university literature research

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing - try for free!

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Try for free

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

Open Google Slides Download PowerPoint

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved April 15, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is a research methodology | steps & tips, how to write a research proposal | examples & templates, what is your plagiarism score.

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 5. The Literature Review
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

A literature review surveys prior research published in books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have used in researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within existing scholarship about the topic.

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . Fourth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.

Importance of a Good Literature Review

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories . A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

• Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
• Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
• Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research, or
• Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

Given this, the purpose of a literature review is to:

• Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2011; Knopf, Jeffrey W. "Doing a Literature Review." PS: Political Science and Politics 39 (January 2006): 127-132; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012.

Types of Literature Reviews

It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally among scholars that become part of the body of epistemological traditions within the field.

In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study.

Argumentative Review This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply embedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see below].

Integrative Review Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.

Historical Review Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

Systematic Review This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research problem . Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social sciences.

Theoretical Review The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

NOTE : Most often the literature review will incorporate some combination of types. For example, a review that examines literature supporting or refuting an argument, assumption, or philosophical problem related to the research problem will also need to include writing supported by sources that establish the history of these arguments in the literature.

Baumeister, Roy F. and Mark R. Leary. "Writing Narrative Literature Reviews."  Review of General Psychology 1 (September 1997): 311-320; Mark R. Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." Educational Researcher 36 (April 2007): 139-147; Petticrew, Mark and Helen Roberts. Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2006; Torracro, Richard. "Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples." Human Resource Development Review 4 (September 2005): 356-367; Rocco, Tonette S. and Maria S. Plakhotnik. "Literature Reviews, Conceptual Frameworks, and Theoretical Frameworks: Terms, Functions, and Distinctions." Human Ressource Development Review 8 (March 2008): 120-130; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Thinking About Your Literature Review

The structure of a literature review should include the following in support of understanding the research problem :

• An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the literature review,
• Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],
• An explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others,
• Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research.

The critical evaluation of each work should consider :

• Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence [e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings]?
• Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data appropriate to addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate? Were the results effectively interpreted and reported?
• Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
• Persuasiveness -- which of the author's theses are most convincing or least convincing?
• Validity -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

II.  Development of the Literature Review

Four Basic Stages of Writing 1.  Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? 2.  Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored. 3.  Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic. 4.  Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.

Consider the following issues before writing the literature review: Clarify If your assignment is not specific about what form your literature review should take, seek clarification from your professor by asking these questions: 1.  Roughly how many sources would be appropriate to include? 2.  What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites; scholarly versus popular sources)? 3.  Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing a common theme or issue? 4.  Should I evaluate the sources in any way beyond evaluating how they relate to understanding the research problem? 5.  Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history? Find Models Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline or area of interest have composed their literature review sections. Read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or to identify ways to organize your final review. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read, such as required readings in the course syllabus, are also excellent entry points into your own research. Narrow the Topic The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to obtain a good survey of relevant resources. Your professor will probably not expect you to read everything that's available about the topic, but you'll make the act of reviewing easier if you first limit scope of the research problem. A good strategy is to begin by searching the USC Libraries Catalog for recent books about the topic and review the table of contents for chapters that focuses on specific issues. You can also review the indexes of books to find references to specific issues that can serve as the focus of your research. For example, a book surveying the history of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict may include a chapter on the role Egypt has played in mediating the conflict, or look in the index for the pages where Egypt is mentioned in the text. Consider Whether Your Sources are Current Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. This is particularly true in disciplines in medicine and the sciences where research conducted becomes obsolete very quickly as new discoveries are made. However, when writing a review in the social sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be required. In other words, a complete understanding the research problem requires you to deliberately examine how knowledge and perspectives have changed over time. Sort through other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to explore what is considered by scholars to be a "hot topic" and what is not.

III.  Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

Chronology of Events If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union. By Publication Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies. Thematic [“conceptual categories”] A thematic literature review is the most common approach to summarizing prior research in the social and behavioral sciences. Thematic reviews are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time, although the progression of time may still be incorporated into a thematic review. For example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it would still be organized chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The difference in this example between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: themes related to the role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point being made. Methodological A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.

Other Sections of Your Literature Review Once you've decided on the organizational method for your literature review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out because they arise from your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period; a thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue. However, sometimes you may need to add additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. However, only include what is necessary for the reader to locate your study within the larger scholarship about the research problem.

Here are examples of other sections, usually in the form of a single paragraph, you may need to include depending on the type of review you write:

• Current Situation : Information necessary to understand the current topic or focus of the literature review.
• Sources Used : Describes the methods and resources [e.g., databases] you used to identify the literature you reviewed.
• History : The chronological progression of the field, the research literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.
• Selection Methods : Criteria you used to select (and perhaps exclude) sources in your literature review. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed [i.e., scholarly] sources.
• Standards : Description of the way in which you present your information.
• Questions for Further Research : What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

IV.  Writing Your Literature Review

Once you've settled on how to organize your literature review, you're ready to write each section. When writing your review, keep in mind these issues.

Use Evidence A literature review section is, in this sense, just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence [citations] that demonstrates that what you are saying is valid. Be Selective Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the research problem, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological. Related items that provide additional information, but that are not key to understanding the research problem, can be included in a list of further readings . Use Quotes Sparingly Some short quotes are appropriate if you want to emphasize a point, or if what an author stated cannot be easily paraphrased. Sometimes you may need to quote certain terminology that was coined by the author, is not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive quotes as a substitute for using your own words in reviewing the literature. Summarize and Synthesize Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each thematic paragraph as well as throughout the review. Recapitulate important features of a research study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to your own work and the work of others. Keep Your Own Voice While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice [the writer's] should remain front and center. For example, weave references to other sources into what you are writing but maintain your own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with your own ideas and wording. Use Caution When Paraphrasing When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you still must provide a citation to that work.

V.  Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.

• Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
• You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the literature review related to the research problem;
• Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary research studies or data;
• Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
• Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to review;
• Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-analytic methods; and,
• Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature.

Cook, Kathleen E. and Elise Murowchick. “Do Literature Review Skills Transfer from One Course to Another?” Psychology Learning and Teaching 13 (March 2014): 3-11; Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . London: SAGE, 2011; Literature Review Handout. Online Writing Center. Liberty University; Literature Reviews. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2016; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012; Randolph, Justus J. “A Guide to Writing the Dissertation Literature Review." Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation. vol. 14, June 2009; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016; Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Writing a Literature Review. Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra.

Writing Tip

Break Out of Your Disciplinary Box!

Thinking interdisciplinarily about a research problem can be a rewarding exercise in applying new ideas, theories, or concepts to an old problem. For example, what might cultural anthropologists say about the continuing conflict in the Middle East? In what ways might geographers view the need for better distribution of social service agencies in large cities than how social workers might study the issue? You don’t want to substitute a thorough review of core research literature in your discipline for studies conducted in other fields of study. However, particularly in the social sciences, thinking about research problems from multiple vectors is a key strategy for finding new solutions to a problem or gaining a new perspective. Consult with a librarian about identifying research databases in other disciplines; almost every field of study has at least one comprehensive database devoted to indexing its research literature.

Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Just Review for Content!

While conducting a review of the literature, maximize the time you devote to writing this part of your paper by thinking broadly about what you should be looking for and evaluating. Review not just what scholars are saying, but how are they saying it. Some questions to ask:

• How are they organizing their ideas?
• What methods have they used to study the problem?
• What theories have been used to explain, predict, or understand their research problem?
• What sources have they cited to support their conclusions?
• How have they used non-textual elements [e.g., charts, graphs, figures, etc.] to illustrate key points?

When you begin to write your literature review section, you'll be glad you dug deeper into how the research was designed and constructed because it establishes a means for developing more substantial analysis and interpretation of the research problem.

Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1 998.

Yet Another Writing Tip

When Do I Know I Can Stop Looking and Move On?

Here are several strategies you can utilize to assess whether you've thoroughly reviewed the literature:

• Look for repeating patterns in the research findings . If the same thing is being said, just by different people, then this likely demonstrates that the research problem has hit a conceptual dead end. At this point consider: Does your study extend current research?  Does it forge a new path? Or, does is merely add more of the same thing being said?
• Look at sources the authors cite to in their work . If you begin to see the same researchers cited again and again, then this is often an indication that no new ideas have been generated to address the research problem.
• Search Google Scholar to identify who has subsequently cited leading scholars already identified in your literature review [see next sub-tab]. This is called citation tracking and there are a number of sources that can help you identify who has cited whom, particularly scholars from outside of your discipline. Here again, if the same authors are being cited again and again, this may indicate no new literature has been written on the topic.

Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2016; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

• << Previous: Theoretical Framework
• Next: Citation Tracking >>
• Last Updated: Apr 15, 2024 12:53 PM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

Libraries | Research Guides

Literature reviews, what is a literature review, learning more about how to do a literature review.

• Planning the Review
• The Research Question
• Choosing Where to Search
• Organizing the Review
• Writing the Review

A literature review is a review and synthesis of existing research on a topic or research question. A literature review is meant to analyze the scholarly literature, make connections across writings and identify strengths, weaknesses, trends, and missing conversations. A literature review should address different aspects of a topic as it relates to your research question. A literature review goes beyond a description or summary of the literature you have read. 

• Sage Research Methods Core Collection This link opens in a new window SAGE Research Methods supports research at all levels by providing material to guide users through every step of the research process. SAGE Research Methods is the ultimate methods library with more than 1000 books, reference works, journal articles, and instructional videos by world-leading academics from across the social sciences, including the largest collection of qualitative methods books available online from any scholarly publisher. – Publisher

• Next: Planning the Review >>
• Last Updated: Jan 17, 2024 10:05 AM
• URL: https://libguides.northwestern.edu/literaturereviews

Research Methods

• Getting Started
• Literature Review Research
• Research Design
• Research Design By Discipline
• SAGE Research Methods
• Teaching with SAGE Research Methods

Literature Review

• What is a Literature Review?
• What is NOT a Literature Review?
• Purposes of a Literature Review
• Types of Literature Reviews
• Literature Reviews vs. Systematic Reviews
• Systematic vs. Meta-Analysis

Literature Review  is a comprehensive survey of the works published in a particular field of study or line of research, usually over a specific period of time, in the form of an in-depth, critical bibliographic essay or annotated list in which attention is drawn to the most significant works.

Also, we can define a literature review as the collected body of scholarly works related to a topic:

• Summarizes and analyzes previous research relevant to a topic
• Includes scholarly books and articles published in academic journals
• Can be an specific scholarly paper or a section in a research paper

The objective of a Literature Review is to find previous published scholarly works relevant to an specific topic

• Help gather ideas or information
• Keep up to date in current trends and findings
• Help develop new questions

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Helps focus your own research questions or problems
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Suggests unexplored ideas or populations
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.
• Identifies critical gaps, points of disagreement, or potentially flawed methodology or theoretical approaches.
• Indicates potential directions for future research.

All content in this section is from Literature Review Research from Old Dominion University 

Keep in mind the following, a literature review is NOT:

Not an essay 

Not an annotated bibliography  in which you summarize each article that you have reviewed.  A literature review goes beyond basic summarizing to focus on the critical analysis of the reviewed works and their relationship to your research question.

Not a research paper   where you select resources to support one side of an issue versus another.  A lit review should explain and consider all sides of an argument in order to avoid bias, and areas of agreement and disagreement should be highlighted.

A literature review serves several purposes. For example, it

• provides thorough knowledge of previous studies; introduces seminal works.
• helps focus one’s own research topic.
• identifies a conceptual framework for one’s own research questions or problems; indicates potential directions for future research.
• suggests previously unused or underused methodologies, designs, quantitative and qualitative strategies.
• identifies gaps in previous studies; identifies flawed methodologies and/or theoretical approaches; avoids replication of mistakes.
• helps the researcher avoid repetition of earlier research.
• suggests unexplored populations.
• determines whether past studies agree or disagree; identifies controversy in the literature.
• tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.

As Kennedy (2007) notes*, it is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the original studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally that become part of the lore of field. In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews.

Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are several approaches to how they can be done, depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study. Listed below are definitions of types of literature reviews:

Argumentative Review      This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Integrative Review      Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication.

Historical Review      Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews are focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review      A review does not always focus on what someone said [content], but how they said it [method of analysis]. This approach provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches and data collection and analysis techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis, and helps highlight many ethical issues which we should be aware of and consider as we go through our study.

Systematic Review      This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

Theoretical Review      The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

* Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature."  Educational Researcher  36 (April 2007): 139-147.

All content in this section is from The Literature Review created by Dr. Robert Larabee USC

Robinson, P. and Lowe, J. (2015),  Literature reviews vs systematic reviews.  Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 39: 103-103. doi: 10.1111/1753-6405.12393

What's in the name? The difference between a Systematic Review and a Literature Review, and why it matters . By Lynn Kysh from University of Southern California

Systematic review or meta-analysis?

A  systematic review  answers a defined research question by collecting and summarizing all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria.

A  meta-analysis  is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of these studies.

Systematic reviews, just like other research articles, can be of varying quality. They are a significant piece of work (the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination at York estimates that a team will take 9-24 months), and to be useful to other researchers and practitioners they should have:

• clearly stated objectives with pre-defined eligibility criteria for studies
• explicit, reproducible methodology
• a systematic search that attempts to identify all studies
• assessment of the validity of the findings of the included studies (e.g. risk of bias)
• systematic presentation, and synthesis, of the characteristics and findings of the included studies

Not all systematic reviews contain meta-analysis. 

Meta-analysis is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of independent studies. By combining information from all relevant studies, meta-analysis can provide more precise estimates of the effects of health care than those derived from the individual studies included within a review.  More information on meta-analyses can be found in  Cochrane Handbook, Chapter 9 .

A meta-analysis goes beyond critique and integration and conducts secondary statistical analysis on the outcomes of similar studies.  It is a systematic review that uses quantitative methods to synthesize and summarize the results.

An advantage of a meta-analysis is the ability to be completely objective in evaluating research findings.  Not all topics, however, have sufficient research evidence to allow a meta-analysis to be conducted.  In that case, an integrative review is an appropriate strategy. 

Some of the content in this section is from Systematic reviews and meta-analyses: step by step guide created by Kate McAllister.

• << Previous: Getting Started
• Next: Research Design >>
• Last Updated: Aug 21, 2023 4:07 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.udel.edu/researchmethods

Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library

• Collections
• Research Help

YSN Doctoral Programs: Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

• Biomedical Databases
• Global (Public Health) Databases
• Soc. Sci., History, and Law Databases
• Grey Literature
• Trials Registers
• Data and Statistics
• Public Policy
• Google Tips
• Recommended Books
• Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

What is a literature review?

A literature review is an integrated analysis -- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings and other relevant evidence related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents a synthesis of the evidence that provides background information on your topic and shows a association between the evidence and your research question.

A literature review may be a stand alone work or the introduction to a larger research paper, depending on the assignment.  Rely heavily on the guidelines your instructor has given you.

Why is it important?

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
• Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous studies.

APA7 Style resources

APA Style Blog - for those harder to find answers

1. Choose a topic. Define your research question.

Your literature review should be guided by your central research question.  The literature represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
• Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
• If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor and your class mates.

2. Decide on the scope of your review

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

• This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.

Make a list of the databases you will search. 

Where to find databases:

• use the tabs on this guide
• Find other databases in the Nursing Information Resources web page
• More on the Medical Library web page
• ... and more on the Yale University Library web page

4. Conduct your searches to find the evidence. Keep track of your searches.

• Use the key words in your question, as well as synonyms for those words, as terms in your search. Use the database tutorials for help.
• Save the searches in the databases. This saves time when you want to redo, or modify, the searches. It is also helpful to use as a guide is the searches are not finding any useful results.
• Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
• Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
• Check with your professor, or a subject expert in the field, if you are missing any key works in the field.
• Ask your librarian for help at any time.
• Use a citation manager, such as EndNote as the repository for your citations. See the EndNote tutorials for help.

Review the literature

Some questions to help you analyze the research:

• What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions.
• Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
• If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited? If so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

• Review the abstracts carefully.  
• Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.
• Create a matrix of the studies for easy analysis, and synthesis, across all of the studies.
• << Previous: Recommended Books
• Last Updated: Jan 4, 2024 10:52 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.yale.edu/YSNDoctoral

Literature Reviews

What is a literature review.

• Literature Review Process

Purpose of a Literature Review

• Choosing a Type of Review
• Developing a Research Question
• Searching the Literature
• Searching Tips
• ChatGPT [beta]
• Documenting your Search
• Using Citation Managers
• Concept Mapping
• Writing the Review
• Further Resources

The Library's Subject Specialists are happy to help with your literature reviews!  Find your Subject Specialist here . 

If you have questions about this guide, contact Librarian  Jamie Niehof ([email protected]).

A literature review is an overview of the available research for a specific scientific topic. Literature reviews summarize existing research to answer a review question, provide context for new research, or identify important gaps in the existing body of literature.

An incredible amount of academic literature is published each year, by estimates over two million articles .

Sorting through and reviewing that literature can be complicated, so this Research Guide provides a structured approach to make the process more manageable.

THIS GUIDE IS AN OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW PROCESS:

• Getting Started (asking a research question | defining scope)
• Organizing the Literature
• Writing the Literature Review (analyzing | synthesizing)

A  literature search  is a systematic search of the scholarly sources in a particular discipline. A  literature review   is the analysis, critical evaluation and synthesis of the results of that search. During this process you will move from a review  of  the literature to a review  for   your research.   Your synthesis of the literature is your unique contribution to research.

WHO IS THIS RESEARCH GUIDE FOR?

— those new to reviewing the literature

— those that need a refresher or a deeper understanding of writing literature reviews

You may need to do a literature review as a part of a course assignment, a capstone project, a master's thesis, a dissertation, or as part of a journal article. No matter the context, a literature review is an essential part of the research process. 

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW?

A literature review is typically performed for a specific reason. Even when assigned as an assignment, the goal of the literature review will be one or more of the following:

• To communicate a project's novelty by identifying a research gap

• An overview of research issues , methodologies or results relevant to field
• To explore the  volume and types of available studies
• To establish familiarity with current research before carrying out a new project
• To resolve conflicts amongst contradictory previous studies

Reviewing the literature helps you understand a research topic and develop your own perspective.

A LITERATURE REVIEW IS NOT :

• An annotated bibliography – which is a list of annotated citations to books, articles and documents that includes a brief description and evaluation for each entry
• A literary review – which is a critical discussion of the merits and weaknesses of a literary work
• A book review – which is a critical discussion of the merits and weaknesses of a particular book
• Next: Choosing a Type of Review >>
• Last Updated: Feb 29, 2024 10:31 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.umich.edu/litreview

• Harvard Library
• Research Guides
• Faculty of Arts & Sciences Libraries

Chemistry and Chemical Biology Resources

Literature review.

• Getting Started
• Chemistry journals and databases
• Find Dissertations and Theses
• Find Conference Proceedings
• Find Technical Reports
• Managing Citations
• Research Data Management
• Managing Your Academic Identity  
• Helpful Tools

Reviewing the Literature: Why do it?

• Personal: To familiarize yourself with a new area of research, to get an overview of a topic, so you don't want to miss something important, etc.
• Required writing for a journal article, thesis or dissertation, grant application, etc.

Literature reviews vary; there are many ways to write a literature review based on discipline, material type, and other factors.

Background:

• Literature Reviews - UNC Writing Center
• Literature Reviews: An Overview for Graduate Students  - What is a literature review? What purpose does it serve in research? What should you expect when writing one? - NCSU Video

Where to get help (there are lots of websites, blogs , articles,  and books on this topic) :

• The Center for writing and Communicating Ideas (CWCI)
• (these are non-STEM examples: dissertation guidance , journal guidelines )
• How to prepare a scientific doctoral dissertation based on research articles (2012)
• Writing a graduate thesis or dissertation (2016)
• The good paper : a handbook for writing papers in higher education (2015)
• Proposals that work : a guide for planning dissertations and grant proposals (2014)
• Theses and dissertations : a guide to planning, research, and writing (2008)
• Talk to your professors, advisors, mentors, peers, etc. for advice

READ related material and pay attention to how others write their literature reviews:

• Dissertations
• Journal articles
• Grant proposals
• << Previous: Find Technical Reports
• Next: Managing Citations >>
• Last Updated: Sep 13, 2023 2:15 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/CCB

Harvard University Digital Accessibility Policy

Research Methods and Design

• Action Research
• Case Study Design

Literature Review

• Quantitative Research Methods
• Qualitative Research Methods
• Mixed Methods Study
• Indigenous Research and Ethics This link opens in a new window
• Identifying Empirical Research Articles This link opens in a new window
• Research Ethics and Quality
• Data Literacy
• Get Help with Writing Assignments

A literature review is a discussion of the literature (aka. the "research" or "scholarship") surrounding a certain topic. A good literature review doesn't simply summarize the existing material, but provides thoughtful synthesis and analysis. The purpose of a literature review is to orient your own work within an existing body of knowledge. A literature review may be written as a standalone piece or be included in a larger body of work.

You can read more about literature reviews, what they entail, and how to write one, using the resources below. 

Am I the only one struggling to write a literature review?

Dr. Zina O'Leary explains the misconceptions and struggles students often have with writing a literature review. She also provides step-by-step guidance on writing a persuasive literature review.

An Introduction to Literature Reviews

Dr. Eric Jensen, Professor of Sociology at the University of Warwick, and Dr. Charles Laurie, Director of Research at Verisk Maplecroft, explain how to write a literature review, and why researchers need to do so. Literature reviews can be stand-alone research or part of a larger project. They communicate the state of academic knowledge on a given topic, specifically detailing what is still unknown.

This is the first video in a whole series about literature reviews. You can find the rest of the series in our SAGE database, Research Methods:

Videos covering research methods and statistics

To login from SAGE, click Institution, then Access via Your Institution, then find and select City University of Seattle

Identify Themes and Gaps in Literature (with real examples) | Scribbr

Finding connections between sources is key to organizing the arguments and structure of a good literature review. In this video, you'll learn how to identify themes, debates, and gaps between sources, using examples from real papers.

4 Tips for Writing a Literature Review's Intro, Body, and Conclusion | Scribbr

While each review will be unique in its structure--based on both the existing body of both literature and the overall goals of your own paper, dissertation, or research--this video from Scribbr does a good job simplifying the goals of writing a literature review for those who are new to the process. In this video, you’ll learn what to include in each section, as well as 4 tips for the main body illustrated with an example.

• Literature Review This chapter in SAGE's Encyclopedia of Research Design describes the types of literature reviews and scientific standards for conducting literature reviews.
• UNC Writing Center: Literature Reviews This handout from the Writing Center at UNC will explain what literature reviews are and offer insights into the form and construction of literature reviews in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences.
• Purdue OWL: Writing a Literature Review The overview of literature reviews comes from Purdue's Online Writing Lab. It explains the basic why, what, and how of writing a literature review.

Organizational Tools for Literature Reviews

One of the most daunting aspects of writing a literature review is organizing your research. There are a variety of strategies that you can use to help you in this task. We've highlighted just a few ways writers keep track of all that information! You can use a combination of these tools or come up with your own organizational process. The key is choosing something that works with your own learning style.

Citation Managers

Citation managers are great tools, in general, for organizing research, but can be especially helpful when writing a literature review. You can keep all of your research in one place, take notes, and organize your materials into different folders or categories. Read more about citations managers here:

• Manage Citations & Sources

Concept Mapping

Some writers use concept mapping (sometimes called flow or bubble charts or "mind maps") to help them visualize the ways in which the research they found connects.

There is no right or wrong way to make a concept map. There are a variety of online tools that can help you create a concept map or you can simply put pen to paper. To read more about concept mapping, take a look at the following help guides:

• Using Concept Maps From Williams College's guide, Literature Review: A Self-guided Tutorial

Synthesis Matrix

A synthesis matrix is is a chart you can use to help you organize your research into thematic categories. By organizing your research into a matrix, like the examples below, can help you visualize the ways in which your sources connect. 

• Walden University Writing Center: Literature Review Matrix Find a variety of literature review matrix examples and templates from Walden University.
• Writing A Literature Review and Using a Synthesis Matrix An example synthesis matrix created by NC State University Writing and Speaking Tutorial Service Tutors. If you would like a copy of this synthesis matrix in a different format, like a Word document, please ask a librarian. CC-BY-SA 3.0
• << Previous: Case Study Design
• Next: Quantitative Research Methods >>
• Last Updated: Feb 6, 2024 9:20 AM

CityU Home - CityU Catalog

Conduct a literature review

What is a literature review.

A literature review is a summary of the published work in a field of study. This can be a section of a larger paper or article, or can be the focus of an entire paper. Literature reviews show that you have examined the breadth of knowledge and can justify your thesis or research questions. They are also valuable tools for other researchers who need to find a summary of that field of knowledge.

Unlike an annotated bibliography, which is a list of sources with short descriptions, a literature review synthesizes sources into a summary that has a thesis or statement of purpose—stated or implied—at its core.

How do I write a literature review?

Step 1: define your research scope.

• What is the specific research question that your literature review helps to define?
• Are there a maximum or minimum number of sources that your review should include?

Ask us if you have questions about refining your topic, search methods, writing tips, or citation management.

Step 2: Identify the literature

Start by searching broadly. Literature for your review will typically be acquired through scholarly books, journal articles, and/or dissertations. Develop an understanding of what is out there, what terms are accurate and helpful, etc., and keep track of all of it with citation management tools . If you need help figuring out key terms and where to search, ask us .

Use citation searching to track how scholars interact with, and build upon, previous research:

• Mine the references cited section of each relevant source for additional key sources
• Use Google Scholar or Scopus to find other sources that have cited a particular work

Step 3: Critically analyze the literature

Key to your literature review is a critical analysis of the literature collected around your topic. The analysis will explore relationships, major themes, and any critical gaps in the research expressed in the work. Read and summarize each source with an eye toward analyzing authority, currency, coverage, methodology, and relationship to other works. The University of Toronto's Writing Center provides a comprehensive list of questions you can use to analyze your sources.

Step 4: Categorize your resources

Divide the available resources that pertain to your research into categories reflecting their roles in addressing your research question. Possible ways to categorize resources include organization by:

• methodology
• theoretical/philosophical approach

Regardless of the division, each category should be accompanied by thorough discussions and explanations of strengths and weaknesses, value to the overall survey, and comparisons with similar sources. You may have enough resources when:

• You've used multiple databases and other resources (web portals, repositories, etc.) to get a variety of perspectives on the research topic.
• The same citations are showing up in a variety of databases.

Additional resources

Undergraduate student resources.

• Literature Review Handout (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill)
• Learn how to write a review of literature (University of Wisconsin-Madison)

Graduate student and faculty resources

• Information Research Strategies (University of Arizona)
• Literature Reviews: An Overview for Graduate Students (NC State University)
• Oliver, P. (2012). Succeeding with Your Literature Review: A Handbook for Students [ebook]
• Machi, L. A. & McEvoy, B. T. (2016). The Literature Review: Six Steps to Success

Graustein, J. S. (2012). How to Write an Exceptional Thesis or Dissertation: A Step-by-Step Guide from Proposal to Successful Defense [ebook]

Thomas, R. M. & Brubaker, D. L. (2008). Theses and Dissertations: A Guide to Planning, Research, and Writing

• Library databases
• Library website

Library Guide to Capstone Literature Reviews: Role of the Literature Review

The role of the literature review.

Your literature review gives readers an understanding of the scholarly research on your topic.

In your literature review you will:

• demonstrate that you are a well-informed scholar with expertise and knowledge in the field by giving an overview of the current state of the literature
• find a gap in the literature, or address a business or professional issue, depending on your doctoral study program; the literature review will illustrate how your research contributes to the scholarly conversation
• provide a synthesis of the issues, trends, and concepts surrounding your research

Be aware that the literature review is an iterative process. As you read and write initial drafts, you will find new threads and complementary themes, at which point you will return to search, find out about these new themes, and incorporate them into your review.

The purpose of this guide is to help you through the literature review process. Take some time to look over the resources in order to become familiar with them. The tabs on the left side of this page have additional information.

Short video: Research for the Literature Review

Short Video: Research for the Literature Review

(4 min 10 sec) Recorded August 2019 Transcript 

Literature review as a dinner party

To think about the role of the literature review, consider this analogy:  pretend that you throw a dinner party for the other researchers working in your topic area. First, you’d need to develop a guest list.

• The guests of honor would be early researchers or theorists; their work likely inspired subsequent studies, ideas, or controversies that the current researchers pursue.
• Then, think about the important current researchers to invite. Which guests might agree with each other?  Which others might provide useful counterpoints?
• You likely won’t be able to include everyone on the guest list, so you may need to choose carefully so that you don’t leave important figures out. 
• Alternatively, if there aren’t many researchers working in your topic area, then your guest list will need to include people working in other, related areas, who can still contribute to the conversation.

After the party, you describe the evening to a friend. You’ll summarize the evening’s conversation. Perhaps one guest made a comment that sparked a conversation, and then you describe who responded and how the topic evolved. There are other conversations to share, too. This is how you synthesize the themes and developments that you find in your research. Thinking about your literature research this way will help you to present your dinner party (and your literature review) in a lively and engaging way.

Short video: Empirical research

Video: How to locate and identify empirical research for your literature review

(6 min 16 sec) Recorded May 2020 Transcript 

Here are some useful resources from the Writing Center, the Office of Research and Doctoral Services, and other departments within the Office of Academic Support. Take some time to look at what is available to help you with your capstone/dissertation.

• Familiarize yourself with Walden support
• Doctoral Capstone Resources website
• Capstone writing resources
• Office of Student Research Administration
• Office of Research and Doctoral Services
• Visit the Writing Center

You can watch recorded webinars on the literature review in our Library Webinar Archives .

• Next Page: Scope
• Office of Student Disability Services

Walden Resources

Departments.

• Academic Residencies
• Academic Skills
• Career Planning and Development
• Customer Care Team
• Field Experience
• Military Services
• Student Success Advising
• Writing Skills

Centers and Offices

• Center for Social Change
• Office of Academic Support and Instructional Services
• Office of Degree Acceleration
• Office of Student Affairs

Student Resources

• Doctoral Writing Assessment
• Form & Style Review
• Quick Answers
• ScholarWorks
• SKIL Courses and Workshops
• Walden Bookstore
• Walden Catalog & Student Handbook
• Student Safety/Title IX
• Legal & Consumer Information
• Website Terms and Conditions
• Cookie Policy
• Accessibility
• Accreditation
• State Authorization
• Net Price Calculator
• Contact Walden

Walden University is a member of Adtalem Global Education, Inc. www.adtalem.com Walden University is certified to operate by SCHEV © 2024 Walden University LLC. All rights reserved.

info This is a space for the teal alert bar.

notifications This is a space for the yellow alert bar.

Research Process

• Brainstorming
• Explore Google This link opens in a new window
• Explore Web Resources
• Explore Background Information
• Explore Books
• Explore Scholarly Articles
• Narrowing a Topic
• Primary and Secondary Resources
• Academic, Popular & Trade Publications
• Scholarly and Peer-Reviewed Journals
• Grey Literature
• Clinical Trials
• Evidence Based Treatment
• Scholarly Research
• Database Research Log
• Search Limits
• Keyword Searching
• Boolean Operators
• Phrase Searching
• Truncation & Wildcard Symbols
• Proximity Searching
• Field Codes
• Subject Terms and Database Thesauri
• Reading a Scientific Article
• Website Evaluation
• Article Keywords and Subject Terms
• Cited References
• Citing Articles
• Related Results
• Search Within Publication
• Database Alerts & RSS Feeds
• Personal Database Accounts
• Persistent URLs
• Literature Gap and Future Research
• Web of Knowledge
• Annual Reviews
• Systematic Reviews & Meta-Analyses
• Finding Seminal Works
• Exhausting the Literature
• Finding Dissertations
• Researching Theoretical Frameworks
• Research Methodology & Design
• Tests and Measurements
• Organizing Research & Citations This link opens in a new window
• Scholarly Publication
• Learn the Library This link opens in a new window

Resources for a Literature Review or an Annotated Bibliography

Annotated bibliographies and literature reviews are very common forms of writing. The intent of each is to assist you, as the researcher, in gathering resources, identifying trends and problems in the research field, and analyzing those resources to assist your own research. This type of writing is also very helpful to the reader as it identifies key research articles and synthesizes the information to create a coherent picture in which the reader can place your research. Remember that you only want to include pivotal and influential research in this type of writing – this means you will want to focus on scholarly articles that contain primary research. Though literature reviews and annotated bibliographies accomplish a very similar purpose, they are not written in an identical manner.

According to the Purdue OWL website, an annotated bibliography is “a list of sources (books, journals, websites, periodicals, etc.) one has used for researching a topic. … Therefore an annotated bibliography includes a summary and/or evaluation of each of the sources.” An annotated bibliography is compiled of references and summaries in alphabetical order. For more information see the OWL at Purdue Annotated Bibliographies page. For information about how to find examples of annotated bibliographies, see the Library's Annotated Bibliographies FAQ .

A literature review, on the other hand, is “a summary of what the scientific literature says about your specific topic or question.” A literature review generally organizes references by subject matter, theory type, methodology design, etc. A literature review is generally much more exploratory than an annotated bibliography, and must pull together the information that is presented in many disparate sources to form one, cohesive picture of the research field. For more information see the OWL at Purdue Types of APA Papers page.

How do you go about getting the resources you need to write a literature review or an annotated bibliography? Library databases like EBSCOhost and ProQuest are a great place to start because they contain so many resources on so many different topics, but there are some additional databases that you may want to consider using for these types of assignments. These sub-pages identify resources and research techniques for your literature review.

• OWL at Purdue Annotated Bibliographies
• ASC Annotated Bibliographies FAQ
• OWL at Purdue Types of APA Papers

Additional Resources

For additional information about conducting literature reviews, please see the following resources from the NU Library:

• Aveyard, H. (2010). Doing a literature review in health and social care: A practical guide (2nd edition).Berkshire, GBR: Open University Press. Doing A Literature Review In Health And Social Care : A Practical Guide by Helen Aveyard
• Card, N. (2010). Literature review. In N. Salkind (Ed.), Encyclopedia of research design (pp.726-729). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
• Chaffee, S., & Lieberma, D. (2001). The challenge of writing the literature review. In A. Alexander, & W. James Potter (Eds.), How to publish your communication research (pp. 23-47).Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
• Ford, N. (2012). How to do a literature review. In The essential guide to using the web for research (pp. 53-81). London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
• Literature Review. (2004). In Donna M. Mertens, & John A. McLaughlin (Eds.), Research and evaluation methods in special education (pp. 35-50). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
• Literature Reviews. (2001). In Bruce A. Thyer (Ed.), The handbook of social work research methods (pp. 400-413). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
• Literature Reviews and Bibliographic Searches. (2006). In V. Desai, & R. Potter (Eds.), Doing development research (pp. 209-222). London, England: SAGEPublications, Ltd.
• Race, R. (2008). Literature review. In L. Given (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods (pp. 488-490). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
• Thomas, D. R., & Hodges, I. D. (2010). Doing a literature review. In Designing and managing your research project: Core skills for social and health research (pp. 105-131). London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
• Writing a Literature Review. (2006). In N. Walliman (Ed.), Social research methods (pp. 182-186). London, England: SAGE Publications, Ltd.

Was this resource helpful?

• << Previous: Persistent URLs
• Next: Literature Gap and Future Research >>
• Last Updated: Apr 14, 2024 12:14 PM
• URL: https://resources.nu.edu/researchprocess

© Copyright 2024 National University. All Rights Reserved.

Privacy Policy | Consumer Information

Undergraduate

The Bachelor of Liberal Arts degree is designed for industry professionals with years of work experience who wish to complete their degrees part time, both on campus and online, without disruption to their employment. Our typical student is over 30, has previously completed one or two years of college, and works full time.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Psychol

Digital literacy in the university setting: A literature review of empirical studies between 2010 and 2021

Nieves gutiérrez-Ángel.

1 Departamento de Psicología, Área de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, Universidad de Almería, Almeria, Spain

Jesús-Nicasio Sánchez-García

2 Departamento de Psicología, Sociología y Filosofía, Universidad de León, Leon, Spain

Isabel Mercader-Rubio

Judit garcía-martín.

3 Departamento de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain

Sonia Brito-Costa

4 Instituto Politécnico de Coímbra, Coimbra, Portugal

5 Coimbra Education School, Research Group in Social and Human Sciences Núcleo de Investigação em Ciências Sociais e Humanas da ESEC (NICSH), Coimbra, Portugal

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

The impact of digital devices and the Internet has generated various changes at social, political, and economic levels, the repercussion of which is a great challenge characterized by the changing and globalized nature of today's society. This demands the development of new skills and new learning models in relation to information and communication technologies. Universities must respond to these social demands in the training of their future professionals. This paper aims to analyze the empirical evidence provided by international studies in the last eleven years, related to the digital literacy of university students, including those pursuing degrees related to the field of education. Our findings highlight the fact that the digital literacy that is offered in universities to graduate/postgraduate students, in addition to treating digital literacy as a central theme, also focuses on perceived and developed self-efficacy. This is done by strengthening competencies related to digital writing and reading, the use of databases, the digital design of content and materials, and the skills to edit, publish or share them on the web, or applications aimed at treating digital literacy as emerging pedagogies and educational innovation. Secondly, we found studies related to digital competencies and use of the Internet, social networks, web 2.0, or the treatment of digital risks and their relationship with digital literacy. Thirdly, we found works that, in addition to focusing on digital literacy, also focused on different psychological constructs such as motivation, commitment, attitudes, or satisfaction.

Systematic review registration: https://www.scopus.com/home.uri ; https://www.recursoscientificos.fecyt.es/ .

Introduction

The concept of digital literacy (DL) appears for the first time in the works of Zurkowski ( 1974 ), for whom it is an ability to identify, locate, and examine information. However, despite its novelty, the conceptions it encompasses have been changing (Lim and Newby, 2021 ). Proof of this are the contributions of Gilster ( 1997 ) who combines the idea that DL is also closely linked to skills such as access, evaluation, and management of information used in learning processes. Digital learning is understood as the set of technical-procedural, cognitive, and socio-emotional skills necessary to live, learn, and work in a digital society (Eshet-Alkalai, 2012 ; European Commission, 2018 ). It is related to reading, writing, calculation skills, and effective use of technology in personal, social, and professional areas. It is also considered inseparable from the social and educational needs of the society in which we live (Larraz, 2013 ; Brata et al., 2022 ). Therefore, we refer to a concept that has several aspects including the technological aspect, the informative and multimedia aspect, and the communicative aspect. It involves a complete process and multiple literacies (Gisbert and Esteve, 2011 ; Lázaro, 2015 ; Valverde et al., 2022 ). It requires mastery of certain competencies related to the identification of training needs, access to information in digital environments, the use of ICT tools to manage information, interpretation, and representation of information, and the evaluation of information and the transmission of information (Covello and Lei, 2010 ; Walsh et al., 2022 ).

Digital literacy in university students

In recent years, society has undergone enormous changes with the digitalization of many of its spheres at the information level, the communication level, the level of knowledge acquisition, the level of the establishment of social relations, and even the level of leisure. Thus, our habits and means of accessing, managing, and transforming information have also changed (European Union, 2013 ; Cantabrana and Cervera, 2015 ; Allen et al., 2020 ; López-Meneses et al., 2020 ).

These developments have also had a great impact on the educational field, in which we have to rethink firstly what kind of students we are training in terms of the skills they need in today's society, and secondly, whether we are training a profile of future teachers capable of training a student body that uses information and communication technologies as something inherent to their own personal and social development. In short, digital communication has changed practices related to literacy and has gained great relevance in the development of knowledge in the twenty-first century (Comisión Europea, 2012 , 2013 ; European Commission, 2012 ; OECD, 2012 ; Unión Europea, 2013 ; Instituto Nacional de Tecnologías Educativas y Formación del Profesorado, 2017 ; Gudmundsdottir and Hatlevik, 2018 ; Pérez and Nagata, 2019 ; Fernández-de-la-Iglesia et al., 2020 ).

The European Commission ( 2013 ) indicates that initial teacher training (IDT) should integrate teachers' digital literacy, betting on the pedagogical use of digital tools, enabling them to use them in an effective, appropriate, and contextualized manner. This teaching competence should be characterized by having a holistic, contextualized, performance-, function-, and development-oriented character. In short, it is about incorporating and adequately using ICT as a didactic resource (Cantabrana and Cervera, 2015 ; Castañeda et al., 2018 ; Tourón et al., 2018 ; Chow and Wong, 2020 ; Vodá et al., 2022 ).

In this sense, according to the work of Krumsvik ( 2009 ), the CDD ( competencia digital docente de los profesores –digital competency training for teachers) is composed of four components: basic digital skills (Bawden, 2008 ), didactic competence with ICT (Koehler and Mishra, 2008 ; Gisbert and Esteve, 2011 ), learning strategies, and digital training or training.

While at the Spanish level, the Common Framework of Digital Teaching Competence of the National Institute of Educational Technologies and Teacher Training (INTEF, 2017 ) standardizes it in five areas: information and information literacy, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, security, and problem solving (López-Meneses et al., 2020 ). Recently, they have been consolidated as competencies that must be acquired by any university student, along with the knowledge, skills, and attitude that make up a digitally competent citizen (Recio et al., 2020 ; Indah et al., 2022 ).

Digital literacy in future teachers

Several efforts have been made to equip future teachers with these competencies through different standards and frameworks to the level of learning acquired (Fraser et al., 2013 ; INTEF, 2017 ; UNESCO, 2018 ). However, how to work these competencies in initial training is still a hotly debated topic, in which special attention is paid to the promotion of experiences of a pedagogical and innovative nature to transform teaching practices, involving the integration of technologies in the classroom, as stated in the Horizon Report 2019 for the Higher Education (Educause, 2019 ; Le et al., 2022 ).

Universities are in a moment of transformation, from a teacher-focused teaching model to a model based on active learning through the use of digital technologies, giving rise to a new type of education in which the use of digital devices is intrinsic (Area, 2018 ; Aarsand, 2019 ). If digital resources and devices are an inescapable part of current and future teaching practice, digital competency training for future teachers becomes extremely relevant, given that teachers need to acquire these competencies in their initial training to integrate them into their practices as future teachers. That is, the digital competence (DC) acquired during their initial training significantly predicts the integration of technologies in future teaching practice (Nikou and Aavakare, 2021 ), which could range from basic digital literacy to the integration of technologies in their daily teaching practice (Gisbert et al., 2016 ; Alanoglu et al., 2022 ). Several studies have defined the different indicators that make up DC (Siddiq et al., 2017 ; González et al., 2018 ; Rodríguez-García et al., 2019 ; Cabero-Almenara and Palacios-Rodríguez, 2020 ).

This calls for a new paradigm, in which future teachers must be digitally literate, in terms of the application of active methodologies, digital competencies, and the use of innovative strategies, styles, and approaches (Garcia-Martin and Garcia-Sanchez, 2017 ; Gómez-García et al., 2021 ).

Currently, literacy workshops for future professionals are being carried out in a timely and precise manner from customized short training capsules to specific semester-long subjects in undergraduate or postgraduate studies. The training is focused on several specific aspects of digital literacy, but there is a lack of experience in imparting comprehensive digital training. In addition, there are just a few interactions with professional experts in such literacy (Ata and Yildirim, 2019 ; Campbell and Kapp, 2020 ; Domingo-Coscolla et al., 2020 ; Tomczyk et al., 2020 ; Vinokurova et al., 2021 ).

The present study

For the present study, we based our approach on quality and current education, in which DC was postulated as a key element for the development of students. The educational system was tasked with preparing them for their full development and participation in society (OECD, 2011 ). For this reason, digital literacy is understood as an essential requirement for development in the society in which we live, based on the promotion of strategies related to searching, obtaining, processing, and communicating information. All these aspects have been consolidated as the dimensions of literacy in the twenty-first century (Piscitelli, 2009 ; Martín and Tyner, 2012 ). It is, therefore, necessary to understand the reality of this subject and to investigate how these practices are being developed in the context of work. And secondly, it is equally necessary to implement new interventions and lines of research that respond to this urgent need for literacy required by today's society. Therefore, we posed the following research questions: What psychoeducational and learning variables are key in digital literacy? What is the current situation internationally regarding digital literacy in all disciplines in pre-service teacher education? What are the differences in digital literacy requirements pre and post pandemic?

The objective of this study is to analyze the empirical evidence provided by international studies from 2010 to 2021 related to the digital literacy of university students, including those who are pursuing careers related to the educational field.

Relevant differences will be observed in the contributions in empirical evidence from international studies pre-post-pandemic; and drawn from diverse cultural backgrounds (Spanish-Latin, Portuguese, Finnish, etc.,), gender, and personal digital resources.

Materials and methods

The systematic review is composed of four phases, following the model of Miller et al. ( 2016 ) and Scott et al. ( 2018 ).

PHASE 1: Search terms: In this phase, we developed a schematic of search terms from Web of Science and Scopus databases. We also accessed the databases to locate specific studies that were referenced in the publications that we found in the databases during our initial search. The schematic of terms and thematic axes that were used as a starting point for scanning both databases for anything related to the descriptor “digital” and the descriptor “literacy” is presented in Figure 1 .

Diagram of search terms used in the systematic review.

PHASE 2: Selection process based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. The following selection criteria were applied: year of publication between 2010 and 2021, availability of full text, and language of publication in English, Portuguese, or Spanish. Once the first results were obtained, they were selected based on title, abstract, and the use of standardized instruments in their methodology. We rejected the studies that used “ ad hoc ” instruments to measure digital competence.

In addition, the selection indicators provided by Cooper and Hedges ( 1994 ) and Cooper ( 2009 ) were used, such as peer-reviewed journals, referenced databases, and citation indexes.

PHASE 3: Analysis of methodological quality and indicators based on scientific evidence. Following Torgerson ( 2007 ) and Risko et al. ( 2008 ) and taking into consideration the MQQn (Risko et al., 2008 ), we used seven indicators to analyze the quality and effectiveness of the studies (Acosta and Garza, 2011 ). These were: alignment of theory, findings, reliability and validity, descriptive details of participants and the study, sample, and consistency of findings and conclusions with the data (Risko et al., 2008 ). Alternatively, evidence-based indicators were also used along with study effect sizes (Díaz and García, 2016 ; Canedo-García et al., 2017 ).

PHASE 4: Reliability and outcomes. Reliability was established for both the selection criteria and the coding criteria during each phase, to evidence the replicability of the results. In addition, the results entailed a qualitative analysis of the selected studies, the central arguments, and the evidence provided in a modulated way to address the research questions.

Therefore, the procedure to be followed was documented and charted according to the PRISMA statement (Moher et al., 2009 ; Page et al., 2021 ) (see Figure 2 ). Likewise, an analysis was undertaken of the key foci in the various studies to highlight the relevant findings and evidence they provided in this regard. The key focus of our work was: first, to analyze the documents related to the digital literacy of university students; second, to identify which variables affect digital literacy; and third, to undertake a comparative analysis between the different variables that were analyzed.

Flowchart of search results of empirical studies in databases applying the criteria of Moher et al. ( 2009 ) and Page et al. ( 2021 ).

All the selected studies had as samples university students who were pursuing some type of degree or postgraduate degree related to education, and therefore, studying to become future teachers. An intervention design was presented that corresponds to a pre-intervention, the intervention itself, and a post-intervention using techniques such as the activation of prior knowledge, instructions, emulation, and subsequent tests. We also found studies that had an experimental design assessing control groups and experimental groups (Kajee and Balfour, 2011 ; Kuhn, 2017 ; Pequeño et al., 2017 ; Sharp, 2018 ; Lerdpornkulrat et al., 2019 ).

In the case of those responsible for the intervention, practically in all cases, the teacher acts as such, with one or two of them taking the lead. Although the presence of specialized personnel should also be highlighted, as is the case of the work elaborated by Alfonzo and Batson ( 2014 ) and Elliott et al. ( 2018 ) in which a professional librarian also intervened. Or, in the work detailed by Ball ( 2019 ), where a consultant who is not a teacher but a professional expert in the use of digital devices and trained for such an occasion by a responsible brand (Apple) carried out the training at the center.

If we examine the constructs or competencies covered by the works selected in our search, we find that all of them, in addition to dealing with digital literacy, also focus on self-efficacy perceived and developed through digital literacy.

The results of our study could be understood under different themes.

First, we found studies that referred to digital competence and other educational issues. Within them, we found a series of competencies that are emphasized such as digital writing and reading. Research developed from digital media, such as databases, web, or applications aimed at the treatment of digital literacy was noted as emerging pedagogies and educational innovation. The digital design of content and materials and the skills to edit, publish or share them, and competencies related to mathematics and its digital literacy, formed part of digital literacy.

Second, we found studies related to digital competence and the use and employment of the Internet, social networks, web 2.0, and the treatment of digital risks and their relationship with digital literacy.

Third, we found works that in addition to focusing on digital literacy, also focused on different psychological constructs such as motivation, commitment, attitudes, or satisfaction ( Tables 1 , ​ ,2 2 ).

Summary of the results found.

Summary of the interventions found.

Regarding instructional literature, we found a large number of results on mass training programs or courses in which digital literacy was the focus. Examples include a course offered in which students could sign up to, or modules taught during the teaching of a subject. We also found investigations on interventions that had been carried out through different subjects in the study program from where the sample was taken. In this case, the samples were taken on an ad hoc basis from a specific student body which the researcher intentionally decided based on a previous intervention experience with them (Ata and Yildirim, 2019 ; Ball, 2019 ; Campbell and Kapp, 2020 ; Domingo-Coscolla et al., 2020 ; Tomczyk et al., 2020 ; Vinokurova et al., 2021 ).

In terms of material resources, all the studies used some type of documentation (digital or not) with instructions on the development of the activities, in which the students were provided with what to do and the steps to follow. In this case, the development scenario was both online and face-to-face, based on different activities given through workshops or seminars for their development.

It should also be noted that in those investigations in which the intervention itself required a specific application or program, the same was used, specifically, and even the intervention had a specific scenario since it was carried out in person in specialized laboratories where experts and specific material was available for this purpose. As an example of these specific materials, in our results, we found the use of the Photo Story 3, Dashboard, and Wikipedia, as well as the EMODO program or the SELI platform (Kajee and Balfour, 2011 ; Robertson et al., 2012 ; Ball, 2019 ; Hamutoglu et al., 2019 ; Tomczyk et al., 2020 ).

Regardless of the setting and the program or application employed, we can classify the duration of these interventions into two broad groups: those that had a duration of <1 semester, and those that had an intervention whose duration ranged from one semester to one academic year.

Regarding the instruments used, it should be noted that most of them used survey forms as an evaluation instrument, either by the researcher or by the students. In addition, it is usually used as a resource to collect information of a personal nature and about one's own experience throughout the intervention. We must also highlight the fact that in many of the results found, this form was used digitally or virtually, abandoning the old paper forms (Kajee and Balfour, 2011 ; Robertson et al., 2012 ; Carl and Strydom, 2017 ; Elliott et al., 2018 ; Ball, 2019 ; Lerdpornkulrat et al., 2019 ; Campbell and Kapp, 2020 ).

Regarding the use of questionnaires, scales or self-reports, we found several works that used participants' digital literacy histories as instruments. Through them, the researcher could learn first-hand about the sample's personal experience of digital literacy, the previous knowledge they possess, the digital skills they had mastered, those they lack, or those they consider they should improve. It also included the sample's vision regarding the use and employment of digital resources in teaching practice (Kajee and Balfour, 2011 ; Robertson et al., 2012 ; Pequeño et al., 2017 ; Elliott et al., 2018 ).

In the case of scales, we found two papers that employed a Likert-scale elaborated ad hoc . We also found studies that employed standardized scales like the Information Literacy Assessment Scale for Education (ILAS-ED), the Digital Literacy Scale, or the E-Learning Attitudes Scale.

Some of the studies we reviewed used semi-structured interviews as a means of monitoring and providing feedback to the students Table 3 ; (Kajee and Balfour, 2011 ; Alfonzo and Batson, 2014 ; Gill et al., 2015 ; Carl and Strydom, 2017 ; Elliott et al., 2018 ; Elphick, 2018 ; Ata and Yildirim, 2019 ; Campbell and Kapp, 2020 ).

Assessment intervention in the reviewed studies.

As for the sequence through which the different interventions were developed, we found two types—first, those that divided the contents in time, as is the case of the work of Kajee and Balfour ( 2011 ), who covered a first semester digital writing from online classes, self-instructions and face-to-face classes in a specific laboratory, and in a second semester was exposed to different digital research techniques, following the same methodology. In contrast, we spotted the second type, where the same technique was followed throughout the study, as is the case of Robertson et al. ( 2012 ). They applied digital stories as a tool for the development of the activity, but also the evaluation of the competency. In the research carried out by Lerdpornkulrat et al. ( 2019 ), it is apparent that with the use of the rubric, the teacher gave them an example of the work and asked them all to practice evaluating and grading this work. In this way, they could check if they understood how to use a rubric. They then used the rubric to self-assess their work. After receiving feedback, both groups of students revised and resubmitted their completed projects again.

In the investigation by Elliott et al. ( 2018 ), the intervention was structured in work modules with the following sequence of sessions: they were introduced in the first session with opportunities for group discussions and questions. Essential module reading was provided in weekly online study units and module workshops integrated academic reading and writing activities, such as paraphrasing and referencing, with module content.

In the study by Ball ( 2019 ), in the first year, the students took modules on publishing history, culture, markets, and media. In the second year, the intervention was based on their publishing skills, reading for writing development, and grammar and general literacy.

Hamutoglu et al. ( 2019 ) organized their intervention in different weeks, such that during the first week of the 14-week semester, the instructor oriented the students for the course and administered pre-tests. In the following week, students were provided with a session on the Edmodo platform and orientation training on the course content.

In the work of Gabriele et al. ( 2019 ), the experimental research plan (i.e., activities to be performed, methodology to be adopted) was established over 4 months followed by the organization of the reading material (power point presentations, introductory videos of the software, handouts, ad hoc created applications as examples).

We also found interventions that had very short time durations, but provide daily detail of the contents and interventions. Similarly, Alfonzo and Batson ( 2014 ) dedicate 1 day to the search and orientation in digital resources, 1 day to the APA standards, and 3 days to develop and use a specific application.

In the research by Istenic et al. ( 2016 ), the intervention was based on six different types of tasks related to a variety of mathematical problems, including problems with redundant data, problems with multiple solutions, problems with multiple paths to the solution, problems with no solution, mathematical problems in logic, and problems with insufficient information.

In some interventions, the sequence through which they are developed is the very development of the subject of the degree course from which they are implemented, as is the case of the work of Gill et al. ( 2015 ).

In the work of Carl and Strydom ( 2017 ), students were first familiarized with the devices and then introduced to electronic portfolios, which helped them to create blogs that serve as platforms for electronic portfolios, and guided them on how to collect artifacts and how to reflect and share content.

In one work we found narrative was used as a technique so that the students could later present their work, analyze it in groups, rework it and present it again to their classmates. Kuhn ( 2017 ), Pequeño et al. ( 2017 ), and Elphick ( 2018 ) followed this model.

Adopting a novel consultative approach, Botturi ( 2019 ) co-designed the intervention with his students in two steps: they were surveyed 4 weeks before the start of the course and asked to choose between two options: an overview of different topics/methods/experiences, or an in-depth exploration of one or two topics/methods/experiences. All respondents indicated a preference for the first option and provided indications of the topics they wished to cover (see Tables 4 , ​ ,5 5 ).

Assessment instruments used in the instructional intervention in the reviewed studies.

Treatment fidelity.

Indicators and controls used in the instructional intervention in the empirical studies reviewed II.

The limitations of our search are listed in Table 6 . At the theoretical level, we encountered studies that were not very current, missing research questions or hypotheses, or even missing objectives. At the statistical level, we found several studies had a small or unrepresentative sample.

Limitations of the instructional interventions described in the empirical studies reviewed.

Analyzing the interventions themselves, we identified a few limitations, especially in those studies that neither indicates the tasks, record the entire process, or lack key information to replicate the intervention. In some studies, key information relating to the person carrying out the intervention was missing, particularly on whether they had the specific training for this purpose. Another limitation that was identified was that very few evaluation strategies were in place to evaluate the interventions (see Table 7 ).

Indicators and controls used in the instructional intervention in the empirical studies reviewed.

Similarly, gaps were found regarding ethical controls, where in some studies the main limitation was that ethical controls were non-existent or not specified (Robertson et al., 2012 ; Istenic et al., 2016 ; Kuhn, 2017 ; Elphick, 2018 ; Ata and Yildirim, 2019 ; Tomczyk et al., 2020 ).

Figure 3 shows the evolution over the years of the samples used in each of the studies from 2011 to 2020.

Evolution over years of the samples used in the studies from 2010 to 2021.

Figure 4 shows the evolution over the years of the controls used in each of the studies from 2011 to 2021.

Evolution over years of the controls used in studies from 2010 to 2021.

This work aimed to analyze the empirical evidence found in international studies between 2011 to 2021 related to the digital literacy of university students, including those pursuing degrees in education. This objective has been met.

Regarding the first focus related to literacy, this paper highlighted the fact that studies from the West are the most prevalent in this field (Çoklar et al., 2017 ; Ata and Yildirim, 2019 ; Hamutoglu et al., 2019 ; Sujarwo et al., 2022 ), which correspond to cross-sectional studies, mostly employing instruments such as “the Digital Literacy Scale” developed by Ng ( 2012 ), and “the information literacy self-efficacy scale (ILS)” developed by Kurbanoglu et al. ( 2006 ). Regarding the level of mastery, the results showed an upper intermediate level of competence in information and digital literacy, communication, and collaboration, but a low intermediate level in terms of digital content creation, particularly in the creation and dissemination of multimedia content using different tools (López-Meneses et al., 2020 ; Moreno et al., 2020 ).

Regarding the second focus, digital literacy in university students, this study reviewed the various contributions of other works and found the presence of a competent group in this field, which makes efficient use of both the Internet and digital media (Çoklar et al., 2016 ; Ata and Yildirim, 2019 ; Lim and Newby, 2021 ). However, differences were also found in this collective relating to gender, where women were more competent than men in digital literacy, information literacy, technological literacy, and communicative literacy (Hamutoglu et al., 2019 ; López-Meneses et al., 2020 ; Navarro, 2020 ). However, on the other hand, we lso found studies that revealed particular gender gaps where men showed a higher propensity for DL, while women outperform men in the overall digital literacy test (Ata and Yildirim, 2019 ). Ata and Yildirim ( 2019 ) also found differences in DL between students where university students studying science or mathematics-related majors had higher levels of digital literacy than students majoring in social sciences or psychology fields (Ata and Yildirim, 2019 ; Chow and Wong, 2020 ).

And as for the third focus, digital literacy in future teachers, we found a dual use of digital literacy, in its social and leisure aspect (searching or maintaining friendships through social networks, sharing digital content, downloading content, or playing online games), and in its academic aspect (searching in search engines, working through online documents, organizing or synthesizing information from different processors, using computer programs to make presentations, edit images or content, or create audiovisual content (López-Meneses et al., 2020 ).

The main contribution of this review lies in its comparison between pre/post-pandemic studies, which show a great increase in the use of technologies in the educational world (across the curriculum), and research work focused on measuring the competencies of these devices (Baber et al., 2022 ). These new investigations have not only followed the line of previous ones but focused on the measurement of digital literacy and its influence on it by variables such as the degree of origin, gender, age, or being a digital native or immigrant (Castañeda-Peña et al., 2015 ; Çoklar et al., 2016 ; Castañeda et al., 2018 ; Ata and Yildirim, 2019 ; Gür et al., 2019 ; Hamutoglu et al., 2019 ; Lerdpornkulrat et al., 2019 ; González et al., 2020 ; Navarro, 2020 ; De Sixte et al., 2021 ). But there has been an expansion of the topics and variables that are studied in conjunction with digital literacy, among which we find as a novelty, the study of psycho-educational variables such as academic motivation (Chow and Wong, 2020 ), self-efficacy and motivation (Lerdpornkulrat et al., 2019 ), effort expectations (Nikou and Aavakare, 2021 ), and self-concept as a student and as a teacher (Yeşilyurt et al., 2016 ). The importance attached to the educational field, the identification of different roles or behaviors within the concept of digital literacy that is delimited, or even the types of uses within the concept of digital literacy (López-Meneses et al., 2020 ; Moreno et al., 2020 ; Navarro, 2020 ; Lim and Newby, 2021 ) are new trends.

Therefore, we can affirm that in this study the research predictions are fulfilled, in that the results found show relevant differences from international studies pre-post pandemic; and by different cultural backgrounds (Spanish Latin, Portuguese, Finnish...), gender, and personal digital resources. In terms of applications for educational practice, these results do not indicate that university students are competent in terms of digital literacy, although they demonstrate some competencies like online information search, information evaluation, information processing, information communication, and dissemination skills (Çoklar et al., 2016 ; Lerdpornkulrat et al., 2019 ). Therefore, there is the risk of training an incomplete student body in digital competence. For complete and comprehensive digital literacy for university students, especially future teachers, there is an urgent need to invest in digital literacy programs. This will ensure that the comprehensive digital competence of students corresponds to the use and employment of the Internet and digital devices in their teaching tasks (Gisbert et al., 2016 ), and be a guarantee of their integration into teaching practice (Aslan and Zhu, 2016 ; Nikou and Aavakare, 2021 ).

As for the limitations of this work, they are closely related to the seven indicators for analyzing study quality and effectiveness (Acosta and Garza, 2011), which are: alignment of theory, findings, reliability and validity, descriptive details of participants, and the study, sample, and consistency of findings and conclusions with the data (Risko et al., 2008 ). Along with evidence-based indicators, and effect sizes of studies (Díaz and García, 2016 ; Canedo-García et al., 2017 ). So future lines of research or work, should take into account overcoming these limitations, and embrace them in the face of their development.

The number of studies found in the systematic review is comparable to what is usual in this type of study and even higher. For example, in the exemplary systematic review by Scott et al. ( 2018 ), they identified only 29 studies that met the quality criteria, reviewing 50 years of studies published in the US, and of these, only four were quantitative. In the study by Borgi et al. ( 2020 ), they only found ten studies that fit the criteria in a very good analysis. Other systematic reviews go along the same lines, and in the same journal and section Frontiers in Psychology . For example, Dickson and Schubert ( 2020 ) and Liu et al. ( 2022 ) found only six studies in a review of great interest; the study by Nguyen et al. ( 2021 ) identified 18 eligible articles; Shou et al. ( 2022 ) with 12 studies included; or Tarchi et al. ( 2021 ); Huang ( 2022 ) found seven studies for quantitative analysis and eight for indirect evidence; Coxen et al. ( 2021 ) with 21 articles included in the focal analyzes of the systematic review. The number of studies to be representative is not defined by the number but by the existence of such studies. In a systematic review, all studies are reviewed, thus the population of published studies that fit the indicated criteria. With these studies, it was possible to do an analysis of objective indicators in a general comparison between studies; assessing the instruments used; examining the characteristics of the interventions such as strategies, instructional procedure, and psychological variables considered; comparing the fidelity controls of the treatments, which guarantees their rigor and their application in the terms prescribed by the empirical validation of the interventions; and reviewing the limitations of the studies and their contributions by years. These contributions were based on objective data from the studies and have been represented in tables and figures. In addition, a qualitative analysis is provided that highlights the value of intervention studies in relation to digital competence, and the key psychological variables that have been used. It is true that the studies published since 2010 were used, and that there could have been more studies before, but considering the evolution of this type of focus in relation to digital competence and the psychological variables involved, it is evident that the most interesting thing is to consider the recent years which is when its need and use has been generalized throughout the population.

Conclusions

In general, the results show that university students are digitally literate and make efficient use of both the Internet and digital media. In this sense, we found an intermediate or higher level in skills related to communication and collaboration, such as through different chat rooms, platforms, and communication applications. But an intermediate-low level in terms of digital content creation, especially in the creation and dissemination of multimedia content. So, this should be one of the future competencies to increase in this group. Although there are differences according to gender, age, or degree of origin.

We have to invest in comprehensive digital literacy programs for teachers in initial training, which appears implicit in the training plans of their official studies. Digital literacy needs to be a part of the official curriculum, and be developed rather quickly as a separate subject but in an interdisciplinary manner throughout their training. In this way, they become digitally literate people capable of creating and generating digital content and possessing the necessary competencies and skills to use and share such content.

We must also invest in assessing teachers' self-perception. Only by knowing their opinion, skills, and shortcomings, can digital training programs be designed. Digital literacy is a predictor of good digital use and a predictor of the good use and employment of digital devices and the Internet in the future when they would be teaching.

The findings of this study compel us to consider the following: first, we need to rethink the form and manner in which future teachers are capacitated in digital literacy, if we are doing it in the best way, or if on the contrary there are gaps that should be solved. Second, we should take into account the contributions of the results found and their consequences to formulate effective intervention designs and strategies to effectively capacitate pre-service teachers in digital literacy.

Data availability statement

Author contributions.

J-NS-G, NG-Á, IM-R, JG-M, and SB-C: conceptualization, methodology, software, writing—review and editing, visualization, supervision, and validation. NG-A: formal analysis, investigation, and resources: UAL, ULE, USAL, IPC, data curation, writing—original draft preparation, and funding acquisition. J-NS-G and NG-A: project administration. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

The generalx operating funds of the universities have been used Universidad de León (Spain), Universidad de Almería (Spain), Universidad de Salamanca (Spain), Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra and NICSH (Portugal).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

* The asterisk of focal references are APA standards.

• Aarsand P. (2019). Categorization activities in norwegian preschools: digital tools in identifying, articulating, and assessing . Front. Psychol. 10 , 973. 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00973 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Acosta S., Garza T. (2011). The Podcasting Playbook: A Typology of Evidence-Based Podagogy for PreK-12 Classrooms with English Language Learners . [ Google Scholar ]
• Alanoglu M., Aslan S., Karabatak S. (2022). Do teachers' educational philosophies affect their digital literacy? The mediating effect of resistance to change . Educ. Inf. Technol . 27 , 3447–3466. 10.1007/s10639-021-10753-3 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Alfonzo P. M., Batson J. (2014). Utilizing a co-teaching model to enhance digital literacy instruction for doctoral students . Int. J. Doc. Stud. 9 , 61–71. 10.28945/1973 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Allen J., Belfi B., Borghans L. (2020). Is there a rise in the importance of socioemotional skills in the labor market? Evidence from a trend study among college graduates . Front. Psychol. 11 , 1710. 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01710 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Area M. (2018). Hacia la universidad digital: dónde estamos y a dónde vamos? Rev. Iberoam. Educ. Dist. 21 , 25–30. 10.5944/ried.21.2.21801 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Aslan A., Zhu C. (2016). Investigating variables predicting turkish pre-service teachers' integration of ICT into teaching practices . Br. J. Educ. Technol. 48 , 552–570. 10.1111/bjet.12437 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Ata R., Yildirim K. (2019). Exploring Turkish pre-service teachers' perceptions and views of digital literacy . Educ. Sci. 9 , 40–56. 10.3390/educsci9010040 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Baber H., Fanea-Ivanovici M., Lee Y.-T., Tinmaz H. (2022). A bibliometric analysis of digital literacy research and emerging themes pre-during COVID-19 pandemic . Inform. Learn. Sci. 123 , 214–232. 10.1108/ILS-10-2021-0090 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Ball C. (2019). WikiLiteracy: enhancing students' digital literacy with wikipedia . J. Inform. Liter. 13 , 253–271. 10.11645/13.2.2669 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bawden D. (2008). Revisión de los conceptos de alfabetización informacional y alfabetización digital: traducción . Anal. Document. 5 , 361–408. Available online at: https://revistas.um.es/analesdoc/article/view/2261 [ Google Scholar ]
• Borgi M., Collacchi B., Giuliani A., Cirulli F. (2020). Dog visiting programs for managing depressive symptoms in older adults: a meta-analysis . Gerontologist 60 , e66–e75. 10.1093/geront/gny149 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Botturi L. (2019). Digital and media literacy in pre-service teacher education: a case study from Switzerland . Nordic J. Dig. Liter. 14 , 147–163. 10.18261/issn.1891-943x-2019-03-04-05 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brata W., Padang R., Suriani C., Prasetya E., Pratiwi N. (2022). Student's digital literacy based on students' interest in digital technology, internet costs, gender, and learning outcomes . Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. 17,138–151. 10.3991/ijet.v17i03.27151 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cabero-Almenara J., Palacios-Rodríguez A. (2020). Marco europeo de competencia digital docente “DigCompEdu”. Traducción y adaptación del cuestionario “DigCompEdu Check-In” . Edmetic 9 , 213–234. 10.21071/edmetic.v9i1.12462 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Campbell E., Kapp R. (2020). Developing an integrated, situated model for digital literacy in pre-service teacher education . J. Educ. 79 , 18–30. 10.17159/2520-9868/i79a02 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Canedo-García A., García-Sánchez J. N., Pacheco-Sanz D. I. (2017). a systematic review of the effectiveness of intergenerational programs . Front. Psychol. 8 , 1882. 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01882 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cantabrana J. L. L., Cervera M. G. (2015). El desarrollo de la competencia digital docente a partir de una experiencia piloto de formación en alternancia en el Grado de Educación . Educar 51 , 321–348. 10.5565/rev/educar.725 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Carl A., Strydom S. (2017). e-Portfolio as reflection tool during teaching practice: the interplay between contextual and dispositional variables . S. Afr. J. Educ. 37 , 1–10. 10.15700/saje.v37n1a1250 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Castañeda L., Esteve F., Adell J. (2018). Por qué es necesario repensar la competencia docente para el mundo digital? Rev. Educ. Distan. 56 , 2–20. 10.6018/red/56/6 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Castañeda-Peña H., Barbosa-Chacón J. W., Marciales G., Barreto I. (2015). Profiling information literacy in higher education: traces of a local longitudinal study . Univer. Psychol. 14 , 445–458. 10.11144/Javeriana.upsy14-2.pilh [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chow S. K. Y., Wong J. L. K. (2020). Supporting academic self-efficacy, academic motivation, and information literacy for students in tertiary institutions . Educ. Sci. 10 , 361. 10.3390/educsci10120361 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Çoklar A., Efilti E., Şahin Y., AkÇay A. (2016). Determining the reasons of technostress experienced by teachers: A qualitative study. Turkish Online J. Qual. Inq . 7 , 71–96. 10.17569/tojqi.96082 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Çoklar A. N., Yaman N. D., Yurdakul I. K. (2017). Information literacy and digital nativity as determinants of online information search strategies . Comput. Hum. Behav. 70 , 1–9. 10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.050 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Comisión Europea (2012). Informe Conjunto de 2012 del Consejo y de la Comisión sobre la Aplicación del Marco Estratégico Para la Cooperación Europea en el Ámbito de la Educación y la Formación (ET 2020). Comisión Europea . Available online at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ES/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52012XG0308(01)andfrom=EN
• Comisión Europea (2013). Monitor Education and Training 2013. Comisión Europea . Available online at: https://op.europa.eu/es/publication-detail/-/publication/25626e01-1bb8-403c-95da-718c3cfcdf19/language-en
• Cooper H. (2009). Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis: A Step-By-Step Approach . London: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cooper H., Hedges L. V. (1994). The Handbook of Research Synthesis. New York: Russell Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Covello S., Lei J. (2010). A Review of Digital Literacy Assessment Instruments. IDE-712 Front-End Analysis Research . Syracuse: Analysis for Human Performance Technology Decisions. [ Google Scholar ]
• Coxen L., van der Vaart L., Van den Broeck A., Rothmann S. (2021). Basic psychological needs in the work context: a systematic literature review of diary studies . Front. Psychol . 12 :698526. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.698526 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• De Sixte R., Fajardo I., Mañá A., Jáñez Á., Ramos M., García-Serrano M., et al.. (2021). Beyond the educational context: relevance of intrinsic reading motivation during COVID-19 confinement in Spain . Front. Psychol. 12 , 703251. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703251 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Díaz C., García J. N. (2016). Identification of relevant elements for promoting eficient interventions in older people . J. Psychodidact. 21 , 157–173. 10.1387/RevPsicodidact.13854 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dickson G. T., Schubert E. (2020). Music on prescription to aid sleep quality: a literature review . Front. Psychol. 11 , 1695. 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01695 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Domingo-Coscolla M., Bosco A., Carrasco Segovia S., Sánchez Valero J. A. (2020). Fomentando la competencia digital docente en la universidad: percepción de estudiantes y docentes . Rev. Invest. Educ. 38 , 167–782. 10.6018/rie.340551 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Educause (2019). Horizon Report 2019—Higher Education Edition . Boulder: Educause. [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Elliott S., Hendry H., Ayres C., Blackman K., Browning F., Colebrook D., et al.. (2018). 'On the outside I'm smiling but inside I'm crying.' Communication successes and challenges for undergraduate academic writing . J. Furth. High. Educ. 45 , 758–770. 10.1080/0309877X.2018.1455077 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Elphick M. (2018). The impact of embedded iPad use on student perceptions of their digital capabilities . Educ. Sci. 8 , 102–125. 10.3390/educsci8030102 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eshet-Alkalai Y. (2012). Thinking in the digital era: a revised model for digital literacy . Iss. Inform. Sci. Inform. Technol. 9 , 267–276. 10.28945/1621 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• European Comission . (2012). The European Commission and bureaucratic autonomy: Europe's custodians . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• European Comission . (2013). The European Commission of the Twenty-First Century . Oxford: Oxford University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• European Commission (Ed) (2018). Proposal for a Council Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning. New York: European Commission. [ Google Scholar ]
• European Union (2013). Digital protest skills and online activism against copyright reform in France and the European Union . Policy Int. 5 , 27–55. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fernández-de-la-Iglesia J. C., Fernández-Morante M. C., Cebreiro B., Soto-Carballo J., Martínez-Santos A. E., Casal-Otero L. (2020). Competencias y actitudes para el uso de las TIC de los estudiantes del grado de maestro de Galicia . Publicaciones 50 , 103–120. 10.30827/publicaciones.v50i1.11526 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fraser J., Atkins L., Richard H. (2013). Digilit Leicester. Supporting Teachers, Promoting Digital Literacy, Transforming Learning . Leicester: Leicester City Council. [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Gabriele L., Bertacchini F., Tavernise A., Vaca-Cárdenas L., Pantano P., Bilotta E. (2019). Lesson planning by computational thinking skills in Italian pre-service teachers . Inform. Educ. 18 , 69–104. 10.15388/infedu.2019.04 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Garcia-Martin J., Garcia-Sanchez J. N. (2017). Pre-service teachers' perceptions of the competence dimensions of digital literacy and of psychological and educational measures . Comp. Educ. 107 , 54–67. 10.1016/j.compedu.2016.12.010 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Gill L., Dalgarno B., Carlson L. (2015). How does pre-service teacher preparedness to use ICTs for learning and teaching develop through their degree program? Austral. J. Teach. Educ. 40 , 36–59. Available online at: https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84870756234andorigin=inwardandtxGid=927e8280a577067fddaa8df02fa0b665andfeatureToggles=FEATURE_NEW_DOC_DETAILS_EXPORT:1 [ Google Scholar ]
• Gilster P. (1997). Digital Literacy (p. 1) . New York, NY: Wiley Computer Pub. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gisbert M., Esteve F. (2011). Digital Leaners: la competencia digital de los estudiantes universitarios . La Cuestión Univer. 7 , 48–59. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gisbert M., Esteve F., Lázaro J. (2016). La competencia digital de los futuros docentes: “cómo se ven los actuales estudiantes de educación” Perspect. Educ. 55 , 34–52. 10.4151/07189729-Vol.55-Iss.2-Art.412 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gómez-García G., Hinojo-Lucena F. J., Fernández-Martín F. D., Romero-Rodríguez J. M. (2021). Educational challenges of higher education: validation of the information competence scale for future teachers (ICS-FT) . Educ. Sci. 12, 14. 10.3390/educsci12010014 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• González M. J. M., Rivoir A., Lázaro-Cantabrana J. L., Gisbert-Cervera M. (2020). “Cuánto importa la competencia digital docente? Análisis de los programas de formación inicial docente en Uruguay . Int. J. Technol. Educ. Innov. 6 , 128–140. 10.24310/innoeduca.2020.v6i2.5601 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• González V., Román M., Prendes M. P. (2018). Formación en competenciasdigitales para estudiantes universitarios basada en el modelo DigComp . Rev. Electró. Tecnol. Educ. 65 , 1–15. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gudmundsdottir G. B., Hatlevik O. E. (2018). Newly qualified teachers' professional digital competence: implications for teacher education . Euro. J. Teach. Educ. 41 , 214–231. 10.1080/02619768.2017.1416085 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gür D., Canan Ö., Hamutoglu N. B., Kaya G., Demirtas T. (2019). The Relationship between lifelong learning trends, digital literacy levels and usage of web 2.0 tools with social entrepreneurship characteristics . Croat. J. Educ. 21 , 45–76. Available online at: https://hrcak.srce.hr/220701 [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Hamutoglu N. B., Savaşçi M., Sezen-Gültekin G. (2019). Digital literacy skills and attitudes towards e-learning . J. Educ. Fut. 16 , 93–107. 10.30786/jef.509293 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Huang C. (2022). Self-Regulation of learning and EFL learners' hope and joy: a review of literature . Front. Psychol. 13 , 833279. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.833279 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Indah R. N., Budhiningrum A. S., Afifi N. (2022). The research competence, critical thinking skills and digital literacy of Indonesian EFL students . J. Lang. Teach. Res. 13 , 315–324. 10.17507/jltr.1302.11 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Instituto Nacional de Tecnologías Educativas y Formación del Profesorado (2017). Marco Común de Competencia Digital Docente Octubre 2017. Instituto Nacional de Tecnologías Educativas y Formación del Profesorado . Available online at: https://aprende.intef.es/sites/default/files/2018-05/2017_1020_Marco-Com%C3%BAn-de-Competencia-Digital-Docente.pdf
• INTEF (Ed.) (2017). Marco Común de Competencia Digital Docente. INTEF . Available online at: https://aprende.intef.es/sites/default/files/2018-05/2017_1020_Marco-Com%C3%BAn-de-Competencia-Digital-Docente.pdf
• * . Istenic A., Cotic M., Solomonides I., Volk M. (2016). Engaging preservice primary and preprimary school teachers in digital storytelling for the teaching and learning of mathematics . Br. J. Educ. Technol. 47 , 29–50. 10.1111/bjet.12253 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Kajee L., Balfour R. (2011). Students' access to digital literacy at a South African university: privilege and marginalisation . S. Afr. Linguist. Appl. Lang. Stud. 29 , 187–196. 10.2989/16073614.2011.633365 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Koehler M. J., Mishra P. (2008). “Introducing tpck,” in The Handbook of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (tpck) for Educators , ed AACTE Committee on Innovation and Technology (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; ), 3–29. [ Google Scholar ]
• Krumsvik R. J. (2009). Situated learning in the network society and the digitised school . Euro. J. Teach. Educ. 32 , 167–185. 10.1080/02619760802457224 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Kuhn C. (2017). Are students ready to (re)-design their personal learning environment? The case of the e-dynamic space . J. N. Approach. Educ. Res. 6 , 11–19. 10.7821/naer.2017.1.185 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kurbanoglu S. S., Akkoyunlu B., Umay A. (2006). Developing the information literacy scale . J. Doc. 62 , 730–743. 10.1108/00220410610714949 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Larraz E. F. (2013). Competencia digital en la educación superior: instrumentos de evaluación y nuevos entornos. Enl@ ce: Revista Venezolana de Información. Tecnología y Conocimiento . 10 , 29–43. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lázaro J. (2015). La Competència Digital Docent Com a Eina per Garantir la Qualitat en l'ús de les TIC en un Centre Escolar (Tesis doctoral: ), Tarragona: Universitat Rovira i Virgili. [ Google Scholar ]
• Le B., Lawrie G. A., Wang J. T. (2022). Student self-perception on digital literacy in STEM blended learning environments . J. Sci. Educ. Technol. 31 , 303–321. 10.1007/s10956-022-09956-1 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Lerdpornkulrat T., Poondej C., Koul R., Khiawrod G., Prasertsirikul P. (2019). The positive effect of intrinsic feedback on motivational engagement and self-efficacy in information literacy . J. Psychoeduc. Assess. 37 , 421–434. 10.1177/0734282917747423 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lim J., Newby T. J. (2021). Preservice teachers' attitudes toward Web 2.0 personal learning environments (PLEs): considering the impact of self-regulation and digital literacy . Educ. Inform. Technol. 26 , 3699–3720. 10.1007/s10639-021-10432-3 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu W., Xu Y., Xu T., Ye Z., Yang J., Wang Y. (2022). Integration of neuroscience and entrepreneurship: a systematic review and bibliometric analysis . Front. Psychol . 13, 810550. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.810550 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• López-Meneses E., Sirignano F. M., Vázquez-Cano E., Ramírez-Hurtado J. M. (2020). University students' digital competence in three areas of the DigCom 2.1 model: a comparative study at three European universities . Austral. J. Educ. Technol. 36 , 69–88. 10.14742/ajet.5583 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Martín A., Tyner K. (2012). Media education, media literacy and digital competence . Co-municar 19 , 31–39. 10.3916/C38-2012-02-03 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Miller D. M., Scott C. E., McTigue E. M. (2016). Writing in the secondary-level disciplines: a systematic review of context, cognition and content . Educ. Psychol. Rev. 30 , 83–120. 10.1007/s10648-016-9393-z [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moher D. Liberati A. Tetzlaff J. Altman D.G. The PRISMA Group . (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement . PLoS Med . 6, e1000097. 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moreno A. J., Fernández M. A., Godino A. L. (2020). Información y alfabetización digital docente: influencia de la rama formativa . J. Educ. Teach. Train. 10 , 140–150. Available online at: https://digibug.ugr.es/handle/10481/59591 [ Google Scholar ]
• Navarro J. A. M. (2020). La competencia digital de los estudiantes universitarios latinoamericanos . Int. J. Educ. Res. Innov. 14 , 276–289. 10.46661/ijeri.4387 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ng W. (2012). Can we teach digital natives digital literacy? Comput. Educ. 59 , 1065–1078. 10.1016/j.compedu.2012.04.016 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nguyen H. T. T., Hoang A. P., Do L. T. K., Schiffer S., Nguyen H. T. H. (2021). The rate and risk factors of postpartum depression in vietnam from 2010 to 2020: a literature review . Front. Psychol . 12, 731306. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731306 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nikou S., Aavakare M. (2021). An assessment of the interplay between literacy and digital technology in higher education . Educ. Inform. Technol. 26 , 3893–3915. 10.1007/s10639-021-10451-0 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• OECD (2011). Informe Habilidades y Competencias Del Siglo xxi Para Los Aprendices Del Nuevo Milenio En los Paí ses de la . OECD . Available online at: http://recursostic.educacion.es/blogs/europa/media/blogs/europa/informes/Habilidades_y_competencias_siglo21_OCDE.pdf
• OECD (2012). Education at a Glance 2012. OECD Indicators. Panorama de la educación. Indicadores de la OCDE 2014. Informe español . Available online at: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2012_eag-2012-en
• Page M. J., McKenzie J. E., Bossuyt P. M., Boutron I., Hoffmann T. C., Mulrow C. D., et al.. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews . BMJ 372 , n71. 10.1136/bmj.n71 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Paige K., Bentley B., Dobson S. (2016). Slowmation: an innovative twenty-first century teaching and learning tool for science and mathematics pre-service teachers . Austral. J. Teach. Educ. 2 , 1–15. 10.14221/ajte.2016v41n2.1 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Pequeño J. M. G., Rodríguez E. F., de la Iglesia Atienza L. (2017). Narratives transmèdia amb joves universitaris. Una etnografia digital en la societat hiperconnectada . Anàlisi 57 , 81–95. Available online at: https://raco.cat/index.php/Analisi/article/view/330248 [ Google Scholar ]
• Pérez T. A., Nagata J. J. (2019). The digital culture of students of pedagogy specialising in the humanities in Santiago de Chile . Comput. Educ. 133 , 1–12. 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.01.002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Piscitelli A. (2009). Nativos Digitales . Mexico: Santillana. 10.26439/contratexto2008.n016.782 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Recio F., Silva J., Marchant N. A. (2020). Análisis de la competencia digital en la formación inicial de estudiantes universitarios: un estudio de meta-análisis en la web of science . Rev. Med. Educ. 59 , 125–146. 10.12795/pixelbit.77759 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Risko V. J., Roller C. M., Cummins C., Bean R. M., Block C. C., Anders P. L., et al.. (2008). A critical analysis of research on reading teacher education . Read. Res. Q. 43 , 252–288. 10.1598/RRQ.43.3.3 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Robertson L., Hughes J., Smith S. (2012). “Thanks for the assignment!”: digital stories as a form of reflective practice . Lang. Liter. 14 , 78–90. 10.20360/G2S88D [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rodríguez-García A. M., Raso F., Ruiz-Palmero J. (2019). Competencia digital, educación superior y formación del profesorado: un estudio de meta-análisis en la web of Science . Pixel Bit 54 , 65–81. 10.12795/pixelbit.2019.i54.04 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Scott C. E., McTigue E. M., Miller D. M., Washburn E. K. (2018). The what, when, and how of preservice teachers and literacy across the disciplines: a systematic literature review of nearly 50 years of research . Teach. Teach. Educ. 73 , 1–13. 10.1016/j.tate.2018.03.010 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Sharp L. A. (2018). Collaborative digital literacy practices among adult learners: levels of confidence and perceptions of importance . Int. J. Instruct. 11 , 153–166. 10.12973/iji.2018.11111a [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shou S., Li Y., Fan G., Zhang Q., Yan Y., Lv T., et al.. (2022). The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy for tic disorder: a meta-analysis and a literature review . Front. Psychol . 13, 851250. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.851250 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Siddiq F., Gochyyev P., Wilson M. (2017). Learning in digital networks – ICT literacy: a novel assessment of students' 21st century skills . Comput. Educ. 109 , 11–37. 10.1016/j.compedu.2017.01.014 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sujarwo S., Tristanti T., Kusumawardani E. (2022). Digital literacy model to empower women using community-based education approach . World J. Educ. Technol. Curr. Issues 14 , 175–188. 10.18844/wjet.v14i1.6714 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tarchi C., Ruffini C., Pecini C. (2021). The contribution of executive functions when reading multiple texts: a systematic literature review . Front. Psychol . 12:, 716463. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.716463 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Tomczyk Ł., Potyrała K., Włoch A., Wnek-Gozdek J., Demeshkant N. (2020). Evaluation of the functionality of a new e-learning platform vs. previous experiences in e-learning and the self-assessment of own digital literacy . Sustainability 12 , 10219. 10.3390/su122310219 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Torgerson K. (2007). A genetic study of the acute anxious response to carbon dioxide stimulation in man . J. Psychiatric Res . 41 , 906–917. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.12.002 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tourón J., Martín D., Navarro E., Pradas S., Íñigo V. (2018). Validación de constructo de un instrumento para medir la competencia digital docente de los profesores (CDD) . Rev. Española Pedag. 76 , 25–54. 10.22550/REP76-1-2018-02 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• UNESCO (2018). ICT Competency Framework for Teachers. UNESCO . Available online at: https://en.unesco.org/themes/ict-education/competency-framework-teachers
• Unión Europea (2013). Comprender las Polí ticas de la Unión Europea: Una Nueva Revolución Industrial . Unión Europea . Available online at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/es/sheet/61/los-principios-generales-de-la-politica-industrial-de-la-union
• Valverde J., González A., Acevedo J. (2022). Desinformación y multialfabetización: Una revisión sistemática de la literatura . Comunicar 7 , 97–110. 10.3916/C70-2022-08 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• * . Vinokurova N., Mazurenko O., Prikhodchenko T., Ulanova S. (2021). Digital transformation of educational content in the pedagogical higher educational institution . Rev. Invest. Apuntes Univer. 11 , 1–20. 10.17162/au.v11i3.713 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vodá A. I., Cautisanu C., Grádinaru C., Tánásescu C., de Moraes G. H. S. M. (2022). Exploring digital literacy skills in social sciences and humanities students . Sustainability 14 , 2483. 10.3390/su14052483 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Walsh K., Pink E., Ayling N., Sondergeld A., Dallaston E., Tournas P., et al.. (2022). Best practice framework for online safety education: results from a rapid review of the international literature, expert review, and stakeholder consultation . Int. J. Child Comput. Interact. 33 , 100474. 10.1016/j.ijcci.2022.100474 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yeşilyurt E., Ulaş A. H., Akan D. (2016). Teacher self-efficacy, academic self-efficacy, and computer self-efficacy as predictors of attitude toward applying computer-supported education . Comput. Hum. Behav. 64 , 591–601. 10.1016/j.chb.2016.07.038 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zurkowski P.G. (1974). The information service environment relationships and priorities . Relat. Pap. 5, 27. [ Google Scholar ]

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Literature Topics and Research

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

This handout provides examples and description about writing papers in literature. It discusses research topics, how to begin to research, how to use information, and formatting.

What kinds of topics are good ones?

The best topics are ones that originate out of your own reading of a work of literature, but here are some common approaches to consider:

• A discussion of a work's characters: are they realistic, symbolic, historically-based?
• A comparison/contrast of the choices different authors or characters make in a work
• A reading of a work based on an outside philosophical perspective (Ex. how would a Freudian read Hamlet ?)
• A study of the sources or historical events that occasioned a particular work (Ex. comparing G.B. Shaw's Pygmalion with the original Greek myth of Pygmalion)
• An analysis of a specific image occurring in several works (Ex. the use of moon imagery in certain plays, poems, novels)
• A "deconstruction" of a particular work (Ex. unfolding an underlying racist worldview in Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness )
• A reading from a political perspective (Ex. how would a Marxist read William Blake's "London"?)
• A study of the social, political, or economic context in which a work was written — how does the context influence the work?

How do I start research?

Once you have decided on an interesting topic and work (or works), the best place to start is probably the Internet. Here you can usually find basic biographical data on authors, brief summaries of works, possibly some rudimentary analyses, and even bibliographies of sources related to your topic.

The Internet, however, rarely offers serious direct scholarship; you will have to use sources found in the library, sources like journal articles and scholarly books, to get information that you can use to build your own scholarship-your literary paper. Consult the library's on-line catalog and the MLA Periodical Index. Avoid citing dictionary or encyclopedic sources in your final paper.

How do I use the information I find?

The secondary sources you find are only to be used as an aid. Your thoughts should make up most of the essay. As you develop your thesis, you will bring in the ideas of the scholars to back up what you have already said.

For example, say you are arguing that Huck Finn is a Christ figure ; that's your basic thesis. You give evidence from the novel that allows this reading, and then, at the right place, you might say the following, a paraphrase:

According to Susan Thomas, Huck sacrifices himself because he wants to set Jim free (129).

If the scholar states an important idea in a memorable way, use a direct quote.

"Huck's altruism and feelings of compassion for Jim force him to surrender to the danger" (Thomas 129).

Either way, you will then link that idea to your thesis.

University Library

• Research Guides

Literature and Literary Research

• Getting Started
• Finding Books and Articles
• Finding and Using Archival Sources
• Finding and Using Reference Sources
• Working Smarter

What's a good topic?

Choosing a topic can be one of the hardest parts of writing a paper. There are so many possible things to write about, and even if you have a general idea, it can be hard to know whether your topic is a good one. 

Writing a literature paper is different from writing many other kinds of papers. In literary analysis, it's not the ideas of other people that matter as much as your own interpretation of the texts you're reading. The bulk of your paper will be made up of your analysis of the text: the use of language, imagery, rhythm and repetition, word choice, the structure of the plot, or the representations of characters, emotions, events, or places. Your job is to analyze these elements of the text and through your analysis to assert an idea, or a claim, about the text, the author, or the context in which the text was written.

So what makes a good topic? A good topic is a theme that you think is represented in the text you're reading. But how do you get from a good topic to a good research question? 

What's a good research question?

Once you recognize a theme in a text or texts, your next step is to determine what you think the texts are saying about that theme. Read the text again, paying particular attention to your theme. What does your interpretation lead you think about the theme or idea? This is your claim, and your paper is structured around using analysis of the text or texts to support your claim. 

For example, you may be interested in looking at community or society in Thoreau's "Walden." You may have read the text and noticed a contradiction between Thoreau's claims of self-reliance and his interaction with society. You would then re-read the text, asking yourself as you read "What is the representation of society and Thoreau's relationship to it in 'Walden'?" After reading the text closely and paying special attention to these aspects of "Walden," you may be ready to make the claim that while Thoreau believed he was self-reliant, in truth he was still part of a network of people, and still part of his society and community. Or you may discover that your initial thought was wrong, and that Thoreau really did separate himself from his community in the way he wrote about. 

Types of Sources

There are a lot of different kinds of sources that you can use in your analysis. This guide will show you how to find and use these by type. 

Primary Sources  are the main pieces of evidence you will use to make your claim. The texts you are reading are a primary source; they are the most important primary source you're working with. Other examples are newspaper and magazine articles, diaries and letters, photographs, maps, and reviews written or created at the same time as your text. These sources can help you put your subject into context. 

Reference Sources  give you a broad overview of a person, place, event, or idea. They provide commonly known facts. Reference sources are not cited in your paper, but can be very useful for grounding you in your subject and ensuring that you have solid background information.  Literary biographies   are a form of reference material, and give you lots of information about authors, with an emphasis on how their lives are related to their writing. 

Secondary Sources  are also sometimes referred to as  criticism.  These are books and articles that scholars have written about a particular work of literature, movement, or author. Criticism can help you get a sense of the themes that other scholars read in a particular text. They may help inform your own understanding of a text, either because they reinforce your interpretation, or differ from it. Criticism is usually published in books or as articles in scholarly journals. 

So how do I use sources?

Primary sources are the evidence that we use to support our claims. They aren't the articles that other scholars and researchers have written, but original source material that we can use to better understand our topic. Primary sources in literary research include the text or texts that you're analyzing, but might also include additional material like letters written by the author, photographs, reviews written when the text was published, newspapers articles. Many different kinds of things can be used as primary sources, depending on your subject. 

For example, if you're studying Thoreau's relationships with others, you may want to find out more about Thoreau's role in his community by reading primary source material (letters that he wrote to friends and colleagues, newspaper articles about him or about his community) or by reading more about the context of his life in Massachusetts (the political and artistic movements of which he was part, the actual location of his cabin in relation to the town of Concord). These additional sources are used to support your interpretation of the text you're analyzing. 

You may want to use secondary sources to discuss other scholars' ideas and interpretations of the topic and text you're writing about, especially if you don't agree with their interpretations. Pay especially close attention to aspects of your topic that scholars don't agree about, and to different interpretations or ideas about a text. If there are major debates about the authors or texts you're studying, you'll want to reference them in the paper to help inform your reader and provide context to your own interpretation. 

• Next: Finding Books and Articles >>
• Last Updated: Feb 2, 2024 12:45 PM
• URL: https://libguides.sonoma.edu/literature

•   SMU Libraries
• Scholarship & Research
• Teaching & Learning
• Bridwell Library
• Business Library
• DeGolyer Library
• Fondren Library
• Hamon Arts Library
• Underwood Law Library
• Fort Burgwin Library
• Exhibits & Digital Collections
• SMU Scholar
• Special Collections & Archives
• Connect With Us
• Research Guides by Subject
• How Do I . . . ? Guides
• Find Your Librarian
• Writing Support

Types of Research Papers: Overview

A research paper is simply a piece of writing that uses outside sources. There are different types of research papers with varying purposes and expectations for sourcing.

While this guide explains those differences broadly, disciplines and assignments vary. Ask your professor for clarification on the purpose and types of appropriate research questions and sources.

Need More Help?

Related guides.

• Literature Reviews
• Annotated Bibliographies
• Starting Your Research

Research and Writing Lab

Need last minute help but didn't book an appointment? Every week we offer online drop-in labs.

Tuesdays 3:00pm - 4:30pm via Zoom @   https://smu.zoom.us/j/92637892352  and in-person, Fondren Red 1st floor (near elevators)

• Last Updated: Apr 12, 2024 1:00 PM
• URL: https://guides.smu.edu/researchpapertypes

The Children's Literature Research Collections

The Children's Literature Research Collections, home of the Kerlan Collection, holds books, manuscripts, illustrations, comic books, story papers, and other materials related to the creation of historical and modern children's literature, including manuscripts and original artwork. Find information on upcoming Kerlan events on our events page .

Back to top

The Kerlan Collection Endowed Chair Fund

To ensure that the Kerlan Collection of Children's Literature remains at the forefront of children's literature archives worldwide, please consider a gift to the Kerlan Collection Endowed Chair Fund.

Digital and teaching resources

Unable to visit the library in person? Explore our online resources and curated digital exhibits.

Digital exhibits

Our curated digital exhibits bring children's literature into your home or classroom.

The ABC of It exhibit catalog

The catalog for our 2019 exhibit, curated by Leonard Marcus, may be purchased from the University of Minnesota Press or downloaded for free on the Libraries' Publishing Services page.

Writing Boxes: The Reading/Writing Connection in Libraries

Download curator Lisa Von Drasek's guide for librarians teaching writing workshops to early and young adult readers.

A limited amount of our materials have been scanned and made available to the public on the University of Minnesota's UMedia Archive. Browse our collection materials  on their website .

The Kerlan blog

Read curator Lisa Von Drasek's latest children's book reviews and blog posts.

Explore the CLRC

Learn more about our collections, upcoming events, and additional ways to support the work of the CLRC and the Kerlan Collection.

Learn about our collections

Learn about the many exciting collections housed at the CLRC, including the world-famous flagship Kerlan Collection, the Hess Collection (containing story papers, dime novels, and pulps), the Borger Comic Book Collection, and others.

Search the collections

Search the Libraries catalog, and view a list of archival collections, including original manuscripts and artwork held by the CLRC.

Events and news

Learn more about upcoming events, read our newsletter, and explore other related resources.

Fund your research

Interested in researching at the CLRC? Learn about funding opportunities for visiting, available to scholars and children's book creators.

For general reference inquiries or appointment requests please contact [email protected].

Search collections

For more information on finding materials in the Children's Literature Research Collections, including a list of archival collection guides for materials held in the Kerlan Collection, visit the search our collections page .

Hours Today 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Wed, Apr 17 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. Thu, Apr 18 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. Fri, Apr 19 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Sat, Apr 20 Closed Note: Appointments are required to visit the reading room within these hours. More Andersen Library hours

Children's Literature Research Collections

Give to the collection, kerlan collection endowed chair fund.

The Kerlan is a leading collection of contemporary children’s literature. Learn more about how you can support the future of the collection with your gift to the Endowed Chair Fund. 

Kerlan Friends

Learn more becoming a member of Kerlan Friends with an annual donation to support the mission and work of the Kerlan Collection.

Department of English and Related Literature

Narrative Fate

• Location: Seminar Room BS/007, Berrick Saul Building, Campus West, University of York ( Map )

Event details

Mark Currie, Professor of Contemporary Literature at Queen Mary University of London, presents a talk in the series “Current Research in Narrative Studies,” the research seminar of the British and Irish Association for Narrative Studies . These seminars are held in a hybrid format, with speakers and audience from the Association membership around the country, hosted at York by the Interdisciplinary Centre for Narrative Studies . 

Nobody now, or at any time in the past, seems to know what they mean by “fate”. It is, and always was, caught up in an unspecifiable compatibility between contingency and necessity. It is a force against which struggle is pointless, but it doesn’t eliminate choice. It is the duration of life and it is death. It is the portion of success and suffering handed out to humans by gods and goddesses, and a godless way of thinking about the determinants of fortune. It names a conspiracy theory for the concept of luck and offers a misty causal explanation for things that happen by chance. In this paper I am going to argue that fate is a kind of temporal disorientation and that its legacy is to be found in narrative form.

The paper takes Rachel Cusk’s Second Place as an example of a narrative that proposes an equivalence between narrative and fate. The argument begins from orientational metaphors for fate in Homer’s The Iliad and pursues these spatial orientations in Cusk’s novel. The story of Second Place is one in which the narrator loses her belief in the equivalence of narrative and fate, but develops an unwitting, alternative, logical connection between them through their temporal properties. In particular the paper aims to offer an account of teleological retrospect in narrative as an inherently fatalistic frame of mind.

About the speaker

Mark Currie is Professor of Contemporary Literature at Queen Mary University of London. His the author of About Time (2007) and The Unexpected (2013) and a number of other books on literary and narrative theory. His recent work has been about the concepts of contingency and uncertainty in narrative, and he is currently writing about narrative and the persistence of fate.

• [email protected]

• University of Oregon Libraries
• Research Guides
• Knight Library

Children's Literature

• Author Information
• Getting Started
• Reviews/Analyses
• Online Collections & Author Interviews
• Historical Backgrounds
• Finding Articles
• Finding Books
• Oxford English Dictionary
• MLA Citation Style Guide
• Adding a Research Guide to a Course

Author Information: Linda Sue Park

• Linda Sue Park: Author Website
• Interview with Linda Sue Park
• Milwaukee Public Radio: Discussion of Prairie Lotus
• << Previous: Prairie Lotus
• Next: Reviews/Analyses >>
• Last Updated: Apr 15, 2024 2:33 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.uoregon.edu/childrens_literature

Contact Us Library Accessibility UO Libraries Privacy Notices and Procedures

1501 Kincaid Street Eugene, OR 97403 P: 541-346-3053 F: 541-346-3485

• Visit us on Facebook
• Visit us on Twitter
• Visit us on Youtube
• Visit us on Instagram
• Report a Concern
• Nondiscrimination and Title IX
• Accessibility
• Privacy Policy
• Find People

ENGL 1102 Worozbyt Spring 2024 : Databases

• Library Catalog
• MLA Citation Help
• Tutoring at Decatur

Oxford English Dictionary - Online Access

Literature Databases

A source for literary research on writers and their works throughout history and the world. Content is obtained from Facts On Files print literature collection, Harold Blooms essays, and critical articles published by noted scholars under the Blooms Literary Criticism imprints.

Includes essays and commentary on the careers and works of major literary figures. Coverage: 1800s - present. Formerly Literature Criticism Online.

A digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources. It offers an interdisciplinary journal archive across the humanities, social sciences, and sciences

• ProQuest One Literature This link opens in a new window Provides support for the study of English literature by bringing together primary works, reference materials, and literary criticism. Content includes books and scholarly journals covering 600 AD to the present. Formerly: Literature Online (LION)
• Project Muse This link opens in a new window Provides complete, full-text content in digital humanities and social science from over 120 publishers, Including scholarly journals from leading university presses and scholarly societies are indexed and peer-reviewed, and full-text access includes current content from over 400 titles

General Databases

These are our big, multi-disciplinary databases. They are good places to start when you are still working on your topic.

A scholarly, multi-disciplinary database providing indexing and abstracts for thousands of journals and other publications. PDF content dates back to 1887.

Database Tutorials

• GSU Databases
• What's a database?
• Scholarly Journals?
• CQ Researcher

A more in-depth, longer version of the above video:

• << Previous: eBooks
• Next: MLA Citation Help >>
• Last Updated: Apr 10, 2024 3:31 PM
• URL: https://research.library.gsu.edu/ENGL1102WorozbytSpring2024

University Of Houston Renews Agreement With ICCR To Establish Indian Studies Chair For Tamil Language, Literature, And Culture

HOUSTON:  The University of Houston and the Indian Council for Cultural Relations have renewed an agreement that paves the way for the setup of the ICCR Chair of Indian Studies to conduct research on Tamil language, literature and culture. The agreement was signed last year but was renewed for another year at a ceremony held early this week at the University of Houston, between its chancellor and president Renu Khator and consul general of India in Houston, DC Manjunath.

The chair aims to teach and conduct research on Tamil language, literature and culture at the University of Houston. The establishment of the chair was welcomed by the leaders in the joint declaration issued after prime minister Narendra Modi's visit to the US in June 2023. As per the agreement, T Vijayalakshmi, the visiting chair professor from India, has been teaching a curated Tamil language and culture course at the university for the last two semesters.

"Having knowledge and appreciation for different cultures is a hallmark of an enlightened and advanced society. That’s why I’m so grateful that the Indian Council for Cultural Relations has renewed our visiting scholar’s partnership. It enhances our students’ depth of knowledge and gives them a competitive advantage internationally,” Renu Khator, the first Indian-American to lead a major research university in the US since 2008, told PTI.

Manjunath said that the “addendum will further enhance and deepen the India-US education and knowledge partnership”. UH is only the third American university to partner with the ICCR on its global Indian Chairs Abroad programme, along with Rutgers University and the University of Pittsburgh. The Tamil language is one of the top five languages spoken in the United States, which is home to nearly 3,00,000 Tamil Americans. Classes in Tamil Studies began for the first cohort of students at University of Houston.