spent 12 hours daily to earn the minimum wage. In your historical essay, describe the events that led to the holiday’s creation.
• The history of the American presidency is a broad topic to write about. More than 40 people ruled the country and impacted all facets of America. For example, you may choose to evaluate education under different presidents . You can also compare democrats and republicans as presidents.
• Gutenberg’s printing press invention changed the world. It was as significant in the 15th century as the Internet was for modern history. An essay can reconstruct the events before and after the invention of printing. Its impact on education and the economy are interesting points for discussion.
• The European Union has deep historical roots since the Empire period. An essay about it might cover the timeline of democracy established in Europe. You can highlight the changes that took place in the countries that joined the Union. Alternatively, compare the organization and its aims to other historical alliances.
• Modern religions are an intriguing subject for an essay. Historical events often shape peoples’ beliefs. Discuss why people started updating the main religions in recent decades.
• Population resettlement took place multiple times in human history. For example, thousands of Serbian Albanians were forced to flee Kosovo during the 1999 conflict. An essay that describes a migration can include the reasons for it. Compare it to similar occurrences, and discuss its outcomes.
• Ancient architecture is the most incredible legacy cherished by generations. Design patterns and colors of creations reflect the periods they were built in. For your essay, choose specific examples and mention the events associated with them. Research can include ancient European, Asian, or American architecture.
• Socialism as a political regime significantly impacted world history. Socialist movements took place in Europe and the United States. The Soviet Union was established under its conditions. Choose this interesting 20th-century essay topic and describe a country affected by socialism. For example, China is still ruled by that regime.
• History of democracy in Africa . African history includes centuries of foreign occupation. Yet, its countries have recently started getting deserved independence. Algeria, Morocco, Namibia, and Zimbabwe only got their democratic government in the last 60 years. Historical research can analyze the influence of ex-colonizers on Africa. Or, you may choose a country to describe its journey from a colony to a democracy.
• History of South American countries. Colonizers occupied the regions in South America after Columbus’ journey. You can discuss the conflicts between the land’s native inhabitants and migrants. A research paper may also reveal how the nations were formed by combing two different populations.
• The history behind the petroleum industry is an interesting basis for an essay. Oil defines the UAE and Russia’s economies and has significant influence in politics. Study the formation of the world’s oil industry, or choose one country to explore.
• History of Native American tribes . More than 500 groups of Indigenous Americans lived in the US territories. Each had its own culture and policies. For your essay, gather information about conflicts between the natives and migrants.
• History of vaccination . The development of this practice is an interesting essay topic. You can review the timeline, starting from the 1798 smallpox vaccine .
• History of China . Write an essay that explores the most significant events of the country’s history. An interesting idea is to compare it to other major countries. Moreover, you can discuss the Chinese presence in the World Wars by analyzing its strategies.
• Events that affected the environment. There are many examples of history playing against nature. Think of nuclear bomb explosions, rapid industrialization of the 19th century , and deforestation. Your essay might analyze several such events and provide lessons for the future.
• The history behind popular foods . Migration and global trading helped humanity discover chocolate , potatoes, and coffee . A historical essay can focus on one product and describe what made it famous.
• The Vikings played a significant role in European history. Scandinavians still cherish their traditions and unique culture. Your research might be about their settlements in Scotland, France, and Ireland. Also, you can describe the unique worldview of the Vikings.
• Ancient piracy covers many themes that you can mention in an essay. The first pirates were the Sea Peoples in the 14th century BC. Today, the pirates still exist in politically unstable regions such as Somalia . Your historical paper can include the most significant acts of piracy in ancient times.
• History of money . People have been exchanging goods throughout history. Yet in 770s BC, the Chinese invented the ultimate trading product— money . The historical timeline of the financial systems is an excellent topic for an essay.

Other History Essay Topics

• European motives for expansion & colonization in New World
• “Birth of Modernity” of Renaissance
• Racial tensions and immigration in California
• Gandhi’s innovative renovation of tradition explained
• Colonists’ actions in the pre-revolutionary era
• The French Revolution an outcome of Enlightenment ideas
• The autobiography of St. Ignatius
• Land disputes between native American groups and the United States
• The 1930s generation of Soviet spies and operatives
• The Tea Act and the Coercive Acts: Britain and the colonies
• The Middle Ages as the “Dark Ages”
• The making of the modern Middle East: term definition
• The uniqueness of World War One
• Social structure and lifestyles of the 1960s counterculture
• Depression period and new deal legislation
• United States’ policy of isolationism since the 19th century
• History: Abraham Lincoln’s address in Gettysburg
• The use of armed forces by the United States and its effect
• Radical republicans during the Reconstruction era
• Lincoln’s vs. Davis’ administrations during the war
• Civil War’s impact on Northern and Southern economies
• Consumerism critique in the 1950s-70s
• Lincoln’s plan for Reconstruction and opposition to it
• Women and blacks’ participation in the Civil War
• War of 1812: reasons and outcomes for native communities
• The causes of the Protestant reformation
• Palestinian Liberation Organization’s history
• Ethnographic sketch of Brazilians
• British colonization of America and its results
• What was the purpose of Lee’s plan on Gettysburg?
• The leaders of command for the modern war in 1864
• What did George Washington Thanksgiving proclamation state?
• Post-WWII events that caused loss of faith in American way
• European groups’ motives to migrate to America
• Industrial economics and its social impact on Britain
• Refugee definition development in the 20th century
• Positive things to learn from Medieval culture
• Scientific revolution in Western European civilization
• The Spanish-American war: definition and facts
• The role of violence in the America’s expansion
• Protestant Reformation leaders & Catholic Church’s response
• Asian studies: Takahashi Mutsuo’s “The Snow of Memory”
• Colonization of freedmen: arguments for and against
• Major milestones of the Kyoto treaty and Montreal Protocol
• Progressive Era & New Deal outsiders and corporate ownership
• American progressive movement and its participants
• Steel industry & American history changes in the 1890-1920s
• Anarchist & socialist movements and terrorism
• What is the Third Estate? What role did it play in Revolution?
• The Islamic revolution of 1979 and its main causes
• Conservatism in American life from 1968 to the present
• African American Civil Rights Movement in 1950-1980
• Second World War and the end of colonial rule in Africa
• The main reasons of the American Civil War
• Alexander Graham Bell’s most important day
• History of gangs in America and Utah
• Civil Rights vs. Black Lives Matter movement
• Latin America: national issues
• American ancient people and Skull Wars
• Historical events in history of white people of America
• Reasons of Confederacy’s defeat during Civil War
• Tombs Egypt during the period of 3200 BC to 1200 BC
• Republican Reconstruction and its achievements
• Christians-Rome relationship: persons and events
• Lincoln’s answer to the Emancipation question
• US women’s rights movements in 1850-1900
• The Eighteenth Amendment and Volstead Act
• Japan, China, and the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century
• Capital punishment and African Americans
• Industrial growth during the last 100 years in the US

These are a tiny handful of the wide array of topics that you can write about for history class. When in doubt, always solicit opinions from your professor. (The worst case scenario is that they say no.)

Most importantly:

Receive a plagiarism-free paper tailored to your instructions. Cut 15% off your first order!

Remember, the analysis of historical events is subjective. Two scholars may have vastly unique explanations for a series of historical events unfolding the way they did. Accordingly, try to write from the perspective that your instructors most likely hold. And if you’re unsure, ask them to review a first draft of your essay, or at least talk to them about your thesis statement!

You might also be interested in:

• A List of History Websites for a Perfect Research
• World War 2 Essay Example + Argumentative Topics
• Essay on India after Independence: How-to Guide and Prompts
• 497 Interesting History Topics to Research
• A List of 212 Brilliant Research Proposal Topics to Investigate
• 350 Powerful Feminism & Women’s Rights Topics [2024]
• 430 Philosophy Topics & Questions for Your Essay
• 229 Good Dissertation Topics and Thesis Ideas for Ph.D. & Masters

Historical Essay FAQ

Students are often asked to write on historical topics. Such an essay can be:

1. A description of a persona; 2. An analysis of historical events; 3. An overview of the context of the whole epoch, etc.

In any case, a historical essay deals with a retrospective and requires looking into history.

There are countless interesting topics for essays and research projects. You can look into any epoch from the ancient times up to the present days. Choose something that genuinely fascinates you. You might prefer a controversial issue as it is more exciting to study.

For any research paper, it is essential to create an outline first. Once you’ve identified some key aspects that you want to focus on, write them as bullet points. They will become the Body of your research paper. Don’t forget to add an introduction and a conclusion.

Whether you write about the World, the civil, the cold, the Vietnam, or any other war, be sure to stay as objective as possible. It is a very emotionally charged topic, but you need to refrain from opinionated judgments. Do not resort to direct accusations.

• Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started – Outlining: University of Maryland Global Campus
• Understanding the Subjective Nature of History
• Writing Cause and Effect Papers
• One Hundred Good Research Paper Topics for History Class
• History Topics
• Modern History Resources
• Research Paper Topics About United States History
• The Importance of History Essay
• The Foundation of History
• What is History Essay Examples
• Index: American History
• World History: Encyclopedia Britannica
• Historical Topics: Library of Congress
• American History: Smithsonian Institution
• Political History: Historians.org
• Primary Sources on History: Gale
• History of the UN: United Nations
• Ancient History Encyclopedia: Index
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Astrophysics > High Energy Astrophysical Phenomena

Title: pre-peak emission in tidal disruption events.

Abstract: The rising part of a tidal disruption event light curve provides unique insight into early emission and the onset of accretion. Various mechanisms are proposed to explain the pre-peak emission, including shocks from debris interaction and reprocessing of disk emission. We study the pre-peak emission and its influence on the gas circularization by a series of gray radiation hydrodynamic simulations with varying black hole mass. We find that given a super-Eddington fallback rate of 10\dot{M}_{Edd}, the stream-stream collision can occur multiple times and drive strong outflows of up to 9\dot{M}_{Edd}. By dispersing gas to \gtrsim 100rs, the outflow can delay gas circularization and leads to sub-Eddington accretion rates during the first few stream-stream collisions. The stream-stream collision shock and circularization shock can sustain a luminosity of ~10^{44}erg/s for days. The luminosity is generally sub-Eddington and shows a weak correlation with accretion rate at early time. The outflow is optically thick, yielding a reprocessing layer with a size of ~10^{14} cm and photospheric temperature of ~4\times10^{4}K.

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