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presentation

Definition of presentation

• fairing [ British ]
• freebee
• largess

Examples of presentation in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'presentation.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

15th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

Phrases Containing presentation

• breech presentation

Dictionary Entries Near presentation

present arms

presentation copy

Cite this Entry

“Presentation.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/presentation. Accessed 30 Aug. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of presentation, medical definition, medical definition of presentation, more from merriam-webster on presentation.

Nglish: Translation of presentation for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of presentation for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about presentation

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What is a Presentation?

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Presentation Skills:

• A - Z List of Presentation Skills
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• Preparing for a Presentation
• Organising the Material
• Writing Your Presentation
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• Working with Visual Aids
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The formal presentation of information is divided into two broad categories: Presentation Skills and Personal Presentation .

These two aspects are interwoven and can be described as the preparation, presentation and practice of verbal and non-verbal communication. 

This article describes what a presentation is and defines some of the key terms associated with presentation skills.

Many people feel terrified when asked to make their first public talk.  Some of these initial fears can be reduced by good preparation that also lays the groundwork for making an effective presentation.

A Presentation Is...

A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various speaking situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team.

A presentation can also be used as a broad term that encompasses other ‘speaking engagements’ such as making a speech at a wedding, or getting a point across in a video conference.

To be effective, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presenting the information should be carefully considered. 

A presentation requires you to get a message across to the listeners and will often contain a ' persuasive ' element. It may, for example, be a talk about the positive work of your organisation, what you could offer an employer, or why you should receive additional funding for a project.

The Key Elements of a Presentation

Making a presentation is a way of communicating your thoughts and ideas to an audience and many of our articles on communication are also relevant here, see: What is Communication? for more.

Consider the following key components of a presentation:

Ask yourself the following questions to develop a full understanding of the context of the presentation.

When and where will you deliver your presentation?

There is a world of difference between a small room with natural light and an informal setting, and a huge lecture room, lit with stage lights. The two require quite different presentations, and different techniques.

Will it be in a setting you are familiar with, or somewhere new?

If somewhere new, it would be worth trying to visit it in advance, or at least arriving early, to familiarise yourself with the room.

Will the presentation be within a formal or less formal setting?

A work setting will, more or less by definition, be more formal, but there are also various degrees of formality within that.

Will the presentation be to a small group or a large crowd?

Are you already familiar with the audience?

With a new audience, you will have to build rapport quickly and effectively, to get them on your side.

What equipment and technology will be available to you, and what will you be expected to use?

In particular, you will need to ask about microphones and whether you will be expected to stand in one place, or move around.

What is the audience expecting to learn from you and your presentation?

Check how you will be ‘billed’ to give you clues as to what information needs to be included in your presentation.

All these aspects will change the presentation. For more on this, see our page on Deciding the Presentation Method .

The role of the presenter is to communicate with the audience and control the presentation.

Remember, though, that this may also include handing over the control to your audience, especially if you want some kind of interaction.

You may wish to have a look at our page on Facilitation Skills for more.

The audience receives the presenter’s message(s).

However, this reception will be filtered through and affected by such things as the listener’s own experience, knowledge and personal sense of values.

See our page: Barriers to Effective Communication to learn why communication can fail.

The message or messages are delivered by the presenter to the audience.

The message is delivered not just by the spoken word ( verbal communication ) but can be augmented by techniques such as voice projection, body language, gestures, eye contact ( non-verbal communication ), and visual aids.

The message will also be affected by the audience’s expectations. For example, if you have been billed as speaking on one particular topic, and you choose to speak on another, the audience is unlikely to take your message on board even if you present very well . They will judge your presentation a failure, because you have not met their expectations.

The audience’s reaction and therefore the success of the presentation will largely depend upon whether you, as presenter, effectively communicated your message, and whether it met their expectations.

As a presenter, you don’t control the audience’s expectations. What you can do is find out what they have been told about you by the conference organisers, and what they are expecting to hear. Only if you know that can you be confident of delivering something that will meet expectations.

See our page: Effective Speaking for more information.

How will the presentation be delivered?

Presentations are usually delivered direct to an audience.  However, there may be occasions where they are delivered from a distance over the Internet using video conferencing systems, such as Skype.

It is also important to remember that if your talk is recorded and posted on the internet, then people may be able to access it for several years. This will mean that your contemporaneous references should be kept to a minimum.

Impediments

Many factors can influence the effectiveness of how your message is communicated to the audience.

For example background noise or other distractions, an overly warm or cool room, or the time of day and state of audience alertness can all influence your audience’s level of concentration.

As presenter, you have to be prepared to cope with any such problems and try to keep your audience focussed on your message.   

Our page: Barriers to Communication explains these factors in more depth.

Continue to read through our Presentation Skills articles for an overview of how to prepare and structure a presentation, and how to manage notes and/or illustrations at any speaking event.

Continue to: Preparing for a Presentation Deciding the Presentation Method

See also: Writing Your Presentation | Working with Visual Aids Coping with Presentation Nerves | Dealing with Questions Learn Better Presentation Skills with TED Talks

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presentation

[ prez- uh n- tey -sh uh n , pree-zen- ]

• an act of presenting.
• the state of being presented.
• a social introduction, as of a person at court.
• an exhibition or performance, as of a play or film.
• offering, delivering, or bestowal, as of a gift.
• a demonstration, lecture, or welcoming speech.

His presentation was very poor.

• Commerce. the presentment of a bill, note, or the like.
• the position of the fetus in the uterus during labor.

a breech presentation.

• Ecclesiastical. the act or the right of presenting a member of the clergy to the bishop for institution to a benefice.

/ ˌprɛzənˈteɪʃən /

• the act of presenting or state of being presented

the presentation of the project is excellent but the content poor

his presentation of the facts was muddled

a presentation on the company results

• an offering or bestowal, as of a gift

a presentation copy of a book

• a performance or representation, as of a play
• the formal introduction of a person, as into society or at court; debut
• the act or right of nominating a clergyman to a benefice
• med the position of a baby relative to the birth canal at the time of birth
• commerce another word for presentment
• television linking material between programmes, such as announcements, trailers, or weather reports
• an archaic word for gift
• philosophy a sense datum
• often capital another name for (feast of) Candlemas

Derived Forms

• ˌpresenˈtational , adjective

Other Words From

• nonpres·en·tation noun
• self-presen·tation noun

Word History and Origins

Origin of presentation 1

Example Sentences

Look no further than those execs who have sat through online presentations outlining a more inclusive workplace only to have to go back to working in teams where they’re made to feel different.

The day of the presentation comes, and the ecommerce team gathers around, continuously nodding along with each slide.

In the questions-and-answer presentation on Wednesday, Palantir did not address the issue of voting power.

For repurposing, you can use four different formats, which are – video series, infographics, podcasts, and presentations.

This presentation will explain the ins and outs of the process as well as the need for older children who are looking for a home as well.

We were scoring it like the Olympics: presentation, technique.

Bogucki includes the leaflet in a Powerpoint presentation he has developed.

Her biggest surprise, she said, was realizing how much presentation and technical points mattered.

That may be partially because The Big Lebowski is their most nihilistic presentation.

One of the hottest tickets at the 2014 edition of Comic-Con, the annual nerd mecca in San Diego, was the Marvel presentation.

You were obliging enough to ask me to accept a presentation copy of your verses.

Nor was ever a better presentation made of the essential program of socialism.

After the presentation of the Great Southern case our Bill was heard and all the opposition.

The presentation of the Railway case and the rebutting evidence did not begin till all the public witnesses had been heard.

Furthermore, a note is payable on demand when it is thus stated, or is payable at sight or on presentation.

Related Words

• demonstration
• introduction

Look up a word, learn it forever.

Presentation.

Other forms: presentations

The noun presentation means the official giving, or presenting, of something. The presentation of diplomas at a graduation ceremony is the part that makes many of the parents in the audience cry.

A presentation can be a ceremony of giving some gift or award, and it can also be a demonstration or show — like a dog training presentation at your local pet store. Another meaning of presentation is a style of displaying something — like the presentation of plants and flowers in the florist's window or the presentation of food on a buffet table. In the 1600s, presentation was commonly used to mean "show or play," as in "a theatrical presentation ."

• noun the activity of formally presenting something (as a prize or reward) “she gave the trophy but he made the presentation ” see more see less type of: ceremony the proper or conventional behavior on some solemn occasion
• noun the act of presenting a proposal see more see less types: first reading the first presentation of a bill in a legislature second reading the second presentation of a bill in a legislature; to approve its general principles (Britain) or to discuss a committee's report and take a vote (US) type of: proposal , proposition the act of making a proposal
• noun the act of making something publicly available; presenting news or other information by broadcasting or printing it “he prepared his presentation carefully in advance” see more see less types: unveiling putting on display for the first time production a presentation for the stage or screen or radio or television staging , theatrical production the production of a drama on the stage type of: display exhibiting openly in public view
• noun formally making a person known to another or to the public synonyms: intro , introduction see more see less types: debut the presentation of a debutante in society reintroduction an act of renewed introduction type of: informing , making known a speech act that conveys information
• noun a show or display; the act of presenting something to sight or view “the presentation of new data” synonyms: demonstration , presentment see more see less types: show 19 types... hide 19 types... exhibition the act of exhibiting exposure presentation to view in an open or public manner performance the act of presenting a play or a piece of music or other entertainment lecture demonstration presentation of an example of what the lecturer is discoursing about counterdemonstration a demonstration held in opposition to another demonstration dramatic performance , dramatic production the act of performing a drama encore an extra or repeated performance; usually given in response to audience demand extemporisation , extemporization , improvisation a performance given extempore without planning or preparation juggle , juggling throwing and catching several objects simultaneously conjuration , conjuring trick , deception , illusion , legerdemain , magic , magic trick , thaumaturgy , trick an illusory feat; considered magical by naive observers musical performance the act of performing music one-night stand a performance in one place on one night only interpretation , rendering , rendition the act of interpreting something as expressed in an artistic performance last hurrah , swan song a final performance or effort (especially before retirement) debunking , repudiation the exposure of falseness or pretensions production (law) the act of exhibiting in a court of law rodeo an exhibition of cowboy skills program , programme a performance (or series of performances) at a public presentation reprise the act of performing a role again type of: show the act of publicly exhibiting or entertaining
• noun a visual representation of something synonyms: display see more see less types: show 5 types... hide 5 types... float an elaborate display mounted on a platform carried by a truck (or pulled by a truck) in a procession or parade Snellen chart display consisting of a printed card with letters and numbers in lines of decreasing size; used to test visual acuity spectacle an elaborate and remarkable display on a lavish scale bullfight , corrida a Spanish or Portuguese or Latin American spectacle; a matador baits and (usually) kills a bull in an arena before many spectators naumachia , naumachy a naval spectacle; a mock sea battle put on by the ancient Romans type of: representation a creation that is a visual or tangible rendering of someone or something
• noun (obstetrics) position of the fetus in the uterus relative to the birth canal “Cesarean sections are sometimes the result of abnormal presentations ” see more see less type of: attitude , position , posture the arrangement of the body and its limbs

Vocabulary lists containing presentation

To improve your fluency in English Language Arts and Reading (ELAR), learn this academic vocabulary list that includes words selected from the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) state standards.

Vocabulary is key to performing well on Common Core-aligned tests for English Language Arts as well as for building literacy in social studies, science, and technical subjects. This collection features common tier-2 words that are taught and tested in Grades 9 and 10. These words are used in a variety of contexts, exhibit different shades of meaning based on those contexts, and appear commonly in classroom instruction and on standardized assessments. Here are links to our lists for the collection: List 1 , List 2 , List 3 , List 4 , List 5 , List 6 , List 7 , List 8

Vocabulary is key to performing well on Common Core-aligned tests for English Language Arts as well as for building literacy in social studies, science, and technical subjects. This collection features common tier-2 words that are taught and tested in Grade 6. These words are used in a variety of contexts, exhibit different shades of meaning based on those contexts, and appear commonly in classroom instruction and on standardized assessments. Here are links to our lists for the collection: List 1 , List 2 , List 3 , List 4 , List 5 , List 6 , List 7 , List 8

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Definition of presentation noun from the Oxford Advanced American Dictionary

presentation

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Find out which words work together and produce more natural-sounding English with the Oxford Collocations Dictionary app. Try it for free as part of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary app.

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presentation

• presentation (noun)
• The charts and graphs helped me understand the presentation .
• She will take your questions after she has made her presentation .
• The senior accountant gave a presentation at the meeting.
• The presentation of the food made it look very appetizing.
• The choir sang during the presentation of the gifts.
• The awards were given out last night, and the mayor was on hand to make the presentations . [=to present the awards]
• an awards presentation
• The state has a law that prohibits the presentation of new evidence 30 days after conviction.
• We are going to see an outdoor presentation of the play.
• abnormal birth presentations

— presentational

• presentational skills

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Business Jargons

A Business Encyclopedia

Presentation

Definition : A presentation is a form of communication in which the speaker conveys information to the audience. In an organization presentations are used in various scenarios like talking to a group, addressing a meeting, demonstrating or introducing a new product, or briefing a team. It involves presenting a particular subject or issue or new ideas/thoughts to a group of people.

It is considered as the most effective form of communication because of two main reasons:

• Use of non-verbal cues.
• Facilitates instant feedback.

Business Presentations are a tool to influence people toward an intended thought or action.

Parts of Presentation

• Introduction : It is meant to make the listeners ready to receive the message and draw their interest. For that, the speaker can narrate some story or a humorous piece of joke, an interesting fact, a question, stating a problem, and so forth. They can also use some surprising statistics.
• Body : It is the essence of the presentation. It requires the sequencing of facts in a logical order. This is the part where the speaker explains the topic and relevant information. It has to be critically arranged, as the audience must be able to grasp what the speaker presents.
• Conclusion : It needs to be short and precise. It should sum up or outline the key points that you have presented. It could also contain what the audience should have gained out of the presentation.

Purpose of Presentation

• To inform : Organizations can use presentations to inform the audience about new schemes, products or proposals. The aim is to inform the new entrant about the policies and procedures of the organization.
• To persuade : Presentations are also given to persuade the audience to take the intended action.
• To build goodwill : They can also help in building a good reputation

Factors Affecting Presentation

Audience Analysis

Communication environment, personal appearance, use of visuals, opening and closing presentation, organization of presentation, language and words, voice quality, body language, answering questions, a word from business jargons.

Presentation is a mode of conveying information to a selected group of people live. An ideal presentation is one that identifies and matches the needs, interests and understanding level of the audience. It also represents the facts, and figures in the form of tables, charts, and graphs and uses multiple colours.

Related terms:

• Verbal Communication
• Visual Communication
• Non-Verbal Communication
• Communication
• 7 C’s of Communication

Reader Interactions

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October 2, 2022 at 11:33 pm

Thank you so much for providing us with brief info related to the presentation.

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July 3, 2023 at 2:04 am

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Blog Beginner Guides 8 Types of Presentations You Should Know [+Examples & Tips]

8 Types of Presentations You Should Know [+Examples & Tips]

Written by: Krystle Wong Aug 11, 2023

From persuasive pitches that influence opinions to instructional demonstrations that teach skills, the different types of presentations serve a unique purpose, tailored to specific objectives and audiences.

Presentations that are tailored to its objectives and audiences are more engaging and memorable. They capture attention, maintain interest and leave a lasting impression. 

Don’t worry if you’re no designer —  Whether you need data-driven visuals, persuasive graphics or engaging design elements, Venngage can empower you to craft presentations that stand out and effectively convey your message.

Venngage’s intuitive drag-and-drop interface, extensive presentation template library and customizable design options make it a valuable tool for creating slides that align with your specific goals and target audience. 

Click to jump ahead:

8 Different types of presentations every presenter must know

How do i choose the right type of presentation for my topic or audience, types of presentation faq, 5 steps to create a presentation with venngage .

When it comes to presentations, versatility is the name of the game. Having a variety of presentation styles up your sleeve can make a world of difference in keeping your audience engaged. Here are 8 essential presentation types that every presenter should be well-acquainted with:

1. Informative presentation

Ever sat through a presentation that left you feeling enlightened? That’s the power of an informative presentation. 

This presentation style is all about sharing knowledge and shedding light on a particular topic. Whether you’re diving into the depths of quantum physics or explaining the intricacies of the latest social media trends, informative presentations aim to increase the audience’s understanding.

When delivering an informative presentation, simplify complex topics with clear visuals and relatable examples. Organize your content logically, starting with the basics and gradually delving deeper and always remember to keep jargon to a minimum and encourage questions for clarity.

Academic presentations and research presentations are great examples of informative presentations. An effective academic presentation involves having clear structure, credible evidence, engaging delivery and supporting visuals. Provide context to emphasize the topic’s significance, practice to perfect timing, and be ready to address anticipated questions. 

2. Persuasive presentation

If you’ve ever been swayed by a passionate speaker armed with compelling arguments, you’ve experienced a persuasive presentation . 

This type of presentation is like a verbal tug-of-war, aiming to convince the audience to see things from a specific perspective. Expect to encounter solid evidence, logical reasoning and a dash of emotional appeal.

With persuasive presentations, it’s important to know your audience inside out and tailor your message to their interests and concerns. Craft a compelling narrative with a strong opening, a solid argument and a memorable closing. Additionally, use visuals strategically to enhance your points.

Examples of persuasive presentations include presentations for environmental conservations, policy change, social issues and more. Here are some engaging presentation templates you can use to get started with: 

3. Demonstration or how-to presentation

A Demonstration or How-To Presentation is a type of presentation where the speaker showcases a process, technique, or procedure step by step, providing the audience with clear instructions on how to replicate the demonstrated action. 

A demonstrative presentation is particularly useful when teaching practical skills or showing how something is done in a hands-on manner.

These presentations are commonly used in various settings, including educational workshops, training sessions, cooking classes, DIY tutorials, technology demonstrations and more. Designing creative slides for your how-to presentations can heighten engagement and foster better information retention. 

Speakers can also consider breaking down the process into manageable steps, using visual aids, props and sometimes even live demonstrations to illustrate each step. The key is to provide clear and concise instructions, engage the audience with interactive elements and address any questions that may arise during the presentation.

4. Training or instructional presentation

Training presentations are geared towards imparting practical skills, procedures or concepts — think of this as the more focused cousin of the demonstration presentation. 

Whether you’re teaching a group of new employees the ins and outs of a software or enlightening budding chefs on the art of soufflé-making, training presentations are all about turning novices into experts.

To maximize the impact of your training or instructional presentation, break down complex concepts into digestible segments. Consider using real-life examples to illustrate each point and create a connection. 

You can also create an interactive presentation by incorporating elements like quizzes or group activities to reinforce understanding.

5. Sales presentation

Sales presentations are one of the many types of business presentations and the bread and butter of businesses looking to woo potential clients or customers. With a sprinkle of charm and a dash of persuasion, these presentations showcase products, services or ideas with one end goal in mind: sealing the deal.

A successful sales presentation often has key characteristics such as a clear value proposition, strong storytelling, confidence and a compelling call to action. Hence, when presenting to your clients or stakeholders, focus on benefits rather than just features. 

Anticipate and address potential objections before they arise and use storytelling to showcase how your offering solves a specific problem for your audience. Utilizing visual aids is also a great way to make your points stand out and stay memorable.

A sales presentation can be used to promote service offerings, product launches or even consultancy proposals that outline the expertise and industry experience of a business. Here are some template examples you can use for your next sales presentation:

6. Pitch presentation

Pitch presentations are your ticket to garnering the interest and support of potential investors, partners or stakeholders. Think of your pitch deck as your chance to paint a vivid picture of your business idea or proposal and secure the resources you need to bring it to life. 

Business presentations aside, individuals can also create a portfolio presentation to showcase their skills, experience and achievements to potential clients, employers or investors. 

Craft a concise and compelling narrative. Clearly define the problem your idea solves and how it stands out in the market. Anticipate questions and practice your answers. Project confidence and passion for your idea.

7. Motivational or inspirational presentation

Feeling the need for a morale boost? That’s where motivational presentations step in. These talks are designed to uplift and inspire, often featuring personal anecdotes, heartwarming stories and a generous serving of encouragement.

Form a connection with your audience by sharing personal stories that resonate with your message. Use a storytelling style with relatable anecdotes and powerful metaphors to create an emotional connection. Keep the energy high and wrap up your inspirational presentations with a clear call to action.

Inspirational talks and leadership presentations aside, a motivational or inspirational presentation can also be a simple presentation aimed at boosting confidence, a motivational speech focused on embracing change and more.

8. Status or progress report presentation

Projects and businesses are like living organisms, constantly evolving and changing. Status or progress report presentations keep everyone in the loop by providing updates on achievements, challenges and future plans. It’s like a GPS for your team, ensuring everyone stays on track.

Be transparent about achievements, challenges and future plans. Utilize infographics, charts and diagrams to present your data visually and simplify information. By visually representing data, it becomes easier to identify trends, make predictions and strategize based on evidence.

Now that you’ve learned about the different types of presentation methods and how to use them, you’re on the right track to creating a good presentation that can boost your confidence and enhance your presentation skills . 

Selecting the most suitable presentation style is akin to choosing the right outfit for an occasion – it greatly influences how your message is perceived. Here’s a more detailed guide to help you make that crucial decision:

1. Define your objectives

Begin by clarifying your presentation’s goals. Are you aiming to educate, persuade, motivate, train or perhaps sell a concept? Your objectives will guide you to the most suitable presentation type. 

For instance, if you’re aiming to inform, an informative presentation would be a natural fit. On the other hand, a persuasive presentation suits the goal of swaying opinions.

2. Know your audience

Regardless if you’re giving an in-person or a virtual presentation — delve into the characteristics of your audience. Consider factors like their expertise level, familiarity with the topic, interests and expectations. 

If your audience consists of professionals in your field, a more technical presentation might be suitable. However, if your audience is diverse and includes newcomers, an approachable and engaging style might work better.

3. Analyze your content

Reflect on the content you intend to present. Is it data-heavy, rich in personal stories or focused on practical skills? Different presentation styles serve different content types. 

For data-driven content, an informative or instructional presentation might work best. For emotional stories, a motivational presentation could be a compelling choice.

4. Consider time constraints

Evaluate the time you have at your disposal. If your presentation needs to be concise due to time limitations, opt for a presentation style that allows you to convey your key points effectively within the available timeframe. A pitch presentation, for example, often requires delivering impactful information within a short span.

5. Leverage visuals

Visual aids are powerful tools in presentations. Consider whether your content would benefit from visual representation. If your PowerPoint presentations involve step-by-step instructions or demonstrations, a how-to presentation with clear visuals would be advantageous. Conversely, if your content is more conceptual, a motivational presentation could rely more on spoken words.

6. Align with the setting

Take the presentation environment into account. Are you presenting in a formal business setting, a casual workshop or a conference? Your setting can influence the level of formality and interactivity in your presentation. For instance, a demonstration presentation might be ideal for a hands-on workshop, while a persuasive presentation is great for conferences.

7. Gauge audience interaction

Determine the level of audience engagement you want. Interactive presentations work well for training sessions, workshops and small group settings, while informative or persuasive presentations might be more one-sided.

8. Flexibility

Stay open to adjusting your presentation style on the fly. Sometimes, unexpected factors might require a change of presentation style. Be prepared to adjust on the spot if audience engagement or reactions indicate that a different approach would be more effective.

Remember that there is no one-size-fits-all approach, and the best type of presentation may vary depending on the specific situation and your unique communication goals. By carefully considering these factors, you can choose the most effective presentation type to successfully engage and communicate with your audience.

To save time, use a presentation software or check out these presentation design and presentation background guides to create a presentation that stands out.    

What are some effective ways to begin and end a presentation?

Capture your audience’s attention from the start of your presentation by using a surprising statistic, a compelling story or a thought-provoking question related to your topic. 

To conclude your presentation , summarize your main points, reinforce your key message and leave a lasting impression with a powerful call to action or a memorable quote that resonates with your presentation’s theme.

How can I make my presentation more engaging and interactive?

To create an engaging and interactive presentation for your audience, incorporate visual elements such as images, graphs and videos to illustrate your points visually. Share relatable anecdotes or real-life examples to create a connection with your audience. 

You can also integrate interactive elements like live polls, open-ended questions or small group discussions to encourage participation and keep your audience actively engaged throughout your presentation.

Which types of presentations require special markings

Some presentation types require special markings such as how sales presentations require persuasive techniques like emphasizing benefits, addressing objections and using compelling visuals to showcase products or services. 

Demonstrations and how-to presentations on the other hand require clear markings for each step, ensuring the audience can follow along seamlessly. 

That aside, pitch presentations require highlighting unique selling points, market potential and the competitive edge of your idea, making it stand out to potential investors or partners.

Need some inspiration on how to make a presentation that will captivate an audience? Here are 120+ presentation ideas to help you get started. 

Creating a stunning and impactful presentation with Venngage is a breeze. Whether you’re crafting a business pitch, a training presentation or any other type of presentation, follow these five steps to create a professional presentation that stands out:

• Sign up and log in to Venngage to access the editor.
• Choose a presentation template that matches your topic or style.
• Customize content, colors, fonts, and background to personalize your presentation.
• Add images, icons, and charts to enhancevisual style and clarity.
• Save, export, and share your presentation as PDF or PNG files, or use Venngage’s Presentation Mode for online showcasing.

In the realm of presentations, understanding the different types of presentation formats is like having a versatile set of tools that empower you to craft compelling narratives for every occasion.

Remember, the key to a successful presentation lies not only in the content you deliver but also in the way you connect with your audience. Whether you’re informing, persuading or entertaining, tailoring your approach to the specific type of presentation you’re delivering can make all the difference.

Presentations are a powerful tool, and with practice and dedication (and a little help from Venngage), you’ll find yourself becoming a presentation pro in no time. Now, let’s get started and customize your next presentation!

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• Presentation Skills
• Skills & Tools

Presentation skills can be defined as a set of abilities that enable an individual to: interact with the audience; transmit the messages with clarity; engage the audience in the presentation; and interpret and understand the mindsets of the listeners. These skills refine the way you put forward your messages and enhance your persuasive powers.

The present era places great emphasis on good presentation skills. This is because they play an important role in convincing the clients and customers. Internally, management with good presentation skills is better able to communicate the mission and vision of the organization to the employees.

Importance of Presentation Skills

Interaction with others is a routine job of businesses in today’s world. The importance of good presentation skills is established on the basis of following points:

• They help an individual in enhancing his own growth opportunities. In addition, it also grooms the personality of the presenter and elevates his levels of confidence.
• In case of striking deals and gaining clients, it is essential for the business professionals to understand the audience. Good presentation skills enable an individual to mold his message according to the traits of the audience. This increases the probability of successful transmission of messages.
• Lastly, business professionals have to arrange seminars and give presentations almost every day. Having good presentation skills not only increases an individual’s chances of success, but also enable him to add greatly to the organization.

How to Improve Presentation Skills

Development of good presentation skills requires efforts and hard work. To improve your presentation skills, you must:

• Research the Audience before Presenting: This will enable you to better understand the traits of the audience. You can then develop messages that can be better understood by your target audience. For instance, in case of an analytical audience, you can add more facts and figures in your presentation.
• Structure your Presentation Effectively: The best way to do this is to start with telling the audience, in the introduction, what you are going to present. Follow this by presenting the idea, and finish off the presentation by repeating the main points.
• Do a lot of Practice: Rehearse but do not go for memorizing the presentation. Rehearsals reduce your anxiety and enable you to look confident on the presentation day. Make sure you practice out loud, as it enables you to identify and eliminate errors more efficiently. Do not memorize anything as it will make your presentation look mechanical. This can reduce the degree of audience engagement.
• Take a Workshop: Most medium and large businesses allow their employees to take employee development courses and workshops, as well-trained employees are essential to the success of any company. You can use that opportunity to take a workshop on professional presentation skills such as those offered by Langevin Learning Services , which are useful for all business professionals, from employees to business trainers and managers.

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Table of Contents

Presentation definition & meaning, what is a presentation, 10 types of presentations, presentation uses, purpose, importance, what’s in a presentation parts, how to design a presentation, presentation vs. deck, what’s the difference between a presentation, representation, & speech, presentation sizes, presentation ideas & examples, graphic design, presentation.

Presentations are staple communication tools in school, business, or any professional matter where presenters impart topics to an audience. Often presented as a slideshow or digital animation, relaying a well-thought-out presentation to an audience is a creative and compelling way to share content while making discussions fun and engaging.

Multipurpose Business Presentation

PowerPoint Slide Presentation

Software Product Presentation

Business Timeline Presentation

University Presentation

Dashboard Presentation

Animated Presentation

Fall Wedding Planners Presentation

Trucking Logistics Presentation

Gantt Chart PowerPoint Presentation

Audiovisual Content

Multi-faceted presentations, flexibility for effective communication, not limited to slide presentations, collaboration features, mode of presentation.

• Formal Business Presentation Ideas and Examples
• Creative Real Estate Presentation Ideas and Examples
• Wedding PowerPoint Presentation Ideas and Examples
• Music PowerPoint Presentation Ideas and Examples
• Glossy Business Presentation Ideas and Examples
• Education Presentation Ideas and Examples
• Poster PowerPoint Presentation Ideas and Examples
• Simple Work From Home Presentation Ideas and Examples
• Chalkboard Presentation Ideas and Examples
• Modern Real Estate Presentation Ideas and Examples

What does a presentation convey?

Who are the two main parties of a presentation, what are examples of presentations, what consists of a presentation, what are the types of presentations, what are some tips to make a presentation, what are the 5ps of a presentation, what are the top three elements of a presentation, what makes a good presentation, what are the 4ps for oral presentations, more in graphic design.

Founder Presentation Template

Nonprofit organization finance presentation template, brand strategy presentation template, corporate presentation template, couple appreciation month promotion template, vesak promotion template, elegant fashion presentation template, modern science presentation template, aesthetic science presentation template, strategy roadmap presentation template.

• How To Make/Create an Invitation in Google Docs [Templates + Examples]
• How To Create an ID Card in Google Docs [Template + Example]
• How to Make an ID Card in Microsoft Word [Template + Example]
• How To Make a Letterhead in Google Docs [Template + Example]
• How To Make a Letterhead in Microsoft Word [Template + Example]
• How To Create a Chart Design in Google Docs [Template + Example]
• How To Create a Chart Design in Microsoft Word [Template + Example]
• How To Make/Create a Calendar Design in Google Docs [Templates + Examples]
• How To Make/Create a Calendar Design in Microsoft Word [Templates + Examples]
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• How To Make/Create a Book Cover in Microsoft Word [Templates + Examples]
• Vacancy Sizes
• Wedding Album Ideas
• Tarot Ideas

File Formats

Word templates, google docs templates, excel templates, powerpoint templates, google sheets templates, google slides templates, pdf templates, publisher templates, psd templates, indesign templates, illustrator templates, pages templates, keynote templates, numbers templates, outlook templates.

What is the Difference between a Presentation and a Slide?

By: Author Shrot Katewa

People often use the terms “Presentation” and “Slide” interchangeably. But, do these terms mean one and the same thing? If not, what exactly is the difference between a Presentation and a Slide?

The main difference between a presentation and a slide is that a slide is just a single page of a presentation document whereas a presentation is an actual process of sharing and presenting the information present on the slides.

There are several other similar terms that are used when referring to presentations. In this article, we’ll take a look at some of these terms and clear the confusion around it!

Difference between a Presentation and a Slide?

Hopefully, you have already understood the main difference between a presentation and a slide. Let’s look at the two in further detail, and understand the nuances.

What is a Slide?

A slide, as we may have already understood, is a single page of a presentation.

In the above image, as you may notice, all the individual pages that we get within a presentation is referred to as “ Slides “. You may even notice the numbers on the top left corner of each slide in the normal view much like the page numbers on a word document.

These numbers indicate the slide number within a particular presentation file. Even though they indicate the slide number, these are not visible when giving the presentation in the slide show mode (we’ll talk about slide show a bit later in the article).

In order to create a presentation file, you’ll be required to work on each individual slides.

However, many people tend to make this one big mistake! That is, creating slides by writing content as though they would on a page of a word document. One needs to keep in mind that creating a slide is not just about putting a bunch of words together, rather sharing it in a visually appealing and engaging manner with the audience.

Creating a beautiful slide is an art in itself, and it takes skills and an eye for design to create an aesthetically pleasing slide.

What is a Presentation?

A presentation is a means of communication. It is the process of sharing the information present on the slides! A presentation can also take the form of a demonstration of a product, design, or ideas!

A presentation differs from a slide from the fact that the person giving a presentation ideally uses the slide as a base to build upon the points he/she wants to communicate with the audience.

It is quite common to use slides while giving a presentation in today’s modern world. That said, a presentation goes beyond even having any slides! What I mean is that a presentation can be given even without having any slides.

While a single slide can also be construed as a presentation in a scenario when while giving the presentation, the presenter uses just 1 slide. Although, this is an extremely rare occurrence!

It is important to note that some people are really good at creating an aesthetically pleasing slide, while others are great at presenting or sharing the information present on a slide!

Both of the aforementioned activities require a different set of skills. It is quite common to hire or outsource the activity of creating the slides in order to deliver a successful presentation.

Difference between Slide and Slideshow?

Now that we’ve understood the difference between a slide and a presentation, let’s compare another term that people often get confused with – slide vs. slideshow

While a slide is a single page of the presentation document, a slide show is when multiple slides are put together for the purpose of supplementing the presentation to be delivered.

In a nutshell, when a series of slides, usually comprising of images, are displayed using an electronic display device such as a projector screen, it is known as a slide show.

A slide show can also have some background music (an example would be a slide show given at a friend’s wedding). A slide show may either be controlled (for example when giving a presentation), or it may run in a loop (for example in a company booth at a business conference).

Difference between a Slide and Slide Deck?

Another term that you may hear a lot is a “Slide Deck”. It may also be used in combination with other words such as “Pitch Deck” or a “Presentation Deck”. So, let’s understand what it means.

A slide deck is basically a group of slides together used for giving a presentation.

While this may feel similar in meaning to a slide show, the only major difference is its history!

The term slide deck evolved from the olden days when physical slides were used to give a presentation.

Each slide would have a particular piece of information (just as it does today), and all these slides were physically stacked together in the particular desired order to form a deck; much like a deck of cards.

This was done to ensure that the order of the slides doesn’t get changed. This made the term “Slide Deck” synonymous with a presentation.

Today, with the advent of technology, one cannot imaging using physical slides to give a presentation! Just like the technology for presentations, the terminology also changed from Slide Deck to Slide Show. However, the core principle remains the same.

Difference between PowerPoint and Presentation?

Another pair of terms that people highly used interchangeably is PowerPoint and Presentation. So far, we’ve already understood the terms slide, slide show, slide deck and presentation. So, how does the term PowerPoint fit in this?

PowerPoint is a presentation design software owned and provided by Microsoft to its customers as part of its Office Suite. There are several versions of Microsoft PowerPoint. The software is usually updated with new features in its newest release version.

PowerPoint was first launched by a software company “Forethought Inc.”. The software was initially designed to work only on Macintosh computers only. However, in it’s first major acquisition, Microsoft bought PowerPoint and was first brought to the market in 1990 for Windows.

The software became so popular with the users that a presentation is often referred to as “PowerPoint” or “PPT” (which is the file extension of the PowerPoint files).

So, the key difference between PowerPoint and Presentation is that PowerPoint is basically a tool or software to create digital presentations. A presentation can be given with or without a PowerPoint file.

By the way, the screenshot that you saw earlier in the article that showcases the meaning of slides is from a PowerPoint file.

PowerPoint is not the only presentation design software available to the users. In fact, there are literally hundreds of tools to design a presentation. But, PowerPoint by far is the most commonly used and most successful presentation design software.

How many Slides should a Presentation have?

This is a question that haunts most people who need to give a presentation and create the deck. Is there a good number that you should restrict your slides in a presentation to?

While there is no fixed “one size fits all” approach when it comes to creating presentations and limiting the number of slides in a presentation, ensuring that your presentation doesn’t go beyond 20 slides on average !

In a research published in the Marketing Education Review on the topic of Optimizing Learning by Examining the Use of Presentation Slides , it was cited that blank stares were visible amongst audience members when listeners were overwhelmed with too many slides are text-heavy slides.

Thus, it is important to restrict our presentation to no more than 20 slides. Consider the time available at hand when giving a presentation. A 20-slide presentation can be delivered in about 30 minutes.

According to Guy Kawasaki, an angel investor who reviewed several hundreds of pitch presentations every day, is a strong evangelist of the 10 slide rule (now popularly known as the 10/20/30 rule of PowerPoint)

However, a 10-slide PowerPoint presentation may work well for an investor pitch, it may not suffice for most of the other purposes.

How to Create an Attractive PowerPoint Presentation?

Everyone wants their presentation to look attractive. After all, we all understand the importance of a good first impression !

But, when you don’t necessarily have the required skills, how then can you create an attractive presentation?

Fortunately, we wrote a detailed post on how anyone could make their presentation attractive even if they are a complete beginner! Be sure to check out the article!

7 EASY tips that ALWAYS make your PPT presentation attractive (even for beginners)

The tips shared in that article are absolute GOLD! I’m not sure why people are not giving these such simple tips to others.

If you are not comfortable using even the tips mentioned in the article, and you feel like you need some time to gain the skills, then I would recommend hiring a good design agency who will ensure that your presentation turns out to be an attractive one!

The 5 Differences Between A Pitch And A Presentation

Persuade me. If you can.

“Tell me a little bit about yourself.”

“Pitch me your business idea.”

“Why should I do business with you?”

Where, exactly, does the story begin? In order to pitch your ideas - or your job skills - effectively, it’s important to understand the fundamental differences between a presentation and a pitch. Because a pitch is more than just an informational presentation. Beyond the constructs of the various TV shows, like Shark Tank , a pitch doesn’t necessarily inform. A good pitch compels . In other words, a pitch inspires action.

Persuasion Creates Opportunity, inside Your Pitch

That’s right, “inspires”. Because if all you want to do is instruct, like an informational presentation, that’s not a pitch. True, your audience might get smarter. But are you getting any richer? What does “good” look like, when it comes to your pitch? Maybe it looks like a new job . A new promotion. Or a new initiative that’s delivered (persuasively) by none other than you. Would you invest in that pitch?

Consider these five key differences between a presentation and a pitch:

• You Don’t Have to Go it Alone : it’s easy to fall into the trap that you’re alone on an island when it comes to your pitch - and that’s why you better talk fast, right? Wrong. A presentation is about information. A pitch is about connection . Slow down, and stop trying to lift the world by yourself. Instead, connect your message to the people you wish to influence most: your investors, your potential new employer, your boss. Stop focusing on yourself and consider the puts and takes for the person right in front of you. You may not be facing off with Mr. Wonderful, but if you can find a way to connect to your audience, you’re making wonderful progress. How does your pitch impact the person you’re trying to influence? Are you clear on their outcomes, not just your own?
• Outcomes, Not Obstacles : there are four words that need to be a part of any persuasive conversation or pitch. Here they are: “I’ve thought this through”. Thinking things through means looking beyond the details. Zoom out and see if you see the big picture - have you thought things through? After all, a pitch is persuasive. It’s not a how-to. You’re not there to instruct, you’re there to inspire. Thinking things through points towards outcomes . What is the outcome of your business idea? What’s the outcome of you being hired by this firm? Stop focusing on your past experience and knowledge (Your background and resumé won’t disappear, when you make this shift). Turn your experience into outcomes for your audience. That way, you create an experience for your investor (or potential employer). Sharing outcomes starts by answering this simple question: “What’s the biggest promise you can keep?”
• What’s Your Log Line? Brant Pinvidic has sold over 300 different vehicles to various studios in Hollywood, including reality TV shows like Pawn Stars and Bar Rescue . In his book, The 3-Minute Rule, he explains how it can be useful to have a “log line”. He defines a log line as “the single most valuable element of your offering...in a single sentence or phrase.” He explains how he sold the idea of The Biggest Loser, the most successful show his company has produced so far: “Overweight contestants compete to lose weight; the winner is the biggest loser.” Simplicity wins, when it comes to your pitch.
• Use Leadership Language - Not Just Description: If you want a pitch that’s a winner, consider the difference between language that describes and language that creates. The language of description is all around us - in news reports, white papers and web pages. The language of creation, however, focuses on what we might be able to make, build or do together. Leadership language emphasizes creation: creating partnerships, opportunities, options and outcomes. Which do you think is more important in a pitch, description or creation? If an investor can take a quiz on your business idea, describe it, and earn an “A”, you might just be the biggest loser. Because if your audience is smarter, but they’re not co-creating a new solution with you, what have you won? Do you want to get a grade, or to get paid?
• Close Like You Know: a compelling pitch is, at its core, is a series of “yeses”. A pitch always finds a way to “yes”. How do you know if your pitch is going well? When you hear these three words from your audience: tell me more . Can you share ideas that are inarguable? Ideas and concepts that inspire agreement instead of inviting argument? These paths lead to yes. And then, at the end of your pitch, offer the easiest thing in the world to say “yes” to. And what is the easiest thing in the world to say “yes” to? No, it’s not free beer. It’s an invitation . What is the invitation you can offer? An invitation that’s logical and actionable and measurable. An invitation to co-create the next step - the step that just might get you into the winner’s circle. Or that new job you’ve been hoping for.

You don’t have to watch Shark Tank in order to see the value in a persuasive conversation. That’s right: a pitch is simply a conversation, if it’s done right. A conversation that’s compelling, clear and guided, so that your audience sees your vision. A vision that’s presented in a way that makes people say “yes”. Using the language of creation, a pitch builds to a “tell me more”, based on a story that gets your audience involved and connected with your vision. So, if you’re looking for a new job, or a new way to get your ideas across, consider how you might be able to create the one thing that every pitch needs: a connection to your audience. Instead of focusing intently on your background, your struggle, or your hero’s journey, consider instead how you can make your audience the hero. That kind of language just might help you create what’s missing. So, you’re invited to change the conversation - and change your results - whenever you’re ready to win.

• Cambridge Dictionary +Plus

Meaning of presentation in English

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presentation noun ( EVENT )

• talk She will give a talk on keeping kids safe on the internet.
• lecture The lecture is entitled "War and the Modern American Presidency."
• presentation We were given a presentation of progress made to date.
• speech You might have to make a speech when you accept the award.
• address He took the oath of office then delivered his inaugural address.
• oration It was to become one of the most famous orations in American history.
• The presentation was a collaborative effort by all the children in the class .
• The charity invited the press to a presentation of its plans for the future .
• The magazine asked its readers to send in their comments about the new style of presentation.
• Jenny's retiring and I think there's going to be a small presentation this afternoon .
• Graduates must be in full academic dress at the presentation of certificates .
• call for papers
• deliver a speech
• maiden speech
• public speaking
• talk at someone

You can also find related words, phrases, and synonyms in the topics:

presentation noun ( APPEARANCE )

• adverse conditions
• have it in you idiom
• stock-in-trade
• unaffiliated
• undercurrent

presentation | Intermediate English

Presentation | business english, examples of presentation, collocations with presentation, presentation.

These are words often used in combination with presentation .

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Translations of presentation

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Word of the Day

skip out on something

to avoid doing something that you should do; to leave someone when they need your help

It’s not really my thing (How to say you don’t like something)

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Nvidia's Big Day Is Here: What to Expect When the AI Giant Reports After the Bell

• The maker of chips for AI development will release its latest results after the closing bell today.
• Wall Street expects another bout of triple-digit percentage growth in revenue, led by the data center.
• Results will be key in determining the direction of its stock, which has soared since the start of 2023.
• Motley Fool Issues Rare “All In” Buy Alert

NASDAQ: NVDA

Investors are about to get a fresh look at Nvidia's artificial intelligence chip sales.

Nvidia ( NVDA 1.51% ) is at the epicenter of the artificial intelligence (AI) revolution. It designs the most powerful data center chips for AI development, and demand continues to outstrip supply which is driving a surge in the company's revenue and earnings.

After the closing bell today -- at around 5:00pm Eastern Time and 2:00pm Pacific -- Nvidia will release its financial results for its fiscal 2025's second quarter (ended July 31). The report will give investors a fresh look at the chip giant's sales, and what it expects for the rest of this year.

Here's what you need to know!

Image source: Nvidia.

Wall Street expects another blowout revenue number

Nvidia's official guidance points to $28 billion in total revenue for Q2, representing 107% growth compared to the year-ago period. That might be conservative, though, because Wall Street's consensus estimate has steadily climbed over the last couple of months and currently stands at $28.7 billion (according to LSEG).

Considering Nvidia delivered $26 billion in revenue during the first quarter (ended April 28), which was a whopping $2 billion more than the company had originally forecast, it's no surprise that analysts think a beat is in the cards for Q2.

The data center segment accounted for $22.6 billion of Nvidia's total Q1 revenue. All eyes will be on that number in the Q2 report because Nvidia's graphics processors ( GPU s) for the data center are critical to AI development . According to Wall Street, it could come in somewhere between $24.5 billion and $25.2 billion -- any result above the high end of that range will likely spark a fresh wave of enthusiasm in Nvidia stock.

Tech giants like Microsoft , Alphabet , and Meta Platforms (to name a few) have each committed to spending tens of billions of dollars on AI data center infrastructure this year, and a significant amount of that money will flow directly to Nvidia through GPU sales.

That includes sales of the H100 GPU which set the benchmark for the industry last year, and the more recent H200 which can perform AI inference at twice the pace of its predecessor. But there's also an entirely new generation of chips on the way.

Expect an update on Nvidia's new Blackwell chips

Earlier this year, Nvidia announced a new GPU architecture called Blackwell. It's designed to accommodate trillion-parameter large language models (LLMs) which, until now, have only been developed by leading AI companies like OpenAI .

Blackwell-based GPUs will be capable of substantially higher performance relative to their predecessors, and Nvidia says they will also be significantly more energy efficient.  For example, the new DGX B200 system combines eight Blackwell B200 GPUs and can  train AI models three times faster, performing AI inference 15 times faster, than the older DGX H100 system.

Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang says B200 GPUs will be priced at around $30,000 to $40,000, which is in the ballpark of what many customers paid for their H100 GPUs. In other words, given the substantial performance benefits, Blackwell will make it far more cost-efficient for businesses to access and deploy the most advanced AI models.

According to comments from Huang back in May, Nvidia should have started shipping Blackwell GPUs to customers in Q2, with sales ramping up as the year progresses. However, a recent report by The Information suggests a three-month delay could be due to a technical issue with the next-generation chips.

Nvidia hasn't confirmed those rumored delays, but investors should listen closely for comments on Q2 Blackwell sales and any update to its guidance for the remainder of fiscal 2025. Huang previously said he expects to see "a lot" of Blackwell revenue this year, so any variation to the company's timeline could substantially impact its future financial results.

Here's how Nvidia stock might react

Nvidia stock has soared 765% since the start of 2023, when the AI boom really started ramping up. It's now a $3.1 trillion company, so even a small move in its stock can be worth billions of dollars to its valuation.

While the performance of any stock on a given day is mostly noise, Nvidia reported its Q1 earnings after the bell on May 22, and its stock jumped 9.3% the following day. Remember, the company beat its revenue guidance by $2 billion on that occasion, so it's possible that a similar result this time around could yield a comparable increase in its stock price.

With that said, Nvidia stock is currently trading 7% below its all-time high following a steep market correction earlier this month, and if the company delivers weaker results than expected, its stock could slip into a much deeper drawdown.

However, Nvidia stock appears cheap right now for investors with a multi-year time horizon. Wall Street expects the company to deliver $0.64 in earnings per share in Q2, which will take its trailing 12-month earnings to $2.17. That places the stock at a price-to-earnings (P/E) ratio of 58.3.

Although that's almost twice as expensive as the Nasdaq-100 index, which trades at a P/E ratio of 32, the picture appears very different when looking further into the future. Analysts predict Nvidia will generate $3.81 in earnings per share in fiscal 2026, placing the stock at a more reasonable forward P/E ratio of 33.2.

In other words, as long as Nvidia's Q2 report doesn't produce a negative surprise, its stock looks like a good value at the current price for investors who can stay the course for at least the next couple of years.

Randi Zuckerberg, a former director of market development and spokeswoman for Facebook and sister to Meta Platforms CEO Mark Zuckerberg, is a member of The Motley Fool's board of directors. Suzanne Frey, an executive at Alphabet, is a member of The Motley Fool's board of directors. Anthony Di Pizio has no position in any of the stocks mentioned. The Motley Fool has positions in and recommends Alphabet, Meta Platforms, Microsoft, and Nvidia. The Motley Fool recommends the following options: long January 2026 $395 calls on Microsoft and short January 2026 $405 calls on Microsoft. The Motley Fool has a disclosure policy .

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• Published: 27 August 2024

“Visualization matters” – stereoscopic visualization of 3D graphic neuroanatomic models through AnaVu enhances basic recall and radiologic anatomy learning when compared with monoscopy

• Doris George Yohannan 1 ,
• Aswathy Maria Oommen 1 ,
• Amruth S. Kumar 1 ,
• S. Devanand 1 ,
• Minha Resivi UT 1 ,
• Navya Sajan 1 ,
• Neha Elizabeth Thomas 1 ,
• Nasreen Anzer 1 ,
• Nithin Kadakampallil Raju 2 ,
• Bejoy Thomas 3 ,
• Jayadevan Enakshy Rajan 3 ,
• Umesan Kannanvilakom Govindapillai 1 ,
• Pawan Harish 4 ,
• Tirur Raman Kapilamoorthy 3 ,
• Chandrasekharan Kesavadas 3 &
• Jayanthi Sivaswamy 5  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  932 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The authors had previously developed AnaVu, a low-resource 3D visualization tool for stereoscopic/monoscopic projection of 3D models generated from pre-segmented MRI neuroimaging data. However, its utility in neuroanatomical education compared to conventional methods (specifically whether the stereoscopic or monoscopic mode is more effective) is still unclear.

A three-limb randomized controlled trial was designed. A sample ( n  = 152) from the 2022 cohort of MBBS students at Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram (GMCT), was randomly selected from those who gave informed consent. After a one-hour introductory lecture on brainstem anatomy and a dissection session, students were randomized to three groups (S – Stereo; M – Mono and C – Control). S was given a 20-min demonstration on the brainstem lesson module in AnaVu in stereoscopic mode. M was given the same demonstration, but in monoscopic mode. The C group was taught using white-board drawn diagrams. Pre-intervention and post-intervention tests for four domains (basic recall, analytical, radiological anatomy and diagram-based questions) were conducted before and after the intervention. Cognitive loads were measured using a pre-validated tool. The groups were then swapped -S→ M, M →S and C→S, and they were asked to compare the modes.

For basic recall questions, there was a statistically significant increase in the pre/post-intervention score difference of the S group when compared to the M group [ p  = 0.03; post hoc analysis, Bonferroni corrections applied] and the C group [ p  = 0.001; ANOVA test; post hoc analysis, Bonferroni corrections applied]. For radiological anatomy questions, the difference was significantly higher for S compared to C [ p  < 0.001; ANOVA test; post hoc analysis, Bonferroni corrections applied]. Cognitive load scores showed increased mean germane load for S (33.28 ± 5.35) and M (32.80 ± 7.91) compared with C (28.18 ± 8.17). Subjective feedbacks showed general advantage for S and M compared to C. Out of the S and M swap cohorts, 79/102 preferred S, 13/102 preferred M, and 6/102 preferred both.

Conclusions

AnaVu tool seems to be effective for learning neuroanatomy. The specific advantage seen when taught with stereoscopy in basic recall and radiological anatomy learning shows the importance of how visualization mode influences neuroanatomy learning. Since both S and M are preferred in subjective feedbacks, these results have implications in choosing methods (stereoscopic – needs 3D projectors; monoscopic – needs web based or hand-held devices) to scale AnaVu for anatomy teaching in medical colleges in India. Since stereoscopic projection is technically novel and cost considerations are slightly higher compared to monoscopic projection, the specific advantages and disadvantages of each are relevant in the Indian medical education scenario.

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Neuroanatomy is considered by learners as both a fascinating and yet a daunting subject when compared with other anatomy topics, such as musculo-sketetal, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, respiratory and pelvic-reproductive anatomy [ 1 ]. It is complex because of inherent spatial intricacies and numerous terminologies [ 2 ] and requires strong spatial reasoning and abstract mental visualization to master it [ 3 ]. This skill, referred to as spatial anatomy learning, is usually dependent on a learner’s spatial ability [ 4 , 5 ], and can affect learner’s performance in assessments [ 6 ]. Though it is often taught during dissection with simple 2D sections of human donor brain [ 7 , 8 ], learning neuroanatomy requires students to “reconstruct” complex 3D mental images from these sections [ 9 ]. For instance, neuroanatomy of brainstem, in particular is difficult to conceptualize due to close proximity of diverse structures (nuclei and tracts), a relatively small volume of tissue [ 3 , 10 ] and difficulty in visualization of the internal features of brainstem despite its clinical importance [ 1 ].

This complexity of learning neuroanatomy is a significant contributor to ‘Neurophobia’ [ 11 ], the fear of learning neural sciences, a term introduced to medical literature in the 1990s. This global phenomenon has effects even on career choices, which creates a negative impact on delivery of neurological healthcare, particularly in India [ 9 ]. One of the goals of the Indian anatomy teacher will be to modify the ‘neurophobia’ of students to ‘neurophilia’ (love for neural sciences; ‘philia’ is the Greek for love or affection) [ 9 , 12 ]. The two hurdles that anatomists face in neuroanatomy teaching in India are—the shrinking time allocation for neuroanatomy [ 2 ] and the problem of students’ difficulty to “mentally convert” the 2D structures to 3D structures and vice-versa [ 2 ]. The examination patterns in India, and hence most of the textbooks in neuroanatomy, demand that students prove their 2D perception, but unfortunately, the emphasis on spatial understanding is not catered to [ 2 ]. There have been diverse attempts to simplify learning complex neuroanatomical areas like the brainstem [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. To enhance teaching–learning effectiveness, devising innovative technological solutions to aid the student’s process of creating mental 3D images from sections has also been suggested in the global and Indian medical education context [ 2 , 9 ].

Role of integrating radiological anatomy in neuroanatomy teaching

Though anatomy curriculum has classically followed a combination of lectures and human donor dissections, in the current era, the best teaching model is said to be one where human donor dissection and radiologic imaging are incorporated [ 16 ]. The gains of radiology integration to anatomy are multifold with better clinical application of anatomy, increased interest of students in anatomy and eventually better radiological interpretation during their practice [ 17 ]. It is suggested that familiarizing students with radiological images earlier on, in their medical education, can significantly improve the student’s ability to learn neuroanatomy [ 18 ]. Complementing dissection with radiological anatomy can also help students develop spatial reasoning skills [ 19 ].

Stereoscopy vs monoscopy in anatomy learning environments

Stereopsis is a binocular sensory phenomenon and is the result of a slight disparity of visual perception of both eyes [ 20 ]. Stereopsis plays a key role in spatial understanding by providing depth cues for the viewer. Some studies have indicated that the learning advantage of a simple physical object (e.g., a dissection specimen, a manikin or an anatomical model of an organ) is mainly due to the stereoscopy offered by it, which highlights the central relevance of stereopsis even in a physical laboratory experience [ 21 ]. Stereoscopy is utilized in dissection lab specimens or manikins, as these are usually within one’s personal space, which is considered as the “zone immediately surrounding the observer’s head, generally within arm’s reach and slightly beyond, within a 2 m radius which is considered quite personal” [ 20 ].

Stereopsis can be utilized in 3D visualization technologies by presenting two 2D images in a slightly shifted manner to the two eyes, creating the binocular disparity. Different methods can be utilized for this purpose, including active stereopsis where there is dual projection to the eyes, but no depolarization. Here head gear devices such as Oculus Rift™ through virtual reality [ 22 ] or Microsoft HoloLens™ through interactive augmented reality [ 23 ] are used. These provide excellent stereoscopic imagery and an immersive experience. These methods are limited, however, by the fact that they are suitable for a single or at most a few students and are expensive [a high-end VR hardware, computer and headset costing nearly $3000 (INR ~ 2.5 Lakhs)] [ 24 ]. This is not typically suitable (economically and logistically) for a large group teaching setting typically seen in the Indian medical education context [ 25 ] or other similar low- and middle-income country settings [ 26 ].

Another method is using 3D polarizing glasses, where the basic mechanism is that the 3D polarizing glasses would “organize” the polarization given by the projectors and the silver screen, like the one used here in AnaVu (vide infra). This is known as passive stereopsis (double depolarization for each eye) and the observer’s visual perception interprets the two images as a single 3D image. Here, the limiting factor is only the need for specialized projection systems (stereoscopic projection), as it cannot be displayed on normal projection systems.

Although such constraints are a reality, having a stereo display creates an advantage of delivering stereopsis to the Action space – a circular region of radius 2 m to 30 m, beyond the personal space of the learner (vide supra) [ 20 ]. This opens up an avenue to teach a larger audience. Stereoscopic visualization has advantages in any field where spatial anatomical understanding is critical [ 27 ], and hence, this can be a potential scalable solution to the problem of teaching spatial anatomy to a large cohort of medical students.

On the other hand, monoscopy is the presentation of the same image in front of each eye. This is what is seen in a routine projection of images, videos or animations, using classic projectors on a flat screen, which are almost universally available in academic institutions. Although monoscopic presentations do not give depth perception, some static images (e.g., 3D computer models, artistic renderings in anatomy diagrams) may sometimes offer monoscopic cues for minor depth perception [ 28 ]. In videos, animations or interactive 3D models, these monoscopic cues may further include perspective projection, shadings, occlusion, motion perspective, and familiar size [ 20 , 29 ]. Hence, there is a need for evidence as to whether monoscopic mode is as good as stereoscopic mode or whether stereoscopy has definite advantages. This can have implications on how a 3D visualization tool like AnaVu (vide infra) needs to be scaled for better learning experience.

Cognitive loads in instructional design

Any multimedia tool in anatomy needs to effectively impact on cognitive loads and instructional design can be conducted in accordance with it [ 30 ]. Cognitive load theory (developed by Sweller in 1980s [ 31 ] and later revisited by Meyer [ 32 ]), is concerned with creating scientifically sound instructional design that will be congruent to the dynamics of the human cognitive system dealing with memory. As new information is always processed by the limited working memory, mediating cognitive load should be in mind when designing a multimedia content in anatomy for the purpose of teaching [ 30 ]. They further mention that measurement of cognitive loads of such tools enables it to developers and engineers to design effective and efficient multimedia learning environments and thus is relevant for the new tool AnaVu (vide infra) [ 33 ]. As per the cognitive load theory, an instruction imposes three types of cognitive loads on a learner’s cognitive mechanism – the intrinsic load (IL), the extrinsic load (EL) and the germane load (GL). The IL is influenced by the learner’s prior knowledge and the inherent complexity of the task and is not generally dependent on the instructor or the mode of the instruction. GL also known as generative load is concerned with mental organization of learned material, integration with the students mental schema, and pre-existing knowledge [ 30 ]. The EL or extraneous load contains materials, approaches of the educator that does not consider the limitations of the learner’s working memory limitations. EL thus will lead to learner confusion along with frustration. Components of instructions that are beneficial generally increase the GL, and features that are not beneficial increase the EL. The goal of an educator while designing their lesson would be to moderate the IL, reduce the EL and encourage learning environments to increase GL. This applies while designing an anatomical multimedia [ 30 ]. If IL is optimal (which means the right complexity of the task to the right learner) and EL is low, learners can impose GL and engage in activities that elaborate their knowledge and facilitate learning [ 34 ]. To summarize – Less is always more – less cognitive load, means more learning [ 30 ].

AnaVu – a ‘homegrown’ tool for Anatomy viewing

The authors had previously developed a ‘homegrown’ tool – AnaVu , a scalable solution for visualizing stereoscopic images of anatomical 3D models suitable for low resource settings. The tool has a software-graphic interface for the teacher to operate on and a hardware capable of stereoscopic visualization, which consisted of two HDMI outputs (Fig.  1 a). These outputs channel two separate images for projection to two projectors stacked one above the other in a metallic projector cage (see Fig.  1 b). These had polarization filters in front of the projectors which could project two images with binocular disparity to simulate stereopsis on a silver screen (Fig.  1 c). The teacher and the students could visualize the 3D model on the silver screen using 3D glasses, in a dark room setting (passive stereopsis – vide supra). These 3D models were pre-segmented from MRI images (by manual and automated segmentation), which involves identifying and separating distinct subsections of the anatomy based on grayscale values in a particular voxel (3D equivalent of a pixel in a 2D image) and a knowledge of the anatomical structure and its location [ 35 ] as done in other studies [ 36 ]. More technical details of the segmentation and the projection system can be seen in [ 37 ]. AnaVu can be used to give a comprehensive experience of learning anatomy visually by presenting surface features of segmented modes as in solid anatomical models. 3D spatial understanding can also be cultivated as radiological anatomy is also simultaneously presented in orthogonal MRI sections similar to “The Divisible Human” model reported by Rizzolo et al. [ 38 ]). The features of AnaVu are shown in Figs.  2 and 3 , in the visualization of brainstem.

Hardware of AnaVu . a Showing the dual output through HDMI from the CPU used for the AnaVu software system. b  Showing the two projectors stacked one above the other, mounted within a projector cage. Polarization filters are also seen in front of the projectors. c  Showing the silver screen used for the stereoscopic projection

Screenshots from AnaVu user interface. a  Shows the graphic user interface of AnaVu , which consists of 3 main vertical panels. The basal ganglia and the ventricles are visualized in the middle and right panels. Left panel shows the ‘buttons’ and controls for selecting lessons, structures, modifying opacity, and selecting monoscopic or stereoscopic visualisation modes. Middle panel shows the 3D viewport for 3D image demonstration. Right panel shows the three canonical 2D sections (axial, coronal, and sagittal sections of T1-MRI images) in that order from top to bottom, and the 2D sections of the 3D model (shown in the middle panel) colored correspondingly. These sections are scrollable by cursor. b  Shows the right globus pallidus (pallidum) being selected when the label pops up

Figure panel showing the functionalities of AnaVu . a Showing a 3D right antero-lateral view of the brainstem and spinal cord along with its different parts highlighted using distinct colors. b Showing an MRI of the axial section of the brainstem at the level of midbrain in the central panel with the 3D image of the same in the right panel. c Showing a 3D postero-supero-lateral view of the midbrain and pons. Better visualisation of the internal structures has been ensured by the reduction of opacity of the gross framework of midbrain. d Showing the 3D posterior view of the pons and medulla. Opacity of the part of pons and medulla has been reduced to show the internal structures. (The above pictures are screenshots from AnaVu . All labellings in this figure have been made using Adobe Photoshop)

During its development, scaling of the tool as a large group teaching aid (in stereoscopic mode) and also for possible self-directed learning (in monoscopic mode) was in mind. Hence AnaVu was equipped with a feature to shift between a stereoscopic and monoscopic modes of visualization. Parallel to the present study, utility of AnaVu stereoscopic tool from a teacher’s perspective was evaluated among a small cohort of Anatomy teachers [ 39 ]. Though it indicated general appreciation and utility in teaching spatial anatomy, there were also critical feedback such as lack of interaction with students, eye strain and need for training, when using stereoscopic mode.

The graphic user interface of AnaVu was designed in such a way that it has functionalities aiding effective anatomical pedagogy. It was a three-panel design with a 3D viewport in its center (see Fig.  2 ), which allowed for selection of an object, a free trackball rotation, zoom in/out, and panning (see Fig.  3 ). In the right panel, there were three canonical section (sagittal, axial and coronal) MRI images (each containing an image stack). The image stack could be surveyed by scrolling in that image/sliding the slider on the right panel. The planes of these sections were also present in the 3D viewport. This gave the teacher and the student the option to understand the correlation between the 3D model and the 2D MRI section (see Fig.  2 ). If the teacher wished to lay focus on the MRI section image, then that could be swapped with the image on the central 3D viewport. This option was created because neuroanatomy is often taught through sections. In the left panel, there were the list of structures, controls and ‘buttons’ for selecting lessons, selecting/deselecting planes, manipulating opacity, and switching to canonical anatomical views (Left/Right, Superior/Inferior, Anterior/Posterior). There were also options to select objects and reduce opacity to “see through” or “within” a structure (See Fig.  3 ). An exemplar video on how this tool can be used in teaching is made available on YouTube ( https://youtu.be/Q_T-vY9Kli8?si=A0SKbZRFKG8aL1I7 ).

AnaVu has a labelling option where you can click on any object that you see in the 3D viewport which will show the structure highlighted in the 3D viewport with a label popped up (See Fig.  2 , where globus pallidus is clicked and the label comes up). And the relations with the putamen laterally can be visualized in the 3D viewport as well as the sections.

AnaVu also provides a feature to switch between a stereo mode and a mono mode making it suitable for settings where the stereoscopic projection system is not feasible. This gave the teacher the freedom to teach using AnaVu along with a regular PowerPoint presentation or to have a standalone stereoscopic presentation.

Though these functionalities seem promising, the utility of such a tool, compared to traditional methods in anatomical pedagogy is not known in a large group setting. Since 3D graphic models in monoscopy can have some depth cues, as mentioned before, it is also not known whether that would suffice to improve spatial learning. Hence, the possibility of spatial learning of a 3D model projected non-stereoscopically (monoscopy) needs to be understood. Moreover, if monoscopic visualization of the 3D model is more or even as effective as stereoscopic visualization of the same model, then the translation of the model into web-based platforms will be useful, as it can be visualized in hand-held devices. It is also interesting to know, as these tools are made from radiologic (MRI) resources, whether these can be used to teach important domains like basic recall and higher analytical learning, its role in teaching radiological anatomy and its impact on diagram-based questions (common in Indian examinations). The impact on cognitive load while teaching with AnaVu is also unknown. Hence the authors explored the broad research question “Is teaching using AnaVu helpful in Anatomy learning in Indian medical education”.

Research questions

Specifically, the research questions we explored were:

Is using AnaVu tool better than traditional teaching methods?

If so, does stereoscopic projection have an advantage over monoscopic projection?

Within four general domains of anatomy (vide infra – Methods), (e.g., basic recall, analytical learning, radiologic anatomy, and diagram-based questions) are these specific domains influenced by teaching with AnaVu ?

How do the students’ perceived cognitive loads vary between the three types (stereoscopic, monoscopic, and traditional) teaching?

If monoscopic and stereoscopic models were presented to a student, what would the student prefer?

A three-limb randomized controlled trial was designed and submitted before the Institutional Review Board and Human Ethics Committee of Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram (GMCT). The HEC gave a letter dated 02.07.2019 stating that the study is exempted from review, based on the 2017 ICMR guidelines, as it is a study assessing educational techniques in medical students.

The 2022 cohort comprising of 250 first-year MBBS students of GMCT was informed about the study. We follow a dissection-based regional anatomy course. The students had completed upper limb, lower limb, thorax and had started head and neck anatomy. They had not yet started the neuroanatomy module and could be considered as new to the neuroanatomy topic. An information handout and a consent form were provided, which they had to sign and return if they consented (Supplementary material 1). From those who consented (224 out of 250), 152 students were selected using simple random sampling. The random number tables were generated by Microsoft Excel for the study. The students age and sex were collected using a Google Form distributed to the study participants. The 152 students were later randomized to three groups for the intervention (See Study procedure below).

Topic and justification

The basic anatomy of the brainstem and the main cranial nerve nuclei were taken as the lesson for the study. The rationale for selecting this topic was the following:

It is a relatively smaller area in the brain but is highly clinically relevant. It is also difficult to understand spatially. There are numerous complicated anatomical terms (tectum, tegmentum, mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal, facial colliculus) in the brainstem, which adds to the difficulty in recalling. The brainstem is classically taught by studying 2D sections of different levels (e.g., upper midbrain, lower pons, upper medulla). Correlating 2D sections with 3D mental images is quite spatially complex, especially for the internal architecture of the brainstem [ 3 ]. Correlation of the 2D sectional image with the 3D spatial model is needed to understand the radiological anatomy and interpret lesions in a clinical setting.

Pre-test and post-test

The pre-intervention (Pre-Test) and Post-intervention test (Post-Test) (See Supplementary material 2) were applied before and after the intervention, respectively. The duration of each test was 20 min. The questionnaire was designed to incorporate questions from different areas taught in the lecture, dissection and intervention sessions. The maximum possible score was fixed as 35.

The pre-test and post-test had 4 domains (see Supplementary material 2 for questions).

Basic recall questions (qn no. 1 – 4) – Maximum possible score was 11

Analytical questions (qn no. 5 – 7)—Maximum possible score was 11

Radiologic anatomy-based questions (qn no. 8 – 11)—Maximum possible score was 8

Diagram-based questions (qn. No. 12 – 13)—Maximum possible score was 5

Pre-test and post-test questionnaire were designed by the authors (divided to four teams for each domain) and face validated by the senior professors of the Anatomy department. This was done similar to the approach done by other studies evaluating 3D teaching tools in anatomy education [ 40 ]. The questions had explored various levels of Bloom’s taxonomy of inquiry. A modified Bloom’s taxonomy category was mapped by two authors and a consensus was calculated (similar to Palmer et al. [ 41 ]) for these four domains and are presented in Fig.  4 . As the students were naive considering the neuroanatomy topic being taught, the pre-test and post-test were designed to be the same.

Number of questions of various domains (indicated as colors) at different Modified Bloom’s (MB) Taxonomy (consensus between two authors)

Perceived cognitive load assessment tool

The perceived cognitive loads by students was assessed based on a tool by Leppink et al. [ 34 ] with a minor adaptation to suit the current teaching experiment. This minor adaptation was done as the original tool was designed for statistics education and is permitted [ 34 ]. The tool consisted of 10 questions (see Supplementary material 3), with the first three questions (il1, il2 and il3) indicating the IL; the next three questions (el1, el2 and el3) indicating the EL; and questions 7–10 (gl1, gl2, gl3 and gl4) indicating the GL. They were given this instruction in the material “Please respond to each of the questions on the following scale (0 meaning not at all the case and 10 meaning completely the case)”, as indicated in source [ 34 ].

Subjective feedback questionnaire

A subjective feedback questionnaire that contained 12 specific questions and a section to give open comments was used. For the 12 specific questions, a five-point Likert scale was used to obtain student ratings, with 1 indicating “strongly disagree” and 5 indicating “strongly agree”. The first five questions were adapted from the tool used by Codd and Choudhury [ 40 ], which was to assess a virtual reality tool for forearm anatomy compared to the traditional method. The questions asked whether it was enjoyable (Q1), relevant (Q2), useful (Q3), well presented (Q4) and whether they would like to see a similar resource in future (Q5). It was aimed at understanding the general appreciation of the tool. The next five questions were adapted from the tool used by Maresky et al. [ 42 ], to assess a virtual reality tool for cardiac anatomy. It tried to explore whether it reinforced their anatomy knowledge (Q6), enhanced their anatomy integration skills (Q7), improved visuo-spatial skills (Q8), assisted in appreciating size differences (Q9) and anatomical relationships (Q10) of different structures. The last two questions were negatively worded so as to break up a response pattern in which participants typically answer positively or negatively to all items in the survey questionnaire. They were asked whether the tool distracted their learning (Q11) or whether it was confusing (Q12). In addition to these specific questions, there was also an option to provide open comments by asking them to write “Any specific comments about the Demonstration”. The questionnaire is shown in Supplementary material 4.

Study procedure

The educational session lasted for 2 days (see Fig.  5 for the underlined parts in the text below).

On Day 1 , the students were given a briefing and then a 20-min pre-test , which was then followed by an introductory lecture on the brainstem, for 40-min duration. The lecture was a usual didactic lecture and introduced the basics of brainstem anatomy (the parts – medulla, pons and midbrain and their subdivisions) including their relations. The parts and terminologies were introduced. The cranial nerve nuclei present withing the brainstem were also taught in the lecture. All were taught using PowerPoint projected 2D slides. The slides contained text and gross anatomy whole specimen images, section images, diagrams and MRI images (axial and sagittal cuts of brainstem region). They were then given a demonstration of dissection specimen of the brainstem, for 20 min using a document camera. The surface features that is seen on the medulla, pons and midbrain both from ventral and dorsal aspects were demonstrated to students. Visibility was ensured using a document camera, which is routinely used at GMCT for demonstration of smaller structures in dissection to a larger group. Both the lecture and the dissection demonstration were conducted by a single teacher.

Based on the first intervention they would receive the next day, the student groups were named S, M and C, representing Stereoscopy (S), Monoscopy (M) and Control (C), respectively. The 152 students were randomized into the three groups by allocating the first 51 of the random numbers (generated earlier for selecting the sample) to S, the next 51 of the random numbers to M and the next 50 to C (see Fig.  5 ).

On Day 2 , the S, M and C groups assembled at three separate venues ( See Hybrid Fig.  6 ). The teaching sessions were instructor led demonstrations.

Certain steps were taken for the intervention sessions to ensure uniformity in the content being taught in the three groups.

◦ A teaching script was prepared earlier to make the teaching content as similar as possible. The content delivery was validated for consistency by six senior students, two in each venue.

◦ All the intervention sessions (S,M and C) were conducted by another teacher, different from the teacher who took the lecture and dissection demonstration

◦ The time of each session (20 min) was monitored and strictly adhered to.

After this, the students were given a post-test and a perceived cognitive load assessment questionnaire (Supplementary material 3) and a subjective feedback form (Supplementary material 4).

A 15-min break was given.

After this, the students were swapped , similar to the pseudo-cross over mentioned in Cui et al. (2017) [ 43 ]. The students had to change the venues to attend the respective sessions. The S group moved to the venue where a mono demonstration was given, the M group moved to stereo demonstration, and the C group moved to a stereo demonstration (see bottom of Fig.  4 ). The timings were coordinated by the senior students. Participant students were informed that this was essentially a “replay” of the previous session they had had, but using a different teaching modality (M given Stereo, S given Mono and C given Stereo). They were informed that this was done to allow a comparison of the two methods and know their preference. After the session, they were given a survey questionnaire for knowing their preference (e.g., the SM swap group was given Supplementary material 5).

Students were thanked for participation, and light refreshments were provided.

Flow diagram depicting the sequence of the current study protocol. S, stereoscopy; M, monoscopy; C, control. Weighing scales at the bottom indicates that those students were allowed to compare the S to M (limb 1); M to S (limb 2); and C to S (limb 3) and tell what they preferred in the survey questionnaire that was given

Hybrid table showing different interventions. The second column of the panel contains the photographs - a , b and c from sessions that were held for the three groups – S,M and C respectively

Demographical details were analysed. To know whether there was a statistically significant different in age and sex categories among the three groups an ANOVA test and a Chi-square (χ 2 ) test was performed. Pre-test and post-test were evaluated by the authors following an answer key, prepared by themselves and face validated by the senior professors of the Anatomy department. The quantitative data were entered in Microsoft Excel for Windows and imported to SPSS Statistical package, version 25.0 for Windows (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY) for analysis. Since the three modes of demonstrations needed to be compared for its effectiveness, the difference (increase or decrease) [Post-test (minus) Pre-test scores] of each person was calculated. Analysis of Variance test (ANOVA) was performed to detect any statistically significant difference in mean scores among groups. Statistical limit was fixed as p  < 0.05. If a significant difference was found on the ANOVA test, post hoc tests with Bonferroni corrections for multiple comparisons were performed to identify the pairs that had a statistically significant difference. Cohen’s d was calculated (M 1 -M 2 /SD pooled ) to determine the effect size to measure the quantum of the difference between a pair (In this formula, M 1 and M 2 stands for Mean of each group in the pair and the SD pooled is the combined SD of the pair). The effect sizes were interpreted as small ( d  = 0.2), medium ( d  = 0.5) and large ( d  = 0.8), as per previous reports [ 44 ].

Cognitive loads (IL, EL and GL) of the three groups were also compared using ANOVA test. For analysis of the subjective feedback questionnaire (12 items), the mean and standard deviation of the response of each item were calculated and compared among the three groups using ANOVA test. Graphs were generated using SPSS Statistical package, version 25.0 for Windows (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY) and draw.io ( https://app.diagrams.net/ ) webpage.

Quantitative analysis

Demographics.

The mean age (± SD), male to female ratio and the first quarterly examination scores of the whole sample of students are shown in Table  1 .

The age of the groups was found to be statistically similar among the groups ( p  = 0.76; ANOVA test); and sex were also similar among the groups ( p  = 0.504; Chi-square (χ 2 ) test). The first quarterly examination out of 100 also did not show statistically significant difference ( p  = 0.839; ANOVA test) among three groups. Hence the three groups were demographically comparable.

Test scores

The maximum possible score of the pre-test was 35. The total pre-test scores did not differ among groups (S, M and C), as shown by statistical analysis (Table  2 , Row 1; p value = 0.947; ANOVA). The maximum possible score of the post-test was also 35. All the three modalities of teaching S, M and C showed statistically significant increase in scores from pretest to post test (Table  2 , Row 1, p values < 0.001; Paired t test). The total post-test scores did not differ among groups, as shown by statistical analysis (Table  2 , Row 2; p  = 0.233, ANOVA). The difference between the total post-test and pre-test scores, which indicates the increase/decrease in the students’ understanding, also failed to show a statistically significant difference among groups (Table  2 , Row 3; p  = 0.226, ANOVA).

Domain-specific analysis indicated statistically significant difference among groups in the basic recall domain (Table  3 ; Row 1; p value = 0.001; ANOVA). The difference was statistically significant between the Stereo and Mono pair [S. Recall Mean  = 5.35 (± 2.83) vs M. Recall Mean  = 3.97 (± 2.83); p value = 0.03; post hoc tests, Bonferroni corrections applied] as well as between the Stereo and Control group pair [ S. Recall Mean  = 5.35 (± 2.83) vs C. Recall Mean  = 3.32 (± 2.33); p value = 0.001; post hoc tests, Bonferroni corrections applied].

A statistically significant difference was also noted in radiology-based questions in the test (Table  3 ; Row 3: p value < 0.001; ANOVA). The difference was statistically significant between the Stereo and Control pair [S. Rad Mean  = 4.68 (± 1.69) vs C. Rad Mean  = 3.14 (± 2.02); p value < 0.001; post hoc tests, Bonferroni corrections applied] and between the Mono and Control pair [M. Rad Mean  = 4.09 (± 2.09) vs C. Rad Mean  = 3.14 (± 2.02); p value = 0.046; post hoc tests, Bonferroni corrections applied].

There was no statistically significant difference in the scores of analytical questions or diagram-based questions (Table  3 ; Rows 2 and 4).

Cognitive loads

The perceived cognitive loads by the students showed a statistically significant difference among the groups for germane cognitive load (GL) (Table  4 , Row 3; p value = 0.001; ANOVA). The difference was statistically significant between the stereo and control pair [S. GL Mean  = 33.28 (± 5.35) vs C. GL Mean  = 28.18 (± 8.17); p value = 0.002; post hoc tests, Bonferroni corrections applied] and mono and control pair [M. GL Mean  = 32.80 (± 7.91) vs C. GL Mean  = 28.18 (± 8.17); p value = 0.005; post hoc tests, Bonferroni corrections applied]. There was no statistically significant difference among groups in intrinsic (IL) and extrinsic loads (EL).

Subjective feedbacks questionnaire

The subjective feedback questionnaire mean responses on the 5-point Likert scale are shown in Fig.  7 (error bars indicate standard deviation). S and M showed a higher mean response in the first 10 statements. The ones that showed statistically significant differences among the groups (as per ANOVA) are shown with a red star. Two red stars beside the comments (see Fig.  7 ; statement numbers 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10) indicate statistically significant differences for S when compared to C and for M when compared to C. A single star indicates a statistically significant difference for S when compared to C (see Fig.  7 ; Qn 5).

Graphical representation of the mean values of the 5-point Likert scale responses to statements as part of subjective feedback. Bars—Purple for Stereo, Blue for Mono, and Green for Control—show the mean values. Error bars are also shown (± SD). The statements with *Only S had statistically significant difference from C; **Both S and M had statistically significant difference

In the stereo-mono-swapped pooled cohorts (total 102; SM: 51 participants and MS: 51 participants), when they were asked about which mode would be preferred, through the survey questionnaire, 79/102 preferred S, 13/102 preferred M and 6/102 preferred both.

The current study sheds light on the pedagogical advantages of a newer ‘homegrown’ developed technology for visualizing anatomy in Indian anatomy education scenario and provides insights into the merits and demerits of the technology through the comments of the students. The teacher’s feedbacks on using AnaVu has been recently published (64) and it indicated general appreciation and advantages for teaching spatial anatomy but also some critical disadvantages for teachers while using the S mode due to lack of interaction with students in a darkened room, eye strain and need for the user interface training for teachers. In time, resource and technology constrained settings, the specific advantage and disadvantage of a new tool, such as AnaVu , should be revealed and convincing for teachers and students to implement such a technology for better neuroanatomy learning [ 2 ].

Here, the pretest scores (Table  2 , Row 1) and the demographic data (Table  1 ) of the S, M and C groups indicate comparability of the three groups before the intervention. Although the total test scores and difference of total post-test minus pre-test scores were not significantly different for the three groups (Table  2 , rows 2 and 3), domain-wise analysis showed significant improvement for the S group compared to the M and C groups in the basic recall test (Table  3 , Row 1). Recalling terms, orientations, relations, etc., in anatomy is a complicated process. In a study exploring factors leading to impaired learning of neuroanatomy, the participants mentioned ‘memorization of neuroanatomical terminologies’ to be and important intrinsic contributing factors [ 1 ]. Optimal instructional techniques can create a favorable cognitive environment that enhances their ability to recall and has been indicated in several contexts of anatomical learning environments [ 30 , 45 ]. On understanding how human cognitive system works during learning with multimedia (Mayer’s cognitive model [ 46 ]), a clear visualization with cues to direct the learner’s attention to a specific structure along with clear explanation can moderate cognitive loads favoring active and effective learning [ 30 ]. This may have influenced the result of better basic recall scores in the S (compared to M and C), due to better visualization.

Now why can the effect be more in S compared to M? The authors propose that stereopsis may play a role in the clarity of depth perceptions which thus influence the better basic recall. Earlier, it was mentioned that stereopsis in the personal space (up to a 2 m radius around a person) , as during performing dissection, observing prosections, manipulating a manikin or a physical anatomical model, provides a substantial advantage in perceiving depth and spatial information [ 21 ]. Providing stereopsis in the action space (2 m-30 m), as in the case of stereo display (S mode in our experiment), may create such an effect for the large group of students tested here. The statistically significant difference of S. Recall Mean compared to C. Recall Mean with a large effect size (Cohen’s d  = 0.783) indicates that stereopsis in the action space created by S mode display, may have been effective in providing critical details of depth and spatial information, with clear attentional cues. Earlier studies have shown how spatial and attentional cues in 3D dynamic visualizations can make anatomy learning better [ 47 ]. This may have augmented their learning and thus their ability to recall. Students’ opinions in their subjective feedback about understanding size differences and relations were statistically higher for S and M compared to C (see Fig.  7 , statements 9 and 10). This reinforces the idea of role of visualizations in anatomy learning success and the need for modern visualization methods.

This effect of the S mode was better even when compared with the M mode, as indicated by S. Recall Mean compared to M. Recall Mean with a moderate effect size (Cohen’s d  = 0.488). This may indicate that although there are depth cues in the M mode (perspective projection, shadings, occlusion, motion perspective, familiar size), as discussed earlier [ 20 , 29 ], they may not be adequate to create sufficient depth perception to influence anatomical learning, when compared to how it was in S. Depth cues were utilized extensively in the design of the interactive 3D viewport of AnaVu . As stereopsis is a significant part of visual perception that aids in understanding the spatial disposition of the world around us [ 20 ], this finding may indicate the value of stereopsis in anatomical learning and adding to the data indicating superiority of stereoscopic visual display in anatomy education [ 48 , 49 ] especially compared to monoscopy.

Another domain that showed a statistically significant advantage was for learning radiological anatomy. As familiarizing anatomy students with radiological anatomy helps them integrate different subjects [ 17 ], makes anatomy learning effective [ 18 ] and improves spatial reasoning skills [ 19 ], the advantage of AnaVu to teach radiological anatomy is twofold. The current CBME curriculum in India envisages vertical integration across basic and clinical disciplines. It also encourages early clinical exposure to first-year medical students [ 50 ]. In this context, teaching anatomy from stereoscopic models generated from T1 weighted MRI images and displaying the anatomy and the radiological source images in a 3D mode correlatable to the 2D MRI images can be an effective technological solution for bridging the gap between radiological anatomy and gross anatomy. Anatomy and radiology are usually considered complementing disciplines that have an enormous scope for integration [ 17 ]. Hence, this tool is a promising approach for radiological anatomy teaching. Considering the fact that S. Rad Mean vs C. Rad Mean had a high effect size (Cohen’s d  = 0.827; Table  1 , Row 3) and M. Rad Mean vs C. Rad Mean had a moderate effect size (Cohen’s d  = 0.462; Table  1 , Row 3), using this tool in the S mode or in the M mode is effective for radiological anatomy teaching. The higher effect size seen here of S vs C compared to M vs C may also be due to the better effect of stereopsis in integrating spatial concepts making radiological anatomy interpretation better. The authors propose that a hidden common factor here in basic recall (due to the effect on cognitive load due to better spatial cues) and radiological image interpretation here is the underlying higher spatial learning in stereoscopy. Studies have shown that spatial abilities and better spatial learning influence anatomy learning success [ 51 , 52 ]. Students in their subjective feedback also mention that this mode of learning helped them improve their visuospatial skills (Fig.  7 ; Statement 8).

Students’ perceived cognitive loads had a statistically significant difference in the GL with high effect size (Cohen’s d  = 0.739) for S vs C and a moderate effect size (Cohen’s d  = 0.575) for M vs C. The germane or generative load reflects the ability of the student to make sense of the structures shown, organize mental concepts and integrate new understanding with prior knowledge [ 30 , 53 ]. The higher cognitive load may indicate that the students could add up on what was learned on the previous days lecture and dissection demonstrations effectively with ease when taught with AnaVu compared to the board drawn diagrams. This is corroborated by the positive comments seen in the students’ subjective feedback questionnaire responses when they say how it helped them to integrate with previous knowledge on brainstem anatomy and how it helped in Anatomy integration skills (Fig.  7 Statements 6 and 7). Their perception as it was enjoyable and useful (see Fig.  7 , Statements 1 and 3) may also indicate their better GL. Students also mentioned that they appreciate similar teaching methods in the future (Fig.  7 ; Statement 5).

Though some of the well-known drawbacks of S mode are low ambient light requirements causing difficulty in interaction with teachers [ 39 ], requirement of wearing eye goggles (which can cause discomfort as it is often bulky [ 29 ]), eye strain complaints and difficulty in focusing and concentrating [ 54 ], there seems to be a general preference for the students in the survey questionnaire response in the present study. When they were asked about their preference after they were exposed to both SM/MS out of 102, 79 preferred S. The rest of the students [ 13 ] who showed preference of M and 6 who showed preference of both may have felt M to be as good as S, or could have felt the disadvantages of S to be more distracting.

Limitations of the study

The number of questions asked in the pre-test and post-test were limited. This was due to the limitation of available time to conduct the whole experiment. However, they were face validated. This may have affected the statistical power of the study.

A time for students to familiarize with stereoscopy by directly manipulating the tool may have been needed to be adapted to the stereoscopic environment.

During C intervention, as it was black/white board diagrams, control group did not learn through MRI images, while as AnaVu had radiological sectional images inside the tool, S and M learned using MRI images. But as we had to compare traditional and a modern tool, this was unavoidable. However, to avoid unfair exclusion of the control group from sectional MRI images, few MRI images (sagittal and axial) were used during the common brainstem lecture. Also as the medical students were in the midst of the regional anatomy course, with limbs, thorax and head and neck anatomy partially over, they were exposed to basic radiology in these segments.

The assessment of spatial ability of the students was avoided, but if done would have added an interesting angle to the study as spatial ability of students is a proven factor in spatial learning. This can be a further direction of the study.

Technological solutions for educational effectiveness are an area where Indian medical education is stepping into and is highly relevant as the NMC has commenced the futuristic CBME curriculum. As the newer e-learning techniques using hand-held devices, web-based platforms and computer-assisted learning modalities are increasingly being relied on [ 1 ], the understanding of the relevance of stereopsis (by means of stereo display) in this study will help in developing e-learning and self-learning strategies in anatomical education. The enhancement in basic recall and utility for radiology education using the low-cost AnaVu stereo display may encourage anatomy educationalists to actively seek methods for making students learn anatomy through visualization. The specific disadvantages of the stereo display and the areas where a mono display is effective along with the students’ subjective perspectives can help teachers choose the best visualization method in an informed manner.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analyzed during the course of this study are not publicly available due to concerns about the privacy of participants but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Stereoscopy

Three-dimensional

Two-dimensional

Magentic Resonance Imaging

Intrinsic Load

Extrinsic Load

Germane Load

Competency-Based Medical Education

National Medical Council (of India)

Analysis of variance

Standard Deviation

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Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. M.S. Valiathan, former National Research Professor and Padma Vibhushan awardee, for being the leading light who gave us the inspiration and the vision to pursue this project. We thank the Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, for their constant expert feedbacks and suggestions which has significantly improved the conduct of the project as well as the current study. We thank the staff of the Anatomy Department and the former and the current heads of the Department, Dr Lathikumari (Retired) and Dr Usha Devi KB, whose invaluable support was instrumental for the conduct of the study. We extend our sincere gratitude to the editor and reviewers for their thoughtful comments and constructive suggestions, which have significantly enhanced the clarity and quality of our manuscript.

We acknowledge the students of the 2022 cohort for their active participation in the study.

Ms. Mythri V (former research scholar, IIIT, Hyderabad) and Ms. Alphin J Thottupattu (former research scholar, IIIT, Hyderabad) for support during the image processing and development of the software.

Dr. Soumya Gopakumar and Dr. Jenyz Mohammedali Mundodan, Assistant Professors of Community Medicine for their assistance in statistical analysis.

Mr Praveen James, Clinical Engineer, SCTIMST; Ms. Renjima G, Project Technician, Virtual Neuroanatomy project, SCTIMST, for their sincere assistance in the conduct of this project.

Dr. Smitha S Nair, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, for assistance in proof reading.

Dr. Amogh B Jayakumar for his expert assistance in various parts of conducting the project and writing the manuscript.

The project was funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board (Grant No. IR/SB/EF/03/2016), Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.

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Contributions

DGY: Segmentation of the model, conceptualized and developed the idea, designed the study, performed the anatomy instruction, analyzed and interpreted the data and drafted the manuscript.AMO: Designed the study, performed the anatomy instruction, interpreted the data and played a role in drafting and critically revising the manuscript.ASK, SD, MR, NS, NET, NA: Implementation, collection of data and teaching supportNKR: Statistical data analysis and prepared table and figures BT, JER: MRI image acquisition, Segmentation of the model, visualization requirement specification and feedback on user-interface of the software toolUKG: Conceptualization and organization of the study, statistical data analysisPH: Conceptualisation, design and engineering of AnaVu toolTRK: Mentor and advisor who oversaw the study with timely, insightful guidanceCK: MRI image acquisition, Segmentation of the model, visualization requirement specification and feedback on user-interface of the software tool, and supervision of the study.JS: Primary investigator of the project. Visualization of the model, conceptualization, organization, supervision and overseeing the study.

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Correspondence to Doris George Yohannan .

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The study was approved by the Human Ethics Committee of Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram (GMCT). The HEC gave a letter dated 02.07.2019 stating that the study is exempted from review based on the 2017 ICMR guidelines, as it is a study assessing educational techniques in medical students. Written informed consent was obtained from the participants by providing an information handout and consent form. The participants were informed about the purpose, nature and procedure of the study as well as the fact that their participation was voluntary. They were assured confidentiality and that the data would be used only for research purposes. They were also informed that when the data will be published their personal details will be kept confidential.

A portion of this study, focusing on the development of the tool, was presented at the annual conference of the Anatomical Society of India (Kerala State Chapter) held at Government Medical College, Kozhikode, in May 2023.

A part of the results of this study was presented for oral/podium presentation at the Asia Pacific International Congress of Anatomy—Australian and New Zealand Association of Clinical Anatomists joint conference (ANZACA – APICA 2023), held at the University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, in November – December 2023.

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Yohannan, D.G., Oommen, A.M., Kumar, A.S. et al. “Visualization matters” – stereoscopic visualization of 3D graphic neuroanatomic models through AnaVu enhances basic recall and radiologic anatomy learning when compared with monoscopy. BMC Med Educ 24 , 932 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05910-4

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Received : 02 May 2024

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05910-4

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