evidence for essay example

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How to Introduce Evidence: 41 Effective Phrases & Examples

Research requires us to scrutinize information and assess its credibility. Accordingly, when we think about various phenomena, we examine empirical data and craft detailed explanations justifying our interpretations. An essential component of constructing our research narratives is thus providing supporting evidence and examples.

The type of proof we provide can either bolster our claims or leave readers confused or skeptical of our analysis. Therefore, it’s crucial that we use appropriate, logical phrases that guide readers clearly from one idea to the next. In this article, we explain how evidence and examples should be introduced according to different contexts in academic writing and catalog effective language you can use to support your arguments, examples included.

When to Introduce Evidence and Examples in a Paper

Evidence and examples create the foundation upon which your claims can stand firm. Without proof, your arguments lack credibility and teeth. However, laundry listing evidence is as bad as failing to provide any materials or information that can substantiate your conclusions. Therefore, when you introduce examples, make sure to judiciously provide evidence when needed and use phrases that will appropriately and clearly explain how the proof supports your argument.

There are different types of claims and different types of evidence in writing. You should introduce and link your arguments to evidence when you

• state information that is not “common knowledge”;
• draw conclusions, make inferences, or suggest implications based on specific data;
• need to clarify a prior statement, and it would be more effectively done with an illustration;
• need to identify representative examples of a category;
• desire to distinguish concepts; and
• emphasize a point by highlighting a specific situation.

Introductory Phrases to Use and Their Contexts

To assist you with effectively supporting your statements, we have organized the introductory phrases below according to their function. This list is not exhaustive but will provide you with ideas of the types of phrases you can use.

Although any research author can make use of these helpful phrases and bolster their academic writing by entering them into their work, before submitting to a journal, it is a good idea to let a professional English editing service take a look to ensure that all terms and phrases make sense in the given research context. Wordvice offers paper editing , thesis editing , and dissertation editing services that help elevate your academic language and make your writing more compelling to journal authors and researchers alike.

For more examples of strong verbs for research writing , effective transition words for academic papers , or commonly confused words , head over to the Wordvice Academic Resources website.

What this handout is about

This handout will provide a broad overview of gathering and using evidence. It will help you decide what counts as evidence, put evidence to work in your writing, and determine whether you have enough evidence. It will also offer links to additional resources.

Introduction

Many papers that you write in college will require you to make an argument ; this means that you must take a position on the subject you are discussing and support that position with evidence. It’s important that you use the right kind of evidence, that you use it effectively, and that you have an appropriate amount of it. If, for example, your philosophy professor didn’t like it that you used a survey of public opinion as your primary evidence in your ethics paper, you need to find out more about what philosophers count as good evidence. If your instructor has told you that you need more analysis, suggested that you’re “just listing” points or giving a “laundry list,” or asked you how certain points are related to your argument, it may mean that you can do more to fully incorporate your evidence into your argument. Comments like “for example?,” “proof?,” “go deeper,” or “expand” in the margins of your graded paper suggest that you may need more evidence. Let’s take a look at each of these issues—understanding what counts as evidence, using evidence in your argument, and deciding whether you need more evidence.

What counts as evidence?

Before you begin gathering information for possible use as evidence in your argument, you need to be sure that you understand the purpose of your assignment. If you are working on a project for a class, look carefully at the assignment prompt. It may give you clues about what sorts of evidence you will need. Does the instructor mention any particular books you should use in writing your paper or the names of any authors who have written about your topic? How long should your paper be (longer works may require more, or more varied, evidence)? What themes or topics come up in the text of the prompt? Our handout on understanding writing assignments can help you interpret your assignment. It’s also a good idea to think over what has been said about the assignment in class and to talk with your instructor if you need clarification or guidance.

What matters to instructors?

Instructors in different academic fields expect different kinds of arguments and evidence—your chemistry paper might include graphs, charts, statistics, and other quantitative data as evidence, whereas your English paper might include passages from a novel, examples of recurring symbols, or discussions of characterization in the novel. Consider what kinds of sources and evidence you have seen in course readings and lectures. You may wish to see whether the Writing Center has a handout regarding the specific academic field you’re working in—for example, literature , sociology , or history .

What are primary and secondary sources?

A note on terminology: many researchers distinguish between primary and secondary sources of evidence (in this case, “primary” means “first” or “original,” not “most important”). Primary sources include original documents, photographs, interviews, and so forth. Secondary sources present information that has already been processed or interpreted by someone else. For example, if you are writing a paper about the movie “The Matrix,” the movie itself, an interview with the director, and production photos could serve as primary sources of evidence. A movie review from a magazine or a collection of essays about the film would be secondary sources. Depending on the context, the same item could be either a primary or a secondary source: if I am writing about people’s relationships with animals, a collection of stories about animals might be a secondary source; if I am writing about how editors gather diverse stories into collections, the same book might now function as a primary source.

Where can I find evidence?

Here are some examples of sources of information and tips about how to use them in gathering evidence. Ask your instructor if you aren’t sure whether a certain source would be appropriate for your paper.

Print and electronic sources

Books, journals, websites, newspapers, magazines, and documentary films are some of the most common sources of evidence for academic writing. Our handout on evaluating print sources will help you choose your print sources wisely, and the library has a tutorial on evaluating both print sources and websites. A librarian can help you find sources that are appropriate for the type of assignment you are completing. Just visit the reference desk at Davis or the Undergraduate Library or chat with a librarian online (the library’s IM screen name is undergradref).

Observation

Sometimes you can directly observe the thing you are interested in, by watching, listening to, touching, tasting, or smelling it. For example, if you were asked to write about Mozart’s music, you could listen to it; if your topic was how businesses attract traffic, you might go and look at window displays at the mall.

An interview is a good way to collect information that you can’t find through any other type of research. An interview can provide an expert’s opinion, biographical or first-hand experiences, and suggestions for further research.

Surveys allow you to find out some of what a group of people thinks about a topic. Designing an effective survey and interpreting the data you get can be challenging, so it’s a good idea to check with your instructor before creating or administering a survey.

Experiments

Experimental data serve as the primary form of scientific evidence. For scientific experiments, you should follow the specific guidelines of the discipline you are studying. For writing in other fields, more informal experiments might be acceptable as evidence. For example, if you want to prove that food choices in a cafeteria are affected by gender norms, you might ask classmates to undermine those norms on purpose and observe how others react. What would happen if a football player were eating dinner with his teammates and he brought a small salad and diet drink to the table, all the while murmuring about his waistline and wondering how many fat grams the salad dressing contained?

Personal experience

Using your own experiences can be a powerful way to appeal to your readers. You should, however, use personal experience only when it is appropriate to your topic, your writing goals, and your audience. Personal experience should not be your only form of evidence in most papers, and some disciplines frown on using personal experience at all. For example, a story about the microscope you received as a Christmas gift when you were nine years old is probably not applicable to your biology lab report.

Using evidence in an argument

Does evidence speak for itself.

Absolutely not. After you introduce evidence into your writing, you must say why and how this evidence supports your argument. In other words, you have to explain the significance of the evidence and its function in your paper. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has with a larger claim or argument: evidence is always evidence for or against something, and you have to make that link clear.

As writers, we sometimes assume that our readers already know what we are talking about; we may be wary of elaborating too much because we think the point is obvious. But readers can’t read our minds: although they may be familiar with many of the ideas we are discussing, they don’t know what we are trying to do with those ideas unless we indicate it through explanations, organization, transitions, and so forth. Try to spell out the connections that you were making in your mind when you chose your evidence, decided where to place it in your paper, and drew conclusions based on it. Remember, you can always cut prose from your paper later if you decide that you are stating the obvious.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself about a particular bit of evidence:

• OK, I’ve just stated this point, but so what? Why is it interesting? Why should anyone care?
• What does this information imply?
• What are the consequences of thinking this way or looking at a problem this way?
• I’ve just described what something is like or how I see it, but why is it like that?
• I’ve just said that something happens—so how does it happen? How does it come to be the way it is?
• Why is this information important? Why does it matter?
• How is this idea related to my thesis? What connections exist between them? Does it support my thesis? If so, how does it do that?
• Can I give an example to illustrate this point?

Answering these questions may help you explain how your evidence is related to your overall argument.

How can I incorporate evidence into my paper?

There are many ways to present your evidence. Often, your evidence will be included as text in the body of your paper, as a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Sometimes you might include graphs, charts, or tables; excerpts from an interview; or photographs or illustrations with accompanying captions.

When you quote, you are reproducing another writer’s words exactly as they appear on the page. Here are some tips to help you decide when to use quotations:

• Quote if you can’t say it any better and the author’s words are particularly brilliant, witty, edgy, distinctive, a good illustration of a point you’re making, or otherwise interesting.
• Quote if you are using a particularly authoritative source and you need the author’s expertise to back up your point.
• Quote if you are analyzing diction, tone, or a writer’s use of a specific word or phrase.
• Quote if you are taking a position that relies on the reader’s understanding exactly what another writer says about the topic.

Be sure to introduce each quotation you use, and always cite your sources. See our handout on quotations for more details on when to quote and how to format quotations.

Like all pieces of evidence, a quotation can’t speak for itself. If you end a paragraph with a quotation, that may be a sign that you have neglected to discuss the importance of the quotation in terms of your argument. It’s important to avoid “plop quotations,” that is, quotations that are just dropped into your paper without any introduction, discussion, or follow-up.

Paraphrasing

When you paraphrase, you take a specific section of a text and put it into your own words. Putting it into your own words doesn’t mean just changing or rearranging a few of the author’s words: to paraphrase well and avoid plagiarism, try setting your source aside and restating the sentence or paragraph you have just read, as though you were describing it to another person. Paraphrasing is different than summary because a paraphrase focuses on a particular, fairly short bit of text (like a phrase, sentence, or paragraph). You’ll need to indicate when you are paraphrasing someone else’s text by citing your source correctly, just as you would with a quotation.

When might you want to paraphrase?

• Paraphrase when you want to introduce a writer’s position, but their original words aren’t special enough to quote.
• Paraphrase when you are supporting a particular point and need to draw on a certain place in a text that supports your point—for example, when one paragraph in a source is especially relevant.
• Paraphrase when you want to present a writer’s view on a topic that differs from your position or that of another writer; you can then refute writer’s specific points in your own words after you paraphrase.
• Paraphrase when you want to comment on a particular example that another writer uses.
• Paraphrase when you need to present information that’s unlikely to be questioned.

When you summarize, you are offering an overview of an entire text, or at least a lengthy section of a text. Summary is useful when you are providing background information, grounding your own argument, or mentioning a source as a counter-argument. A summary is less nuanced than paraphrased material. It can be the most effective way to incorporate a large number of sources when you don’t have a lot of space. When you are summarizing someone else’s argument or ideas, be sure this is clear to the reader and cite your source appropriately.

Statistics, data, charts, graphs, photographs, illustrations

Sometimes the best evidence for your argument is a hard fact or visual representation of a fact. This type of evidence can be a solid backbone for your argument, but you still need to create context for your reader and draw the connections you want them to make. Remember that statistics, data, charts, graph, photographs, and illustrations are all open to interpretation. Guide the reader through the interpretation process. Again, always, cite the origin of your evidence if you didn’t produce the material you are using yourself.

Do I need more evidence?

Let’s say that you’ve identified some appropriate sources, found some evidence, explained to the reader how it fits into your overall argument, incorporated it into your draft effectively, and cited your sources. How do you tell whether you’ve got enough evidence and whether it’s working well in the service of a strong argument or analysis? Here are some techniques you can use to review your draft and assess your use of evidence.

Make a reverse outline

A reverse outline is a great technique for helping you see how each paragraph contributes to proving your thesis. When you make a reverse outline, you record the main ideas in each paragraph in a shorter (outline-like) form so that you can see at a glance what is in your paper. The reverse outline is helpful in at least three ways. First, it lets you see where you have dealt with too many topics in one paragraph (in general, you should have one main idea per paragraph). Second, the reverse outline can help you see where you need more evidence to prove your point or more analysis of that evidence. Third, the reverse outline can help you write your topic sentences: once you have decided what you want each paragraph to be about, you can write topic sentences that explain the topics of the paragraphs and state the relationship of each topic to the overall thesis of the paper.

For tips on making a reverse outline, see our handout on organization .

Color code your paper

You will need three highlighters or colored pencils for this exercise. Use one color to highlight general assertions. These will typically be the topic sentences in your paper. Next, use another color to highlight the specific evidence you provide for each assertion (including quotations, paraphrased or summarized material, statistics, examples, and your own ideas). Lastly, use another color to highlight analysis of your evidence. Which assertions are key to your overall argument? Which ones are especially contestable? How much evidence do you have for each assertion? How much analysis? In general, you should have at least as much analysis as you do evidence, or your paper runs the risk of being more summary than argument. The more controversial an assertion is, the more evidence you may need to provide in order to persuade your reader.

Play devil’s advocate, act like a child, or doubt everything

This technique may be easiest to use with a partner. Ask your friend to take on one of the roles above, then read your paper aloud to them. After each section, pause and let your friend interrogate you. If your friend is playing devil’s advocate, they will always take the opposing viewpoint and force you to keep defending yourself. If your friend is acting like a child, they will question every sentence, even seemingly self-explanatory ones. If your friend is a doubter, they won’t believe anything you say. Justifying your position verbally or explaining yourself will force you to strengthen the evidence in your paper. If you already have enough evidence but haven’t connected it clearly enough to your main argument, explaining to your friend how the evidence is relevant or what it proves may help you to do so.

Common questions and additional resources

• I have a general topic in mind; how can I develop it so I’ll know what evidence I need? And how can I get ideas for more evidence? See our handout on brainstorming .
• Who can help me find evidence on my topic? Check out UNC Libraries .
• I’m writing for a specific purpose; how can I tell what kind of evidence my audience wants? See our handouts on audience , writing for specific disciplines , and particular writing assignments .
• How should I read materials to gather evidence? See our handout on reading to write .
• How can I make a good argument? Check out our handouts on argument and thesis statements .
• How do I tell if my paragraphs and my paper are well-organized? Review our handouts on paragraph development , transitions , and reorganizing drafts .
• How do I quote my sources and incorporate those quotes into my text? Our handouts on quotations and avoiding plagiarism offer useful tips.
• How do I cite my evidence? See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .
• I think that I’m giving evidence, but my instructor says I’m using too much summary. How can I tell? Check out our handout on using summary wisely.
• I want to use personal experience as evidence, but can I say “I”? We have a handout on when to use “I.”

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 2016. Everything’s an Argument , 7th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Miller, Richard E., and Kurt Spellmeyer. 2016. The New Humanities Reader , 5th ed. Boston: Cengage.

University of Maryland. 2019. “Research Using Primary Sources.” Research Guides. Last updated October 28, 2019. https://lib.guides.umd.edu/researchusingprimarysources .

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Writing Tutorial Services

Using evidence.

Like a lawyer in a jury trial, a writer must convince her audience of the validity of her argument by using evidence effectively. As a writer, you must also use evidence to persuade your readers to accept your claims. But how do you use evidence to your advantage? By leading your reader through your reasoning.

The types of evidence you use change from discipline to discipline--you might use quotations from a poem or a literary critic, for example, in a literature paper; you might use data from an experiment in a lab report.

The process of putting together your argument is called analysis --it interprets evidence in order to support, test, and/or refine a claim . The chief claim in an analytical essay is called the thesis . A thesis provides the controlling idea for a paper and should be original (that is, not completely obvious), assertive, and arguable. A strong thesis also requires solid evidence to support and develop it because without evidence, a claim is merely an unsubstantiated idea or opinion.

This Web page will cover these basic issues (you can click or scroll down to a particular topic):

• Incorporating evidence effectively.
• Integrating quotations smoothly.
• Citing your sources.

Incorporating Evidence Into Your Essay

When should you incorporate evidence.

Once you have formulated your claim, your thesis (see the WTS pamphlet, " How to Write a Thesis Statement ," for ideas and tips), you should use evidence to help strengthen your thesis and any assertion you make that relates to your thesis. Here are some ways to work evidence into your writing:

• Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.
• Present evidence that contradicts your stance, and then argue against (refute) that evidence and therefore strengthen your position.
• Use sources against each other, as if they were experts on a panel discussing your proposition.
• Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim.

Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence

In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your essay by following this pattern:

• State your claim.
• Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
• Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim.

To see the differences between strong and weak uses of evidence, here are two paragraphs.

Weak use of evidence

Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Everything is about what we want.

This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn't explain the connection.

The same evidence can be used to support the same claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim and evidence, and some analysis of the evidence cited.

Stronger use of evidence

Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.

This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim.

Using Quotations: A Special Type of Evidence

One effective way to support your claim is to use quotations. However, because quotations involve someone else's words, you need to take special care to integrate this kind of evidence into your essay. Here are two examples using quotations, one less effective and one more so.

Ineffective Use of Quotation

Today, we are too self-centered. "We are consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity" (Gleick 148). Everything is about what we want.

This example is ineffective because the quotation is not integrated with the writer's ideas. Notice how the writer has dropped the quotation into the paragraph without making any connection between it and the claim. Furthermore, she has not discussed the quotation's significance, which makes it difficult for the reader to see the relationship between the evidence and the writer's point.

A More Effective Use of Quotation

Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much any more as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence, as James Gleick says in his book, Faster . "We are consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity" (148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.

The second example is more effective because it follows the guidelines for incorporating evidence into an essay. Notice, too, that it uses a lead-in phrase (". . . as James Gleick says in his book, Faster ") to introduce the direct quotation. This lead-in phrase helps to integrate the quotation with the writer's ideas. Also notice that the writer discusses and comments upon the quotation immediately afterwards, which allows the reader to see the quotation's connection to the writer's point.

REMEMBER: Discussing the significance of your evidence develops and expands your paper!

Citing Your Sources

Evidence appears in essays in the form of quotations and paraphrasing. Both forms of evidence must be cited in your text. Citing evidence means distinguishing other writers' information from your own ideas and giving credit to your sources. There are plenty of general ways to do citations. Note both the lead-in phrases and the punctuation (except the brackets) in the following examples:

Quoting: According to Source X, "[direct quotation]" ([date or page #]).

Paraphrasing: Although Source Z argues that [his/her point in your own words], a better way to view the issue is [your own point] ([citation]).

Summarizing: In her book, Source P's main points are Q, R, and S [citation].

Your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and are the most effective way of interpreting the evidence.

Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper

• Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
• Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
• Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
• Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper's main claims?
• Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
• Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

Produced by Writing Tutorial Services, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN

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6 Types of Evidence in Writing

Writing an essay is a lot like participating in a debate. You have a main point that you want to make, and you need to support it. So, the question is: how do you support your main point?

The best way is to provide evidence.

Evidence can come from many sources and take many forms, but generally speaking, there are six types of evidence.

Each type of evidence may carry more weight than others. Choosing which type of evidence to use depends on the purpose of the essay and the audience.

For example, for essays in psychology or sociology that will be read by professors, evidence from research papers and statistics will be suitable, and expected.

However, if writing for the general public, evidence in the form of quotes from experts or testimonials from people involved in the subject may be more effective.

Ideally, it is good to have a mix of the different types of evidence so that the essay is well-rounded.

Using various types of evidence also shows the reader that you have researched the topic thoroughly. That will add credibility to the essay as a whole and instill an impression that the author is competent and trustworthy.

Here is a brief description of the six main types of evidence.

You Might Also Like: Transition Words for Providing Evidence in Essays

Types of Evidence in Writing

1. anecdotal evidence.

Anecdotal evidence comes from personal experience. It can involve a story about something that happened to you, or an observation you made about friends, relatives, or other people.

An informal interview with someone affected by the topic you are writing about is also a form of anecdotal evidence. That interview may have been conducted by the author of the essay or presented on a news program.

Although it is not considered very strong evidence, it does have a purpose. Describing a personal experience early in the essay can help establish context, show relevance of the subject, or be a way to build a connection with the audience.

In some cases, anecdotal evidence can be quite effective. It can reveal deeply personal or emotional elements of a phenomenon that are very compelling. Not all essays need to be full of scientific references and statistics to be effective at making a point.

See More: 19 Anecdotal Evidence Examples

2. Testimonial Evidence

Offering the opinion of an expert is referred to as testimonial evidence. Their opinion can come from an interview or quote from a book or paper they authored.

The words of someone who is considered an expert in a subject can provide a lot of support to the point you are trying to make. It adds strength and shows that what you are saying is not just your opinion, but is also the opinion of someone that is recognized and respected in the subject.

If that expert has an advanced degree from a notable university, such as Princeton or Stanford, then make sure the reader knows that. Similarly, if they are the president or director of an institution that is heavily involved in the subject, then be sure to include those credentials as well.

If your essay is for an academic course, use proper citation. This often involves indicating the year of the quote, where it was published, and the page number where the quote comes from.

Finally, if quoting an expert, choose the quote carefully. Experts sometimes use language that is overly complex or contains jargon that many readers may not understand. Limiting the quote to 1 or 2 sentences is also a good idea.

3. Statistical Evidence

Statistical evidence involves presenting numbers that support your point. Statistics can be used to demonstrate the prevalence and seriousness of a phenomenon.

When used early in the essay, it informs the reader as to how important the topic is and can be an effective way to get the reader’s attention.

For example, citing the number of people that die each year because they weren’t wearing a seat belt, or the number of children suffering from malnutrition, tells the reader that the topic is serious.

In addition to stating statistics in the body of the essay, including a graph or two will help make the point easier to understand. A picture can be worth a thousand words also applies to graphs and charts.

Graphs and charts also create a sense of credibility and add an extra punch of strength to your arguments.

Statistics can also be used to counter common misconceptions. This is a good way to clear the air right away regarding an issue that may not be well understood or in which there has been a lot of misinformation presented previously.

When presenting statistics, establish credibility by citing the source. Make sure that source is reputable. Scientific publications or well-respected organizations such as the CDC are good examples.

If your essay is for an academic assignment, then be sure to follow the publication guidelines for that discipline. Papers in business, sociology, and law have different rules for how to cite sources.

As persuasive as statistics can be, beware that many readers may be suspicious. There is a belief among some people that statistics are often faked or manipulated. This is due, in part, to many people not understanding the peer-review process that occurs before scientific papers are published.

4. Textual Evidence

Textual evidence comes directly from a source document. This could be a literary work or historical document. It is frequently used in an argumentative essay or as part of a compare-and-contrast type of academic assignment.

For example, if conducting a character analysis of a character in a novel, then identifying key sentences that provide examples of their personality will help support your analysis.

There are several ways of incorporating textual evidence: quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing.

Quoting statements from the character themselves can be used to demonstrate their thought processes or personality flaws. Likewise, using the words of the author that describe the character will add support to your premise.

Paraphrasing involves conveying the points in the source document by using your own words. There is usually a degree of correspondence between the amount of text in the document and the paraphrased version. In other words, if your paraphrased version is longer than the section in the source document, then you should try again.

Summarizing involves condensing the text in the source document to its main points and highlighting the key takeaways you want the reader to focus on.

5. Analogical Evidence

An analogy is an example of a situation, but presented in a different context. Using an analogy is a great way to explain a complicated issue that is simpler and easier to digest.

Medical doctors often use analogies to describe health-related issues. For example, they might say that getting a yearly medical exam from your primary physician is like taking your car to the mechanic once a year to make sure everything is running okay.

One rule of thumb about analogies is that the simpler they are, the more easily understood. The analogy should have a degree of similarity with the issue being discussed, but, at the same time, be a bit different as well. Sorry about that; it’s a balance.

Be careful not to use an analogy that is too far-fetched. For example, comparing the human body to the universe is too much of a stretch. This might confuse the reader, make them feel frustrated because they don’t see the connection, and/or cause them to lose interest.

6. Hypothetical Evidence

Hypothetical evidence is presenting the reader with a “what if” kind of scenario. This is a great way to get the reader to consider possibilities that they may not have thought of previously.

One way to present a hypothetical is to pair it with a credible statistic. Ask the reader to consider what might happen in the context of those numbers.

Another strategy is to restate one of your arguments, and then present a hypothetical that aligns with that point. For example, if what you are saying is true, then X, Y, and Z may occur.

By providing a concrete hypothetical scenario, people can imagine what could happen. Opening a person’s mindset can be the first step towards an effective and persuasive essay.

There are many examples in history of phenomenon that people never thought possible, but later turned out to materialize. For example, climate change.

In the early days of climate science, the evidence was not readily available to a convincing degree to persuade the general public. However, extrapolating into the future through the use of hypotheticals can help people consider the possibility of fossil fuels causing climate crises.

The emotional dynamics activated when thinking about the future can help open some people’s eyes to different possibilities and generate concern. If only this had happened about 50 years ago.

Providing evidence for your main point in an essay can make it effective and persuasive. There are many types of evidence, and each one varies in terms of its strength and pertinence to the purpose of the essay.

In some situations, for example, anecdotal evidence and testimonials are sufficient to get a reader’s attention. In other situations, however, such as essays in the sciences, the reader will expect to see more than just opinions of the author.

Presenting statistics from reputable sources can add a lot of strength to an essay. While a lot of people are convinced by numbers, others are not.

Using quotes, either from experts or from a source document, are also effective ways to add support to the essay’s main point.

Analogies will help the reader understand a complex topic, while hypotheticals can be an effective way to get people to extend their thinking and consider what could happen if…

Incorporating several types of evidence is best. If all arguments in an essay only come from the author, it can come across as flimsy. A chair with three legs is better than a chair with two.

Bailey, S. (2003). Academic writing: A practical guide for students . Cheltenham, U.K.: Nelson Thornes Ltd.

Redman, P., & Maples, W. (2017). Good essay writing: A social sciences guide . Sage.

Savage, A., & Mayer, P. (2006). Effective academic writing: The short essay . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Starkey, L. B. (2004). How to write great essays . Learning Express.

Warburton, N. (2020). The basics of essay writing . Routledge.

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Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Academic writing often requires students to use evidence, and learning how to use evidence effectively is an important skill for college writers to master. Often, the evidence college writers are asked to use comes from their textbooks, course readings, or other written work by professional scholars. It is important to learn how to use these writings responsibly and accurately.

General Considerations

There are three methods of incorporating the writing of others into your paper as evidence:

• quotation , which is anything from a word to several sentences taken word-for-word from the original source and enclosed in quotation marks
• paraphrase , which is a rephrasing in your own voice and sentence structure of one portion of the original source and is about the same length as the original sentence or sentences you are paraphrasing
• summary , which is shorter than the original source and gives the text’s central idea in your own words

Some words to use in signal phrases are argues, asserts, contends, emphasizes, explains, observes, suggests, writes.

In what follows, you will learn some strategies for using these methods of incorporating evidence into your paper.

In Practice

Quoting When you use a q uotation as evidence, you should integrate it into your own writing using a “signal phrase.” Take, for example, this quotation, taken from page 418 of the essay “Prejudice and the Individual” by Gordon Allport: “Much prejudice is caught rather than directly taught.” Here are three ways to integrate Allport’s quotation into a sentence of your own with a signal phrase:

Allport claims that “prejudice is caught rather than directly taught” (418). “Much prejudice is caught rather than directly taught,” claims Allport (418). “Much prejudice,” Allport claims, “is caught rather than directly taught” (418).

You can adapt a quotation to fit your own paragraph and sentence structure by making small changes to words and indicating those changes with square brackets. Say, for example, you liked this quotation from Allport:

“It should be added that overgeneralized prejudgments of this sort are prejudices only if they are not reversible when exposed to new knowledge” (417).

However, you want to apply Allport’s words to a specific example of your own. You could adapt the quotation like this:

The young man in my example was not prejudiced, according to Allport’s definition; his opinion was “reversible when [he was] exposed to new knowledge” (417).

You can also use ellipses to indicate that you have left irrelevant words out of a quotation. Again, say you wanted to use this quotation from Allport:

“The best opinion today says that if we eliminate discrimination, then—as people become acquainted with one another on equal terms—attitudes are likely to change, perhaps more rapidly than through the continued preaching or teaching of tolerance” (417).

But the middle part is less important to your paper than what Allport says at the start and the end. You could modify the quotation like this:

“The best opinion today says that if we eliminate discrimination . . . attitudes are likely to change, perhaps more rapidly than through the continued preaching or teaching of tolerance” (417).

Longer quotations must be formatted in a special way; usually, they are indented from the left margin and/or single-spaced. Depending on what citation style you use, guidelines differ regarding what defines a long quotation and how a long quotation should be formatted. Typically, a quotation of four or five lines is considered long.

Paraphrasing To paraphrase a source for use as evidence, you should use as little of the original language as possible and put the passage in your own voice and sentence structure. Also, because paraphrasing involves wrapping your words around someone else’s idea, people often forget to give credit to the author. Even though a paraphrase is in your words, it is not your idea. Remember to cite your source when you paraphrase. Here is another quotation from Allport and an example of weak and strong paraphrase:

“Education combats easy overgeneralizations, and as the educational level rises we find a reduction in stereotyped thinking” (Allport 422).

WEAK PARAPHRASE: Learning fights against stereotypes, and as more people are more educated we notice a decrease in prejudice (422).

STRONG PARAPHRASE: Allport explains that the more we learn, the harder we will find it to make unfair assumptions about groups of people, which means as more people pursue more education, prejudice decreases (422).

In the weak example above, you can see the sentence structure in the paraphrase is very similar to the quotation—notice, for instance, the use in both the original sentence and the weak paraphrase of a comma plus the conjunction “and.” Also, the replacement of Allport’s words with synonyms makes the paraphrase too close to the original—Allport’s “education” is replaced with “learning” in the paraphrase; his “combats” is exchanged for “fights”; “overgeneralizations” becomes “stereotypes.” The strong example above does a better job of restating Allport’s idea in a new sentence structure and without simple word substitution. Also, notice the weak paraphrase does not give Allport credit by mentioning him, but the strong one does.

Summarizing When you summarize another writer’s idea to use as evidence in a paper of your own, you are taking the essence of the writer’s idea and stating it more briefly, with less detail and explanation, than in the original. You may summarize an article or a chapter, or even a book, in a sentence, a paragraph, a page, or more—the purpose of your summary should dictate how specific you are. Summaries should be mostly in your own words, but often summaries include quotations or paraphrases when it is necessary to highlight a certain key point. When you are writing a summary, you need to be very careful not to use the original writer’s words without putting those words in quotation marks. You also need to be sure that when you summarize, you are fairly representing the original writer’s main idea. Here is a paragraph from Allport and examples of weak and strong summary:

“While discrimination ultimately rests on prejudice, the two processes are not identical. Discrimination denies people their natural or legal rights because of their membership in some unfavored group. Many people discriminate automatically without being prejudiced; and others, the “gentle people of prejudice,” feel irrational aversion, but are careful not to show it in discriminatory behavior. Yet in general, discrimination reinforces prejudices, and prejudices provide rationalizations for discrimination. The two concepts are most distinct when it comes to seeking remedies. The corrections for discrimination are legal, or lie in a direct change of social practices; whereas the remedy for prejudice lies in education and the conversion of attitudes. The best opinion today says that if we eliminate discrimination, then—as people become acquainted with one another on equal terms—attitudes are likely to change, perhaps more rapidly than through the continued preaching or teaching of tolerance.” (Allport 417)

WEAK SUMMARY: Discrimination is when people are denied their rights because they belong to some unfavored group, and it is addressed with legal action or a change in social practices. Eliminating discrimination from society would have a drastic effect on social attitudes overall, according to Allport (417).

STRONG SUMMARY: Allport explains that discrimination occurs when an individual is refused rights because he or she belongs to a group which is the object of prejudice. In this way, discrimination reinforces prejudice, but if instances of discrimination are ruled illegal or seen as socially unacceptable, prejudice will likely decrease along with discrimination (417).

You will notice that the weak summary above uses exact words and phrases from the source (“unfavored group,” “social practices”) and also some words and phrases very close to the original (“when people are denied,” “eliminating discrimination”). It does not effectively restate the original in different language. It also does not fairly represent the complete idea of the source paragraph: it does not explain the relationship between discrimination and prejudice, an important part of what Allport says. The strong example does a better job using independent language and fairly conveying Allport’s point.

How to choose which method of incorporating evidence to use These methods of incorporating evidence into your paper are helpful in different ways. Think carefully about what you need each piece of evidence to do for you in your paper, then choose the method that most suits your needs.

You should use a quotation if

• you are relying on the reputation of the writer of the original source to give authority or credibility to your paper.
• the original wording is so remarkable that paraphrasing would diminish it.

A paraphrase is a good choice if

• you need to provide a supporting fact or detail but the original writer’s exact words are not important.
• you need to use just one specific idea from a source and the rest of the source is not as important.

Summary is useful when

• you need to give an overview of a source to orient your reader.
• you want to provide background that leads up to the point of your paper.

Last but certainly not least, remember that anytime you use another person’s ideas or language, you must give credit to that person. If you do not know the name of the person whose idea or language you are using, you must still give credit by referring to a title or any such available information. You should always check with your instructor to see what method of citing and documenting sources you should use. The examples on this handout are cited using MLA style.

The sample text in these exercises is Holly Devor’s “Gender Role Behaviors and Attitudes.”

1. Read the paragraph from Devor below, then identify which summary of it is weak and which is strong.

“Body postures and demeanors which communicate subordinate status and vulnerability to trespass through a message of "no threat" make people appear to be feminine. They demonstrate subordination through a minimizing of spatial use: people appear to be feminine when they keep their arms closer to their bodies, their legs closer together, and their torsos and heads less vertical than do masculine-looking individuals. People also look feminine when they point their toes inward and use their hands in small or childlike gestures.” (486)

A. Devor argues that body language suggests a great deal about gender and power in our society. People who minimize the body space they occupy and whose physical gestures are minimal and unobtrusive appear inferior and feminine (486).

B. Devor says that body postures and demeanors that imply weakness make people look feminine. Minimizing the space one takes up and using infantile gestures also makes one appear feminine (486).

2. Read the sentence from Devor below, then identify which paraphrase of it is weak and which is strong.

“They demonstrate subordination through a minimizing of spatial use: people appear to be feminine when they keep their arms closer to their bodies, their legs closer together, and their torsos and heads less vertical than do masculine-looking individuals.” (486)

A. Devor explains that people demonstrate a lesser position by using less space, keeping arms close, legs together, and head less upright (486).

B. According to Devor, taking up less space with one’s body—keeping arms and legs close and hunching to reduce height—makes one appear inferior and implies femininity (486).

3. The quotations of Devor below, taken from the paragraph in exercise 1, contain technical errors. Identify and correct them.

A. Devor argues that “[b]ody postures and demeanors which communicate subordinate status and vulnerability make people appear to be feminine” (486).

B. The actress looked particularly feminine because she “point their toes inward and use their hands in small or childlike gestures” (486).

C. Devor claims that “using their hands in small or childlike gestures” makes people look feminine (486).

Answers: 1. A. STRONG B. WEAK – This example uses too many exact words and phrases from the original.

2. A. WEAK – This example uses too many exact words and phrases from the source, and its sentence structure is also too close to the original. B. STRONG

3. A. Devor argues that “[b]ody postures and demeanors which communicate subordinate status and vulnerability . . . make people appear to be feminine.” B. The actress looked particularly feminine because she “point[s her] toes inward and use[s her] hands in small or childlike gestures.” C. Devor claims that “us[ing] their hands in small or childlike gestures” makes people look feminine.

Allport, Gordon, “Prejudice and the Individual,” in The Borozoi College Reader , 6th ed. Eds. Charles Muscatine and Marlene Griffith (New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1988): 416-22.

Devor, Holly, “Gender Role Behaviors and Attitudes,” in Signs of Life in the USA: Readings on Popular Culture for Writers , 4th ed. Eds. Sonia Maasik and Jack Solomon (New York: Bedford / St Martin's, 2003): 484-89.

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How to Introduce Evidence in an Essay

Last Updated: December 5, 2023

This article was co-authored by Tristen Bonacci . Tristen Bonacci is a Licensed English Teacher with more than 20 years of experience. Tristen has taught in both the United States and overseas. She specializes in teaching in a secondary education environment and sharing wisdom with others, no matter the environment. Tristen holds a BA in English Literature from The University of Colorado and an MEd from The University of Phoenix. This article has been viewed 235,501 times.

When well integrated into your argument, evidence helps prove that you've done your research and thought critically about your topic. But what's the best way to introduce evidence so it feels seamless and has the highest impact? There are actually quite a few effective strategies you can use, and we've rounded up the best ones for you here. Try some of the tips below to introduce evidence in your essay and make a persuasive argument.

Setting up the Evidence

• You can use 1-2 sentences to set up the evidence, if needed, but usually more concise you are, the better.

• For example, you may make an argument like, “Desire is a complicated, confusing emotion that causes pain to others.”
• Or you may make an assertion like, “The treatment of addiction must consider root cause issues like mental health and poor living conditions.”

• For example, you may write, “The novel explores the theme of adolescent love and desire.”
• Or you may write, “Many studies show that addiction is a mental health issue.”

Putting in the Evidence

• For example, you may use an introductory clause like, “According to Anne Carson…”, "In the following chart...," “The author states…," "The survey shows...." or “The study argues…”
• Place a comma after the introductory clause if you are using a quote. For example, “According to Anne Carson, ‘Desire is no light thing" or "The study notes, 'levels of addiction rise as levels of poverty and homelessness also rise.'"
• A list of introductory clauses can be found here: https://student.unsw.edu.au/introducing-quotations-and-paraphrases .

• For example, you may write, “In the novel, Carson is never shy about how her characters express desire for each other: ‘When they made love/ Geryon liked to touch in slow succession each of the bones of Herakles' back…’”
• Or you may write, "The study charts the rise in addiction levels, concluding: 'There is a higher level of addiction in specific areas of the United States.'"

• For example, you may write, “Carson views events as inevitable, as man moving through time like “a harpoon,” much like the fates of her characters.”
• Or you may write, "The chart indicates the rising levels of addiction in young people, an "epidemic" that shows no sign of slowing down."

• For example, you may write in the first mention, “In Anne Carson’s The Autobiography of Red , the color red signifies desire, love, and monstrosity.” Or you may write, "In the study Addiction Rates conducted by the Harvard Review...".
• After the first mention, you can write, “Carson states…” or “The study explores…”.
• If you are citing the author’s name in-text as part of your citation style, you do not need to note their name in the text. You can just use the quote and then place the citation at the end.

• If you are paraphrasing a source, you may still use quotation marks around any text you are lifting directly from the source.

• For example, you may write, “In the novel, the characters express desire for each other: ‘When they made love/ Geryon liked to touch in slow succession each of the bones of Herakles' back (Carson, 48).”
• Or you may write, "Based on the data in the graph below, the study shows the 'intersection between opioid addiction and income' (Branson, 10)."
• If you are using footnotes or endnotes, make sure you use the appropriate citation for each piece of evidence you place in your essay.

• You may also mention the title of the work or source you are paraphrasing or summarizing and the author's name in the paraphrase or summary.
• For example, you may write a paraphrase like, "As noted in various studies, the correlation between addiction and mental illness is often ignored by medical health professionals (Deder, 10)."
• Or you may write a summary like, " The Autobiography of Red is an exploration of desire and love between strange beings, what critics have called a hybrid work that combines ancient meter with modern language (Zambreno, 15)."

• The only time you should place 2 pieces of evidence together is when you want to directly compare 2 short quotes (each less than 1 line long).
• Your analysis should then include a complete compare and contrast of the 2 quotes to show you have thought critically about them both.

Analyzing the Evidence

• For example, you may write, “In the novel, Carson is never shy about how her characters express desire for each other: ‘When they made love/ Geryon liked to touch in slow succession each of the bones of Herakles' back (Carson, 48). The connection between Geryon and Herakles is intimate and gentle, a love that connects the two characters in a physical and emotional way.”
• Or you may write, "In the study Addiction Rates conducted by the Harvard Review, the data shows a 50% rise in addiction levels in specific areas across the United States. The study illustrates a clear connection between addiction levels and communities where income falls below the poverty line and there is a housing shortage or crisis."

• For example, you may write, “Carson’s treatment of the relationship between Geryon and Herakles can be linked back to her approach to desire as a whole in the novel, which acts as both a catalyst and an impediment for her characters.”
• Or you may write, "The survey conducted by Dr. Paula Bronson, accompanied by a detailed academic dissertation, supports the argument that addiction is not a stand alone issue that can be addressed in isolation."

• For example, you may write, “The value of love between two people is not romanticized, but it is still considered essential, similar to the feeling of belonging, another key theme in the novel.”
• Or you may write, "There is clearly a need to reassess the current thinking around addiction and mental illness so the health and sciences community can better study these pressing issues."

Expert Q&A

You Might Also Like

• ↑ Tristen Bonacci. Licensed English Teacher. Expert Interview. 21 December 2021.
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/quoliterature/
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/evidence/
• ↑ https://wts.indiana.edu/writing-guides/using-evidence.html

About This Article

Before you introduce evidence into your essay, begin the paragraph with a topic sentence. This sentence should give the reader an overview of the point you’ll be arguing or making with the evidence. When you get to citing the evidence, begin the sentence with a clause like, “The study finds” or “According to Anne Carson.” You can also include a short quotation in the middle of a sentence without introducing it with a clause. Remember to introduce the author’s first and last name when you use the evidence for the first time. Afterwards, you can just mention their last name. Once you’ve presented the evidence, take time to explain in your own words how it backs up the point you’re making. For tips on how to reference your evidence correctly, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Chapter 1: Time is on Your Side

Gathering Evidence

Every close reading relies on evidence. Without evidence, a writer is simply stating their opinion. As such, writing an essay begins well before you start writing with the process of gathering evidence. In fact, very little essay writing is actually “writing.” Rather, most of the essay writing process is:

• Gathering evidence (reading the text and taking notes)
• Pre-planning and pre-writing (outlining and brainstorming)
• Research (of definitions, other scholars’ concepts, statistics)
• Drafting  (early attempts at thesis paragraphs and body paragraphs that will be revised as the process continues).

We will outline how to gather evidence by modeling the task of slowing down and recording all the observations that are to be had within a text. For a brief tutorial on the basics of finding evidence within a text, watch Video 1.1: Walk Through Self Evaluation , then read the subsequent text.

Write Here, Right Now: An Interactive Introduction to Academic Writing and Research Copyright © 2018 by Ryerson University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Introduce Evidence in an Essay

December 28, 2023

Introducing evidence in an essay serves a crucial purpose – it strengthens your arguments and adds credibility to your claims. Without proper evidence, your essay may lack substance and fail to convince your readers. Evidence helps support your statements, providing solid proof of the validity of your ideas. It demonstrates that you have thoroughly researched your topic and have a strong basis for your arguments. Moreover, evidence adds depth to your writing and allows you to present a persuasive case. By including evidence in your essay, you show that you have considered various perspectives and have made informed conclusions. It is essential to understand the importance of evidence and its role in constructing a well-rounded and convincing essay. In the following sections, we will explore different types of evidence and learn how to effectively incorporate them into your writing.

Types of Evidence

When it comes to introducing evidence in an essay, it is important to consider the types of evidence available to you. Here are some commonly used types:

Statistical Evidence

Introducing evidence in an essay is crucial to support your ideas and arguments. One effective way of doing so is by utilizing statistical evidence. Statistics have the power to provide concrete facts and figures, making your essay more objective and credible.

By incorporating statistical evidence, you can back up your claims with well-researched data, lending an air of authority to your work. Whether you’re discussing social issues, scientific phenomena, or economic trends, statistics can showcase patterns, trends, and correlations that further strengthen your arguments.

Additionally, statistical evidence provides a numerical representation of information, making complex ideas more accessible to readers. It can engage your audience and facilitate their understanding, ensuring that your message resonates effectively.

However, it is important to ensure that your statistical evidence is reliable and obtained from reputable sources. This will boost the credibility of your essay, making it more persuasive and compelling. Remember, statistics add substance and impact to your writing, elevating it from a mere collection of words to a well-supported and convincing piece.

Expert Testimony

Introducing expert testimony in an essay can greatly enhance the credibility and persuasiveness of your arguments. Expert testimony involves quoting or referencing professionals, scholars, or individuals knowledgeable in a specific field to support your claims.

By incorporating the opinions and insights of experts, you can lend authority to your essay. Expert testimony adds a layer of validation to your arguments, demonstrating that your ideas are supported by those who possess extensive knowledge and experience in the subject matter.

Citing experts also strengthens your work by showcasing that you have done thorough research and have sought out trusted authorities in the field. This can establish your expertise as a writer and further establish your credibility with the readers.

When utilizing expert testimony, make sure to reference credible sources and provide proper attribution. This will ensure the integrity of your essay and bolster the confidence readers have in your arguments. Remember, expert testimony can provide valuable insights and earn the trust of your audience, making your essay more persuasive and impactful.

Anecdotal Evidence

Introducing anecdotal evidence in an essay allows you to connect with readers on a personal level while still conveying a persuasive message. Anecdotes are brief, relatable stories that provide real-life examples to support your arguments.

Anecdotal evidence adds a human touch to your essay, capturing the attention and interest of your audience. By sharing personal experiences, or those of others, you can create an emotional connection that resonates with readers.

These stories can be used to illustrate the impact of a particular phenomenon or to provide a compelling argument for your thesis. Anecdotes often invoke empathy and can help readers relate to the topic on a deeper level.

However, it’s crucial to use anecdotal evidence selectively and consider its limitations. While it can engage readers and appeal to their emotions, anecdotal evidence is subjective and may not represent the broader picture. Pairing anecdotal evidence with other types of evidence can strengthen your argument and ensure a more balanced and persuasive essay.

Empirical Evidence

Introducing empirical evidence in an essay involves utilizing observation, experimentation, and scientific data to support your arguments. Empirical evidence relies on systematic methods of data collection and analysis, making it a strong and reliable form of evidence.

By incorporating empirical evidence, you can establish a solid foundation for your essay. It allows you to present findings derived from thorough research, ensuring objectivity and credibility. Whether you’re discussing the effects of a medication, the impact of climate change, or the outcomes of a social program, empirical evidence provides tangible results and measurable outcomes.

Empirical evidence also lends itself to replicability, as others can evaluate and reproduce the research to validate the findings. This further strengthens the validity and persuasiveness of your essay.

When including empirical evidence, it is essential to cite the original studies or research articles, ensuring transparency and acknowledging the sources of your data. By incorporating empirical evidence in your essay, you build a persuasive argument supported by scientific rigor, enhancing the impact and credibility of your work.

Utilizing these different types of evidence allows for a well-rounded and convincing essay. It is important to select the type of evidence that best suits your argument and topic. In the following sections, we will delve into how to evaluate the credibility of evidence and effectively incorporate it into your essay.

Evaluating the Credibility of Evidence

When introducing evidence in an essay, it is crucial to evaluate its credibility to ensure the soundness of your arguments. Here are key factors to consider when assessing the reliability of evidence:

• Source credibility: Determine the expertise and authority of the source. Is it from a reputable organization, expert in the field, or peer-reviewed journal?
• Relevance: Assess the relevance of the evidence to your topic. Does it directly address your thesis or support your main points?
• Currency: Consider the recency of the evidence. Is it up-to-date or outdated? Depending on your topic, it may be necessary to prioritize recent information.
• Consistency: Look for consistency among multiple sources. Does the evidence align with other reliable sources, or is it an outlier?
• Sample size: If using statistical evidence, examine the sample size. Larger samples generally provide more representative results.
• Methodology: Evaluate the rigor of the research methods used to gather the evidence. Was it conducted using scientifically accepted practices?
• Bias: Be aware of potential bias in the evidence. Consider the funding sources, ideological leanings, or conflicts of interest that might impact the objectivity of the information.

By critically evaluating the credibility of evidence, you can ensure that your essay is well-supported and persuasive. Remember to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of different types of evidence to create a balanced and convincing argument.

Incorporating Evidence into the Essay

When writing an essay, incorporating evidence is essential to support your arguments and provide credibility to your claims. By seamlessly integrating evidence into your essay, you can enhance its overall quality and convince your readers of the validity of your ideas.

Here are some key strategies to effectively introduce evidence in your essay:

• Provide context: Start by giving your readers contextual information about the evidence. Explain the source, its significance, and how it relates to your argument. This helps your readers understand its relevance and establishes a solid foundation for your evidence.
• Use signal phrases: Use appropriate signal phrases to introduce your evidence. These phrases can indicate that you are about to present evidence, such as “According to,” “For example,” or “As evidence suggests.” Signal phrases create a smooth transition between your own ideas and the evidence you are presenting.
• Blend it into your sentence structure: Rather than dropping evidence abruptly, integrate it seamlessly into your sentence structure. This allows your evidence to flow naturally and become an integral part of your argument. This technique helps avoid the trap of using evidence as standalone sentences or paragraphs.
• Explain the significance: After presenting the evidence, take some time to explain its significance in relation to your argument. Analyze and interpret the evidence, showing your readers how it supports your main thesis and strengthens your overall stance.

By skillfully introducing evidence, you can effectively enhance the credibility and impact of your essay, making it more persuasive and compelling to your readers.

Quoting and Paraphrasing

Quoting and paraphrasing are essential techniques when introducing evidence in an essay. Quoting involves directly using the words of a source to provide support for your argument. It is important to surround the quote with proper punctuation and to cite the source accurately. Paraphrasing, on the other hand, involves restating the information from a source in your own words. This technique allows you to maintain the original meaning while integrating it seamlessly into your essay. When paraphrasing, it is crucial to avoid plagiarism by properly attributing the source. Whether you choose to quote or paraphrase, it is important to select evidence that strengthens your argument and provides credibility to your claims. By mastering the art of quoting and paraphrasing, you can introduce evidence effectively and enhance the overall quality of your essay.

Citing Sources

Citing sources is an essential step when introducing evidence in an essay, as it helps to validate your claims and avoid plagiarism. Here are some key points to keep in mind when citing sources:

• Choose the appropriate citation style: Different disciplines and academic institutions often have specific citation styles they prefer, such as MLA, APA, or Chicago. Understand the requirements and guidelines of the chosen citation style.
• Include all necessary information: When citing a source, provide all relevant details, including the author’s name, title of the work, publication date, and page numbers. The specific requirements may vary depending on the citation style.
• Use in-text citations: Whenever you include evidence or information from a source, make sure to include an in-text citation. This helps your reader identify the source and locate it in the bibliography or works cited page.
• Create a bibliography or works cited page: Compile a list of all the sources you used in your essay, following the formatting guidelines of your chosen citation style. This page should include full bibliographic information for each source.
• Double-check accuracy: Accuracy is crucial when citing sources. Make sure to double-check all the details, such as spelling, dates, and page numbers, to ensure they are correct.

By following these steps, you can effectively cite your sources and provide your essay with the necessary credibility and integrity.

Remember, effectively incorporating evidence into your essay not only adds weight to your arguments but also illustrates your ability to engage critically with the subject matter. By following these guidelines, you will be able to seamlessly integrate evidence and produce a well-supported and persuasive essay.

Connecting Evidence to Main Arguments

Connecting evidence to your main arguments is a crucial aspect of introducing evidence in an essay. It helps to strengthen your claims and provide a clear and logical flow to your work. Here are some strategies to effectively connect evidence to your main arguments:

• Establish relevance: Clearly explain how the evidence you are presenting connects directly to your main argument. Clearly state the relationship between the evidence and the point you are trying to make.
• Provide context: Before introducing the evidence, provide some background or context to help the reader understand its significance. Explain why this particular piece of evidence is relevant to your argument and how it supports your overall thesis.
• Use transitional phrases: Utilize transitional phrases or words to smoothly introduce your evidence. For example, phrases like “according to,” “for example,” or “research has shown” can guide the reader from your argument to the evidence.
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just present evidence without analysis. Take the time to explain how the evidence supports your argument and what conclusions can be drawn from it. Show the reader how the evidence reinforces your main point.
• Use topic sentences and paragraphs: Dedicate specific paragraphs or topic sentences to introduce and discuss each piece of evidence. This helps to clearly organize your essay and ensure that the evidence is effectively connected to your main arguments.

By following these strategies, you can successfully connect evidence to your main arguments, making your essay more convincing and compelling.

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Using Evidence: Analysis

Beyond introducing and integrating your paraphrases and quotations, you also need to analyze the evidence in your paragraphs. Analysis is your opportunity to contextualize and explain the evidence for your reader. Your analysis might tell the reader why the evidence is important, what it means, or how it connects to other ideas in your writing.

Note that analysis often leads to synthesis , an extension and more complicated form of analysis. See our synthesis page for more information.

Example 1 of Analysis

Without analysis.

Embryonic stem cell research uses the stem cells from an embryo, causing much ethical debate in the scientific and political communities (Robinson, 2011). "Politicians don't know science" (James, 2010, p. 24). Academic discussion of both should continue (Robinson, 2011).

With Analysis (Added in Bold)

Embryonic stem cell research uses the stem cells from an embryo, causing much ethical debate in the scientific and political communities (Robinson, 2011). However, many politicians use the issue to stir up unnecessary emotion on both sides of the issues. James (2010) explained that "politicians don't know science," (p. 24) so scientists should not be listening to politics. Instead, Robinson (2011) suggested that academic discussion of both embryonic and adult stem cell research should continue in order for scientists to best utilize their resources while being mindful of ethical challenges.

Note that in the first example, the reader cannot know how the quotation fits into the paragraph. Also, note that the word both was unclear. In the revision, however, that the writer clearly (a) explained the quotations as well as the source material, (b) introduced the information sufficiently, and (c) integrated the ideas into the paragraph.

Example 2 of Analysis

Trow (1939) measured the effects of emotional responses on learning and found that student memorization dropped greatly with the introduction of a clock. Errors increased even more when intellectual inferiority regarding grades became a factor (Trow, 1939). The group that was allowed to learn free of restrictions from grades and time limits performed better on all tasks (Trow, 1939).

In this example, the author has successfully paraphrased the key findings from a study. However, there is no conclusion being drawn about those findings. Readers have a difficult time processing the evidence without some sort of ending explanation, an answer to the question so what? So what about this study? Why does it even matter?

Trow (1939) measured the effects of emotional responses on learning and found that student memorization dropped greatly with the introduction of a clock. Errors increased even more when intellectual inferiority regarding grades became a factor (Trow, 1939). The group that was allowed to learn free of restrictions from grades and time limits performed better on all tasks (Trow, 1939). Therefore, negative learning environments and students' emotional reactions can indeed hinder achievement.

Here the meaning becomes clear. The study’s findings support the claim the reader is making: that school environment affects achievement.

Analysis Video Playlist

Note that these videos were created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

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Definition and Examples of Evidence in Argument

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In argument, evidence refers to facts, documentation or testimony used to strengthen a claim, support an argument or reach a conclusion.

The evidence isn't the same as proof. "Whereas evidence allows for professional judgment, the proof is absolute and incontestable," said Denis Hayes in "Learning and Teaching in Primary Schools." 

Observations About Evidence

• "Without evidence to support them, any statements you make in your writing have little or no value; they're simply opinions, and 10 people may have 10 different opinions, none of which is more valid than the others unless there is clear and potent evidence to support it." Neil Murray, "Writing Essays in English Language and Linguistics ," 2012
• "When conducting empirical research, the researcher's primary responsibility is to provide evidence to support his or her claim about the relationship between the variables described in the research hypothesis. T]he researcher must collect data that will convince us of the accuracy of his or her predictions." Bart L. Weathington et al., "Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences," 2010

Making Connections

David Rosenwasser and Jill Stephen comment on making connections that leave out the steps that lead to them in 2009's "Writing Analytically."  

"A common assumption about evidence is that is is 'the stuff that proves I'm right.' Although this way of thinking about evidence is not wrong, it is much too limited. Corroboration (proving the validity of a claim) is one of the functions of evidence, but not the only one. Writing well means sharing your thought process with your readers, telling them why you believe the evidence means what you say it does.

"Writers who think that evidence speaks for itself often do very little with their evidence except put it next to their claims: 'The party was terrible: There was no alcohol' -- or, alternatively, 'The party was great: There was no alcohol.' Just juxtaposing the evidence with the claim leaves out the thinking that connects them, thereby implying that the logic of the connection is obvious.

"But even for readers prone to agreeing with a given claim, simply pointing to the evidence is not enough." 

Qualitative and Quantitative Evidence

Julie M. Farrar defines two kinds of evidence in "Evidence: Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition ," from 2006.

"The mere presence of information does not constitute evidence; the informative statements must be accepted as evidence by an audience and believed by it to be relevant to the claim at issue. Evidence can be generally classified as qualitative and quantitative. The former emphasizes explanation and description, appearing continuous rather than discrete, while the latter offers measurement and prediction. Both kinds of information require interpretation, for at no time do the facts speak for themselves."

Opening the Door

In "Evidence: Practice Under the Rules" from 1999, Christopher B. Mueller and Laird C. Kirkpatrick discuss evidence as it relates to trial law.

"The more far-reaching effect of introducing evidence [in a trial] is to pave the way for other parties to introduce evidence, question witnesses and offer argument on the subject in attempts to rebut or confine the initial evidence. In the customary phrase, the party who offers evidence on a point is said to have 'opened the door,' meaning that the other side may now make countermoves to answer or rebut the initial evidence, 'fighting fire with fire.'"

Dubious Evidence

In "Not on the Doctor’s Checklist, but Touch Matters" from 2010 in The New York Times, Danielle Ofri discusses findings called evidence that isn't actually valid.

"[I]s there any research to show that a physical exam -- in a healthy person -- is of any benefit? Despite a long and storied tradition, a physical exam is more a habit than a clinically proven method of picking up the disease in asymptomatic people. There is scant evidence to suggest that routinely listening to every healthy person’s lungs or pressing on every normal person’s liver will find a disease that wasn’t suggested by the patient’s history. For a healthy person, an 'abnormal finding' on a physical exam is more likely to be a false positive than a real sign of illness."

Other Examples of Dubious Evidence

• "America must not ignore the threat gathering against us. Facing clear evidence of peril, we cannot wait for the final proof, the smoking gun that could come in the form of a mushroom cloud." President George W. Bush, in justifying the invasion of Iraq in 2003
•  "We have it. The smoking gun. The evidence. The potential weapon of mass destruction we have been looking for as our pretext of invading Iraq. There's just one problem: it's in North Korea." Jon Stewart, "The Daily Show," 2005
• What Is an Argument?
• How to Write a Critical Essay
• Proof in Rhetoric
• How Do Creationists Explain Dinosaurs?
• Argument (Rhetoric and Composition)
• What Does It Mean to Make a Claim During an Argument?
• Enthymeme - Definition and Examples
• Tips on How to Write an Argumentative Essay
• Propositions in Debate Definition and Examples
• An Introduction to Academic Writing
• Definition and Examples of Syllogisms
• Weighing the Evidence: Was Cleopatra Black?
• What Is an Appeal to Ignorance (Fallacy)?
• AP English Exam: 101 Key Terms
• Definitions and Examples of Debates

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 3 strong argumentative essay examples, analyzed.

General Education

Need to defend your opinion on an issue? Argumentative essays are one of the most popular types of essays you’ll write in school. They combine persuasive arguments with fact-based research, and, when done well, can be powerful tools for making someone agree with your point of view. If you’re struggling to write an argumentative essay or just want to learn more about them, seeing examples can be a big help.

After giving an overview of this type of essay, we provide three argumentative essay examples. After each essay, we explain in-depth how the essay was structured, what worked, and where the essay could be improved. We end with tips for making your own argumentative essay as strong as possible.

What Is an Argumentative Essay?

An argumentative essay is an essay that uses evidence and facts to support the claim it’s making. Its purpose is to persuade the reader to agree with the argument being made.

A good argumentative essay will use facts and evidence to support the argument, rather than just the author’s thoughts and opinions. For example, say you wanted to write an argumentative essay stating that Charleston, SC is a great destination for families. You couldn’t just say that it’s a great place because you took your family there and enjoyed it. For it to be an argumentative essay, you need to have facts and data to support your argument, such as the number of child-friendly attractions in Charleston, special deals you can get with kids, and surveys of people who visited Charleston as a family and enjoyed it. The first argument is based entirely on feelings, whereas the second is based on evidence that can be proven.

The standard five paragraph format is common, but not required, for argumentative essays. These essays typically follow one of two formats: the Toulmin model or the Rogerian model.

• The Toulmin model is the most common. It begins with an introduction, follows with a thesis/claim, and gives data and evidence to support that claim. This style of essay also includes rebuttals of counterarguments.
• The Rogerian model analyzes two sides of an argument and reaches a conclusion after weighing the strengths and weaknesses of each.

3 Good Argumentative Essay Examples + Analysis

Below are three examples of argumentative essays, written by yours truly in my school days, as well as analysis of what each did well and where it could be improved.

Argumentative Essay Example 1

Proponents of this idea state that it will save local cities and towns money because libraries are expensive to maintain. They also believe it will encourage more people to read because they won’t have to travel to a library to get a book; they can simply click on what they want to read and read it from wherever they are. They could also access more materials because libraries won’t have to buy physical copies of books; they can simply rent out as many digital copies as they need.

However, it would be a serious mistake to replace libraries with tablets. First, digital books and resources are associated with less learning and more problems than print resources. A study done on tablet vs book reading found that people read 20-30% slower on tablets, retain 20% less information, and understand 10% less of what they read compared to people who read the same information in print. Additionally, staring too long at a screen has been shown to cause numerous health problems, including blurred vision, dizziness, dry eyes, headaches, and eye strain, at much higher instances than reading print does. People who use tablets and mobile devices excessively also have a higher incidence of more serious health issues such as fibromyalgia, shoulder and back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and muscle strain. I know that whenever I read from my e-reader for too long, my eyes begin to feel tired and my neck hurts. We should not add to these problems by giving people, especially young people, more reasons to look at screens.

Second, it is incredibly narrow-minded to assume that the only service libraries offer is book lending. Libraries have a multitude of benefits, and many are only available if the library has a physical location. Some of these benefits include acting as a quiet study space, giving people a way to converse with their neighbors, holding classes on a variety of topics, providing jobs, answering patron questions, and keeping the community connected. One neighborhood found that, after a local library instituted community events such as play times for toddlers and parents, job fairs for teenagers, and meeting spaces for senior citizens, over a third of residents reported feeling more connected to their community. Similarly, a Pew survey conducted in 2015 found that nearly two-thirds of American adults feel that closing their local library would have a major impact on their community. People see libraries as a way to connect with others and get their questions answered, benefits tablets can’t offer nearly as well or as easily.

While replacing libraries with tablets may seem like a simple solution, it would encourage people to spend even more time looking at digital screens, despite the myriad issues surrounding them. It would also end access to many of the benefits of libraries that people have come to rely on. In many areas, libraries are such an important part of the community network that they could never be replaced by a simple object.

The author begins by giving an overview of the counter-argument, then the thesis appears as the first sentence in the third paragraph. The essay then spends the rest of the paper dismantling the counter argument and showing why readers should believe the other side.

What this essay does well:

• Although it’s a bit unusual to have the thesis appear fairly far into the essay, it works because, once the thesis is stated, the rest of the essay focuses on supporting it since the counter-argument has already been discussed earlier in the paper.
• This essay includes numerous facts and cites studies to support its case. By having specific data to rely on, the author’s argument is stronger and readers will be more inclined to agree with it.
• For every argument the other side makes, the author makes sure to refute it and follow up with why her opinion is the stronger one. In order to make a strong argument, it’s important to dismantle the other side, which this essay does this by making the author's view appear stronger.
• This is a shorter paper, and if it needed to be expanded to meet length requirements, it could include more examples and go more into depth with them, such as by explaining specific cases where people benefited from local libraries.
• Additionally, while the paper uses lots of data, the author also mentions their own experience with using tablets. This should be removed since argumentative essays focus on facts and data to support an argument, not the author’s own opinion or experiences. Replacing that with more data on health issues associated with screen time would strengthen the essay.
• Some of the points made aren't completely accurate , particularly the one about digital books being cheaper. It actually often costs a library more money to rent out numerous digital copies of a book compared to buying a single physical copy. Make sure in your own essay you thoroughly research each of the points and rebuttals you make, otherwise you'll look like you don't know the issue that well.

Argumentative Essay Example 2

There are multiple drugs available to treat malaria, and many of them work well and save lives, but malaria eradication programs that focus too much on them and not enough on prevention haven’t seen long-term success in Sub-Saharan Africa. A major program to combat malaria was WHO’s Global Malaria Eradication Programme. Started in 1955, it had a goal of eliminating malaria in Africa within the next ten years. Based upon previously successful programs in Brazil and the United States, the program focused mainly on vector control. This included widely distributing chloroquine and spraying large amounts of DDT. More than one billion dollars was spent trying to abolish malaria. However, the program suffered from many problems and in 1969, WHO was forced to admit that the program had not succeeded in eradicating malaria. The number of people in Sub-Saharan Africa who contracted malaria as well as the number of malaria deaths had actually increased over 10% during the time the program was active.

One of the major reasons for the failure of the project was that it set uniform strategies and policies. By failing to consider variations between governments, geography, and infrastructure, the program was not nearly as successful as it could have been. Sub-Saharan Africa has neither the money nor the infrastructure to support such an elaborate program, and it couldn’t be run the way it was meant to. Most African countries don't have the resources to send all their people to doctors and get shots, nor can they afford to clear wetlands or other malaria prone areas. The continent’s spending per person for eradicating malaria was just a quarter of what Brazil spent. Sub-Saharan Africa simply can’t rely on a plan that requires more money, infrastructure, and expertise than they have to spare.

Additionally, the widespread use of chloroquine has created drug resistant parasites which are now plaguing Sub-Saharan Africa. Because chloroquine was used widely but inconsistently, mosquitoes developed resistance, and chloroquine is now nearly completely ineffective in Sub-Saharan Africa, with over 95% of mosquitoes resistant to it. As a result, newer, more expensive drugs need to be used to prevent and treat malaria, which further drives up the cost of malaria treatment for a region that can ill afford it.

Instead of developing plans to treat malaria after the infection has incurred, programs should focus on preventing infection from occurring in the first place. Not only is this plan cheaper and more effective, reducing the number of people who contract malaria also reduces loss of work/school days which can further bring down the productivity of the region.

One of the cheapest and most effective ways of preventing malaria is to implement insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs).  These nets provide a protective barrier around the person or people using them. While untreated bed nets are still helpful, those treated with insecticides are much more useful because they stop mosquitoes from biting people through the nets, and they help reduce mosquito populations in a community, thus helping people who don’t even own bed nets.  Bed nets are also very effective because most mosquito bites occur while the person is sleeping, so bed nets would be able to drastically reduce the number of transmissions during the night. In fact, transmission of malaria can be reduced by as much as 90% in areas where the use of ITNs is widespread. Because money is so scarce in Sub-Saharan Africa, the low cost is a great benefit and a major reason why the program is so successful. Bed nets cost roughly 2 USD to make, last several years, and can protect two adults. Studies have shown that, for every 100-1000 more nets are being used, one less child dies of malaria. With an estimated 300 million people in Africa not being protected by mosquito nets, there’s the potential to save three million lives by spending just a few dollars per person.

Reducing the number of people who contract malaria would also reduce poverty levels in Africa significantly, thus improving other aspects of society like education levels and the economy. Vector control is more effective than treatment strategies because it means fewer people are getting sick. When fewer people get sick, the working population is stronger as a whole because people are not put out of work from malaria, nor are they caring for sick relatives. Malaria-afflicted families can typically only harvest 40% of the crops that healthy families can harvest. Additionally, a family with members who have malaria spends roughly a quarter of its income treatment, not including the loss of work they also must deal with due to the illness. It’s estimated that malaria costs Africa 12 billion USD in lost income every year. A strong working population creates a stronger economy, which Sub-Saharan Africa is in desperate need of.  

This essay begins with an introduction, which ends with the thesis (that malaria eradication plans in Sub-Saharan Africa should focus on prevention rather than treatment). The first part of the essay lays out why the counter argument (treatment rather than prevention) is not as effective, and the second part of the essay focuses on why prevention of malaria is the better path to take.

• The thesis appears early, is stated clearly, and is supported throughout the rest of the essay. This makes the argument clear for readers to understand and follow throughout the essay.
• There’s lots of solid research in this essay, including specific programs that were conducted and how successful they were, as well as specific data mentioned throughout. This evidence helps strengthen the author’s argument.
• The author makes a case for using expanding bed net use over waiting until malaria occurs and beginning treatment, but not much of a plan is given for how the bed nets would be distributed or how to ensure they’re being used properly. By going more into detail of what she believes should be done, the author would be making a stronger argument.
• The introduction of the essay does a good job of laying out the seriousness of the problem, but the conclusion is short and abrupt. Expanding it into its own paragraph would give the author a final way to convince readers of her side of the argument.

Argumentative Essay Example 3

There are many ways payments could work. They could be in the form of a free-market approach, where athletes are able to earn whatever the market is willing to pay them, it could be a set amount of money per athlete, or student athletes could earn income from endorsements, autographs, and control of their likeness, similar to the way top Olympians earn money.

Proponents of the idea believe that, because college athletes are the ones who are training, participating in games, and bringing in audiences, they should receive some sort of compensation for their work. If there were no college athletes, the NCAA wouldn’t exist, college coaches wouldn’t receive there (sometimes very high) salaries, and brands like Nike couldn’t profit from college sports. In fact, the NCAA brings in roughly $1 billion in revenue a year, but college athletes don’t receive any of that money in the form of a paycheck. Additionally, people who believe college athletes should be paid state that paying college athletes will actually encourage them to remain in college longer and not turn pro as quickly, either by giving them a way to begin earning money in college or requiring them to sign a contract stating they’ll stay at the university for a certain number of years while making an agreed-upon salary.  

Supporters of this idea point to Zion Williamson, the Duke basketball superstar, who, during his freshman year, sustained a serious knee injury. Many argued that, even if he enjoyed playing for Duke, it wasn’t worth risking another injury and ending his professional career before it even began for a program that wasn’t paying him. Williamson seems to have agreed with them and declared his eligibility for the NCAA draft later that year. If he was being paid, he may have stayed at Duke longer. In fact, roughly a third of student athletes surveyed stated that receiving a salary while in college would make them “strongly consider” remaining collegiate athletes longer before turning pro.

Paying athletes could also stop the recruitment scandals that have plagued the NCAA. In 2018, the NCAA stripped the University of Louisville's men's basketball team of its 2013 national championship title because it was discovered coaches were using sex workers to entice recruits to join the team. There have been dozens of other recruitment scandals where college athletes and recruits have been bribed with anything from having their grades changed, to getting free cars, to being straight out bribed. By paying college athletes and putting their salaries out in the open, the NCAA could end the illegal and underhanded ways some schools and coaches try to entice athletes to join.

People who argue against the idea of paying college athletes believe the practice could be disastrous for college sports. By paying athletes, they argue, they’d turn college sports into a bidding war, where only the richest schools could afford top athletes, and the majority of schools would be shut out from developing a talented team (though some argue this already happens because the best players often go to the most established college sports programs, who typically pay their coaches millions of dollars per year). It could also ruin the tight camaraderie of many college teams if players become jealous that certain teammates are making more money than they are.

They also argue that paying college athletes actually means only a small fraction would make significant money. Out of the 350 Division I athletic departments, fewer than a dozen earn any money. Nearly all the money the NCAA makes comes from men’s football and basketball, so paying college athletes would make a small group of men--who likely will be signed to pro teams and begin making millions immediately out of college--rich at the expense of other players.

Those against paying college athletes also believe that the athletes are receiving enough benefits already. The top athletes already receive scholarships that are worth tens of thousands per year, they receive free food/housing/textbooks, have access to top medical care if they are injured, receive top coaching, get travel perks and free gear, and can use their time in college as a way to capture the attention of professional recruiters. No other college students receive anywhere near as much from their schools.

People on this side also point out that, while the NCAA brings in a massive amount of money each year, it is still a non-profit organization. How? Because over 95% of those profits are redistributed to its members’ institutions in the form of scholarships, grants, conferences, support for Division II and Division III teams, and educational programs. Taking away a significant part of that revenue would hurt smaller programs that rely on that money to keep running.

While both sides have good points, it’s clear that the negatives of paying college athletes far outweigh the positives. College athletes spend a significant amount of time and energy playing for their school, but they are compensated for it by the scholarships and perks they receive. Adding a salary to that would result in a college athletic system where only a small handful of athletes (those likely to become millionaires in the professional leagues) are paid by a handful of schools who enter bidding wars to recruit them, while the majority of student athletics and college athletic programs suffer or even shut down for lack of money. Continuing to offer the current level of benefits to student athletes makes it possible for as many people to benefit from and enjoy college sports as possible.

This argumentative essay follows the Rogerian model. It discusses each side, first laying out multiple reasons people believe student athletes should be paid, then discussing reasons why the athletes shouldn’t be paid. It ends by stating that college athletes shouldn’t be paid by arguing that paying them would destroy college athletics programs and cause them to have many of the issues professional sports leagues have.

• Both sides of the argument are well developed, with multiple reasons why people agree with each side. It allows readers to get a full view of the argument and its nuances.
• Certain statements on both sides are directly rebuffed in order to show where the strengths and weaknesses of each side lie and give a more complete and sophisticated look at the argument.
• Using the Rogerian model can be tricky because oftentimes you don’t explicitly state your argument until the end of the paper. Here, the thesis doesn’t appear until the first sentence of the final paragraph. That doesn’t give readers a lot of time to be convinced that your argument is the right one, compared to a paper where the thesis is stated in the beginning and then supported throughout the paper. This paper could be strengthened if the final paragraph was expanded to more fully explain why the author supports the view, or if the paper had made it clearer that paying athletes was the weaker argument throughout.

3 Tips for Writing a Good Argumentative Essay

Now that you’ve seen examples of what good argumentative essay samples look like, follow these three tips when crafting your own essay.

#1: Make Your Thesis Crystal Clear

The thesis is the key to your argumentative essay; if it isn’t clear or readers can’t find it easily, your entire essay will be weak as a result. Always make sure that your thesis statement is easy to find. The typical spot for it is the final sentence of the introduction paragraph, but if it doesn’t fit in that spot for your essay, try to at least put it as the first or last sentence of a different paragraph so it stands out more.

Also make sure that your thesis makes clear what side of the argument you’re on. After you’ve written it, it’s a great idea to show your thesis to a couple different people--classmates are great for this. Just by reading your thesis they should be able to understand what point you’ll be trying to make with the rest of your essay.

#2: Show Why the Other Side Is Weak

When writing your essay, you may be tempted to ignore the other side of the argument and just focus on your side, but don’t do this. The best argumentative essays really tear apart the other side to show why readers shouldn’t believe it. Before you begin writing your essay, research what the other side believes, and what their strongest points are. Then, in your essay, be sure to mention each of these and use evidence to explain why they’re incorrect/weak arguments. That’ll make your essay much more effective than if you only focused on your side of the argument.

#3: Use Evidence to Support Your Side

Remember, an essay can’t be an argumentative essay if it doesn’t support its argument with evidence. For every point you make, make sure you have facts to back it up. Some examples are previous studies done on the topic, surveys of large groups of people, data points, etc. There should be lots of numbers in your argumentative essay that support your side of the argument. This will make your essay much stronger compared to only relying on your own opinions to support your argument.

Summary: Argumentative Essay Sample

Argumentative essays are persuasive essays that use facts and evidence to support their side of the argument. Most argumentative essays follow either the Toulmin model or the Rogerian model. By reading good argumentative essay examples, you can learn how to develop your essay and provide enough support to make readers agree with your opinion. When writing your essay, remember to always make your thesis clear, show where the other side is weak, and back up your opinion with data and evidence.

What's Next?

Do you need to write an argumentative essay as well? Check out our guide on the best argumentative essay topics for ideas!

You'll probably also need to write research papers for school. We've got you covered with 113 potential topics for research papers.

Your college admissions essay may end up being one of the most important essays you write. Follow our step-by-step guide on writing a personal statement to have an essay that'll impress colleges.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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3.3: Strong paragraphs start with good evidence

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Support your thesis with evidence AND analysis

A paragraph is a group of sentences that present, develop, and support a single idea. That’s it. There’s no prescribed length or number of sentences. In academic writing, body paragraphs need to work together with the thesis to support your main point. If your thesis states where your essay wants to go, then your body paragraphs need to show the reader how you get there. Paragraphs rarely stand alone, so most often the main topic of the paragraph serves the main concept or purpose of a larger whole; for example, the main idea of a paragraph in an essay should serve to develop and support the thesis of the essay. 

By reading and annotating your sources, and by responding and analyzing to those sources, you should have developed lots of ideas that can now form the beginnings of your paragraphs. If you don't have ideas about your sources yet, STOP WRITING AND READ AGAIN. When writing with and about sources, you want to have the ideas before you start writing. If you start your paragraphs without evidence with the intention of add the evidence later, you are likely to fall into the trap of confirmation bias : only seeing the evidence you want to see. And, adding the evidence later makes it harder to develop your ideas sufficiently. 

Topic Sentence

The job of the topic sentence is to control the development and flow of the information contained in the paragraph. The topic sentence takes control of the more general topic of the paragraph and shapes it in the way that you choose to present it to your readers. It provides a way through a topic that is likely much broader than what you could ever cover in a paragraph, or even in an essay. This more focused idea, your topic sentence, helps you determine the parts of the topic that you want to illuminate for your readers—whether that’s a college essay or a thank you letter to your Aunt Martha.  The following diagram illustrates how a topic sentence can provide more focus to the general topic at hand.

Select the Most Effective Primary Support for a Thesis Statement 

When you support your thesis, you are revealing evidence. Evidence includes anything that can help support your stance. The following are the kinds of evidence you will encounter as you conduct your research:

• Facts.  Facts, such as statistics, are the best kind of evidence to use because they often cannot be disputed. They can support your stance by providing background information on or a solid foundation for your point of view. However, facts still need explanation. For example, the sentence “The most populated state in the United States is California” is a pure fact, but it will require some explanation to make it relevant to your specific argument. Always be sure you gather your facts from credible sources.
• Judgments.  Judgments are conclusions drawn from the given facts. Judgments are more credible than opinions because they are founded upon careful reasoning and examination of a topic. Use judgments from experts in the field as they are the more credible sources for the topic.
• Testimony.  Testimony consists of direct quotations from either an eyewitness or an expert witness. An eyewitness is someone who directly observed an instance of what you are writing about; testimony adds authenticity to an argument based on facts. An expert witness is a person who has extensive experience with a topic. This person studies the facts and provides commentary based on either facts or judgments, or both. An expert witness adds authority and credibility to an argument.
• Personal observation.  Personal observation is similar to testimony, but personal observation consists of your testimony. It reflects what you know to be true because you have experiences and have formed either opinions or judgments about them. For instance, if you are one of five children and your thesis states that being part of a large family is beneficial to a child’s social development, you could use your own experience to support your thesis.

Include Supporting Detail Sentences for the Topic Sentence

After deciding which primary support points you will use as your topic sentences, you must add details to clarify and demonstrate each of those points. These supporting details provide examples, facts, or evidence that support the topic sentence.

The following paragraph contains supporting detail sentences for the the topic sentence, which is underlined.

J.D. Salinger, a World War II veteran, suffered from posttraumatic stress disorder, a disorder that influenced the themes in many of his works.  He did not hide his mental anguish over the horrors of war and once told his daughter, “You never really get the smell of burning flesh out of your nose, no matter how long you live.” His short story “A Perfect Day for a Bananafish” details a day in the life of a WWII veteran who was recently released from an army hospital for psychiatric problems. The man acts questionably with a little girl he meets on the beach before he returns to his hotel room and commits suicide. Another short story, “For Esmé – with Love and Squalor,” is narrated by a traumatized soldier who sparks an unusual relationship with a young girl he meets before he departs to partake in D-Day. Finally, in Salinger’s only novel,  The Catcher in the Rye , he continues with the theme of posttraumatic stress, though not directly related to war. From a rest home for the mentally ill, sixteen-year-old Holden Caulfield narrates the story of his nervous breakdown following the death of his younger brother.

Adding Explanation and Elaboration in your Body Paragraphs 

In addition to supporting details, college level paragraphs add quite a bit of explanation and elaboration in body paragraphs. Development of explanation and elaboration is one of the big differences between high school and college-level writing. Rather than just appearing in one paragraph all by itself -- possibly in a conclusion -- explanation and elaboration should appear through your essay. Some sentence stems you can use to help you develop your explanation and elaboration appear in the following list.

Sentence Stems for Elaboration 

• X matters because ___________.
• X is important because ___________.
• X is crucial in terms of today’s concern over ___________ because ___________.
• Ultimately, what is at stake here is ___________.
• These points have important consequences for the broader discussion about ___________.
• The discussion of X is in fact addressing the larger matter of ___________.
• These conclusions have significant implications for ___________.
• X should in fact concern anyone who cares about ___________.

These 4 videos review the paragraph ideas shared on this page 

Authored by:  GoReadWriteNow.  License:  All Rights Reserved .  License Terms:  Standard YouTube

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• Adapted from  Writing for Success.   Provided by:  The Saylor Foundation.  License:  CC-NC-SA 3.0   and The Word on College Reading and Writing

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Evidence on the Multistate Essay Exam: Highly Tested Topics and Tips

Evidence is regularly tested on the MEE. Here, we give you tips for approaching Evidence on the MEE and we reveal some of the highly tested issues in Evidence questions.

Evidence on the Multistate Essay Exam

1. first, be aware of how evidence is tested.

Evidence is tested, on average, about once a year. It is generally tested on its own and not combined with another subject. However, it has been tested with Criminal Procedure in recent years (hearsay issues have been combined with  Miranda issues).

Evidence is somewhat predictable in terms of what is tested. However, Evidence is a difficult subject to learn so, even if it is predictable, it is not always easy to master MEE questions that test Evidence. Here, we give you some tips for writing answers to MEE questions and how to approach Evidence generally.

2. Be aware of the highly tested Evidence issues

The examiners tend to test several of the same issues in Evidence MEE questions. You can maximize your score by being aware of these highly tested issues. (We have a nice summary of these in our  MEE One-Sheets  if you want to see all of them and have them all in one place.)

Some of the highly tested Evidence Multistate Essay Exam issues include:

Hearsay is, by far, the most highly tested MEE issue in Evidence questions . If you see hearsay tested on the MEE, remember to introduce it properly before analyzing exceptions. This way, you will connect the dots for the grader. Start by defining hearsay at the outset: Hearsay is an out-of-court statement offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted. Then, if you conclude that the statement is hearsay, discuss exceptions. A few of the examiners’ favorite hearsay exceptions to test are the following:

• Excited utterance:   An excited utterance is a statement relating to a startling event or condition made while the declarant was under the stress or excitement that it caused.

• Present sense impression:   A present sense impression is a statement describing or explaining an event or condition made while or immediately after the declarant perceived it .

• Statement for purpose of medical treatment or diagnosis: these statements must be made for and be reasonably pertinent to a medical diagnosis or treatment and describe medical history, past or present symptoms or sensations, their inception, or their general cause.

• Business records:   A record of acts, events, conditions, opinions, or diagnoses is admissible if it is made at or near the time of the event recorded by a person with knowledge of the event . Further, the making of the record must occur in the course of a regularly conducted business activity , and it must be the regular practice of the business to make such a record.

We recommend you make a list of (1) hearsay exclusions (nonhearsay), (2) hearsay exceptions that require the declarant be unavailable, and (3) hearsay exceptions where the declarant can be available or unavailable. Then, state each of the rules’ elements and memorize the elements. It is helpful to do this so you can keep the hearsay exclusions and exceptions straight and apply them properly when they are tested. Remember: If the statement is not hearsay, you do not need a hearsay exclusion!

Impeachment

Impeachment is another topic that is tested frequently on the MEE. We recommend you memorize the seven ways to impeach a witness . Also, remember  why impeachment evidence is being admitted. It is being admitted to show that the jury   should not believe the witness .

• Prior inconsistent statement:  Any prior inconsistent statement can be admitted to show that the jury should not believe the witness because the witness said something inconsistent in the past. (Note: extrinsic evidence is available in certain circumstances.)

• Bias:  Evidence of bias can be used to show that the jury should not believe the witness because they are biased (e.g., if a witness is testifying in favor of their mother!).

• Conviction of a crime:  If a witness was convicted of a crime that meets certain requirements, the crime could be admitted to show that the jury should not believe the witness because the witness does not take the law seriously .

• Prior bad acts:   These  must relate to truthfulness . Essentially, if the witness did something, like cheat on the bar exam, (even if there was no “conviction”) it can be used to show that the jury should not believe the witness.

• Reputation or opinion for untruthfulness: If the witness has a reputation for being untruthful or if, in someone’s opinion , the witness is untruthful, this can be used to show that the jury should not believe the witness.

• Sensory deficiencies: if the witness is testifying about what they saw, for example, and the witness cannot see, this can be used to impeach the witness.

• Contradiction:  If the witness made a mistake in their testimony , or lied , the witness may be contradicted . This may be used to show that the jury should not believe the witness.

In addition to knowing these seven ways to impeach a witness, you want to learn the specific rules for each category of impeachment—including when extrinsic evidence can be offered and when the witness must be confronted on the stand. Always keep in mind  why evidence is being offered as you learn the rules.

• Sixth Amendment Confrontation Clause: When approaching an MEE where a witness is unavailable in a criminal case , remember to discuss the Sixth Amendment Confrontation Clause, which provides the defendant the right to confront witnesses who testify against him .

Other Evidence issues on the MEE

Other Evidence issues tested are character evidence , relevancy , policy exclusions , and witness testimony , among others. It is important to know Evidence well as you will need to have a solid understanding of Evidence for both the MEE and the MBE!

3. Make a visual map of  why  evidence is being offered

Often, we see students get confused and misapply rules because they apply a character evidence rule when impeachment is being tested. Or they apply a hearsay rule when a statement is  not being offered for its truth.

If you struggle with this, remember to ask, “Why is the evidence being offered?” Once you have the answer to that question, you can apply the appropriate Evidence rules.

If evidence is being offered:

• To prove a statement was said, there is no hearsay issue. (Thus, you should consider nonhearsay purposes for offering a statement—e.g., effect on reader or listener.)
• To prove a statement is true, there is a hearsay issue.
• To show the jury that they should not believe a witness, there is an impeachment issue.
• To show a witness’s good or bad character, there is a character evidence issue.
• To show some other purpose (e.g., motive, intent, lack of mistake, identity, common scheme), there is a MIMIC issue.

4. Learn the basic definitions to introduce each set of rules

Many of the concepts in Evidence should be defined or introduced before you discuss them in an essay question. For example:

• Hearsay:   hearsay is an out-of-court statement offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted.

• Relevancy:   Evidence is relevant if it has any tendency to make a fact more or less probable than it would be without the evidence, and the fact is of consequence in determining the action.

• Impeachment:  generally, any party may impeach a witness.
• Character evidence:   c haracter evidence generally is inadmissible to prove that a person acted in accordance with their character at the time the event occurred.

These are just some examples of how you may want to set up certain topics. Practicing past MEEs is a great way to see how the examiners prefer specific topics to be introduced.

5. Practice!

Practice is critical if you want to master Evidence on the MEE. As an added bonus, you may also see your MBE score improve if you practice writing answers to Evidence essays.

Here, we provide you with some links to free Evidence MEE questions and NCBE point sheets. (If you would like to purchase a book of Evidence MEE questions and NCBE point sheets, check out our  MEE books  here. You can also see some additional exams  on the NCBE website for free here .)

• February 2023 Evidence MEE: this MEE covers admissibility of a statement made during a subsequently withdrawn guilty plea; former testimony of an unavailable witness; rule 401 relevancy; Rule 404 MIMIC (absence of mistake); 403 balancing test; and impeachment (prior acts of dishonesty)
• July 2022 Evidence MEE: this MEE covers expert witness testimony, character evidence (and MIMIC—motive), and relevance.
• February 2016 Evidence MEE: this MEE covers hearsay, the Sixth Amendment Confrontation Clause, and character evidence.
• July 2014 Evidence MEE: this MEE covers impeachment.
• July 2013 Evidence MEE: this MEE covers hearsay, hearsay exceptions, and the Sixth Amendment Confrontation Clause.
• February 2013 Evidence MEE: this MEE covers hearsay, hearsay exceptions, and relevancy.

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How to Write an Expository Essay | Structure, Tips & Examples

Published on July 14, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

“Expository” means “intended to explain or describe something.” An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a particular topic, process, or set of ideas. It doesn’t set out to prove a point, just to give a balanced view of its subject matter.

Expository essays are usually short assignments intended to test your composition skills or your understanding of a subject. They tend to involve less research and original arguments than argumentative essays .

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When should you write an expository essay, how to approach an expository essay, introducing your essay, writing the body paragraphs, concluding your essay, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about expository essays.

In school and university, you might have to write expository essays as in-class exercises, exam questions, or coursework assignments.

Sometimes it won’t be directly stated that the assignment is an expository essay, but there are certain keywords that imply expository writing is required. Consider the prompts below.

The word “explain” here is the clue: An essay responding to this prompt should provide an explanation of this historical process—not necessarily an original argument about it.

Sometimes you’ll be asked to define a particular term or concept. This means more than just copying down the dictionary definition; you’ll be expected to explore different ideas surrounding the term, as this prompt emphasizes.

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An expository essay should take an objective approach: It isn’t about your personal opinions or experiences. Instead, your goal is to provide an informative and balanced explanation of your topic. Avoid using the first or second person (“I” or “you”).

The structure of your expository essay will vary according to the scope of your assignment and the demands of your topic. It’s worthwhile to plan out your structure before you start, using an essay outline .

A common structure for a short expository essay consists of five paragraphs: An introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Like all essays, an expository essay begins with an introduction . This serves to hook the reader’s interest, briefly introduce your topic, and provide a thesis statement summarizing what you’re going to say about it.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

The body of your essay is where you cover your topic in depth. It often consists of three paragraphs, but may be more for a longer essay. This is where you present the details of the process, idea or topic you’re explaining.

It’s important to make sure each paragraph covers its own clearly defined topic, introduced with a topic sentence . Different topics (all related to the overall subject matter of the essay) should be presented in a logical order, with clear transitions between paragraphs.

Hover over different parts of the example paragraph below to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation dramatically. Johannes Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his knowledge of metals in the design of the press. He made his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for the reliable production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large number of printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in Europe; among other things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.

The conclusion of an expository essay serves to summarize the topic under discussion. It should not present any new information or evidence, but should instead focus on reinforcing the points made so far. Essentially, your conclusion is there to round off the essay in an engaging way.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a conclusion works.

The invention of the printing press was important not only in terms of its immediate cultural and economic effects, but also in terms of its major impact on politics and religion across Europe. In the century following the invention of the printing press, the relatively stationary intellectual atmosphere of the Middle Ages gave way to the social upheavals of the Reformation and the Renaissance. A single technological innovation had contributed to the total reshaping of the continent.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
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• Appeal to authority fallacy
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An expository essay is a broad form that varies in length according to the scope of the assignment.

Expository essays are often assigned as a writing exercise or as part of an exam, in which case a five-paragraph essay of around 800 words may be appropriate.

You’ll usually be given guidelines regarding length; if you’re not sure, ask.

An expository essay is a common assignment in high-school and university composition classes. It might be assigned as coursework, in class, or as part of an exam.

Sometimes you might not be told explicitly to write an expository essay. Look out for prompts containing keywords like “explain” and “define.” An expository essay is usually the right response to these prompts.

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

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Nicholas Kristof

The Case for Saying ‘I Do’

By Nicholas Kristof

Opinion Columnist

With little notice, the United States may be crossing a historic milestone in family structure, one that may shape our health, wealth and happiness.

Historically, most American adults were married — more than two-thirds as recently as 1970. But the married share has crept downward , and today only about half of adults are married. Depending on the data source, we may already have entered an epoch in which a majority are not married.

“Our civilization is in the midst of an epochal shift, a shift away from marriage,” Brad Wilcox, a sociologist who directs the National Marriage Project at the University of Virginia, writes in his new book, “ Get Married .” “In place of marriage, many Americans are remaining single or simply living together without wedding rings. And to be clear, it’s more of the former than the latter.”

Wilcox believes that perhaps a third of today’s young Americans will never marry. As a long-married romantic myself, I find that troubling, but it’s not just soggy sentimentality. Survey data indicates that married couples on average report more happiness, build more wealth, live longer and raise more successful children than single parents or cohabiting couples, though there are plenty of exceptions.

“Fixing what ails America starts with renewing marriage and family life, especially in poor and working-class communities where the fabric of family life is weakest,” Wilcox argues.

He’s up against a counter view that one should dodge family responsibilities, relish freedom and play hard. Many boys and men flock to the online rantings of Andrew Tate , the misogynistic influencer facing human trafficking charges, who has argued, “There is zero advantage to marriage in the Western world for a man.”

Some women have likewise celebrated freeing themselves from an institution that often shackled them to cooking, laundry and second-class status at a cost to their careers. As women have enjoyed more economic opportunities, they’re less often forced to marry some oaf who gets violent after a few drinks — and, anyway, what self-respecting woman with independent means would want to marry, say, a fan of Andrew Tate?

Yet even as marriage has receded, the evidence has grown that while it isn’t for everyone, in many cases it can improve our lives more than we may appreciate.

“Marriage predicts happiness better than education, work and money,” Wilcox writes. For example, survey data indicates that getting a college degree increases the odds of describing oneself as “very happy” by 64 percent. Earning a solid income lifts the odds by 88 percent. Being “very satisfied” with one’s job raises them by 145 percent. And marriage increases the odds of being very happy by 151 percent — while a “very happy” marriage boosts the odds by 545 percent.

I’ve long been interested in family structure for two reasons. First, I believe the left made a historic mistake by demonizing the Moynihan Report, which 59 years ago this month warned about the consequences of family breakdown. Daniel Patrick Moynihan was prescient, for we now know that households headed by single mothers are five times as likely to live in poverty as those with married couples.

Second, loneliness and social isolation are growing problems. One poignant example: Perhaps 100,000 or more dead bodies in America go unclaimed each year, often because there are no loved ones to say farewell. It’s a topic explored in another recent book, “The Unclaimed,” by sociologists Pamela Prickett and Stefan Timmermans.

Marriage doesn’t solve loneliness and social isolation, but it helps. And there is good news on the family front: The divorce rate has dropped to a 50-year low , and the share of children raised in an intact family with married parents has increased slightly in recent years. Today about 51 percent of American kids reach adulthood with the same two parents they started out with.

But it’s also true that the marriage rate has collapsed, particularly for working-class Americans. Of those without a high school diploma, more than two-thirds are unmarried.

Wilcox writes that “the American heart is closing,” but I wouldn’t put it that way. I think many Americans want to marry but don’t feel sufficiently financially stable, or they can’t find the right person.

I’m staggered by the interest in virtual boyfriends and virtual girlfriends. One virtual boyfriend app offers an assortment of possibilities such as “polite and intelligent Edward” or “romantic and cute Daniel.”

“Don’t be shy, he’ll definitely like you,” the app advises. “He knows how to cheer you up, so you won’t feel sad or lonely.”

Just reading that makes me achingly sad. Virtual mates feel like an elegy for civilization.

One reason for the decline in marriage in working-class communities may be a lack of economic opportunity, particularly for men, and another may be culture and changing norms. That’s worth pondering. In polls, majorities of college-educated liberals seem diffident about marriage, unwilling to criticize infidelity and disagreeing with the idea that children do better with two married parents. Perhaps this liberal lack of enthusiasm for marriage also accounts for the marriage penalties built into benefit programs like Medicaid, in turn disincentivizing marriage for low-income Americans.

Wilcox scolds elites for clinging to traditional values themselves — in the sense that they get married and have kids for the most part — even as they are reluctant to endorse marriage for fear of seeming judgmental or intolerant. Elites “talk left but walk right,” he says.

We are social animals, Aristotle noted more than two millenniums ago, and it’s still true. Spouses can be exasperating (as my wife can attest), but they also can cuddle, fill us with love and connect us to a purpose beyond ourselves. They are infinitely better, for us and for society, than virtual lovers on an app, and that seems worth celebrating openly.

Update: I have the final figures for my 2023 holiday giving guide , so I owe readers a follow-up and a “thank you.” More than 5,400 readers contributed a total of $7.2 million to the three nonprofits I recommended , and here’s what the donations will mean in practical terms: 12,150 girls in rural Africa will be supported for a year of high school through Camfed ; 1,645 young people in the United States will be supported for a year of instruction and mentoring to succeed in college or technical school through OneGoal ; and 4,218 low-income Americans will get free training in information technology through Per Scholas so that they can start better-paying careers in the tech world. All three organizations do excellent work. In addition, 671 readers volunteered to help refugees settle in the United States through my recommended volunteer opportunity, Welcome.US . Thanks so much to all who donated and volunteered: People are benefiting here and abroad from your generosity.

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Nicholas Kristof became a columnist for The Times Opinion desk in 2001. He has won two Pulitzer Prizes, for his coverage of China and of the genocide in Darfur. @ NickKristof