case study site summary table 1

Case Study Summarizer #1 — Free Summaries!

Have you ever thought of how many case studies must a student in medicine or business read in their lifetime? Tens, hundreds, or even thousands! As practice shows, the case study’s content is jam-packed with information and broad descriptions that are unnecessary when conducting a review or simply reading the literature.

We offer a Case Study Summarizer to scan any paper in seconds! You will get some valuable insights about our tool that can help with the most extended case studies in a short time! Moreover, we discuss the definition of the case study, its structure, and its main elements. Let’s begin!

• 🧰 How to Use the Tool?

📋 What Is the Case Study Summarizer?

🧩 case study elements & structure, 🧑‍🏫 how to summarize a case study.

• ✅ 5 Tool’s Benefits

🖇️ References

🧰 how to use the case summarizer.

Our free case study summarizer is so easy to use! Follow these 4 simple steps:

• Enter the text . Paste the text of the case study in the appropriate field of the tool. Ensure that it does not exceed 15,000 characters.
• Adjust settings . You can choose the number of sentences you want in your summary and decide whether to highlight keywords.
• Press the button . Just click the button, and the results will not keep you waiting!
• Copy the result . Your summary will appear in just a few seconds! All you need to do is just copy it in one click.

Do you still have concerns about using our case study summarizer? Then check out its incredible features:

A case study is typically presented as a report, separated into sections with headings and subheadings. It must contain a description of the issue, an explanation of the relevance of the case, and an analysis with conclusions. It ends with implications and recommendations on how to address the issue.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a detailed investigation of one person, group, or event. It aims to learn as much as possible about an individual or a group to generalize the findings on other similar cases. The case study can be employed in various fields, including psychology , medicine , social work, etc.

Here are some case study topics from different professional spheres:

• Medicine : Analysis of the medical and occupational records of a non-smoking individual with lung cancer.
• Business : The decision of Warren Buffett to acquire Precision Castparts Corporation and why that acquisition was a mistake.
• Psychology : The case of Bertha Pappenheim , who suffered from hysteria and contributed to the development of talk therapy to treat mental illness.

Case Study Elements

There are 8 essential elements in any case study. Check the table below to learn more details about each component.

Summarizing is a fundamental skill for everyone since it allows you to distinguish essential information and effectively communicate it to others. In the following paragraphs, we will share a case study summary tutorial.

Executive Summary Case Study

An executive summary is a detailed overview of a report. It saves readers time by summarizing the essential points of the study. It is frequently written to be shared with people who may not have time to read the complete report, for example, CEOs or department heads.

Although the format may vary, the primary elements of an executive summary are as follows:

• An opening statement and some background information .
• The purpose of the report.
• Methodology.
• Summarized and justified recommendations.

How Long Is an Executive Summary?

Your executive summary’s length will vary depending on the text it summarizes. Typically, it takes 10-15% of the full report’s length . Therefore, an executive summary can range from 1 paragraph to 10 pages.

Case Study Summary Guide

Take these 5 steps to write a compelling case study summary:

Step 1 – Read the entire study

Before writing the summary, carefully read the research study from beginning to end.

Step 2 – Highlight the major points

As you read, make notes and underline significant facts, relevant conclusions, and suggested actions.

Step 3 – Divide the document into main sections

Determine what each part of the report is about, and summarize each in a few sentences. You can use the executive summary structure mentioned above to guide your writing.

Step 4 – Be concise

Do not write more than 10% of the length of the original document.

Step 5 – Proofread your summary

Reread your case study summary to ensure it makes sense as an independent piece of writing. Set it aside for a while and look at it with fresh eyes to notice any incoherence and redundant or lacking details.

✒️️ Case Study Summary Example

We have prepared an example of a case study summary for you to see how everything works in practice!

Here is the full report: Akron’s Children’s Hospital: Case Study .

Now, check its summarized version:

Akron Children’s Hospital is a leading pediatric hospital in Northeastern Ohio that faces competition and needs to differentiate itself to attract more patients. To gain insight into the decision-making process of patients' parents, the hospital hired a team of researchers led by Marcus Thomas LLC to conduct business and market analysis.

An observational study was conducted to collect consumer data, including perceptions of the hospital and the criteria used to select it. The problem was that a highly competitive medical industry in Northeastern Ohio resulted in reduced patient volume and financial losses at Akron Children’s Hospital.

The proposed solution was to rethink the hospital’s operations and marketing approach to differentiate it from the competitors and attract more patients. Furthermore, the treatment of certain groups of children had to be improved by increasing the number of specializations available at the hospital.

The organization was recommended to develop an efficient marketing strategy, enhance service delivery, and implement highly innovative medical technologies and procedures.

✅ 5 Benefits of the Case Summarizer You Should Consider

Still in doubt whether our case study summary tool is worth using? Check out its benefits:

• It is time-saving . The online tool is perfect for students in medicine or psychology since it allows for consuming a lot of information in a short time.
• It is easy to use . The interface of our case summarizer is so simple to navigate that even a child can handle it.
• It is unlimited . Try our online summarizer as many times as you need. There are no limitations!
• It is free . You can summarize a case study online in a few minutes without spending money. Such a considerable benefit for prudent students!
• It is accurate . The case summary generator uses essential keywords and phrases to isolate only the most relevant information.
• Executive Summary | USC Libraries
• Case Studies | Carnegie Mellon University
• Writing a Case Study | Monash University
• Guidelines for Writing a Summary | Hunter College
• Executive Summaries | Colorado State University

How to Summarize a Case Study Effectively

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There are hundreds of marketing methods today, but a written case study remains a tried and tested practice to attract new customers. A few months ago, I started working on the case studies — and that's when I learned so much about what works — and what doesn't. 

By the time a reader decides to take a look at your case study, they're seriously considering your offering. It's the time when the prospect will either engage more or lose their interest completely. But before the reader thinks of looking at the case study, they'll need a short, meaningful summary. 

But how to summarize a case study that's short, simple, and informative? I've written over 50+ case studies, and each one has a short summary. In this detailed guide, I'll show you some tried and tested methods of summarizing long documents. 

What is a Case Study Summary? 

A case study summary is a short recap of a detailed case, interview, or other document. It has all of the same traits as that of a good summary: it's clean, short, straightforward, and flows naturally for the reader. But in the business world, a case study has the job of connecting customers with business, and a great summary also does the same. 

A lead decides to look at the case study summary only if they're seriously interested in the products/services you offer. After reading, your reader's reaction will likely come down to this: did the case study summary make the benefits seem necessary or just nice to have? 

If it's the latter, your prospects will probably avoid reading the detailed case study and pass on the opportunity. That's why the summary should include the key points and highlights from the case study and showcase to customers that your product or service is a necessity for their business growth. 

How to Summarize a Case Study (with Guidelines) 

I have recently read a statement: 'An educated client is a secure client.' Business typically boils down to two priorities: creating a useful product and then making people realize how it can help them. Both of these things mainly revolve around customer education, and both require a case study summary to get the job done. 

Here, I'll reveal some simple steps that will help you summarize a case study. 

Read the Case Study 

When it comes to summarizing a case study, think about how effective it will be from the reader's perspective. You can even take notes and formulate an information architecture into proper formatting, headers, and bullet points to manage content better. 

Understand the Goal 

A business case study, for example, is a detailed document that defines how a business and its product helped a client improve sales. You should apply the same story and approach to write a case study summary — ensuring it sticks in the heart and mind of the reader. 

Identify the Main Points

A good case study teaches prospects something — related to your products, services, new features, or how you're different. Think about the main points of the case study and why people should bother to read it. One of the biggest keys to a great summary is to speak to the customers' pain points directly and immediately offer the solution. 

Write a Clear Summary 

Now, write the way you talk — with clear ideas, concise language, and a welcoming tone. You need to hold onto your reader's attention with appropriate words and interesting facts. My number one tip is to be creative — even if the case study is boring. Here, your ultimate goal is to be engaging and creative — and, that too, within the confines of the industry. 

Ready to revolutionize your post-meeting workflow? Give Notta's AI Summary Templates a try today and experience the difference for yourself. Simply select the template that best fits your needs, and watch as Notta transforms your raw notes into polished, concise summaries. Your time is precious – let Notta help you make the most of it.

Read and Revise 

When you're done writing, read the summary aloud to yourself. Give it some emotions (if you can and if the topic allows you) while ensuring there is no fluff in the summary. 

Depending on the type of case study summary , you might include different elements — but here's a general breakdown of the guidelines that you should keep in mind while summarizing. 

Length : A good summary should have everything — from an attention-grabbing headline to a detailed explanation of the product, service, concept, or project. But that doesn't mean it can be a seven-page-long document. You must stick to the important facts and keep it pretty short — a few paragraphs or one page maximum . 

Problem & Solution: Next, clearly state the problem (or issue) you want to solve and then briefly explain how the information provided in the case study solves it. 

End with CTA: You'll need to tell your readers what to do next. For example, add the contact information if you want them to contact you or add links to more articles so they can continue reading. 

Example of a Case Study Summary 

Let's take a look at one example of how people summarize case studies. The example below is technically one page but packs a lot of information into it. 

Here's an example of how to write an executive summary for a case study . 

[Introduction]: The case study explains how the leading eCommerce platform (Company X) improved its customer experience with the digital tool.  [Challenge]: Digital presence and customer satisfaction were the two key challenges faced by Company X.  [Approach]: With the help of AI and automation, Company X implemented a robust CRM system and even launched a mobile app for user interaction.  [Solution]: The approach helped the client improve their sales by 20% — in only three months. 

Tips for Summarizing a Case Study 

One of my responsibilities as a freelancer is creating case studies and sending them to potential clients. They're busy people, so I include a case study summary at the beginning that briefs the ten pages of detailed information into a few bullet points — the must-knows. Here’s how to write a case study summary — faster and better. 

Write Great Hook Lines 

Any article, blog, interview, email, or summary with an annoying hook line is going to get sent to spam right away. You should check and make sure the hook line is short enough to be read in seconds and grabs the attention of the reader. The point is to place the important or value-added material at the top of the summary. 

Keep Things Scannable 

People are busy, and only a few of them have the time to read a summary that's packed with text. If you take some time to think about what case study summaries work best, you'll likely find that the most effective ones are pretty brief. Smart formatting (with a strategic design) can keep the summary short while ensuring it has enough substance. 

Automate Tasks with AI 

With an AI case study summary tool, you can skip the blank-page stage of the summarizing process. These tools can analyze the content and come up with a short, informative summary — freeing up your time for other work. Notta is one of the popular AI note-taking and summarizing apps out there right now. 

Whether you want to summarize interviews or voice memos, Notta Web App can help you with the job. It's particularly helpful if you've case studies in audio or video format: just upload the file, and Notta will generate a transcript and well-structured summary with an overview, key chapters, and action items. 

Try Notta - the best online transcription & summarization tool. Transcribe and summarize your conversations and meetings quickly with high accuracy.

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How Long Should a Case Study Summary Be? 

While the exact length of a case study summary will depend on what you're summarizing, it typically ranges from a few paragraphs (2 or 3) to one single page . For example, if you're writing a customer case study with your storytelling skills, it can go as long as one page. But if you are summarizing an interview for the recruiting team, a paragraph or two would help them understand the candidate's skills. 

How to Write a Good Case Study? 

Even the most trusted marketers or businesses will tell you how much case studies have boosted their business. It's like a customer review that can get you more business — only if you write it properly. If you're new to writing case studies, here are simple steps to make the process a lot easier. 

Start your research: Like anything else you write, you'll need to do proper research for a case study. For example, this includes the target audience, the message you're trying to convey, and the value your case study will provide. 

Write the key highlights : A good case study summary is typically short and sweet, so don't defeat the whole purpose by adding unnecessary things. You'll need to include only the key highlights that matter the most to the reader. 

Choose the format: While you may feel tempted to use all the space you have — don't. Some empty space around the text keeps the summary look uncluttered and easy to read. 

Include a social proof: Reading a case study is like reading a review — but it mainly relies on storytelling. Including social proof in the case study will push leads to book their first call, send an email, or even sign up for a newsletter. 

Be honest: The goal of your case study isn't to win over every single person reading it — instead, it's to win over the people who'll be your potential customers. Being honest is the key here.

Key Takeaways 

It takes some time and effort to learn how to summarize a case study and condense all the important information into only a few paragraphs. If you don’t have enough time, check out my favorite AI note-taker and summarizer , Notta . It’s pretty easy to use — just upload the case study video, and the AI tool will quickly transcribe and summarize the information.

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University of Vermont

Tim plante, md mhs, part 5: baseline characteristics in a table 1 for a prospective observational study, what’s the deal with table 1.

Tables describing the baseline characteristics of your analytical sample are ubiquitous in observational epidemiology manuscripts. They are critical to help the reader understand the study population and potential limitations of your analysis. A table characterizing baseline characteristics is so important that it’s typically the first table that appears in any observational epidemiology (or clinical trial) manuscript, so it’s commonly referred to as a “ Table 1 “. Table 1s are critically important because they help the readers understand internal validity of your study. If your study has poor internal validity, then your results and findings aren’t useful.

The details here are specific to prospective observational studies (e.g., cohort studies), but are generalizable to other sorts of studies (e.g., RCTs, case-control studies).

If you are a Stata user, you might be interested into my primer of using Table1_mc to generate a Table 1 .

Guts of a Table 1

There are several variations of the Table 1, here’s how I do it.

COLUMNS : This is your exposure of interest (i.e., dependent variable). This is not the outcome of interest . There’s a few way to divvy up these columns, depending on what sort of data you have:

• Continuous exposure (e.g., baseline LDL-cholesterol level): Cut this up into quantiles. I commonly use tertiles (3 groups) or quartiles (4 groups). People have very, very strong opinions about whether you use tertiles or quartiles. I don’t see much of a fuss in using either. Of note, there usually is no need to transform your data prior to splitting into quantiles. (And, log transforming continuous data that includes values of zero will replace those zeros with missing data!)
• Dichotomous/binary exposure (e.g., prevalent diabetes status as no/0 or yes/1): This is easy, column headers should be 0 or 1. Make sure to use a descriptive column header like “No prevalent diabetes” and “Prevalent diabetes” instead of numbers 0 and 1.
• Ordinal exposure, not too many groups (e.g., never smoker/0, former smoker/1, current smoker/2): This is also easy, column headers should be 0, 1, or 2. Make sure to use descriptive column headers.
• Ordinal exposure, a bunch of groups (e.g., extended Likert scale ranging from super unsatisfied/1 to super satisfied/7): This is a bit tricker. On one hand, there isn’t any real limitation on how wide a table can be in a software package so you could have columns 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ,6 and 7. This is a bit unwieldy for the reader, however. I personally think it’s better to collapse really wide groupings into a few groups. Here, you could collapse all of the negative responses (1, 2 and 3), leave the neutral response as its own category (4), and collapse all of the positive responses (5, 6, and 7). Also use descriptive column headers, but also be sure to describe how you collapsed groups in the footer of the table.
• Nominal exposure, not too many groups (e.g., US Census regions of Northeast, Midwest, South, and West): This is easy, just use the groups. Be thoughtful about using a consistent order of these groups throughout your manuscript.
• Nominal exposure, a bunch of groups (e.g., favorite movie): As with ‘Ordinal data, a bunch of groups’ above, I would collapse these into groups that relate to each other, such as genre of movie.
• (Optional) Additional first column showing “Total” summary statistics. This presents summary statistics for the entire study population as a whole, instead of by quantile or discrete groupings. I don’t see much value in these and typically don’t include them.
• Note: Table1_mc for Stata cannot generate a “missingness” row .
• (Optional, but suggest to avoid) Following P-value column that shows comparisons across rows. These have fallen out of favor for clinical trial Table 1s . I see little value of them for prospective observational studies and also avoid them.

ROWS: These include the N for each column, the range of values for continuous exposures, and baseline values. Note that the data here are from baseline.

• N for each group. Make sure that these Ns add up to the expected N in your analytical population at the bottom of your inclusion flow diagram. If it doesn’t match, you’ve done something wrong.
• (For continuous exposures) Range of values for your quantiles and yes I mean minimum and maximum for each quantile, not IQRs.
• Sociodemographics (age, sex, race, ± income, ± region, ± education level, etc.)
• Anthropometrics (height, weight, waist circumference, BMI, etc.)
• Medical problems as relevant to your study (eg, proportion with hypertension, diabetes, etc.)
• Medical data as relevant to your study (eg, laboratory assays, details with radiological imaging, details from cardiology reports)
• Suggest avoiding the outcome(s) of interest as additional rows. I think that presenting the outcomes in this table is inadequate. I prefer to have a separate table or figure dedicated to the outcome of interest that goes much more in-depth than a Table 1 does. Plus, the outcome isn’t ascertained at baseline in a prospective observational study, and describing the population at baseline is the general purpose of Table 1.
• And for the love of Pete, please make sure that all covariates in your final model appear as rows. If you have a model that adjusts for Epworth Sleepiness Score, for example, make sure that fits in somewhere above.

The first column of your Table 1 will describe each row. The appearance of this row will vary based upon the type of data you have.

• N row – I suggest simply using “N”, though some folks use N (upper case) to designate the entire population and n (lower case) to designate subpopulations, so perhaps you might opt to put “n”.
• Continuous variables (including the row for range) – I suggest a descriptive name and the units. Eg, “Height, cm”
• Dichotomous/binary values – In this example, sex is dichotomous (male vs. female) since that’s how it has historically been collected in NIH studies. For dichotomous variables, you can include either (1) a row for ‘Male’ and a row for ‘Female’, or (2) simply a row for one of the two sexes (eg, just ‘Female’) since the other row will be the other sex.
• Other discrete variables (eg, ordinal or nominal) – In this example, we will consider the nominal variable of Race. I suggest having a leading row that provides description of the following rows (eg, “Race group”) then add two spaces before each following race group so the nominal values for the race groups seem nested under the heading.
• (Optional) Headings for groupings of rows – I like including bold/italicized headings for groupings of data to help keep things organized.

Here’s an example of how I think a blank table should appear:

Table 1 – Here is a descriptive title of your Table 1 followed by an asterix that leads to the footer. I suggest something like “Sociodemographics, anthropometrics, medical problems, and medical data ascertained baseline among [#] participants in [NAME OF STUDY] with [BRIEF INCLUSION CRITERIA] and without [BRIEF EXCLUSION CRITERIA] by [DESCRIPTION OF EXPOSURE LIKE ‘TERTILE OF CRP’ OR ‘PREVALENT DIABETES STATUS’]*”

*Footer of your Table 1. I suggest describing the appearance of the cells, eg “Range is minimum and maximum of the exposure for each quantile. Presented as mean (SD) for normally distributed and median (IQR) for skewed continuous variables. Discrete data are presented as column percents.”

Cell contents

The cell contents varies by type of variable and your goal in this table:

• Normally distributed continuous variables : Mean (SD)
• Non-normally distributed continuous variables : Median (IQR)
• Discrete variables : Present column percentages . Not row percentages. For example we’ll consider “income >$75k” by tertile of CRP. A column percentage would show the % of participants in that specific quantile have an income >$75k. A row percentage would show the percentage of participants with income >$75K who were in that specific tertile.
• Note: Table1_mc in Stata cannot report an ‘n’ with continuous variables.
• Dichotomous variables : Present column percentage plus ‘n’. Example for female sex: “45%, n=244”.

A word on rounding: I think there is little value on including numbers after the decimal place. I suggest aggressively rounding at the decimal for most things. For example, for BMI, I suggest showing “27 (6)” and not “26.7 (7.2)”. For things that are obtained at the decimal place, I strongly recommend reporting at the decimal. For example, BP is always measured as a whole number, so reporting out a tenth place for BP isn’t of much value. For example, systolic BP is measured as 142, 112, and 138 — not 141.8, 111.8 and 138.4. For discrete variables, I always round the proportion/percentage at the decimal, but clarify very small proportions to be “<1%" if there are any in that group, but it would round to zero or "0%" if there are none in that group.

The one exception to my aggressive “round at the decimal place” strategy is variables that are commonly reported past the decimal place, such as many laboratory values. Serum creatinine is commonly reported to the hundredths place (e.g., “0.88”), so report the summary statistic for that value to the hundredths place, like 0.78 (0.30).

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How to Write an Executive Summary for a Case Study

Updated February 2022: The first thing you do when faced with any study or report is read the executive summary or overview—right? Then you decide if reading the rest of the material is worth your time. This is why it is so important for you to learn how to write an executive summary for a case study.

The executive summary of your case study serves exactly the same function. If the reader sees nothing beyond this section, they will still walk away with a good understanding of your service.

A great summary might even be enough for a reader to pass the information along to the decision-makers in their organization.

In this post, we’ll discuss what makes a compelling executive summary for case studies, and provide you with 4 examples from leading B2B SaaS companies. This is the third post in a 9-part series on how to write a case study .

Every word counts when writing an executive summary

When thinking about how to write an executive summary for a case study, you need to create 2 or 3 crucial sentences that provide a concise overview of the case study. It must be informative and:

• summarize the story by introducing the customer and their pain points
• explain what your organization did
• highlight the key results, including 1 or 2 statistics that drive home the takeaway message

Write the executive summary first to help you focus the rest of the case study. But don’t be too rigid: in the process of reviewing the interview transcript or writing the main copy, another point or statistic may emerge as having more impact than what you’ve chosen to highlight. Revisit your executive summary after writing the case study to make sure it’s as strong and accurate as possible.

If you need a hand with your SaaS case studies, have a look at our case study writing service .

Executive summaries can be short and sweet

This executive summary example from Segment is just a headline followed by a glorified subhead—but it does the trick!

Here’s another great example of a quick, yet helpful executive summary for Plaid’s case study:

Sometimes you may need a longer executive summary

For complex case studies, you may need a more in-depth executive summary to give readers an overview of the case study.

Here’s a more fleshed-out executive summary from Segment:

It’s a bit lengthy, but it effectively introduces the challenge. This executive summary could be more powerful if it included a section for results.

Sometimes executive summaries miss the mark entirely

This is not an executive summary. It is merely an introduction. We have no idea what the problem or solution is, and there’s nothing to motivate us to read further.

You can do better with your executive summaries

Be precise. Impress the reader with key results. Let them see that you offer solutions that matter.

Get the help you need

As a SaaS company, you need to partner with someone who “gets it”. We are a SaaS content marketing agency that works with high-growth companies like Calendly, ClickUp and WalkMe. Check out our done-for-you case study writing service .

As the founder of Uplift Content, Emily leads her team in creating done-for-you case studies, ebooks and blog posts for high-growth SaaS companies like ClickUp, Calendly and WalkMe. Connect with Emily on Linkedin

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• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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McCombes, S. (2023, January 30). Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved 15 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/case-studies/

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What to Include in a Case Study: Layout, Content & Visuals

Learn what info to include in a business case study and how to structure it for maximum conversion, and see real-life examples and templates.

Dominika Krukowska

9 minute read

Short answer

What to include in a case study?

A successful case study should include the following elements:

• Introduction (what was the problem and how it was solved in 1-2 sentences)
• Client overview
• The problem or challenge
• How they solved their problem (with your solution)
• Customer quotes and testimonials

For a case study to work all critical components must be in place.

Case studies can be gold mines for conversions, but extracting that gold isn't as straightforward as it seems.

What goes into a case study that tells a compelling story and draws your prospects down the conversion funnel?

There are some critical elements that you must include in your case study if you hope to generate conversions.

Yes, you read that right— making a partial case study could very well mean leaving money on the table.

In this post, I’ll share with you the secrets to creating a case study that’ll turn it from ‘blah’ to ‘bingo’.

You’ll learn what you must include in your case study to convert readers into buyers.

Let’s go!

What to include in your case study structure?

Crafting your case study is like writing a gripping novel, filled with characters, conflicts, and resolutions. Each component of your case study serves a unique purpose in narrating the story of how your product or service helps your clients conquer their challenges.

Here are the main chapters of your case study structure:

1. Introduction

Think of the introduction as your story's opening scene. It's your first impression, your initial hook, the gateway to the world you're about to unfold. Here, you aim to spark curiosity and give your reader a taste of the journey ahead.

How to create an introduction slide:

Include a video —this will get 32% more people to interact with your case study .

Create an opening line that instantly hooks your reader —think surprising statistics, bold statements, or intriguing questions.

Introduce the central theme of your case study —what's the big challenge or opportunity at play?

Connect with the reader's pain points to foster engagement right from the start.

Here’s an example of an introduction slide that hooks attention:

2. Company overview

Here, you introduce your main hero—your client. You want to provide a clear and relatable backdrop that helps your audience understand who your client is, what they do, and what stakes are at play for them.

How to create a company overview slide:

Offer key details about the client's business —what's their industry? What's their market position?

Highlight the client's aspirations and values —this helps to humanize the company and build emotional connection.

Make sure to relate the company's context back to your reader. How does this company's situation reflect the challenges or opportunities your reader might face?

Here’s an example of a company overview slide:

3. The problem or challenge

This is the conflict that propels your story. It's the mountain your client needs to climb, the dragon they must slay. Without a significant problem or challenge, there's no tension, and without tension, there's no story and no engagement.

How to create a problem slide:

Clearly articulate the problem or challenge. Make it tangible and relatable.

Explore the implications of this problem. What's at stake for the client if it goes unresolved?

Aim to evoke emotion here. The more your reader feels the weight of the problem, the more invested they'll be in the solution.

Here’s an example of a problem slide:

4. Your solution

Enter the trusted guide and confidant—your product or service. This is the pivotal moment where your client's fortunes begin to turn. Show how your offering comes into play, lighting the way toward resolution.

How to create a solution slide:

Detail how your solution addresses the client's problem. Show how the features of your product or service connect to the challenges at hand.

Walk your reader through the implementation process. Offer insights into the collaborative efforts and innovative approaches that made the difference.

Don’t shy away from any obstacles or setbacks that occurred during the solution phase. Showing how you overcame these can actually make your story more credible and relatable.

Here’s an example of a solution slide:

This is the climax of your story, where all the tension that's been built up finally gets released. You need to demonstrate the transformation that occurred as a result of your solution.

How to create a results slide:

Show, don't tell. Use numbers, stats, and graphs to make your results concrete and impactful.

Discuss not just quantitative, but also qualitative results. How did your solution affect the client's morale, their customer satisfaction, their market reputation? Give detailed examples set in short anecdotes as experienced by a person (not an organization).

A side-by-side comparison of the 'before' and 'after' can be a powerful visual aid to highlight your impact.

Here’s an example of a results slide:

6. Customer quotes/testimonials

Nothing reinforces a story better than having the hero vouch for its authenticity. Direct quotes from your client add depth, credibility, and emotional resonance to your case study.

How to create a testimonials slide:

Select quotes that reinforce the narrative of your case study.

The more genuine and heartfelt, the better. Authenticity speaks volumes.

Consider sprinkling testimonials throughout the case study rather than bunching them together to keep the reader engaged.

Here’s an example of a testimonials slide:

7. Next steps

Your story doesn’t end when the problem is solved. This is where you guide your reader toward the future, inspiring them to take action based on the journey they've just been through.

How to create a next steps slide:

Provide clear and compelling calls-to-action. What do you want the reader to do next? Download a whitepaper? Request a demo? Sign up and try your solution? Make it a small concession, not a big ask. The next reasonable action they can take to establish the relationship a tiny bit further.

Make it simple for readers to take the next step. Include links, contact information, or even embed your calendar into the case study.

Here’s an example of a next steps slide:

What storytelling elements to include in a case study?

Compelling storytelling is an art, and when applied to business case studies, it can turn a rather dry piece of data into a riveting tale of success.

It's a chance to illustrate your value proposition in the real world, giving prospective clients a peek at what they could experience when they choose to work with you.

Here are some storytelling elements to include in your case study:

1. A clear storyline

Start with the basics: Who is your customer? What was their challenge? How did your product or service solve their problem? And, what was the outcome?

This forms the narrative arc of your case study, providing a backbone for your story. Ensure it’s a seamless narrative, taking the reader along a journey of transformation.

Here’s our recommended presentation storyline:

2. Concrete outcomes

Data provides the meat of your case study. Numbers, percentages, and concrete results serve as proof that your solution works.

It's one thing to claim that your product or service is effective, but showcasing the results achieved by a real customer through hard data adds credence to your assertions.

3. Visuals that support and expand on the text

Just as a picture is worth a thousand words, well-placed visuals in your case study can make the message clearer and more compelling.

Graphs, charts, and infographics can help break down complex data, making it easier for the audience to digest. Furthermore, they break up long blocks of text, making your case study more engaging.

4. Interactive elements

In a world where scrolling has become second nature, your case study needs to be more than a static document.

Incorporating interactive elements like tabs to click through benefits, live data calculators, or sliders with case studies and customer testimonials invites your audience to engage with your content actively.

Our research showed that decks with interactive elements got scrolled to the bottom 41% more often and had a 21% longer average reading time than non-interactive ones.

Making interactive case studies sounds complicated but it’s actually very easy if you do it with our AI case study creator . You can send it to prospects directly from Storydoc or embed it as part of your website.

By making your reader an active participant in the story, you boost their engagement and increase the chances of them reading your content through to the end.

Benefits of including interactive elements in your case study presentation

More decks read in full

Longer average reading time

5. Testimonials and quotes directly from customers

Customer testimonials and direct quotes inject a sense of authenticity and credibility into your case study.

They bring a human touch to your narrative and foster trust in potential clients.

It's no longer just your voice touting the effectiveness of your solution; it's the voice of a satisfied customer who has personally experienced the benefits of your product or service.

6. Clear call to action

Finally, after painting a vivid picture of your product or service in action, you need to tell your audience what to do next.

A clear CTA—whether it’s to learn more, book a demo, or sign up—makes the next step evident for your audience.

Our data reveals that decks with a clear next step had a conversion rate 27% higher than those that ended with a generic "thank you."

Make the next step simple, straightforward, and compelling, so your reader knows precisely what to do to start their own success story with you.

What not to include in your case study?

While we've covered the essentials to include in your case study, it's equally important to identify elements that could distract from your message, decrease trust, or even confuse your audience.

Here's what you should avoid including in your case study:

1. Unverified claims / data

Every claim you make and every piece of data you share in your case study must be true and easy to check.

Trust is crucial in a case study, and even one bit of wrong information can damage trust and hurt your image.

So, make sure all your facts, figures, and results are correct, and always get the right permissions to share them.

2. Confidential or sensitive information

When writing a case study, it's crucial to remember that privacy matters. Even though it's exciting to share all the details, you need to protect your client's private information.

Always get clear permission before using any client data and remember to hide any information that could identify specific individuals.

This careful approach shows your respect for privacy and builds trust with your audience, making your case study not just engaging, but also responsible and professional.

3. Technical jargon

A case study should be easy for everyone to understand, so avoid using industry-specific language. Even if you know the jargon, your audience might not.

Keeping your language simple and clear will help more people understand your case study. Too much technical language can confuse readers and distract from the story you're trying to tell.

4. Salesy language

While a case study is designed to show prospective clients how valuable your offer is, it's important not to sound too pushy.

A case study should tell a story, not sound like a sales pitch. Keep your language helpful and interesting. The success story should be enough to sell itself.

Create your best case study yet from ready-made templates

Now that you're equipped with all the essentials of crafting a compelling case study, it's time to bring your narrative to life.

Don’t work hard if you can work easy and get better results.

Interactive case study templates are your shortcut to creating engaging and informative case studies. They provide a clear path for your narrative, intuitive ways to present your data, and an engaging space for sharing customer testimonials.

Grab a template, and let your story do the talking!

Hi, I'm Dominika, Content Specialist at Storydoc. As a creative professional with experience in fashion, I'm here to show you how to amplify your brand message through the power of storytelling and eye-catching visuals.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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How to write a case study — examples, templates, and tools

It’s a marketer’s job to communicate the effectiveness of a product or service to potential and current customers to convince them to buy and keep business moving. One of the best methods for doing this is to share success stories that are relatable to prospects and customers based on their pain points, experiences, and overall needs.

That’s where case studies come in. Case studies are an essential part of a content marketing plan. These in-depth stories of customer experiences are some of the most effective at demonstrating the value of a product or service. Yet many marketers don’t use them, whether because of their regimented formats or the process of customer involvement and approval.

A case study is a powerful tool for showcasing your hard work and the success your customer achieved. But writing a great case study can be difficult if you’ve never done it before or if it’s been a while. This guide will show you how to write an effective case study and provide real-world examples and templates that will keep readers engaged and support your business.

In this article, you’ll learn:

What is a case study?

How to write a case study, case study templates, case study examples, case study tools.

A case study is the detailed story of a customer’s experience with a product or service that demonstrates their success and often includes measurable outcomes. Case studies are used in a range of fields and for various reasons, from business to academic research. They’re especially impactful in marketing as brands work to convince and convert consumers with relatable, real-world stories of actual customer experiences.

The best case studies tell the story of a customer’s success, including the steps they took, the results they achieved, and the support they received from a brand along the way. To write a great case study, you need to:

• Celebrate the customer and make them — not a product or service — the star of the story.
• Craft the story with specific audiences or target segments in mind so that the story of one customer will be viewed as relatable and actionable for another customer.
• Write copy that is easy to read and engaging so that readers will gain the insights and messages intended.
• Follow a standardized format that includes all of the essentials a potential customer would find interesting and useful.
• Support all of the claims for success made in the story with data in the forms of hard numbers and customer statements.

Case studies are a type of review but more in depth, aiming to show — rather than just tell — the positive experiences that customers have with a brand. Notably, 89% of consumers read reviews before deciding to buy, and 79% view case study content as part of their purchasing process. When it comes to B2B sales, 52% of buyers rank case studies as an important part of their evaluation process.

Telling a brand story through the experience of a tried-and-true customer matters. The story is relatable to potential new customers as they imagine themselves in the shoes of the company or individual featured in the case study. Showcasing previous customers can help new ones see themselves engaging with your brand in the ways that are most meaningful to them.

Besides sharing the perspective of another customer, case studies stand out from other content marketing forms because they are based on evidence. Whether pulling from client testimonials or data-driven results, case studies tend to have more impact on new business because the story contains information that is both objective (data) and subjective (customer experience) — and the brand doesn’t sound too self-promotional.

Case studies are unique in that there’s a fairly standardized format for telling a customer’s story. But that doesn’t mean there isn’t room for creativity. It’s all about making sure that teams are clear on the goals for the case study — along with strategies for supporting content and channels — and understanding how the story fits within the framework of the company’s overall marketing goals.

Here are the basic steps to writing a good case study.

1. Identify your goal

Start by defining exactly who your case study will be designed to help. Case studies are about specific instances where a company works with a customer to achieve a goal. Identify which customers are likely to have these goals, as well as other needs the story should cover to appeal to them.

The answer is often found in one of the buyer personas that have been constructed as part of your larger marketing strategy. This can include anything from new leads generated by the marketing team to long-term customers that are being pressed for cross-sell opportunities. In all of these cases, demonstrating value through a relatable customer success story can be part of the solution to conversion.

2. Choose your client or subject

Who you highlight matters. Case studies tie brands together that might otherwise not cross paths. A writer will want to ensure that the highlighted customer aligns with their own company’s brand identity and offerings. Look for a customer with positive name recognition who has had great success with a product or service and is willing to be an advocate.

The client should also match up with the identified target audience. Whichever company or individual is selected should be a reflection of other potential customers who can see themselves in similar circumstances, having the same problems and possible solutions.

Some of the most compelling case studies feature customers who:

• Switch from one product or service to another while naming competitors that missed the mark.
• Experience measurable results that are relatable to others in a specific industry.
• Represent well-known brands and recognizable names that are likely to compel action.
• Advocate for a product or service as a champion and are well-versed in its advantages.

Whoever or whatever customer is selected, marketers must ensure they have the permission of the company involved before getting started. Some brands have strict review and approval procedures for any official marketing or promotional materials that include their name. Acquiring those approvals in advance will prevent any miscommunication or wasted effort if there is an issue with their legal or compliance teams.

3. Conduct research and compile data

Substantiating the claims made in a case study — either by the marketing team or customers themselves — adds validity to the story. To do this, include data and feedback from the client that defines what success looks like. This can be anything from demonstrating return on investment (ROI) to a specific metric the customer was striving to improve. Case studies should prove how an outcome was achieved and show tangible results that indicate to the customer that your solution is the right one.

This step could also include customer interviews. Make sure that the people being interviewed are key stakeholders in the purchase decision or deployment and use of the product or service that is being highlighted. Content writers should work off a set list of questions prepared in advance. It can be helpful to share these with the interviewees beforehand so they have time to consider and craft their responses. One of the best interview tactics to keep in mind is to ask questions where yes and no are not natural answers. This way, your subject will provide more open-ended responses that produce more meaningful content.

4. Choose the right format

There are a number of different ways to format a case study. Depending on what you hope to achieve, one style will be better than another. However, there are some common elements to include, such as:

• An engaging headline
• A subject and customer introduction
• The unique challenge or challenges the customer faced
• The solution the customer used to solve the problem
• The results achieved
• Data and statistics to back up claims of success
• A strong call to action (CTA) to engage with the vendor

It’s also important to note that while case studies are traditionally written as stories, they don’t have to be in a written format. Some companies choose to get more creative with their case studies and produce multimedia content, depending on their audience and objectives. Case study formats can include traditional print stories, interactive web or social content, data-heavy infographics, professionally shot videos, podcasts, and more.

5. Write your case study

We’ll go into more detail later about how exactly to write a case study, including templates and examples. Generally speaking, though, there are a few things to keep in mind when writing your case study.

• Be clear and concise. Readers want to get to the point of the story quickly and easily, and they’ll be looking to see themselves reflected in the story right from the start.
• Provide a big picture. Always make sure to explain who the client is, their goals, and how they achieved success in a short introduction to engage the reader.
• Construct a clear narrative. Stick to the story from the perspective of the customer and what they needed to solve instead of just listing product features or benefits.
• Leverage graphics. Incorporating infographics, charts, and sidebars can be a more engaging and eye-catching way to share key statistics and data in readable ways.
• Offer the right amount of detail. Most case studies are one or two pages with clear sections that a reader can skim to find the information most important to them.
• Include data to support claims. Show real results — both facts and figures and customer quotes — to demonstrate credibility and prove the solution works.

6. Promote your story

Marketers have a number of options for distribution of a freshly minted case study. Many brands choose to publish case studies on their website and post them on social media. This can help support SEO and organic content strategies while also boosting company credibility and trust as visitors see that other businesses have used the product or service.

Marketers are always looking for quality content they can use for lead generation. Consider offering a case study as gated content behind a form on a landing page or as an offer in an email message. One great way to do this is to summarize the content and tease the full story available for download after the user takes an action.

Sales teams can also leverage case studies, so be sure they are aware that the assets exist once they’re published. Especially when it comes to larger B2B sales, companies often ask for examples of similar customer challenges that have been solved.

Now that you’ve learned a bit about case studies and what they should include, you may be wondering how to start creating great customer story content. Here are a couple of templates you can use to structure your case study.

Template 1 — Challenge-solution-result format

• Start with an engaging title. This should be fewer than 70 characters long for SEO best practices. One of the best ways to approach the title is to include the customer’s name and a hint at the challenge they overcame in the end.
• Create an introduction. Lead with an explanation as to who the customer is, the need they had, and the opportunity they found with a specific product or solution. Writers can also suggest the success the customer experienced with the solution they chose.
• Present the challenge. This should be several paragraphs long and explain the problem the customer faced and the issues they were trying to solve. Details should tie into the company’s products and services naturally. This section needs to be the most relatable to the reader so they can picture themselves in a similar situation.
• Share the solution. Explain which product or service offered was the ideal fit for the customer and why. Feel free to delve into their experience setting up, purchasing, and onboarding the solution.
• Explain the results. Demonstrate the impact of the solution they chose by backing up their positive experience with data. Fill in with customer quotes and tangible, measurable results that show the effect of their choice.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that invites readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to nurture them further in the marketing pipeline. What you ask of the reader should tie directly into the goals that were established for the case study in the first place.

Template 2 — Data-driven format

• Start with an engaging title. Be sure to include a statistic or data point in the first 70 characters. Again, it’s best to include the customer’s name as part of the title.
• Create an overview. Share the customer’s background and a short version of the challenge they faced. Present the reason a particular product or service was chosen, and feel free to include quotes from the customer about their selection process.
• Present data point 1. Isolate the first metric that the customer used to define success and explain how the product or solution helped to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 2. Isolate the second metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 3. Isolate the final metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Summarize the results. Reiterate the fact that the customer was able to achieve success thanks to a specific product or service. Include quotes and statements that reflect customer satisfaction and suggest they plan to continue using the solution.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that asks readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to further nurture them in the marketing pipeline. Again, remember that this is where marketers can look to convert their content into action with the customer.

While templates are helpful, seeing a case study in action can also be a great way to learn. Here are some examples of how Adobe customers have experienced success.

Juniper Networks

One example is the Adobe and Juniper Networks case study , which puts the reader in the customer’s shoes. The beginning of the story quickly orients the reader so that they know exactly who the article is about and what they were trying to achieve. Solutions are outlined in a way that shows Adobe Experience Manager is the best choice and a natural fit for the customer. Along the way, quotes from the client are incorporated to help add validity to the statements. The results in the case study are conveyed with clear evidence of scale and volume using tangible data.

The story of Lenovo’s journey with Adobe is one that spans years of planning, implementation, and rollout. The Lenovo case study does a great job of consolidating all of this into a relatable journey that other enterprise organizations can see themselves taking, despite the project size. This case study also features descriptive headers and compelling visual elements that engage the reader and strengthen the content.

Tata Consulting

When it comes to using data to show customer results, this case study does an excellent job of conveying details and numbers in an easy-to-digest manner. Bullet points at the start break up the content while also helping the reader understand exactly what the case study will be about. Tata Consulting used Adobe to deliver elevated, engaging content experiences for a large telecommunications client of its own — an objective that’s relatable for a lot of companies.

Case studies are a vital tool for any marketing team as they enable you to demonstrate the value of your company’s products and services to others. They help marketers do their job and add credibility to a brand trying to promote its solutions by using the experiences and stories of real customers.

When you’re ready to get started with a case study:

• Think about a few goals you’d like to accomplish with your content.
• Make a list of successful clients that would be strong candidates for a case study.
• Reach out to the client to get their approval and conduct an interview.
• Gather the data to present an engaging and effective customer story.

Adobe can help

There are several Adobe products that can help you craft compelling case studies. Adobe Experience Platform helps you collect data and deliver great customer experiences across every channel. Once you’ve created your case studies, Experience Platform will help you deliver the right information to the right customer at the right time for maximum impact.

To learn more, watch the Adobe Experience Platform story .

Keep in mind that the best case studies are backed by data. That’s where Adobe Real-Time Customer Data Platform and Adobe Analytics come into play. With Real-Time CDP, you can gather the data you need to build a great case study and target specific customers to deliver the content to the right audience at the perfect moment.

Watch the Real-Time CDP overview video to learn more.

Finally, Adobe Analytics turns real-time data into real-time insights. It helps your business collect and synthesize data from multiple platforms to make more informed decisions and create the best case study possible.

Request a demo to learn more about Adobe Analytics.

https://business.adobe.com/blog/perspectives/b2b-ecommerce-10-case-studies-inspire-you

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/business-case

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/what-is-real-time-analytics

Measles — United States, January 1, 2020–March 28, 2024

Weekly / April 11, 2024 / 73(14);295–300

Adria D. Mathis, MSPH 1 ; Kelley Raines, MPH 1 ; Nina B. Masters, PhD 1 ; Thomas D. Filardo, MD 1 ; Gimin Kim, MS 1 ; Stephen N. Crooke, PhD 1 ; Bettina Bankamp, PhD 1 ; Paul A. Rota, PhD 1 ; David E. Sugerman, MD 1 ( View author affiliations )

What is already known about this topic?

Although endemic U.S. measles was declared eliminated in 2000, measles importations continue to occur. Prolonged outbreaks during 2019 threatened the U.S. measles elimination status.

What is added by this report?

During January 1, 2020–March 28, 2024, a total of 338 U.S. measles cases were reported; 29% of these cases occurred during the first quarter of 2024, almost all in persons who were unvaccinated or whose vaccination status was unknown. As of the end of 2023, U.S. measles elimination status was maintained.

What are the implications for public health practice?

Risk for widespread U.S. measles transmission remains low because of high population immunity. Enhanced efforts are needed to increase routine U.S. vaccination coverage, encourage vaccination before international travel, identify communities at risk for measles transmission, and rapidly investigate suspected measles cases to reduce cases and complications of measles.

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Measles is a highly infectious febrile rash illness and was declared eliminated in the United States in 2000. However, measles importations continue to occur, and U.S. measles elimination status was threatened in 2019 as the result of two prolonged outbreaks among undervaccinated communities in New York and New York City. To assess U.S. measles elimination status after the 2019 outbreaks and to provide context to understand more recent increases in measles cases, CDC analyzed epidemiologic and laboratory surveillance data and the performance of the U.S. measles surveillance system after these outbreaks. During January 1, 2020–March 28, 2024, CDC was notified of 338 confirmed measles cases; 97 (29%) of these cases occurred during the first quarter of 2024, representing a more than seventeenfold increase over the mean number of cases reported during the first quarter of 2020–2023. Among the 338 reported cases, the median patient age was 3 years (range = 0–64 years); 309 (91%) patients were unvaccinated or had unknown vaccination status, and 336 case investigations included information on ≥80% of critical surveillance indicators. During 2020–2023, the longest transmission chain lasted 63 days. As of the end of 2023, because of the absence of sustained measles virus transmission for 12 consecutive months in the presence of a well-performing surveillance system, U.S. measles elimination status was maintained. Risk for widespread U.S. measles transmission remains low because of high population immunity. However, because of the increase in cases during the first quarter of 2024, additional activities are needed to increase U.S. routine measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination coverage, especially among close-knit and undervaccinated communities. These activities include encouraging vaccination before international travel and rapidly investigating suspected measles cases.

Introduction

Measles is a highly infectious acute, febrile rash illness with a >90% secondary attack rate among susceptible contacts ( 1 ). High national 2-dose coverage with the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine led to the declaration of U.S. measles elimination* in 2000 ( 2 ). However, this elimination status was threatened in 2019 because of two prolonged outbreaks among undervaccinated communities in New York and New York City; these outbreaks accounted for 29% of all reported cases during 2001–2019 ( 2 ). To assess U.S. measles elimination status after the 2019 outbreaks and to provide context for understanding more recent increases in measles cases in 2024, † CDC assessed the epidemiologic and laboratory-based surveillance of measles in the United States and the performance of the U.S. measles surveillance system during January 1, 2020–March 28, 2024.

Reporting and Classification of Measles Cases

Confirmed measles cases § ( 1 ) are reported to CDC by state health departments through the National Notifiable Disease Surveillance System and directly (by email or telephone) to the National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases. Measles cases are classified by the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists as import-associated if they were internationally imported, epidemiologically linked to an imported case, or had viral genetic evidence of an imported measles genotype ( 1 ); cases with no epidemiologic or virologic link to an imported case are classified as having an unknown source ( 1 ). For this analysis, unique sequences were defined as those differing by at least one nucleotide in the N-450 sequence (the 450 nucleotides encoding the carboxyl-terminal 150 nucleoprotein amino acids) based on the standard World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations for describing sequence variants ¶ ( 3 ). Unvaccinated patients were classified as eligible for vaccination if they were not vaccinated according to Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommendations ( 4 ). A well-performing surveillance system was defined as one with ≥80% of cases meeting each of the following three criteria: classified as import-associated, reported with complete information on at least eight of 10 critical surveillance indicators (i.e., place of residence, sex, age, occurrence of fever and rash, date of rash onset, vaccination status, travel history, hospitalization, transmission setting, and whether the case was outbreak-related) ( 5 ), and laboratory-confirmed.

Assessment of Chains of Transmission

Cases were classified into chains of transmission on the basis of known epidemiologic linkages: isolated (single) cases, two-case chains (two epidemiologically linked cases), and outbreaks (three or more epidemiologically linked cases). The potential for missed cases within two-case chains and outbreaks was assessed by measuring the interval between measles rash onset dates in each chain; chains with more than one maximum incubation period (21 days) between cases could indicate a missing case in the chain. This activity was reviewed by CDC, deemed not research, and was conducted consistent with applicable federal law and CDC policy.**

Reported Measles Cases and Outbreaks

CDC was notified of 338 confirmed measles cases with rash onset during January 1, 2020–March 28, 2024 ( Figure ); cases occurred in 30 jurisdictions. During 2020, 12 of 13 cases preceded the commencement of COVID-19 mitigation efforts in March 2020. Among the 170 cases reported during 2021 and 2022, 133 (78%) were associated with distinct outbreaks: 47 (96%) of 49 cases in 2021 occurred among Afghan evacuees temporarily housed at U.S. military bases during Operation Allies Welcome, and 86 (71%) of 121 cases in 2022 were associated with an outbreak in central Ohio. During 2023, 28 (48%) of 58 cases were associated with four outbreaks. As of March 28, 2024, a total of 97 cases have been reported in 2024, representing 29% of all 338 measles cases reported during January 1, 2020–March 28, 2024, and more than a seventeenfold increase over the mean number of cases reported during the first quarter of 2020–2023 (five cases).

Characteristics of Reported Measles Cases

The median patient age was 3 years (range = 0–64 years); more than one half of cases (191; 58%) occurred in persons aged 16 months–19 years ( Table ). Overall, 309 (91%) patients were unvaccinated (68%) or had unknown vaccination status (23%); 29 (9%) had previously received ≥1 MMR vaccine dose. Among the 309 cases among unvaccinated persons or persons with unknown vaccination status, 259 (84%) patients were eligible for vaccination, 40 (13%) were aged 6–11 months and therefore not recommended for routine MMR vaccination, and 10 (3%) were ineligible for MMR because they were aged <6 months. †† Among 155 (46%) hospitalized measles patients, 109 (70%) cases occurred in persons aged <5 years; 142 (92%) hospitalized patients were unvaccinated or had unknown vaccination status. No measles-associated deaths were reported to CDC.

Imported Measles Cases

Among all 338 cases, 326 (96%) were associated with an importation; 12 (4%) had an unknown source. Among the 326 import-associated cases, 200 (61%) occurred among U.S. residents who were eligible for vaccination but who were unvaccinated or whose vaccination status was unknown. Among 93 (28%) measles cases that were directly imported from other countries, 34 (37%) occurred in foreign visitors, and 59 (63%) occurred in U.S. residents, 53 (90%) of whom were eligible for vaccination but were unvaccinated or whose vaccination status was unknown. One (2%) case in a U.S. resident occurred in a person too young for vaccination, two (3%) in persons who had previously received 1 MMR vaccine dose, and three (5%) in persons who had previously received 2 MMR vaccine doses. The most common source for internationally imported cases during the study period were the Eastern Mediterranean (48) and African (24) WHO regions. During the first quarter of 2024, a total of six internationally imported cases were reported from the European and South-East Asia WHO regions, representing a 50% increase over the mean number of importations from these regions during 2020–2023 (mean of two importations per year from each region).

Surveillance Quality Indicators

Overall, all but two of the 338 case investigations included information on ≥80% of the critical surveillance indicators; those two case investigations included information on 70% of critical surveillance indicators. Date of first case report to a health department was available for 219 (65%) case investigations; 127 (58%) cases were reported to health departments on or before the day of rash onset (IQR = 4 days before to 3 days after). Overall, 314 (93%) measles cases were laboratory confirmed, including 16 (5%) by immunoglobulin M (serologic) testing alone and 298 (95%) by real-time reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). Among 298 rRT-PCR–positive specimens, 221 (74%) were successfully genotyped: 177 (80%) were genotype B3, and 44 (20%) were genotype D8. Twenty-two distinct sequence identifiers (DSIds) ( 3 ) for genotype B3 and 13 DSIds for genotype D8 were detected (Supplementary Figure, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/152776 ). The longest period of detection for any DSId was 15 weeks (DSId 8346).

Chains of Transmission

The 338 measles cases were categorized into 92 transmission chains (Table); 62 (67%) were isolated cases, 10 (11%) were two-case chains, and 20 (22%) were outbreaks of three or more cases. Seven (35%) of 20 outbreaks occurred during 2024. §§ The median outbreak size was six cases (range = three–86 cases) and median duration of transmission was 20 days (range = 6–63 days). Among the 30 two-case chains and outbreaks, more than one maximum incubation period (21 days) did not elapse between any two cases.

Because of the absence of endemic measles virus transmission for 12 consecutive months in the presence of a well-performing surveillance system, as of the end of 2023, measles elimination has been maintained in the United States. U.S. measles elimination reduces the number of cases, deaths, and costs that would occur if endemic measles transmission were reestablished. Investigation of almost all U.S. measles cases reported since January 2020 were import-associated, included complete information on critical surveillance variables, were laboratory-confirmed by rRT-PCR, and underwent genotyping; these findings indicate that the U.S. measles surveillance system is performing well. A variety of transmission chain sizes were detected, including isolated cases, suggesting that sustained measles transmission would be rapidly detected. However, the rapid increase in the number of reported measles cases during the first quarter of 2024 represents a renewed threat to elimination.

Most measles importations were cases among persons traveling to and from countries in the Eastern Mediterranean and African WHO regions; these regions experienced the highest reported measles incidence among all WHO regions during 2021–2022 ( 6 ). During November 2022–October 2023, the number of countries reporting large or disruptive outbreaks increased by 123%, from 22 to 49. Global estimates suggest that first-dose measles vaccination coverage had declined from 86% in 2019 to 83% in 2022, leaving almost 22 million children aged <1 year susceptible to measles ( 6 ).

As has been the case in previous postelimination years ( 7 ), most imported measles cases occurred among unvaccinated U.S. residents. Increasing global measles incidence and decreasing vaccination coverage will increase the risk for importations into U.S. communities, as has been observed during the first quarter of 2024, further supporting CDC’s recommendation for persons to receive MMR vaccine before international travel ( 4 ).

Maintaining high national and local MMR vaccination coverage remains central to sustaining measles elimination. Risk for widespread U.S. measles transmission remains low because of high population immunity; however, national 2-dose MMR vaccination coverage has remained below the Healthy People 2030 target of 95% (the estimated population-level immunity necessary to prevent sustained measles transmission) ( 8 ) for 3 consecutive years, leaving approximately 250,000 kindergarten children susceptible to measles each year ( 9 ). Furthermore, 2-dose MMR vaccination coverage estimates in 12 states and the District of Columbia were <90%, and during the 2022–23 school year, exemption rates among kindergarten children exceeded 5% in 10 states ( 9 ). Clusters of unvaccinated persons placed communities at risk for large outbreaks, as occurred during the central Ohio outbreak in 2022: 94% of measles patients were unvaccinated and 42% were hospitalized ( 10 ). Monitoring MMR vaccination coverage at county and zip code levels could help public health agencies identify undervaccinated communities for targeted interventions to improve vaccination coverage while preparing for possible measles outbreaks. As of March 28, 2024, a total of 97 confirmed measles cases have been reported in the United States in 2024, compared with a mean of five cases during the first quarter of each year during 2020–2023. Similar to cases reported during 2020–2023, most cases reported during 2024 occurred among patients aged <20 years who were unvaccinated or whose vaccination status was unknown, and were associated with an importation. Rapid detection of cases, prompt implementation of control measures, and maintenance of high national measles vaccination coverage, including improving coverage in undervaccinated populations, is essential to preventing measles and its complications and to maintaining U.S. elimination status.

Limitations

The findings in this report are subject to at least three limitations. First, importations might have been underreported: 4% of reported cases during the study period had no known source. Second, case investigations resulting in discarded measles cases (i.e., a diagnosis of measles excluded) are not nationally reportable, which limits the ability to directly evaluate the sensitivity of measles case investigations. However, surveillance remains sufficiently sensitive to detect isolated cases and outbreaks, and robust molecular epidemiology provides further evidence supporting the absence of sustained measles transmission in the United States. Finally, the date of first case report to a health department was not available for 35% of case investigations.

Implications for Public Health Practice

The U.S. measles elimination status will continue to be threatened by global increases in measles incidence and decreases in global, national, and local measles vaccination coverage. Because of high population immunity, the risk of widespread measles transmission in the United States remains low; however, efforts are needed to increase routine MMR vaccination coverage, encourage vaccination before international travel, identify communities at risk for measles transmission, and rapidly investigate suspected measles cases to maintain elimination.

Corresponding author: Adria D. Mathis, [email protected] .

1 Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, CDC.

All authors have completed and submitted the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors form for disclosure of potential conflicts of interest. Stephen N. Crooke reports institutional support from PATH. No other potential conflicts of interest were disclosed.

* Elimination is defined as the absence of endemic measles virus transmission in a defined geographic area for ≥12 months in the presence of a well-performing surveillance system.

† https://emergency.cdc.gov/han/2024/han00504.asp

§ A confirmed measles case was defined as an acute febrile rash illness with laboratory confirmation or direct epidemiologic linkage to a laboratory-confirmed case. Laboratory confirmation was defined as detection of measles virus–specific nucleic acid from a clinical specimen using real-time reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction or a positive serologic test for measles immunoglobulin M antibody.

¶ Genotyping was performed at CDC and at the Vaccine Preventable Disease Reference Centers of the Association of Public Health Laboratories.

** 45 C.F.R. part 46.102(l)(2), 21 C.F.R. part 56; 42 U.S.C. Sect. 241(d); 5 U.S.C. Sect. 552a; 44 U.S.C. Sect. 3501 et seq.

†† MMR vaccine is not licensed for use in persons aged <6 months.

§§ At the time of this report, six measles outbreaks have ended, and one outbreak is ongoing. A measles outbreak is considered to be over when no new cases have been identified during two incubation periods (42 days) since the rash onset in the last outbreak-related case.

• Gastañaduy PA, Redd SB, Clemmons NS, et al. Measles [Chapter 7]. In: Manual for the surveillance of vaccine-preventable diseases. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC; 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/surv-manual/chpt07-measles.html
• Mathis AD, Clemmons NS, Redd SB, et al. Maintenance of measles elimination status in the United States for 20 years despite increasing challenges. Clin Infect Dis 2022;75:416–24. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciab979 PMID:34849648
• Williams D, Penedos A, Bankamp B, et al. Update: circulation of active genotypes of measles virus and recommendations for use of sequence analysis to monitor viral transmission. Weekly Epidemiologic Record 2022;97(39):481–92. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/weekly-epidemiological-record-wer-30-september-2022-vol-97-no-39-2022-pp-481-492-enfr
• McLean HQ, Fiebelkorn AP, Temte JL, Wallace GS; CDC. Prevention of measles, rubella, congenital rubella syndrome, and mumps, 2013: summary recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2013;62(No. RR-4):1–34. PMID:23760231
• World Health Organization. Measles: vaccine preventable diseases surveillance standards. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2018. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/vaccine-preventable-diseases-surveillance-standards-measles
• Minta AA, Ferrari M, Antoni S, et al. Progress toward measles elimination—worldwide, 2000–2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2023;72:1262–8. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7246a3 PMID:37971951
• Lee AD, Clemmons NS, Patel M, Gastañaduy PA. International importations of measles virus into the United States during the postelimination era, 2001–2016. J Infect Dis 2019;219:1616–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiy701 PMID:30535027
• Truelove SA, Graham M, Moss WJ, Metcalf CJE, Ferrari MJ, Lessler J. Characterizing the impact of spatial clustering of susceptibility for measles elimination. Vaccine 2019;37:732–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.12.012 PMID:30579756
• Seither R, Yusuf OB, Dramann D, Calhoun K, Mugerwa-Kasujja A, Knighton CL. Coverage with selected vaccines and exemption from school vaccine requirements among children in kindergarten—United States, 2022–23 school year. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2023;72:1217–24. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7245a2 PMID:37943705
• Tiller EC, Masters NB, Raines KL, et al. Notes from the field: measles outbreak—central Ohio, 2022–2023. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2023;72:847–9. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7231a3 PMID:37535476

FIGURE . Confirmed measles cases, by month of rash onset (N = 338) — United States, January 1, 2020–March 28, 2024

Abbreviations: IgM = immunoglobulin M; rRT-PCR = real-time reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction; WHO = World Health Organization. * A case resulting from exposure to measles virus outside the United States as evidenced by at least some of the exposure period (7–21 days before rash onset) occurring outside the United States and rash onset occurring within 21 days of entering the United States without known exposure to measles during that time. † A case in a transmission chain epidemiologically linked to an internationally imported case. § A case for which an epidemiologic link to an internationally imported case was not identified, but for which viral sequence data indicate an imported measles genotype (i.e., a genotype that is not detected in the United States with a pattern indicative of endemic transmission). ¶ A case for which an epidemiologic or virologic link to importation or to endemic transmission within the United States cannot be established after a thorough investigation. ** Percentage is percentage of international importations. Four cases among persons who traveled to both the Eastern Mediterranean and African regions and one case in a person who traveled to both the Eastern Mediterranean and European regions were counted twice. †† Place of residence, sex, age or date of birth, fever and rash, date of rash onset, vaccination status, travel history, hospitalization, transmission setting, and whether the case was outbreak related. §§ Includes 65 cases among patients who received both positive rRT-PCR and positive IgM results. ¶¶ Percentage is percentage of total chains.

Suggested citation for this article: Mathis AD, Raines K, Masters NB, et al. Measles — United States, January 1, 2020–March 28, 2024. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2024;73:295–300. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7314a1 .

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Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Immunization Finance Policies and Practices. Calling the Shots: Immunization Finance Policies and Practices. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2000.

Calling the Shots: Immunization Finance Policies and Practices.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

Appendix E Overview of Case Studies and Site Visits

This overview describes the purpose and the methodology of the committee's case studies and site visits. Information gathered through these efforts is incorporated in the body of the report, often featured in the boxes accompanying the text. A more detailed presentation of the findings of the individual case studies and site visits is contained in a forthcoming special issue of the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, (v. 19 [3S], October 2000) devoted to the research conducted in the development of this report.

The committee undertook eight state or locality-specific case studies in order to deepen the picture of local policy choices and performance of immunization programs and spending over the past decade. The state survey conducted for the committee by Dr. Gary Freed and associates provides a comprehensive view of the significant programmatic features and issues regarding immunization across the country (see Appendix D for a brief description of this survey). The individual case studies were designed to:

• trace program changes, development, and performance over time,
• collect detailed information on state- (and in the case of Los Angeles and San Diego, county-) level spending for immunization-related activities, and
• document the impact of federal policy directions and funding levels on state programs over the past decade.

The sampling of states and localities is far too small to be statistically representative, and the findings of the case studies cannot be used by themselves to make national generalizations, at least as regards state-level program models and policy choices. Nevertheless, the case studies and site visits allowed the committee to pursue questions about the implementation of national program and funding policies across an array of states. They also gave committee members, staff, and consultants the opportunity to communicate directly with state and local immunization and health program managers in a sustained fashion on several occasions, which provided much insight into the impact and importance of federal policies.

The sites chosen were Maine; New Jersey; North Carolina; Alabama; Michigan; Texas; Washington; and, in California, Los Angeles and San Diego Counties. These states and counties were selected because they vary demographically, and because their immunization policies and program structures reflect distinctive choices that convey a sense of the variety among all the states in immunization strategies, challenges, and achievements. Table E-1 displays notable demographic statistics for these states (California data are used for Los Angeles and San Diego Counties), Table E-2 shows immunization-related public policies and programmatic features; and Table E-3 displays Section 317, VFC, and state-source immunization spending for 1995 and 1998.

Section 317, VFC, and State Immunization Spending (dollars in millions [dollar per birth cohort member]).

The framework for developing profiles of individual states and the data elements to be collected for all cases were designed by staff and reviewed by the committee. A subcommittee to oversee the conduct of the case studies was formed, and members of this subcommittee, as well as members of the committee at large, participated in site visits and were involved in both the written and oral presentation of findings to the rest of the committee.

Four site visits were conducted to large metropolitan areas known to have pockets of need and/or overall low immunization coverage rates:

• Detroit, Michigan;
• Newark, New Jersey;
• Houston, Texas; and
• Los Angeles and San Diego, California (a combined visit).

Interviews with and visits to operating programs included the following in each of the sites:

• county and municipal immunization program and health directors,
• managed care organizations serving Medicaid and SCHIP clients,
• persons using or developing immunization registries,
• WIC clinics or coordinators,
• private-practice physicians, and
• managers and practitioners in federally qualified health care centers.

The information gathered during the site visits was incorporated into each state's case study.

The case study reports were developed through interviews with state health department officials, including the immunization program directors, Medicaid agency staff, budget analysts, and CDC public health advisors to the state, among others. These interviews were, in most cases, coordinated with the initial telephone interview conducted by the research team for the state survey to minimize the imposition on the state respondent's time and avoid duplication. In addition to the interviews with key program managers, the case study sites were asked to provide detailed information on state spending from all revenue sources for immunization activities for the period 1992 through 1998:

• federal grants,
• state revenues (in the case of Los Angeles and San Diego, county revenues as well), and
• foundation grants.

Reconstruction of this historical information, broken out by category of spending (e.g., personnel, contracts, aid to counties) was extraordinarily difficult and labor-intensive for the state health departments, involving the efforts of their own budget analysts and sometimes state budget office staff. The cooperation the committee received from all of the studied states in retrieving and reporting this information was extraordinary as well. The detailed reports of spending on immunization activities comprise an essential element of the information base used by the committee in developing its findings and recommendations.

Finally, the respective state grant applications to CDC for Section 317 funds for 1992, 1995, 1999, and 2000 were reviewed, providing another source of information over time for the case studies.

Demographic Characteristics of Case Study States.

State Program Characteristics.

BOX E-1 Case Study Summary

The following authors prepared the eight case studies discussed in this report:

• Alabama— Roy Hogan, M.P.A., Consultant, Austin, Texas
• Maine —Kay Johnson, Ed.M., M.P.H., Johnson Group Consultants, Inc., Hinesburg, Vt.
• Michigan— Hanns Kuttner, M.A., School of Public Policy Studies, University of Chicago
• New Jersey —Gerry Fairbrother, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Epidemiology and Social Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, New York City, and Paul Meissner, M.S.P.M., and Alana Balaban, B.Sc., Division of Epidemiology and Social Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, New York City
• North Carolina —Wilhelmine Miller, M.S., Ph.D., Program Officer, Institute of Medicine
• Texas —Roy Hogan, M.P.A., Consultant, Austin, Texas
• Washington— Heather McPhillips, M.D., M.P.H., Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, and E.Russell Alexander, M.D., M.P.H., Professor Emeritus, School of Public Health, University of Washington
• Comparison of Los Angeles and San Diego Counties, California— Gerry Fairbrother, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Epidemiology and Social Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, New York City, and Elka Munizaga, Division of Epidemiology and Social Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, New York City

The case studies are available on line at www.books.nap.edu/catalog/9836.html .

A summary article of the case study findings appears in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine (Fairbrother et al., forthcoming).

• Cite this Page Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Immunization Finance Policies and Practices. Calling the Shots: Immunization Finance Policies and Practices. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2000. Appendix E, Overview of Case Studies and Site Visits.
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Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Examination of factors associated with the temporal stability assessment of crash severity by using generalised linear model—A case study

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia

Roles Formal analysis, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft

Affiliation School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, China

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Western Australian Centre for Road Safety Research, School of Psychological Science M304, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Civil Engineering Department, COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan

Roles Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Veltch Lister Consulting, Level 5, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

• Abdulaziz H. Alshehri, 
• Amjad Pervez, 
• Muhammad Hussain, 
• Danish Farooq, 
• Etikaf Hussain

• Published: April 19, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Road crashes are a major public safety concern in Pakistan. Prior studies in Pakistan investigated the impact of different factors on road crashes but did not consider the temporal stability of crash data. This means that the recommendations based on these studies are not fully effective, as the impact of certain factors may change over time. To address this gap in the literature, this study aims to identify the factors contributing to crash severity in road crashes and examine how their impact varies over time. In this comprehensive study, we utilized Generalised Linear Model (GLM) on the crash data between the years 2013 to 2017, encompassing a total sample of 802 road crashes occurred on the N-5 road section in Pakistan, a 429-kilometer stretch connecting two big cities of Pakistan, i.e., Peshawar and Lahore. The purpose of the GLM was to quantify the temporal stability of the factors contributing crash severity in each year from 2013 to 2017. Within this dataset, 60% ( n   =  471) were fatal crashes, while the remaining 40% ( n   =  321) were non-fatal. The results revealed that the factors including the day of the week, the location of the crashes, weather conditions, causes of the crashes, and the types of vehicles involved, exhibited the temporal instability over time. In summary, our study provides in-depth insights aimed at reducing crash severity and potentially aiding in the development of effective crash mitigation policies in Pakistan and other nations having similar road safety problems. This research holds great promise in exploring the dynamic safety implications of emerging transportation technologies, particularly in the context of the widespread adoption of connected and autonomous vehicles.

Citation: Alshehri AH, Pervez A, Hussain M, Farooq D, Hussain E (2024) Examination of factors associated with the temporal stability assessment of crash severity by using generalised linear model—A case study. PLoS ONE 19(4): e0299094. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094

Editor: Yajie Zou, Tongji University, CHINA

Received: December 14, 2023; Accepted: February 5, 2024; Published: April 19, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Alshehri et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper.

Funding: The authors are thankful to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Najran University for funding this work under the General Research Funding program grant code (NU/DRP/SERC/12/55). The first author (Abdulaziz H. Alshehri) is the primary recipient of this funding.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Road safety is a continually growing concern within any contemporary society due to ever-rising road crashes resulting in significant number of fatalities and injuries. According to the recent report of World Health Organisation (WHO), there were an estimated 1.19 million road traffic deaths in 2021 world widely. Road crashes are the 1 st leading cause of the deaths of children and young aged 5–29 years, and 12 th leading cause of deaths of all ages [ 1 ]. Road crashes have an adverse impact on the health and well-being of injury survivors and their families. Therefore, it is vital to monitor road safety progress regularly to improve road safety and sustainability within the transportation system [ 2 , 3 ]. Road crashes are complex and multi-faceted events that occur due to the interactions of various factors [ 4 ], such as driving behaviour [ 5 – 11 ], road and vehicle conditions [ 12 ], weather conditions [ 13 , 14 ], road geometry and spatial features of the road environment [ 15 ] and many others. By developing effective road safety policies and interventions, the likelihood and severity of crashes could be significantly reduced.

Most statistical analyses of highway safety data assume that the factors affecting crashes remain stable over a period of time. This assumption may not reflect the dynamic nature of road safety issues, and therefore, it is important to consider the temporal stability of the contributing factors in road safety research. The temporal stability could also be crucial in illuminating crash trends, and could have significant repercussions for conventional statistical analyses that use data to estimate parameters for different explanatory variables to ascertain the impact of these variables on the likelihood and resulting crash severities (parameters that are typically assumed to be fixed over time) [ 16 ]. By doing so, policymakers can ensure that they are using up-to-date information to allocate resources effectively and improve road safety outcomes.

Nine out of ten deaths occur in developing (low and middle-income) countries due to road crashes, while people in low-income countries continue to face the highest risk of fatalities per 100,000 population [ 1 ]. Developed countries adopt the 3Es policy tool (Education, Engineering, and Enforcement), to strengthen the road transport system’s three components: roads, drivers, and vehicles, and improve road safety. But developing countries are lacking this approach to fully implement, therefore, they are suffering from road trauma more than developed countries. It’s crucial to recognise that the effects of various factors on crash likelihood and severity might exhibit fluctuations over time [ 17 ]. Recent studies have attempted to provide the temporal variations in road crashes or crash severities over a dispersed period in various developed and developing countries [ 18 – 22 ]. These studies investigated the temporal instability of factors by estimating yearly effect instead of estimating an average effect in the total period. Analysing temporal stability helps identify if crash rates or severity follow consistent trends over time or if they vary, which can be crucial for implementing effective road safety measures and policies.

Crash data is often analysed to determine the factors impacting different crash outcomes, particularly crash severity. This analysis categorises crash severities into discrete outcomes, using models like ordered (probit and logit models) and unordered models (such as multinomial and mixed logit models), which are frequently employed in crash severity analysis [ 23 ]. For instance, different modelling techniques have been employed by different researchers such as random parameter hierarchical ordered logit model [ 24 ], ordered probit model [ 25 ], random-effects generalised ordered probit model [ 26 ], random parameter logit approach [ 27 ], and random parameter ordered logit model [ 28 ]. Among all techniques, ordered probit and logit models are preferred because of the nature of data (ordinal). Washington et al (2020) argued that the traditional form of these models can restrict what variables affect probabilities of outcomes, leading to incorrect conclusions [ 29 ]. Therefore, the most recent crash severity studies used mixed logit modelling approach.

Pakistan, being lower-middle income country, is facing serious road safety challenges, with approximately 26,811 people dying in 50,283 recorded crashes from 2016 to 2020 according to Pakistan Bureau of Statistics data [ 30 ]. The overall ratio of fatalities in road crashes has reached 55%, the highest in the country’s history. Pakistan’s fatality rate is 14.2 per 100,000 vehicles, significantly higher than the UK’s rate of 3.2 per 100,000 vehicles, despite the UK having six times more registered vehicles [ 31 ]. The issue of road crashes is threatening public health and GDP. Despite implementing fundamental road safety measures such as appropriate road design, traffic management, speed regulations, and the promotion of seat belt and helmet use, the inadequacy of law enforcement and modern traffic monitoring systems—like high-definition cameras, advanced driving safety technologies, fatigue/distraction detection systems, and night vision systems—aggravates road safety concerns. In 2016, the Government of Pakistan launched the "Road Safety Pakistan" project, which developed the National Road Safety Strategy 2018–2030, based on the safe system approach devised by the WHO. The strategy sets out a long-term vision to improve safety on national, provincial, and local roads, with the aim of saving more than 6000 lives by 2030. Fig 1 outlines the strategy devised by the Government of Pakistan, inspired by the safe system approach from WHO, considering the causes of road crashes and the developed policy tools.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.g001

Interestingly, road crashes in Pakistan are experiencing a slight decreasing trend in last couple of years. This reduction might be attributed to several policies and measures implemented by the government as mentioned in Fig 2 . Effective road safety measures such as the up gradation of roads, speed limit enforcement, and promoting seatbelts have been implemented in Pakistan, resulting in a reduction in the number of road crashes. However, despite this progress, the fatalities per crash continue to show a non-linear trend in last couple of years (see Fig 2 ). To tackle this issue effectively, the emphasis should shift from merely reducing crash frequency to comprehending crash severity and its temporal consistency over time. This shift is vital for developing targeted countermeasures aimed at enhancing road safety in Pakistan.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.g002

In our previously published articles, factors contributing to road crashes among Pakistani drivers were thoroughly investigated [ 5 – 7 ]. However, to the best of our knowledge, the factors associated with the temporal stability of crash severity in Pakistan has rarely been investigated in the literature. Building on this literature gap, the current study employed GLM on the five years road crash data (2013–2017), collected from National Highway and Motorway Police (NHMP) and examined the factors contributing to crash severity. The data used in this study is rich enough to provide valuable findings to help create road safety improvement policies. The findings of this study are beneficial for policymakers and government agencies to administrate the traffic safety laws and provide a safe transportation system in the country.

Research design

In Pakistan, one of the roads with the highest fatality rate is the national highway N-5, with rural, urban, and interurban traffic. The National Highway 5 (N-5) is a 1819 km national highway in Pakistan, which extends from two big cities of Pakistan; Karachi and Peshawar. It is the longest national highway in Pakistan and serves as an important North-South Road artery [ 32 ]. Being the largest and the busiest national highway of Pakistan, N-5 renders its commuters at high risk of getting involved in crashes. For this study, the N-5 road section between Peshawar and Lahore (429 km), Pakistan, has been selected, with objectives to explore the trends and patterns, of road crashes. The geo-referenced coordinates for N-5 from Lahore to Peshawar are as follows: from (latitude 32.831867°, longitude 73.833233°) to (latitude 33.086486°, longitude 73.447178°). Fig 3 illustrates the alignment of the N-5 road section in Pakistan, delineating the study area.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.g003

Data collection

This study utilises historical crash data of N-5, collected from the NHMP, Pakistan, which is the only legitimate source of road crash data in Pakistan. The road crash data obtained represents five years of road crashes, from 2013 to 2017. More recent data was not available in a consistent format at the time of this research. The second reason for the inclusion of road crashes data between 2013–2017 is that there is no major infrastructure developed on N-5 after the mentioned years, so it is believed that a same trend of road crashes on N-5 is followed [ 32 ].

The dataset includes the number of crashes, number of fatalities and injuries in each crash, day, time, and weather of the occurrence of crashes, beat number (the road section where the crashes occurred), cause of specific road crashes, and nature of vehicles involved in road crashes. Days has been classified from Monday to Sunday. Time has been classified into two groups according to peoples’ working span and lifestyle in Pakistan such as: day timing (0600–01800), and night timing (1800–0600). According to the Bureau of Meteorology Department, Pakistan, the country has four different seasons, such as spring (March-May), summer (June–August), autumn (September–November), and winter (December–February). Therefore, we selected spring and autumn season as mild, summer as hot and winter as cold. Beat number has been assigned from Beat 1 to Beat 11. Beat number refers to the specific patch of N-5 covering the whole study area (N-5 from Peshawar to Lahore) by numbering starts from Beat 1 at Peshawar and end at Beat number 11 in Lahore. By reviewing the literature, we considered all the factors contributing to road crashes. However, we shortlisted several contributory factors by considering the local context (see S1 Table ). The nature of vehicles has been classified with in three different groups: Light-Traffic Vehicles (LTVs) such as cars, pickups, taxies etc), Heavy-Traffic Vehicles (HTVs) such as buses, trucks, trailers), and Three Wheeled vehicles (3Ws) such as bicycles, rickshaws, and motorcycles.

To assess the actual cost of a crash and to investigate the impact of the crash on human life, crash severity plays a crucial role in the crash analysis. Severity analysis evaluates the safety efficiency of the road transportation system. Crash severity is a dimensionless value that can be defined as “the ratio of the number of fatalities to the number of road crashes in unit time” [ 33 ].

Methodological approach

In addition, GLM are characterised by following attributes: (i) Distribution of variance of the random component of independent variable, y , belongs to exponential family; (ii) A linear relation between the linear predictor, η , and the product of design matrix X and β such that, η = Xβ ; (iii) A known one-to-one differentiable link function g (⋅) between predictor and fitted values, where the mean expected response is given by Eq ( 1 ); (iv) It is possible for the variance to change with the covariates only as a function of mean given by Eq ( 2 ).

Where LL(β f ) is the log-likelihood of the full or final model with all the independent variables and LL(β n ) is the log-likelihood of restricted model for the same dependent variable. To determine the confidence level, based on which the null hypothesis (null model is better than the full model) is tested using χ 2 test. For acceptance or rejection, a p = 0.05 is selected to reject null hypothesis. S2 Table shows the variables involved in this study as well as their code and remarks.

Table 1 presents a comprehensive overview of our dataset’s descriptive statistics. Among the 802 road crashes recorded on the N-5, 481 were categorised as fatal crashes, while 321 were non-fatal. Notably, the data analysis reveals that a substantial 60% of these crashes were fatal, underscoring the severity of road safety concerns. It is essential to acknowledge that Pakistan faces challenges related to under-reporting of non-fatal crashes, particularly those resulting in minor injuries, and property-damage incidents that are often privately resolved are not included in our study. The preeminence of fatal crashes over non-fatal ones consistently persisted annually. Notably, the results indicate a decline in the number of crashes in 2013 and 2014, followed by a noteworthy surge in 2015. Moreover, data shows that Friday recorded the highest number of road crashes compared to other days of the week, and road crashes on weekends were significantly more frequent than on weekdays. Careless driving emerged as a leading cause of road crashes, accounting for 27.4% of incidents. Vehicle conditions also played a role, contributing to 18.7% of fatal crashes. In terms of the types of vehicles involved, Heavy Transport Vehicles (HTV) were slightly more associated with fatal road crashes (45%) in comparison to Light Transport Vehicles (LTV) at 38% and Three-Wheelers (3W) at 17%. The data also reveals that 28.1% of road crashes occurred during the hot weather, while a considerable majority transpired during daylight hours (61.6%) compared to night-time.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.t001

Table 2 presents the estimation results of models using 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017 data, respectively. The results show that the parameters that are the same between two-time periods are rejected over 90% confidence. No test was found in which the test produces insignificant value. This shows that the model specifications and estimated parameters are significant temporal instable from year 2013 to 2017. All coefficients shown in the tables are statically significant at the 0.05 significance level.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.t002

Tables 3 – 7 presents the results of fitting the GLM accounting for different independent variables predicting the crash severity in years 2013–2017. Table 4 shows the modelling results of GLM for the year of 2013. It is revealed that days of the occurrence of crashes, beats, causes of crashes and vehicles involved in road crashes had a significant effect on crash severity (Model χ 2 = 41.440, p<0.01). As compared to Sundays, the road crashes occurred on Thursday were found to be less severe in terms of death (β = -0.497**, OR = 0.61, p<0.01). Crashes occurred on beat 1, 2, 3 and 9 were found to be severe in terms of death. Keeping beat 9 as reference, crashes occurred on beat 1, 3 and 9 were found to be more severe than beat 9, whereas beat 2 was less severe than beat 9 in terms of death. The causes of road crashes were also found to be significant predictor of crash severity. Vehicle conditions were found to be less involved in crash severity than other causes of crash severity (β = -0.410**, OR = 0.66, p<0.01). This implies that the crashes caused by poor road conditions, poor visibility and wrong overtaking were found to be more severe in terms of death as compared to crashes caused by vehicle conditions. One of the significant factors which affects the crash severity is found to be vehicles involved in crashes. The results showed the crashes involving LTV are found to be more severe than 3W (β = -.564**, OR = 0.57, p<0.01) and HTV (β = -0.375**, OR = 0.69, p<0.01). Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC) and Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) values are also mentioned in the subsequent tables.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.t003

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.t004

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.t005

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.t006

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.t007

In Table 4 , the results of GLM of the 2014 model are given. Some of the results are in line with the results obtained from the 2013 model in which days, beat and causes of crashes were found to be significant predictors of crash severity. On the other hand, time of the occurrence of crash, weather and vehicles involved in the crashes were not found to be significant in 2014 model ( X 2 = 71.509, p>.01). As compared to Sundays, the road crashes occurred on Wednesday were found to be less severe in terms of death (β = -0.391**, OR = 0.68, p<0.01). Crashes occurred on beat 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 were found to be severe in terms of death. Crashes occurred on beat 1, 2, 3, 4 and 9 were found to be less severe than beat 11 in terms of death. In addition to that, the results of the model portray that crashes caused by poor road conditions, poor visibility and wrong overtaking were found to be less severe as compared to crashes caused by vehicle conditions.

Table 5 presents the results of the GLM employed to explore the factors affecting crash severity in year 2015 (χ 2 = 53.279, p<0.01). The results revealed that crashes on Fridays are more severe as compared to Sundays (β = 0.282**, OR = 1.33, p<0.01). As compared to other weathers, the crashes in hot weather were found to be more severe in 2015 (β = 0.203**, OR = 1.23, p<0.01). Crashes caused by aggressive driving, dozing at wheels and distracted driving were found to be less severe in terms of severity as compared to crashes caused by poor road conditions, poor visibility and wrong overtaking (β = 0.182**, OR = 0.83, p < .001). In addition to that, crashes in 3W (β = -0.404**, OR = 0.67, p<0.01) and HTVs (β = -0.204**, OR = 0.82, p<0.01) were found to less severe as compared to the LTVs.

In the 2016 model ( Table 6 ), only season was found to be the significant factor associated with crash severity (χ 2 = 53.279, p>0.01). The results reveal that as compared to other seasons, hot weather was found to be less severe in terms of fatalities (β = -0.220**, OR = 0.80, p<0.01). Surprisingly, no other factors such as days, time, beat, causes and vehicles involved in road crashes were found to be significant predictors of crash severity.

In Table 7 , the modelling results of GLM for the year of 2017 are presented. In 2017 model, days, causes of crashes and vehicles involved in road crashes were found significant at a 95% confidence interval (χ 2 = 57.707, p<0.01). The road crashes occurred on Mondays were found to 0.59 times more fatal than crashes occurred on Sundays. Furthermore, Thursday and Saturday were found to be 0.61 and 0.52 times fatal as on Sundays. In addition to that, crashes caused by aggressive driving, dozing at wheels and distracted driving were found to be less severe in terms of death as compared to crashes caused by poor road conditions, poor visibility, and wrong overtaking (β = -.369**, OR = 0.69, p<0.01). Furthermore, the crashes in 3W and HTV were found to be 0.50 and 0.53 times fatal than the crashes in LTV. The values of other variables could not achieve significant values.

Table 8 provides the list of factors having temporal stability of crash severity in Pakistan. The results clearly show that with the passage of time, several contributors were found to be insignificant. Overall, the results concluded that there is a temporal instability of factors contributing to crash severity in Pakistan.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.t008

Discussions and conclusions

This paper aims at investigating the temporal stability of factors contributing to road crashes in Pakistan over the five years period. The motivation behind this study came from the high crash severity in Pakistan due to the mixed nature of traffic such as cars, jeeps, buses, trucks, motorcycles, rickshaws, and heavy vehicles. This study attempted to find various key risk factors contributing to crash severity in Pakistani drivers. This study provides two noteworthy contributions to the literature which were never investigated before. Firstly, it identifies the factors contributing to crash severity in Pakistani drivers and provides a vivid picture of road safety issues within the country. Secondly, it investigates the temporal stability of factors contributing to crash severity. GLM is employed to explore the significant factors affecting the crash severity for the five individual models. To determine if the developed GLM models are temporal stable across the investigated time, a set of likelihood ratio tests are also carried out. The results showed that the model specifications and estimated parameters were significant temporal instable from year 2013 to 2017. The day of the week, the location of the crashes, weather conditions, causes of the crashes, and the types of vehicles involved in road crashes were found to be significant factors contributing crash severity having temporal instability.

With respect to the factors contributing to crash severity in Pakistani drivers, this study reveals that days of the week involved in road crashes are the significant factors contributing crash severity with temporal instability. This study is somehow in consistent with a previous study in which authors reported that crash severity gradually increased from Tuesday to Sunday [ 38 ]. It is also found that road crashes on weekend tended to be more severe [ 39 ]. The temporal stability of crash patterns associated with days of the week holds critical implications for road safety planning and policy. These temporal trends may stem from diverse factors, encompassing driver behaviour, traffic patterns, and road infrastructure. For instance, on specific days, like weekends or holidays, individuals may be prone to engaging in risky behaviours like speeding or driving under the influence, resulting in consistent crash patterns. Likewise, heightened traffic congestion on certain days can amplify the risk of crashes, given reduced visibility and slower reaction times. These insights offer valuable input for contemporary road safety measures.

Weather is found to be the significant factor contributing to crash severity. Crash severity was found to be highest in hot weather in 2015 but due to temporal instability, it changed to low as more to other weather types. The possible explanation is that the summer in Pakistan is becoming severe every year due to climatic change which resulted in a significant reduction in traffic flow during peak summer in Pakistan. Generally, the reduction in traffic flow encourages the driver to speed faster, which may lead to severe road crashes. This finding is supported by a previous study where high speed of vehicle increases the crash severity [ 40 ]. The moderate temperature encourages commuters to travel outside their home city to enjoy pleasant weather. Furthermore, an abrupt elevation in the number of domestic and international tourist in moderate temperature increase the traffic flow and ultimately, increase the chances of road crashes. This finding is in line with a previous study [ 41 ], but in contrast with a study conducted in India [ 42 ]. Temporal stability of road crashes may be influenced by broader social, economic, or environmental factors that remain relatively constant over time. For example, certain regions or populations may be more susceptible to weather-related road crashes due to factors such as higher rates of vehicle ownership, less access to public transportation, or less experience driving in adverse weather conditions.

Careless driving and vehicle conditions were found to be significant factors contributing to crash severity as well as showed temporal instability. In careless driving, aggressive driving, untrained driving, and drowsy driving are the main causes included in this study. This study is in line with a previous study in which aggressive driving was found to be significantly related to fatal crashes [ 43 , 44 ]. Regarding untrained driving, this finding aligns with a previous study in which driving without proper driving training was found to be significant predictor of road crashes in Pakistan [ 6 ]. This factor could be rectifying to normal by providing the driver with proper driving education and knowledge. Drowsy driving is associated with sleepiness and dozing at the wheel. The finding from this paper supports existing studies that long hour driving contributes to fatigue and sleepiness, leading to road crashes [ 45 ].

Furthermore, the findings of this study regarding the lack of temporal nature of vehicles over period of five years reveals that LTV are responsible for more severe as compared to 3W and HTV, despite having some temporal instability. This study aligns with one of our previous studies in which road crashes caused by careless driving, speeding, and poor road conditions were found to be more prevalent in small cars and motorcycles as compared to heavy trucks [ 46 ]. The possible explanation is that there are significant changes in the types of vehicles on the road over time, such as an increase in the number of large trucks, more fuel-efficient cars, which potentially impacted the frequency and severity of crashes, and may result in less temporal stability. Overall, the relationship between the nature of vehicles and temporal stability of road crashes is complex and may be influenced by a variety of factors related to vehicle safety features, maintenance, and changes in the types of vehicles on the road over time.

In addition to presenting the study findings, it’s important to acknowledge the study’s limitations. Firstly, the dataset used focuses only on one highway, N-5, leaving out information from other interconnected roads and highways across Pakistan. This limits the dataset’s scope to cover all crashes comprehensively. Additionally, the dataset lacks traffic volume details, crucial for a highway like N-5, connecting various cities with diverse traffic patterns. This variety makes it challenging to precisely determine traffic volume. Although statistical methods were used for data analysis, potential bias in interpreting the results should be recognised. Furthermore, when modeling the effects of different variables on crash, different coefficients are estimated for the same variable across different years. To overcome the model uncertainty, it is recommended to consider the Bayesian model averaging approach [ 47 ] in future studies, which consider the effect of different variables.

The results of this study could aid decision-makers in identifying the factors that consistently contribute to an increased risk of crash severity of road crashes, allowing for targeted allocation of resources to mitigate the effects of these factors. The results of this research offer specific quantitative measures that can aid in assessing the practicality of implementing various strategies aimed at reducing the risk of crash severity of road crashes in Pakistani drivers. Considering the existing findings, some immediate road safety countermeasures are hereby suggested to minimise the life losses in road safety. It is necessary to design and conduct road safety awareness campaigns to raise awareness about the importance of careless driving. There is an urgent need to implement strict rules and regulations relevant to speed limits in day and night-time driving. It is already suggested in a previous study that improving the road infrastructure to separate the motor vehicle physically and road users might be helpful to mitigate road crashes [ 48 ]. Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) can contribute to a reduction in traffic risk. ADAS typically includes technologies and features designed to enhance vehicle safety and assist drivers in various driving situations. These systems may offer functionalities such as collision avoidance, lane-keeping assistance, adaptive cruise control, and other features that can collectively contribute to a safer driving environment, ultimately lowering the risk of traffic crashes [ 49 , 50 ]. The wide spread introduction of vehicles with ADAS technologies is also a viable solution to reduce crash severity. In countries with mixed traffic like Pakistan, increasing the lateral gap between larger vehicles like trucks and trailers and smaller vehicles like cars and jeeps is one of the significant countermeasures to reduce road crashes. We believe that this study has shed light on the importance the road safety to achieve the goal of safe transportation system in Pakistan.

Supporting information

S1 table. categorisation of contributory factors (causes of crash) involved in this study..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.s001

S2 Table. Independent variable code and remarks.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299094.s002

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the National Highway and Motorway Police, Pakistan for the provision of road crash data.

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