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Sheridan Grant

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Sheridan is a writer from Hamilton, Ontario. She has a passion for writing about what she loves and learning new things along the way. Her topics of expertise include skincare and beauty, home decor, and DIYing.

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About Thesis Nootropics

Hands up if you guzzle five coffees a day to stay awake, have tried all the supplements in the book desperate to improve your headspace, and aren’t interested in prescribed medications. Designed to increase focus , Thesis nootropics might be for you. 

Thesis offers a customized blend of ingredients designed to optimize your cognitive function , with personalized details that tackle your specific needs. Nootropics boost brain performance in the same way a stimulant would, without the common negative effects. 

A study published in the Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease found that nootropics may help improve cognitive function in people with Alzheimer’s disease.

Interested in finding out more about the brand and how it works? Leaf through our Thesis Nootropics review. We’ll be your guide through the company and the process, as well as details on the treatments, highlights from customer reviews, answers to important FAQs, and more, to help you decide if it’s worth the try.

Pros and Cons

• Multiple cognitive benefits: Thesis Nootropics offers a variety of blends that cater to multiple aspects of cognitive function.
• Long-term effects: On top of short term benefits for daily life, Thesis nootropics ingredients are designed to impact the brain in the long-term.
• Personalized recommendations: Thesis Nootropics makes personalized recommendations based on your goals and unique brain chemistry.
• Potential side effects: The most common side effects to watch out for when you start taking Thesis Nootropics include heartburn, headaches, confusion, dizziness, loss of appetite, and digestive issues.
• Need to stop taking if issues arise: If you experience a headache or an upset stomach that won’t go away while taking their nootropics, Thesis recommends that you stop taking them.

What is Thesis Nootropics?

Nootropics are nutrient compounds and substances that are known to improve brain performance , such as caffeine and creatine. They help with issues that affect motivation, creativity, mood, memory, focus, and cognitive processing.

Nootropics are the ideal addition to an already healthy lifestyle that consists of exercise, proper nutrition, and enjoyable activities.  Thesis nootropics are carefully formulated to target specific needs, ranging from energy to creativity. The brand focuses on safety, ensuring that all supplements adhere to FDA guidelines and go through multiple clinical trials. 

How Thesis Nootropics Works

With all that being said, you may be wondering how Thesis provides users with an option that is specific to their needs. Fortunately, the process is simple and hassle free. Here’s how it works:

• Take the Thesis nootropics quiz
• Answer questions about your basic information
• Receive personalized recommendations 
• Get your starter kit for $120 , or $79 monthly when you subscribe 

After that, you’ll select one formula to take each week, taking one day off in between each different option. You’ll also track your results in the daily journal over the month to see how they affect your daily life. 

From there, it operates as a subscription service. Users will be able to optimize their next shipment by telling the brand which formulas worked best.

If you don’t like any of the blends in your box, let the company know and they’ll switch it for something that’s a better fit for your lifestyle, genetics, and goals.

Thesis Nootropics Ingredients

Thesis Nootropics is a brand that offers personalized nootropics designed to enhance cognitive function and overall brain health. Their blends contain a variety of ingredients that are carefully chosen for their cognitive-boosting properties. Here are some of the key ingredients in Thesis Nootropics:

• Cognizin (Citicoline) : Cognizin is a type of choline that is known for its ability to enhance cognitive function, including memory and focus.
• L-Theanine : L-Theanine is an amino acid that is found in green tea, and is known for its ability to promote relaxation and reduce stress and anxiety.
• Lion’s Mane Mushroom : Lion’s Mane Mushroom is a type of medicinal mushroom that is believed to have cognitive-boosting properties, including improved memory and focus.
• Rhodiola Rosea : Rhodiola Rosea is an adaptogenic herb that is known for its ability to reduce stress and fatigue, and improve mental clarity and cognitive function.
• Ashwagandha : Ashwagandha is an adaptogenic herb that is known for its ability to reduce stress and anxiety, and improve memory and cognitive function.
• Phosphatidylserine : Phosphatidylserine is a type of phospholipid that is found in high concentrations in the brain, and is believed to support cognitive function, including memory and focus³
• Alpha-GPC : Alpha-GPC is a type of choline that is known for its ability to enhance cognitive function, including memory and focus.
• TAU (uridine): TAU is a blend of uridine, choline, and DHA, which is believed to support brain health and cognitive function.
• Artichoke extract : Artichoke extract is believed to enhance cognitive function by increasing levels of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that is important for memory and learning.
• Dynamine : Dynamine is a type of alkaloid that is believed to enhance cognitive function by increasing levels of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is important for mood and motivation.

Overall, the ingredients in Thesis Nootropics are carefully chosen for their cognitive-boosting properties, and are designed to work together to enhance overall brain health and cognitive function.

Thesis Nootropics Health Benefits

Thesis Nootropics is a brand that offers personalized nootropics designed to enhance cognitive function and overall brain health. Their blends contain a variety of ingredients that are carefully chosen for their cognitive-boosting properties, and offer numerous health benefits. Here are some of the health benefits of Thesis Nootropics:

• Increased cognitive energy : One of the key benefits of Thesis Nootropics is increased cognitive energy, which can help improve productivity, mental alertness, and motivation, as it contains cognizin .
• Enhanced mental clarity : Another benefit of Thesis Nootropics is enhanced mental clarity,given from Lion’s Mane Mushroom which can help reduce brain fog and improve focus.
• Improved memory and learning abilities : Thesis Nootropics contains ingredients that are believed to improve memory and learning abilities, like Phosphatidylserine , which can help users retain information more effectively.
• Elevated mood : Thesis Nootropics may help elevate mood and reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression, thanks to ingredients like L-Theanine and Ashwagandha .
• Lowered stress levels : The adaptogenic herbs in Thesis Nootropics, such as Rhodiola Rosea and Ashwagandha , are known for their ability to lower stress levels and promote relaxation.
• Boosted focus : Thesis Nootropics contains ingredients like Alpha-GPC and Artichoke extract , which are believed to boost focus and concentration.

While Thesis Nootropics offers numerous health benefits, it’s important to note that the long-term effects of nootropics are not yet fully understood and more research is needed.

3 Thesis Nootropics Bestsellers

Thesis energy review.

If you’re constantly struggling to keep up with the demands of your busy life, it might be time to try a natural energy booster like Thesis Energy. This powerful nootropic blend is specifically designed to increase energy, overcome fatigue, and build mental stamina.

Thesis Energy is caffeine-free, making it a great option for those who are sensitive to caffeine or looking for a natural alternative to traditional energy drinks. The Energy formulation is designed to help improve focus and mental clarity, increase cognitive energy, and reduce fatigue. Whether you’re facing a busy day at work, recovering after a night of poor sleep, or gearing up for an intense workout, Thesis Energy can help you power through.

Each ingredient in Thesis Energy is carefully chosen for its energy-boosting properties. The specific ingredients can vary depending on your needs, but they work together to help increase energy, improve mental clarity, and reduce fatigue.

To get the most out of Thesis Energy, take it every morning on an empty stomach. You can also take it again after lunch if you need an extra boost. It’s designed to help you tackle busy, hectic days, recover from poor sleep, and power through intense workouts.

If you’re tired of relying on coffee and energy drinks to get through the day, it might be time to give Thesis Energy a try. Check availability and start boosting your energy naturally today!

Thesis Creativity

If you’re someone who struggles with creativity or finds yourself feeling stuck in your creative endeavors, Thesis Creativity may be worth considering. This nootropic supplement is designed to help spark inspiration, enhance verbal fluency, and boost confidence in your own great ideas.

So what’s in Thesis Creativity? The ingredients may vary depending on your specific needs, but these ingredients work together to support stress management, memory function, mood regulation, and energy production.

By supporting stress management, memory function, and mood regulation, Thesis Creativity can help free up mental space for more creative thinking. Additionally, the caffeine and L-theanine combo can provide a boost of energy and focus without the jitters and crash that can come with caffeine alone.

To get the most out of Thesis Creativity, it is recommended to take it every morning on an empty stomach and again after lunch if you need an extra boost. This nootropic blend is particularly helpful for brainstorming and creative thinking, writing and creative projects, and public speaking and social situations.

As with any nootropic supplement, it’s important to note that the long-term effects of Thesis Creativity are not yet fully understood and more research is needed. It’s always a good idea to speak with a healthcare professional before adding any new supplements to your routine.

In summary, if you’re looking for a little extra help in the creativity department, Thesis Creativity may be a valuable addition to your nootropic lineup. Its unique blend of ingredients can help support mental clarity, mood regulation, and energy production, making it a valuable tool for any creative individual.

Thesis Logic

If you’ve been having trouble with your memory lately, such as forgetting what you had for lunch yesterday or struggling to recall common words, then Thesis Logic may be just what you need. This formula is designed to help enhance your processing speed, boost your memory, and deepen your thinking.

Thesis Logic is caffeine-free, making it a great option for those who are sensitive to caffeine. The formula is ideal for use during deep, focused work, complex problem-solving, research projects, and completing tedious tasks.

Taking Thesis Logic is easy – simply take it every morning on an empty stomach, and take it again after lunch if you need an extra boost. By incorporating Thesis Logic into your daily routine, you may notice improvements in your cognitive function and overall mental performance.

Who Is Thesis Nootropics For? 

Thesis nootropics are designed for a number of different specific needs, including anyone who wants to focus better, have more energy, and maintain mental clarity. All in all, the products are specifically formulated to improve day to day life and target your specific needs .

Thesis Nootropics Side Effects

While Thesis nootropics are designed to enhance cognitive performance and provide a range of benefits, it’s important to be aware of the potential side effects that can occur. As with any supplement, individual reactions can vary, and some people may experience side effects while others may not.

Some of the potential side effects of Thesis nootropics include:

• Insomnia : Some nootropics contain caffeine or other stimulants that can disrupt sleep patterns and lead to difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
• Blurry vision : Certain nootropics, such as those containing alpha GPC, have been linked to temporary blurry vision.
• High blood pressure : Stimulant-based nootropics can increase blood pressure, which can be dangerous for people with hypertension or other heart conditions.
• Fast heart rate : Similarly, stimulants can also increase heart rate, leading to palpitations or a rapid pulse.
• Circulation problem s: Certain nootropics, such as vinpocetine, can affect blood flow and circulation, leading to issues like dizziness, nausea, or headaches.
• Addiction : Some nootropics, such as those containing racetams, have been associated with the potential for addiction or dependence if used long-term.

It’s important to remember that not all nootropics will produce these side effects, and the severity of any reactions will depend on individual factors such as dosage, duration of use, and underlying health conditions. However, it’s always wise to discuss any potential risks with a healthcare professional before starting any new supplement regimen.

Additionally, it’s important to follow dosage instructions carefully and not to exceed recommended amounts, as this can increase the risk of side effects. By being mindful of potential risks and using nootropics responsibly, users can reap the benefits of these supplements without experiencing adverse effects.

Thesis Nootropics Reviews: What Do Customers Think?

At this point in our Thesis nootropics review, it’s time to turn to what customers are saying. So, we sourced testimonials from the brand’s website, Reddit, and ZenMasterWellness. And spoiler alert, the Thesis nootropics reviews we came across have nothing but good things to say.

On takethesis.com , the brand earns 4.4/5 stars out of 7,956 reviews. One patron describes their particular blend as the perfect alternative to prescription meds :

“ I have been off stimulants for months now and these formulas are far superior. My husband and daughter both noticed the change and said I have been more productive, focused, less anxious, and more “thinking outside the box”. I have tried for years to get off stims and nothing would work .”

On Reddit, many reviewers share similar sentiments about how effective the products are. One buyer shares that they tried tons of different nootropics on the market, and Thesis stands out amongst the crowd . 

On ZenMasterWellness, one reviewer states that their blend provided the exact results they were looking for :

“ They offer notable improvements to how well I’m able to focus, stay on task, and grind when it’s time to grind. In practice, this usually looks like a clearer mind and an improved ability to just… chill. With the Clarity and Creativity blends, in particular, I just feel leveled out .”

Backed by clinical trials and real customer experiences, Thesis stands out in the world of nootropics and supplements. The personalized selections prove effective, while the quality ingredients live up to expectations. 

Is Thesis Nootropics Legit?

If you’re wondering if this brand offers products that are too good to be true, this Thesis nootropics review is here to say that it is the real deal .

The brand is backed by numerous clinical trials, which highlight how 86% of customers reported improvements in a wide range of cognitive challenges, while 89% noticed an improvement in their ability to reduce stress and maintain energy.

Is Thesis Nootropics Worth It?

Thesis is an appealing choice in the world of nootropics because it provides a completely customized selection based on your needs and goals. Plus, the ingredients are potent and ensure the best effects—and you only end up paying for the benefits you actually need.

With that in mind, this Thesis nootropics review deems the brand worth the try.

Alternatives

Here are some alternatives to Thesis Nootropics that you might find interesting:

• Mind Lab Pro – This nootropic supplement is designed to improve cognitive function and mental performance. It contains 11 ingredients that work together to enhance memory, focus, and overall brain health.
• Thorne Supplements : If you’re looking for high-quality, science-based supplements, Thorne is a great choice. Their products are designed with the latest research in mind and are rigorously tested for quality and purity. Some of their popular offerings include multivitamins, protein powders, and omega-3 supplements.
• WeAreFeel Supplements : WeAreFeel is a supplement brand that offers a variety of products designed to support different aspects of your health. Their supplements are vegan-friendly and free from artificial colors, flavors, and preservatives. Some of their popular offerings include multivitamins, probiotics, and omega-3 supplements.
• Neuro Gum : If you’re looking for a quick and easy way to boost your focus and energy levels, Neuro Gum is a great option. This gum is infused with caffeine and other natural ingredients that can help improve mental clarity and alertness. Plus, it’s sugar-free and comes in a variety of delicious flavors.
• Neuriva Plus : Neuriva Plus is a brain supplement that’s designed to improve memory, focus, and cognitive performance. It contains a blend of natural ingredients, including coffee fruit extract and phosphatidylserine, that have been shown to support brain health. If you’re looking for a natural way to boost your cognitive function, Neuriva Plus is worth considering.

Thesis Nootropics Promotions & Discounts 

There aren’t currently any Thesis promos or discounts available. That being said, if you subscribe for recurring shipments of your recommended products, you’ll save $40 monthly .

Where to Buy Thesis Nootropics

At the time of this Thesis nootropics review, the products are exclusively available on the brand’s website, takethesis.com .

Is Thesis Nootropics vegan?  

Thesis nootropics are made with only vegan ingredients . That being said, while the brand has taken precautions to protect against cross contamination, the products are not certified vegan.

Is Thesis Nootropics gluten-free? 

On top of being vegan, Thesis products are made without gluten, eggs, or nuts . Again, while the brand strives to protect users against cross contamination, the products are not certified gluten free. 

What is Thesis Nootropics’ Shipping Policy?

If you’re anxiously awaiting your order from this Thesis nootropics review, you’ll be happy to hear that the company offers speedy shipping, sending orders out within 1 business day. After that, packages should arrive within only 1-3 business days . Costs are calculated at checkout.

At this time, Thesis is not able to offer international shipping. This Thesis nootropics review recommends following the brand on social media and signing up for the newsletter to stay up to date with shipping policies. 

What is Thesis Nootropics’ Return Policy?

If you find that your Thesis formula isn’t working out, the company requests that you contact them to make changes and adjustments to ensure you are able to receive the proper help.

If you would still like to make a return, follow these simple steps for a refund:

• Submit your refund request
• Ship the items back within 30 days of the original delivery
• Send an email with your tracking number to the brand
• Return any remaining product in their original packaging to: 

Thesis Returns 902 Broadway

6th Floor New York, NY 

Once your return has been received, a refund will be processed and email confirmation will be sent. It’s also important to note that the brand can only refund one month’s supply per customer and return shipping is the customer’s responsibility. 

How to Contact Thesis Nootropics

We hope you enjoyed this Thesis nootropics review! If you have any further questions about the brand or its products, you can contact them using the following methods:

• Call 1 (646) 647-3599
• Email [email protected]

902 Broadway Floor 6 New York, NY 10010

If you’re looking for other ways to boost your productivity via supplements, check out these other brands we’ve reviewed:

Thorne Supplements Review

WeAreFeel Supplements Review

Neuro Gum Review

Neuriva Plus Review

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Thesis Nootropics Review

Thesis has a range of targeted nootropics you can combine to optimize your results. our team will help you decide which ones are right for you..

Daniel is a senior editor and writer at Innerbody Research. After receiving his bachelor’s degree in writing, he attended post-graduate studies at George Mason University and pursued a career in nutritional science.

Dr. Segar is a cardiology fellow at the Texas Heart Institute and a member of Innerbody Research's Medical Review Board.

In this Review

Nootropics in general offer the potential to improve cognitive abilities and regulate mood without the need for a prescription. And while more research is necessary, current data suggests that they consist of ingredients that are generally safe and effective for healthy adults. 35 However, Thesis isn’t the only provider of high-quality nootropics, nor do they offer especially low prices. In this review, we'll compare and contrast Thesis’ six formulas and see how they stack up against a growing field of competitors.

Our Findings

Despite the somewhat high price, we recommend Thesis to anyone looking for a nootropic subscription that can be tailored to their specific needs. The formulas from Thesis provide tangible benefits with minimal ingredients, and each formula is available with or without caffeine. Thesis also offers stellar customer service and delivers their product in individually packed doses you can take just about anywhere.

• You can feel most results within an hour
• Products are third-party-tested for purity
• All options available without stimulants
• Outstanding phone support
• Subscriptions include complimentary wellness coaching
• Free shipping on all orders
• Use code INNERBODY for 10% off your first order
• Somewhat more expensive than competitors
• Up to four large pills per dose

GREAT PICKS FROM THESIS

Special Offer: Take 10% OFF with code INNERBODY

Why you should trust us

Over the past two decades, Innerbody Research has helped tens of millions of readers make more informed decisions about staying healthy and living healthier lifestyles. As nootropics have become more important players in the supplements landscape, we’ve taken a serious look at the key players to see which ones are worthwhile.

Thesis exists in a class of nootropics that combines multiple nootropic ingredients to achieve specific goals. We’ve spent hundreds of hours researching and testing various nootropics, including both individual ingredients and combinations like Thesis offers. In researching Thesis and their competitors, our team has read more than 100 clinical studies examining the efficacy and safety of nootropic ingredients, and we’ve combined all of that knowledge with our experiences to create this review.

If you're curious about our team's experience using Thesis nootropics and wondering how the products will arrive at your door, we made this handy, 5-minute video summarizing those details:

Additionally, like all health-related content on this website, this review was thoroughly vetted by one or more members of our Medical Review Board for accuracy.

How we evaluated Thesis

To evaluate Thesis, we examined the extensive research available on each ingredient the company uses and compared them to a growing marketplace of nootropics, many of which our testing team has tried over the past few years. Specifically, we assessed how effectively Thesis' formulas work, as well as their safety, cost, and the convenience of acquiring and taking them.

Ultimately, we found Thesis to be one of the more reliable companies in terms of product quality and customer care, even if they are among the more expensive nootropic brands. For any nootropic, you’re looking to create a noticeable effect in brain performance, and altering anything to do with that sensitive chemistry likely warrants a fair investment. The bargain bin is not typically where you want to shop for mind-enhancing substances.

We’ll get into a more direct comparison between Thesis and their competitors a little later, and you’ll see that the balance between their price and overall value is quite reasonable. For now, let’s look at each criterion in more detail.

Effectiveness

Nootropic companies have a plethora of ingredients at their fingertips when they formulate their products. Some companies take a modern approach, focusing on the latest research into established Western medicines. Others look to the past, where ancient Chinese and Ayurvedic practices employed various botanicals to achieve cognitive effects. The best companies combine these approaches, using potentially beneficial ingredients that science supports.

Thesis takes this combined approach, employing just under three dozen ingredients from amino acids to ancient herbs across their six products. The company scores highly in effectiveness thanks to the ingredients they choose and the doses they offer for each, making it likely that you can notice their combined effects.

Individual results will vary due to everything from sleep patterns to diet, but most people should find benefits in at least one of Thesis' six formulas. Caffeinated formulas generally have more pronounced effects than stimulant-free versions, but the value of Thesis offering every formula with or without stimulants cannot be overstated.

One minor knock against Thesis is that, unlike some of their competitors, Thesis does not have a nootropic blend designed for improved sleep. Better sleep supports cognition and mood, so some companies offer formulas designed specifically for sleep promotion with ingredients like melatonin. That said, some of Thesis’ formulas contain lion’s mane or Zembrin (a branded form of Sceletium tortuosum that’s been shown to reduce anxiety and promote sleep). 2 3 And the amount of Zembrin used in Thesis’ Creativity and Confidence blends is the exact same amount used in these successful studies — 25mg.

Good nootropics are, unfortunately, a bit expensive. You can find less expensive options than Thesis, but their $79 monthly rate is right in the middle of what the market demands. You could also argue that the ingredient quality, customization options, and overall efficacy Thesis offers make it a superior value to many less expensive alternatives. Still, the price remains a sticking point for some.

Let's compare the monthly and per-dose costs with some of Thesis' closest competition. The prices below reflect subscription savings where available.

Three of the seven competitors included in the chart above are more expensive than Thesis, and another three are no more than $15 less expensive, revealing their generally average cost. Focus Factor — consistently our top budget pick among nootropics — costs much less than others in the field and includes many ingredients with associated clinical research. The downside is that increasing the number of ingredients (even when they seem to work) increases the odds of an adverse reaction.

TruBrain is the only company that truly compares to Thesis from a quality and variety standpoint. Other companies offer only one or two formulas, whereas Thesis and TruBrain each offer several more targeted products. TruBrain allows you to spend just $69 on your first jar when you subscribe — $10 less than Thesis — but that price shoots up to $119 every month after that, making Thesis the superior value.

When we consider the safety of any supplement, we look at available research into individual ingredients and compare those dosages with what the supplement offers. Whenever possible, we also test the product ourselves to observe its effects on us. Additionally, we look for safety standards in manufacturing that can provide added peace of mind, like third-party testing and compliance with the FDA’s Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP).

Thesis manufactures their products in GMP-compliant facilities and has third-party testing performed to assess the purity of each ingredient and formula. And the clinical research involving the lion's share of their ingredients reveals minimal risk profiles with few to no adverse effects reported. That said, ashwagandha isn’t safe for pregnant or breastfeeding individuals, and it can stimulate thyroid activity, so anyone with thyroid concerns (hyper- or hypothyroidism) or on medication to regulate thyroid function should be careful. 36 37

Thesis also limits their formulas to a handful of ingredients, which reduces the likelihood that any one of them would cause an adverse reaction. This is pretty typical of nootropics in Thesis’ class, but less expensive nootropics might try to convince you of their value by stuffing a single blend with several dozen components. That might increase the chances you feel some positive effect, but the side effect risk goes up by the same token.

Convenience

Our convenience rating considers various aspects of a user's experience. It usually starts with the quality of a product's website design and whether or not its pages are easy to navigate. We also consider the presence of subscription systems that make reordering easier and money-back guarantees that protect your investment. A company's customer service is another vital aspect of convenience, especially if you need questions answered. The quality of an FAQ section, the availability of representatives via chat or phone call, and the responsiveness to email inquiries all play a part here.

Our convenience rating is also informed by the steps required to actually take the product. Nootropics often consist of large capsules, and doses can contain anywhere from 1-7 capsules, which is awful for anyone with difficulty taking pills. Smaller capsules, fewer capsules per dose, and simple dosing schedules are ideal. Thesis’ capsule count varies per formula, ranging from 2-4 mid-size capsules you can take 30 minutes before you might want or need their effects.

To summarize some important aspects of nootropic company convenience, let's look at which companies have large capsule counts, good money-back guarantees, and subscription systems.

Thesis also provides a service that few other companies offer: free consultations with in-house nootropic coaches. These experts can help you figure out the best time to take specific Thesis formulas and guide your experience so you can tell whether or not they're working for you. Follow-up consultations are also free as long as you subscribe to the product.

What are nootropics?

Nootropic is a term most people use to refer to any non-prescription supplement that can boost brainpower. 4 The technical definition is a little more nuanced — encompassing prescription medications like Ritalin and Adderall — but the supplement industry has largely co-opted it to categorize the new class of non-prescription products. The word loosely translates from its Greek origins to mean mind-changing, and the majority of ingredients in a given nootropic seek to alter the brain’s cognitive abilities, as well as its governance of mood and energy.

Most nootropic supplements contain botanical ingredients, vitamins, minerals, and amino acids that boast at least some clinical research connecting them with improvements in any of the following:

Compared to their prescription cousins, nootropic supplements aren't particularly strong. Still, limited clinical research indicates a tangible benefit to taking them.

What is Thesis?

Thesis is a supplement company with a focus on nootropics. Their founders each had experiences growing up with what would today be considered learning disabilities, and they credit nootropics for changing their lives. They make six distinct nootropic formulas, each with a specific ingredient profile.

Thesis differentiates themselves from their competitors in several critical ways:

• They offer a starter kit containing a personalized combination of four blends.
• You have the option to remove caffeine by request from any formula.
• They provide some of the best phone support we've ever experienced.
• Their targeted formulas conform to changing needs.

By providing you with a mix of formulas, Thesis gives you the ability to enhance the aspects of your cognitive and emotional life that need it the most on any given day. Maybe you know you have low energy levels on Mondays and Wednesdays, so you can take the Energy formula on those days. Maybe you want to devote your weekends to artistic pursuits. You can use the Creativity blend for that. Or you might find that one of their six blends works well for you in any situation. In that case, you can adjust your order to receive only that formula.

Thesis' customer service — particularly over the phone — is outstanding. While many customers might find chat support more convenient, our testers rarely waited more than a minute to speak to someone, and Thesis employs phone operators who are extraordinarily knowledgeable about the product and nootropics in general. Their email support is fine, and their chat support often redirects to an email inquiry. But that phone support is some of the best our testing team has experienced.

Is Thesis safe?

Most of the ingredients that Thesis uses in their nootropics exhibit minimal side effects in clinical research, so there’s a good chance that Thesis' various formulas will be safe for most people. But Thesis has nearly three dozen ingredients in their catalog, and not all of them will be safe for all users, including those who are pregnant or breastfeeding. Of course, the most important thing you can do is talk to your doctor before taking Thesis.

The most common side effects to watch out for when you start taking Thesis nootropics include:

• Loss of appetite
• Digestive issues

Thesis advises discontinuing their nootropics if you experience persistent headaches or an upset stomach.

Some Thesis products may present contraindications with certain prescription medicines. For example, ashwagandha has been shown to normalize thyroid hormone levels in people with hypothyroidism. 5 This has led some to believe that it could conversely cause thyrotoxicity in people with hyperthyroidism, though it’s worth noting that the study in question employed double the highest ashwagandha dose you’ll find in Thesis nootropics — the study used 600mg, and the ashwagandha dose in Thesis’ Creativity is 300mg.

Still, this should make abundantly clear the case for speaking with your doctor prior to taking Thesis. This is especially true considering the lack of research into the specific ingredient combinations you’ll find in Thesis products. There is also very little research looking into the risks of combining nootropic supplements with prescription stimulants such as Ritalin, Adderall, or Vyvanse.

Some side effects, such as jitteriness, can be attributed to the caffeine in Thesis formulas. The fact that you can elect to remove caffeine from any formula expands the company’s reach to anyone with caffeine sensitivities and those who really don’t want to give up their morning cup of coffee. If you want caffeine in your Thesis formula, we recommend trying it without having had any coffee first, so you can see how it affects you.

Insider Tip: If you’re not sure whether to get your formula with or without caffeine, we recommend getting it with caffeine. Thesis isolates the included caffeine in a single capsule separate from other ingredients. Caffeinated formulas cost the same as uncaffeinated ones, and you can always elect not to take the caffeine capsule (the smallest capsule in any formula, containing a white powder).

What are the ingredients in Thesis?

Thesis uses an impressive set of ingredients, many of which have been part of respectable clinical research. Not all of the effects they hope these ingredients provide have been proven with sufficient statistical significance or over multiple studies in different populations, but what we do know strongly suggests efficacy.

Here's a look at several Thesis ingredients that have encouraging research behind them:

Several studies on mice show that dihydrohonokiol-B (DHH-B) has potent anxiolytic effects. 6 That means it may be able to help combat anxiety. However, we can’t say this for sure since there haven’t been any studies conducted on humans yet, so any potential benefits are speculative at this time. 25 Converting the successful dose used in mice (1mg) to the equivalent human amount (4.86 mg) is about half the amount used in Thesis’ Confidence (10mg). 6

In numerous studies, ashwagandha has been shown to reduce stress and anxiety. 32 Thesis uses a branded KSM-66 ashwagandha, which has a high standardized count of withanolides — the component of ashwagandha responsible for its positive effects. 33 This ensures both efficacy and consistency from doses that align with those used in successful studies.

While every formula is different, you'll notice that each contains caffeine and L-theanine. The nootropic properties of caffeine are well established. 19 L-theanine — a non-stimulant derived from green tea — has been shown to smooth out the jittery effects of caffeine. You can easily have caffeine removed from any Thesis formula for no extra cost, which is unique in the nootropic market. The L-theanine will remain, as it has its own set of cognitive benefits in addition to its ability to tame caffeine. 20

Saffron offers multiple benefits, including increased levels of dopamine and glutamate, that are dose-dependent. Human studies have also shown positive effects on depression symptoms. Thesis’ Confidence uses 28mg, which is 2mg less than what was used in many of the studies on saffron’s antidepressant effects. However, one study did find success with as little as 15mg. 7

A review of more than 120 scientific articles looking into the cognitive effects of phosphatidylserine concluded that it “safely slows, halts, or reverses biochemical alterations and structural deterioration in nerve cells.” The study goes on to say that it “supports human cognitive functions, including the formation of short-term memory, the consolidation of long-term memory, the ability to create new memories, the ability to retrieve memories, the ability to learn and recall information, the ability to focus attention and concentrate, the ability to reason and solve problems, language skills, and the ability to communicate.” 34

Derived from a South African plant, Zembrin appears to provide cognitive and anti-anxiety effects as demonstrated in clinical studies on human participants that used the same 25mg dose found in Thesis Creativity and Confidence. 8

Synapsa is a patented form of Bacopa extract, a traditional Ayurvedic memory enhancer. Studies on humans resulted in statistically significant improvements in cognitive tests. The study used 150mg twice daily (300mg total), which is only 20mg less than the 320mg used in Thesis’ Logic. 9

7,8 DHF is a small molecular TrkB agonist that can easily cross the blood-brain barrier. It can increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein that improves neuroplasticity, learning, and memory. BDNF deficiencies are connected to numerous cognitive ailments as well. However, no human studies have been conducted. 26 In mice, 7,8 DHF appears to enhance spatial memory. When converting the effective dose for mice to humans, Thesis’ Clarity offers roughly 6mg more (about 24mg compared to Thesis’ 30mg). 27

Choline is a precursor to acetylcholine, a powerful neurotransmitter in the peripheral, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems. 10 One study on older adult human participants found that taking 187-399mg per day of choline reduced the risk of low cognitive functioning by nearly 50% compared to an intake under 187mg per day. 28 The CDP choline content in Thesis’ Energy is 300mg.

A 2010 clinical study on 485 older adult (over 55 years old) subjects found that 900mg per day of DHA improved memory and learning in those with age-related cognitive decline. 11 And another study in healthy adults 18-90 years old found that 580mg per day helped improve memory. 29 Unfortunately, the amounts used in many studies to improve cognitive function are quite a bit more than the 200mg (which is DHA and L-lysine combined) found in Thesis’ Logic.

Like choline, Alpha-GPC acts as an effective acetylcholine precursor. Studies also show that supplementation with Alpha-GPC can stave off exercise-induced reductions in choline levels. The effective amount used in the mentioned study is 200mg, which is less than half of what you’ll find in Thesis’ Clarity (500mg). 12

In addition to being an effective treatment for neuropathic pain, agmatine appears to have potent effects as an antidepressant. A five-year safety case report study concluded that there are no long-term side effect risks. Thesis’ Creativity only contains 250mg, which is well below the amount tolerated by study participants (2.67g per day). 13

Research into epicatechin indicates that it can enhance cerebral blood flow, delivering more oxygen to the brain to ensure it operates at its highest efficiency. The most effective dose for cognitive benefits appears to be over 50mg per day, and Thesis’ Clarity contains 278mg. 14

Lion's mane has been shown to increase nerve growth factor and promote neurite outgrowth of specific neural cells. It's a safe and reliable neurotrophic, but studies have debunked claims of neuroprotective properties. 15 A very small study of only 41 participants found that 1.8g of Lion’s mane may reduce stress and improve cognitive performance. 30 Thesis’ Clarity contains 500mg of Lion’s mane.

Hyperphenylalaninemia, a severe deficiency in phenylalanine, results in reduced dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline levels in the brain. 16 It can also alter cerebral myelin and protein synthesis. Supplementing with phenylalanine may provide neuroprotective benefits.

In a 2020 study, phenylalanine was a large component in a mix of seven amino acids that appeared to improve cognitive, psychological, and social functioning in middle-aged and older adults. Effective doses ranged from 0.85g to 1.7g of phenylalanine. A serving of Thesis’ Motivation contains 500mg, a bit under half of the average amount. 31

Examining the six formulas

Thesis has six nootropic formulas in their lineup (even though you can only choose up to four of them per box). Several other nootropic companies like TruBrain and BrainMD boast targeted lineups, as well, but Thesis is the Goldilocks of the bunch. Where BrainMD’s hyper-specific formulas rely on perhaps too few ingredients to make them worthwhile, many of TruBrain’s complex blends lack real specificity. With Thesis, you get targeted effects from numerous ingredients in moderately complex and reasonably priced combinations.

Each Thesis formula has a blend of ingredients that addresses specific needs. Their names give you a pretty big clue as to what the company intends each to do, but a closer look at their ingredients will help you understand how they achieve this.

Their formulas are:

Interestingly, the company thinks of its formulas as working well in pairs. You don't have to utilize them as such, but it's helpful to know how they view their most effective combinations. The following list details their purported combined benefits.

Enhances focus, eliminates brain fog, and lets thoughts flow naturally

Gets you going, keeps you going, and never crashes

Sparks new ideas, inspires extroversion, and revels in openness

You'll usually only take one formula at a time, but these pairs may act synergistically for specific personality types or cognitive needs.

Note that your first shipment of Thesis will contain six individually packed doses for four of these six formulas. Thesis chooses these formulas for you based on the results of an intake questionnaire, but you can make adjustments to that shipment on the customer dashboard before the shipment leaves their warehouse.

Let's take a closer look at each formula as they would appear with caffeine included.

Thesis Clarity

Thesis Clarity relies on 7,8 DHF (dihydroxyflavone), Alpha GPC (glycerylphosphorylcholine), epicatechin, and lion's mane to increase blood flow to the brain and stimulate the production of acetylcholine, a powerful neurotransmitter associated with learning, memory, and attention. It's particularly adept at cutting through brain fog.

Here's a look at Clarity's full ingredients list:

• Alpha GPC: 500mg
• Lion's Mane Mushroom: 500mg
• Camellia sinensis tea leaf: 278mg
• Dihydroxyflavone: 30mg
• Caffeine: 100mg
• L-Theanine: 200mg

One dose of Clarity consists of four capsules for the caffeinated formula and three capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Thesis Logic

Thesis Logic contains triacetyluridine (TAU), which caters to the health of the entire central nervous system. It also uses phosphatidylserine to help facilitate communication between and protection of brain cells. 17

This is Logic’s complete ingredients list:

• Ginkgo Biloba: 160mg
• Theobromine: 100mg
• Phosphatidylserine: 400mg
• High DHA Algae: 200mg
• Triacetyluridine: 30mg
• Bacopa Monnieri: 320mg

One dose of Logic consists of four capsules for the caffeinated formula and three capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Thesis Energy

Thesis Energy uses cysteine and tyrosine alongside caffeine to deliver a steady energy supply. It also includes TeaCrine, a branded form of theacrine, which partners with caffeine to affect adenosine signaling and prevent fatigue.

Here’s a full list of Energy’s ingredients:

• Citicoline: 300mg
• Mango leaf: 300mg
• Theacrine: 100mg
• N-Acetyl cysteine: 500mg
• Indian trumpet tree: 100mg
• N-Acetyl L-tyrosine: 300mg

One dose of Energy consists of three capsules for the caffeinated formula and two capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Thesis Motivation

Blood flow and cellular function are at the core of Thesis Motivation . It employs artichoke extract, forskolin, and B12 to achieve these goals, with a healthy dose of phenylalanine for added focus and motivation.

Here's Motivation's full ingredients list:

• L-Phenylalanine: 500mg
• Methylliberine: 100mg
• Vitamin B12: 1000mcg
• Forskolin: 250mg
• Artichoke: 450mg

One dose of Motivation consists of three capsules for the caffeinated formula and two capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Thesis Creativity

Thesis Creativity aims to realign you with your inspiration by removing barriers caused by stress, anxiety, and depression. It contains ingredients with powerful anxiolytic properties and 5-HT reuptake inhibition.

Here's a look at Creativity’s ingredients list:

• Alpha GPC: 150mg
• Agmatine sulfate: 250mg
• Panax ginseng: 200mg
• Ashwagandha root: 300mg
• Sceletium tortuosum : 25mg

One dose of Creativity consists of three capsules for the caffeinated formula and two capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Thesis Confidence

Confidence is designed to work hand-in-hand with Creativity, using saffron and DHH-B from magnolia bark to increase dopamine levels and decrease anxiety. One fascinating ingredient in this formula is sage extract, which one 2021 study showed can help with various memory tasks, including name and face recognition. 18 It’s worth noting, though, that this study employed a 600mg dose compared to Thesis’ 333mg dose.

Here is Confidence's complete ingredients list:

• Saffron: 28mg
• Magnesium bisglycinate: 500mg
• Sage: 333mg
• Magnolia Bark: 10mg
• Ashwagandha leaf & root: 120mg

One dose of Confidence consists of three capsules for the caffeinated formula and two capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Our Thesis testing results

Our testing team has tried every Thesis formula (with and without caffeine) to determine their short- and long-term efficacy, at least at an anecdotal level. Here’s a quick summary of our experiences:

Clarity provided our testers with a combined sense of focus and mental ease, though we mostly found that it worked best from its second day forward. The very first dose is mildly effective, but it served us better as a loading dose. We had no crash from either caffeinated or uncaffeinated formulas.

Our testers found that Logic provided a similar experience as Clarity, increasing focus and mental acuity, but the caffeinated formula caused a crash in two of our testers. By excluding the caffeine, that crash can be avoided, though that comes at the expense of some efficacy.

We were very curious about how this formula would perform without the caffeine. Our testers had a noticeable increase in energy without jitteriness about one hour after taking Energy. The caffeinated version caused the worst crash of all the formulas, but we were pleased to find that the formula without caffeine still provided noticeable energy increases without a crash.

Our testers are generally a pretty motivated bunch, so we might not have been the best group to evaluate this particular formula. The testers who felt an uptick in a sense of motivation described it more like a feeling of being able to follow through on tasks with less distraction and completion anxiety.

Creativity, like Clarity, seemed to work better for our testers on its second and third days than on its first. Testers generally described a sensation similar to Motivation but without the feeling of being “on rails,” as one tester put it. It seems to allow for more curiosity and exploration, though not necessarily as much follow-through.

This is Thesis’ newest formula, so fewer of our testers have tried it. Among those who have, one tester with a mild case of social anxiety described feeling a bit more relaxed among groups of people. Testers preferred this formula without caffeine.

Thesis pricing, shipping, and returns

Thesis keeps their price structure decidedly simple. This is refreshing, considering the range of nootropics they offer. You don't have to worry about one formula costing you more than another. However, Thesis doesn't make a non-subscription approach economically feasible.

Every Thesis shipment — including the starter pack — consists of four small boxes, each containing six doses of a single formula. That’s 24 doses/month.

Here's how it works:

• Any one-time purchase of a one-month supply, including the starter kit, costs $119.
• When you subscribe, that monthly cost is only $79.
• You can take an extra 10% off your first order with the coupon code INNERBODY

Subscriptions require an account with Thesis, which gives you access to a well-designed customer dashboard. This is where you can easily make formula adjustments, alter your shipping schedule, or cancel your subscription entirely.

Shipping from Thesis is free in the U.S., and the company offers a 30-day money-back guarantee. In our testing experience, we attempted a return on a second shipment into the subscription. While it isn’t the company’s policy to do so, they refunded our money and let us keep the product. This is similar to some other “Keep it” guarantees we’ve seen from competitors, and we appreciated it.

Getting started with Thesis Nootropics

Thesis' website is easy to navigate, but it is inconvenient that you must complete the signup questionnaire before accessing formula-specific pages. There are ways around this — like direct searching or just knowing the formula URLs — but we think reviewing formulas should be a little easier when you first get to the site. And you won’t be able to place an order for anything until you complete the questionnaire.

The user interface for managing your subscription is exceptionally intuitive. You can quickly adjust your formula combinations, specifying whether or not you want specific formulas to contain caffeine.

Setting up a subscription with Thesis is a straightforward process. Here are the basic steps:

• Take the Thesis quiz . This will create a starter kit specific to your results. (You can also build a box from scratch if you know which formulas you want to try.)
• Order your starter kit. We recommend going with the kit Thesis creates after your quiz, but if you change your mind, you can use the customer portal after placing your order to make any changes to the formula combination before it ships.
• Set up a coaching consultation. This is an optional step, but we recommend it and encourage you to have your first consultation before your kit arrives.
• Take your nootropics as needed. Most people can experience some of Thesis nootropics' benefits within a few hours of ingestion. Some ingredients and formulas may take a few days to produce results.
• Refine your order. As you near the end of your first month, you can head over to the Thesis website and customize your next order to include the formula or formulas you like most.
• Set up follow-up consultations as needed. These will help you refine your future orders and maximize your results.

When you subscribe to the starter kit, you will continue receiving that kit every month until you customize your order. Thesis divides their boxes into four six-dose supplies, and you can mix and match those supplies to suit your needs. For example, you could boost energy on the weekdays and creativity on the weekends by getting a one-month supply with 18 servings of Energy in three packages and six servings of Creativity in a single package.

Personalized insights and coaching

When you take the quiz on the Thesis website, you'll get personalized insights comparing your results to other quiz-takers and a data set developed from nearly 500 scientific studies. The parameters in your results cover don’t completely line up with their formulas, but they include:

These results inform the system to make recommendations for your starter kit. After you order, you can set up a consultation with a Thesis coach. These consultations are free, and you can have as many follow-up sessions as you like. Other companies have apps or online resources like blogs or courses to help you on your nootropic journey, but Thesis’ personalized coaching offers a unique approach and execution.

Consultation calls last around 15 minutes, though some of our testers had their sessions go longer as their coaches' schedules allowed. We received best practices information about taking nootropics that covered dose timing, formula application, and more. Some of our testers also received diet and exercise advice that coincided with their formulas.

Alternatives to Thesis

There are generally two tiers of products in the nootropics landscape. The lower tier consists of products that cost between $20 and $40. Many of these nootropics contain proprietary blends that obscure the exact quantities of ingredients, presumably so companies can use more of the least expensive components. Some companies in this tier disclose their ingredient quantities but may not source them from the highest quality suppliers or perform third-party testing of any kind.

Top brands in this tier include:

• Onnit Alpha BRAIN
• Moon Juice Brain Dust
• Focus Factor

The second tier — where you'll find Thesis — consists of more expensive nootropics that spell their contents out clearly, use high-quality ingredients, and often perform third-party testing to ensure safety and potency. Top brands in this tier include:

• Qualia Mind

Hunter Focus

We have a comprehensive breakdown of our top nootropics , but here's a concise breakdown of Thesis' most comparable competition.

TruBrain offers one of the widest varieties of nootropics of any company — one of the few catalogs that rivals the variety Thesis offers. They also have some novel and beneficial delivery methods for their nootropic ingredients. Those include energy bars and liquid shots that are outstanding for anyone with difficulty swallowing pills.

TruBrain offers their nootropics in a targeted fashion, not unlike what you get from Thesis. They formerly offered their targeted blends in shot form only, but now you can get any of these targeted blends in capsule or liquid shot form. The shots come in small 1oz pouches that make them easy to take anywhere.

TruBrain's targeted blends include:

This is TruBrain's original blend. It contains seven nootropics, including Noopept, a branded form of N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine ethyl ester. This blend is caffeine-free.

The Strong blend is identical to the Medium formulation in contents and doses, but it also contains 100mg of caffeine.

The Extra Strong formula builds on the Strong blend by adding 150mg of adrafinil (2-(diphenylmethyl)sulfinyl-N-hydroxyacetamide). 21 This wakefulness-promoting substance may also help with weight loss and athletic performance.

TruBrain's Sleep formula contains just four nootropic ingredients: GABA, melatonin, 5-HTP, and a blend that TruBrain calls "functional oils."

Mellow is identical to the medium strength formula, but it adds the functional oil combination used in Sleep.

This formula contains Lion's mane, a mushroom that may promote neural growth , though human studies are necessary to determine if this is true. 22 Its other nootropic ingredients are rhodiola, guayusa, and rosehips.

A 30-day supply of TruBrain nootropic shots costs $89. That's $10 more than the subscription cost for a one-month supply of Thesis. Some of their shots contain caffeine, and others don't. If it already contains caffeine, there's no way to alter a TruBrain formula to be stimulant-free.

The first month of TruBrain capsules costs a bit less, coming in at $69. After your first month, however, the price goes up to $119. That makes Thesis the better value, but if you want the best possible nootropics for sleep support, it might be worth the extra money to check out TruBrain.

Qualia Mind is a brand under the Neurohacker Collective, a company that offers several products to address things like sleep quality, skin health, and vision. They have three nootropics available:

• Qualia Mind Caffeine-Free
• Qualia Mind Focus

Their original blend is comprehensive, consisting of nearly 30 ingredients in high doses. That means it's liable to provide you with noticeable effects. It also means you might not know which of those effects are coming from which ingredients, and some of the less beneficial components in your body may also have side effects you'd rather avoid.

The caffeine-free version is identical to the original formula but leaves the caffeine out. Qualia Focus is a more streamlined offering with only seven nootropic ingredients, including caffeine, L-theanine, and L-ornithine. 23

Initial shipments from Qualia Mind are significantly discounted, but after the first month, the price makes theirs one of the most expensive nootropics we've tested. For example, the first month of a subscription to Qualia Mind costs just $39. After that, it costs $139/month. And a one-time purchase is $159.

One inconvenient aspect of Qualia Mind is that a single dose consists of seven capsules, which can get tiresome even for people who don't have trouble swallowing pills. On the bright side, Qualia's 100-day money-back guarantee allows you to try it for a little over three months to determine if you can handle that kind of daily dosing.

Hunter Focus is one of three supplements in the Hunter stack alongside the company's Test and Burn supplements. The stack is intended for male use — Test is a testosterone supplement — but Focus and Burn are suitable for men and women.

Like Qualia Mind, Focus has a long list of ingredients in generous doses. In fact, one serving of Hunter Focus is like taking all six of Thesis' formulas at once. That said, the serving itself is difficult to swallow, as it consists of six large pills.

Another knock on Hunter is that they don't offer a subscription system. That means you can't get an extra discount, and you must remember to reorder when you're running low (theoretically, a nootropic like this should boost your memory). There's also no money-back guarantee to speak of, only a return policy with a relatively short window that only applies to unopened products.

One bottle of Hunter Focus costs $90, and shipping is $8.95 unless you buy more than one bottle at a time. The company will throw a fourth in for free if you buy three bottles at once. That's the only way to get any savings through Hunter.

Individual nootropic components

Many companies offer combinations of nootropic ingredients to perform specific brain-related tasks or even provide globally positive cognitive benefits. However, the scientific research behind most of these ingredients almost always includes just one rather than a combination. Some people prefer to try one at a time to minimize the potential for side effects and determine if one particular ingredient works for them. A few companies offer single-ingredient nootropic supplements for this specific purpose.

Our favorite company dealing in individual nootropic components is Nootropics Depot. They offer a wide variety of single-ingredient supplements and a few targeted blends. The prices are generally fair, with an average range running from $16-$70. A 30-day money-back guarantee covers every purchase, and you get free shipping on orders over $50.

Nootropics FAQ

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Specific nootropics affect different parts of the brain in their own ways. Some — like caffeine — reduce fatigue by blocking adenosine receptors, while others act to protect neural connections that are already present while possibly contributing to new neural growth. 24 Some also mitigate depression and anxiety, which frees up the brain to perform at its best.

Are nootropics safe?

The safety of a nootropic depends on the specific ingredients involved. Many are perfectly safe in the doses commonly employed by nootropic companies, but some can cause reactions like increased heart rate, gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, and even tremors. The smartest thing to do is to talk to your doctor before introducing any new supplement to your regimen.

Do nootropics really work?

Many nootropic supplements are noticeably effective — caffeine is a great example. Efficacy varies depending on the specific component or combination. Fortunately, a lot of companies offer money-back guarantees, so you can try their products to see if they work for you without much financial risk.

Will nootropics make me smarter?

Nootropics won't necessarily make you smarter, but many can increase your alertness, improve short-term recall, and promote neural growth and protection. That creates a great environment for learning if you apply yourself while using nootropics, and many ingredients can help you with the motivation it takes to do so.

How do you pronounce nootropics?

The 'noo' in nootropics comes from the Greek nous , which philosophers use to mean mind or intelligence. The 'tropic' in nootropic comes from the Greek tropikos , which relates to turning or changing. So, nootropic roughly translates to mind-changing. You pronounce the 'noo' like 'new' and the 'tropic' with a long O sound, like 'toe pick.'

Innerbody uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Mayo Clinic. (2022). Memory lapses: Normal aging or something more? Mayo Clinic Press.

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I Tried 4 Thesis Nootropic Blends (My 2024 Review)

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Thesis stands out in the wellness industry with its personalized nootropic supplements, designed to cater to the individual’s specific cognitive needs. It has been pushed by health and wellness celebrities, causing a wave of popularity.

Do Thesis nootropics live up to the hype?

• Variety Of Blends: Various nootropic blends based on individual brain chemistry, maximizing effectiveness for each user.
• Strong Advocacy and Support: Gained endorsements from notable wellness advocates and public figures, like Andrew Huberman, enhancing credibility.
• Limited Clinical Research: While the company plans clinical trials, the current scientific backing may be limited.
• Price: The ongoing cost of customized nootropics may be higher than standard off-the-shelf supplements or medications.
• Dependence on Self-Reporting: The effectiveness of blends relies partly on user feedback, which may not always be accurate or consistent.
• Many Underdosed Ingredients: As you’ll read below, many ingredients are dosed below what was used in human clinical trials.

Quick Verdict

Thesis has a range of suitable nootropic blends to cater to many needs.

However, our #1 nootropic of choice is Nooceptin. It’s designed for long-term brain changes, not short-term boosts in mental performance.

What Is Thesis Nootropics?

Thesis Nootropics is a company specializing in customized cognitive performance products. It was founded by Dan Freed in 2017.

Freed’s personal challenges with focusing, which he faced from a young age, led him to discover nootropics.

This personal journey of transformation through nootropics inspired him to create Thesis, aiming to help others find the right combination of nootropic ingredients that work for them.

The company’s unique approach involves allowing customers to experiment with high-quality nootropic ingredients to maximize results systematically.

Thesis has gained popularity primarily through word-of-mouth and a strong focus on personalization.

The company has raised over $13.5 million in funding and is reportedly profitable with a robust growth trajectory.

Thesis has garnered support from health and wellness advocates like Dr. Andrew Huberman, Rich Roll, Kevin Love, and Kate Bock.

Thesis Nootropics

Customized Blends For Cognitive Enhancement

Take the quiz and see which blends are right for you.

Thesis Nootropic Ingredients

Thesis have six unique blends designed to target various aspects of cognitive function. What’s similar between them is the option to include or exclude caffeine and L-theanine. The caffeine and l-theanine combination is the most potent instant nootropic, making each blend effective.

The caffeine L-theanine stack benefits physical and cognitive function. Some advantages include faster reaction time, faster visual processing speed, better working memory, increased awareness, and less tiredness and mental fatigue [1] [2] .

The research employs a 2:1 L-theanine to caffeine ratio, which Thesis has followed. Since this stack is available in every blend, I won’t include it in the ingredients breakdown below.

Thesis Clarity Blend

Alpha gpc (speculative).

Alpha GPC, a choline-containing phospholipid, improves cognitive function in neurological conditions like dementia [3] .

Research indicates it enhances memory and attention and may support brain health. Clinical trials show it can improve cognitive performance, especially when combined with other treatments like donepezil [4] .

It’s generally well-tolerated and safe. Alpha GPC increases acetylcholine levels in the brain, which is essential for memory and learning [5] .

It’s used both as a medicine and a nutritional supplement. Studies suggest Alpha GPC effectively boosts cognitive functions, particularly in adult-onset dementia disorders [6] .

Thesis Clarity Blend contains 500 mg, which is more than any other nootropic available.

Lions Mane Mushroom (Speculative)

The Lion’s Mane mushroom (Hericium erinaceus) includes chemicals that stimulate nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis, which is necessary for nerve cell proliferation and differentiation [7] .

According to research, Lion’s Mane improves cognitive abilities, particularly memory and brain cell regeneration [8] .

It is renowned for its neuroprotective qualities, which may be effective in treating illnesses such as Alzheimer’s disease and cognitive impairment [9] .

Brain functioning, memory, and mood improvements have been linked to regular ingestion [10] .

While the mushroom does not directly improve cognitive skills, it does increase NGF, which improves brain health [11] . The dosage varies but is generally well-tolerated and has few negative effects.

Thesis Clarity contains 500 mg of Lions Mane, which may give a long-term nootropic effect.

Mycelium is typically avoided since the active chemicals are found in the primary mushroom. Jeff Chilton, a long-time mushroom researcher, discusses this in the podcast below:

Camellia Sinensis Tea Leaf (Speculative)

Camellia Sinensis, commonly known as tea, exhibits varying neuropharmacological effects based on the part of the plant used.

Seed extracts tend to be more stimulating, enhancing motor functions and showing potential as an antidepressant without causing drowsiness.

Leaf extracts, on the other hand, tend to produce a calming effect on the mind and mood. Both seeds and leaves have shown positive results in various tests assessing motor function and behavior in animal models [12] .

The study suggests these parts of the Camellia Sinensis plant have potential as cognitive enhancers, warranting further research, especially on seed extracts for their mode of action and possible new beneficial compounds.

I couldn’t find any human studies for this ingredient, so I can’t give you an efficacious dose range. But Thesis Clarity contains 278 mg of Camellia Sinensis Tea Leaf.

Dihydroxyflavone

Dihydroxyflavone research is all performed in rodents, so extrapolating to humans is rather challenging. 7,8-Dihydroxyflavone (7,8-DHF) is a compound that acts as an agonist for the TrkB receptor, which is associated with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).

BDNF is crucial for neuronal survival and brain plasticity. Studies have shown that 7,8-DHF can improve memory and cognitive functions [13] .

It enhanced memory formation in healthy rats, and in Alzheimer’s disease mouse models, it improved spatial memory [14] .

Further, 7,8-DHF has been shown to counteract aging-related cognitive impairments in rats, improving spatial memory and synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus [15] .

This suggests that 7,8-DHF is a potential therapeutic agent for memory impairment and dementia, at least in rodents.

Thesis Energy Blend Ingredients

Citicoline is commonly mentioned in relation to memory enhancement. According to studies, 500 mg daily may improve episodic memory or the ability to recall personal experiences and specific events [16] .

According to other research, taking at least 500 mg of this supplement daily may provide cognitive benefits to healthy persons [17] .

The formulation of Thesis Energy Blend contains 300 mg of Citicoline. This dose may not achieve the full potential seen in studies proposing a higher dose.

Mango leaf extract, rich in the polyphenolic compound mangiferin, shows promise in neuropharmacology due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antidiabetic properties.

Studies indicate its potential in treating central complications associated with metabolic disorders like type 2 diabetes, which are risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia [18] .

In animal models, mango leaf extract has demonstrated effects on reducing brain inflammation and spontaneous bleeding and improving cognitive functions [19] .

These findings suggest its utility in addressing symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases and cognitive impairments [20] .

Thesis Energy contains 300 mg of mango leaf.

Theacrine is a purine alkaloid similar to caffeine, found in the Camellia Kucha plant, and often included in dietary supplements.

Studies show that it can increase energy, focus, and cognitive performance, similar to caffeine, but without habituation [21] .

Theacrine’s impact on cognitive performance and physical endurance has been researched in athletes, indicating possible benefits in reaction time and endurance [22] .

It may work well alone or in combination with caffeine to enhance cognitive function and physical performance [23] .

Theacrine appears to be a promising supplement for improving mental alertness and physical capacity. Bear in mind the manufacturers of Theacrine fund some of these studies.

Thesis Energy contains 100 mg of Theacrine, which tends to be less than the dose used in these studies, suggesting it may have a weaker effect.

N-Acetyl Cysteine

N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) is explored for its potential to improve cognitive functions in psychosis and bipolar disorder due to its antioxidant, neurogenesis, and anti-inflammatory properties.

Studies show N-acetyl cysteine can improve working memory in psychosis [24] . However, results in bipolar disorder didn’t show significant cognitive improvements [25] .

Research indicates potential benefits for Alzheimer’s disease by promoting cognitive health and countering oxidative stress [26] .

The effectiveness of N-acetyl cysteine in various cognitive disorders still requires more targeted, larger studies to confirm its benefits [27] .

N-acetyl cysteine’s role is promising but not yet firmly established in cognitive enhancement.

In human trials, it seems a 600 – 2000 mg dose is needed for cognitive benefits. Thesis Energy contains 500 mg, being potentially underdosed.

Indian Trumpet Tree

Indian Trumpet Tree is known as Oroxylum indicum. In a 12-week study, older adults with memory complaints took 500 mg of Oroxylum indicum extract twice daily [28] .

Compared to a placebo, this supplementation led to improvements in episodic memory and numeric working memory. It also accelerated learning in location tasks.

However, there were no significant changes in other cognitive tests or overall cognitive and memory skills.

The study suggests that Oroxylum indicum, while well-tolerated, may primarily enhance specific memory functions.

Its potential effects could be linked to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and interactions with neurotransmitters like dopamine and GABA.

This is the only human study on the Indian Trumpet Tree, so more research is needed to fully understand its impact on cognitive health. Thesis Energy only contains 100 mg of this, making it potentially underdosed.

L-tyrosine, an amino acid, has been shown to increase dopamine levels in the brain. L-tyrosine supplementation has improved cognitive regulation, particularly in mentally demanding settings [29] .

It is especially helpful in improving cognitive flexibility, which is impacted by dopamine.

While L-Tyrosine’s promise for treating clinical problems and improving physical activity is limited, it is useful in stressful or cognitively taxing situations.

It has the greatest cognitive benefits when neurotransmitter activity is intact, but dopamine and norepinephrine levels are momentarily decreased [30] .

According to research, optimal doses for cognitive improvement begin at a minimum of 2 grams. That is more than six times the dose in Thesis Energy.

Thesis Creativity Blend Ingredients

Thesis Creativity contains 150 mg of Alpha GPC, yet their Clarity Blend contains 500 mg. I’m not sure why there is a large discrepancy, especially when 500 mg is likely a more efficacious dose.

Agmatine Sulfate

Currently, agmatine sulfate has only been tested in rodents. It is a central nervous system (CNS) neurotransmitter/neuromodulator that has been studied for its potential effects on stress-related conditions like depression, anxiety, and cognitive performance.

Research suggests that agmatine can have antidepressant and anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) effects, possibly related to its influence on the nitric oxide pathway [31] .

It may reduce oxidative stress and corticosterone levels while increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is beneficial for brain health.

Agmatine sulfate has been shown to be safe and well-tolerated in animal studies, with oral administration effectively increasing its levels in the brain [32] .

This indicates potential for therapeutic use in neurological disorders, though more research is needed to fully understand its effects and mechanisms.

Thesis Creativity contains 250 mg. In these studies, patients were administered 15-600 mg per kg, which is a much higher dose.

Panax Ginseng

Panax ginseng is available in two varieties: white ginseng and red ginseng. It has vasorelaxant and moderately hypotensive effects on nitric oxide generation in the body [33] .

It increases antioxidant enzyme activity and may prevent oxidative damage associated with aging in rats [34] .

Ginseng has shown promise in boosting memory, particularly in age-related cognitive decline, as well as in improving mental and physical resilience, reducing fatigue, and assisting the body in adapting to stress [35] .

Daily doses of 200 mg extract or 0.5 to 2 g dry root are recommended. It is not suggested for persons with acute asthma or hypertension because it may cause overstimulation and elevate blood pressure in excessive dosages.

Thesis Creativity has an effective dose of 200 mg, which may provide you with these mental performance benefits.

Ashwagandha Root

Ashwagandha is a traditional herbal remedy used to improve various health conditions. Animal studies have shown that it can increase blood cell counts, which might enhance aerobic capacity [36] .

It also demonstrates the potential to reduce oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, which could be beneficial in treating disorders like tardive dyskinesia [37] .

Additionally, Ashwagandha has shown nootropic effects and might be useful in treating Alzheimer’s disease [38] . Recommended dosages range from 6 to 10 grams of ground roots or 100 to 1250 mg of extract daily [39] [40] .

It’s generally safe but should be used cautiously, especially in cases of hyperthyroidism or pregnancy. High doses can have sedative effects and may cause gastrointestinal issues.

Thesis Creativity contains 300 mg of Ashwagandha, which is within the recommended range for cognitive benefits.

Sceletium Tortuosum

Sceletium tortuosum, also known as Kanna, is traditionally used for its mood-enhancing properties. It’s been studied for its potential in treating cognitive and neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s [41] .

Research suggests its constituents could target enzymes and receptors relevant to these diseases, offering neuroprotective benefits like antioxidant activity [42] .

Additionally, Sceletium Tortuosum is known for its antidepressant and anxiolytic effects, promoting relaxation and well-being, which could be beneficial in managing stress, anxiety, and depression [43] .

The plant’s bioactive alkaloids are also being explored for commercial medicinal use.

The 25 mg dose in Thesis Creativity is the same as used within the human trials.

Thesis Motivation Blend Ingredients

L-phenylalanine.

L-phenylalanine is a vital amino acid and has been explored for its potential benefits in managing conditions like attention deficit disorder and depression.

In studies, doses of up to 1200 mg showed initial improvements in mood and attention in individuals with attention deficit disorder, but tolerance developed over 2-4 months [44] .

In another study involving depressed patients, a dosage range of 75–200 mg/day for 20 days led to significant improvements in 12 out of 20 patients [45] .

However, the effectiveness and safety of L-phenylalanine can vary, and it is used in the treatment of various conditions, including depression and arthritis, and even as part of addiction recovery [46] .

Thesis Motivation has a 500 mg dose, which may provide some of these benefits. Will it improve motivation? I’m not sure.

Methylliberine

Methylliberine is a purine alkaloid explored for its cognitive and mood-enhancing effects. Studies have shown it can improve concentration, motivation, and mood, especially when combined with caffeine.

Methylliberine also appears to positively affect energy levels and well-being without significantly impacting vital signs like heart rate and blood pressure [47] .

These findings suggest its potential as a nootropic supplement, particularly for enhancing cognitive function and mood in various contexts, such as gaming or in tactical scenarios [48] [49] .

However, it’s essential to consider the dosage and combination with other compounds like caffeine for optimal effects.

The 100 mg dose in Thesis Motivation aligns with the current research.

Vitamin B12 (Speculative)

Vitamin B12 is essential for cognitive health and may be linked to neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.

Low levels of B12 are associated with cognitive impairment, but supplementation is only shown to be effective in improving cognition in cases of existing B12 deficiency [50] .

There is limited evidence that increasing B12 levels benefits people without B12 deficiency [51] .

B12’s impact on cognitive health may involve multiple mechanisms, including brain volume and function [52] . However, more extensive research is needed to fully understand its effects and potential as a cognitive enhancer.

Thesis Motivation contains 1000mcg. The research states that it may have no effect if you’re not Vitamin B12 deficient.

Forskolin (Speculative)

Forskolin has only been studied in rodents regarding cognitive function. Forskolin is an herbal extract that shows the potential to improve memory and reduce Alzheimer’s disease symptoms.

In studies, it restored nest-building and social behaviors in mice with Alzheimer-like symptoms, reduced amyloid plaque deposition, and regulated brain inflammation [53] .

Forskolin also influences memory and tau protein phosphorylation in the brain, which is relevant in Alzheimer’s [54] .

Additionally, forskolin has shown protective effects against Huntington’s disease-like neurodegeneration in rats by improving learning and memory and reducing oxidative stress [55] .

These findings indicate forskolin’s potential as a neuroprotective agent for certain neurological conditions, at least in rodents.

I’m skeptical whether 250 mg of Forskolin in Thesis Motivation will help you “feel” more motivated.

Artichoke (Speculative)

Artichoke extract is known for its prebiotic properties and promotes probiotic bacteria growth in the gut, potentially benefiting cognitive functions in mice [56] .

In elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment, combining artichoke extract and aerobic training improved cognitive status and reduced blood glucose and insulin resistance [57] .

Artichoke varieties Spinoso Sardo and Romanesco Siciliano demonstrated antioxidant properties and potential protective effects against cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disorders, with Romanesco Siciliano showing higher antioxidant power [58] .

The 450 mg dose is well under the dose used in these studies.

Thesis Confidence Blend Ingredients

Saffron (speculative).

Saffron is traditionally used in herbal medicine and shows promise in improving cognitive function in individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) [59] .

Research indicates that saffron’s effectiveness is comparable to common drugs used for these conditions without increasing side effects. It’s also well-tolerated in cognitively normal individuals [60] .

However, most current studies have a high risk of bias. More comprehensive, low-bias clinical trials are needed to confirm saffron’s potential as a treatment for cognitive impairments like AD and MCI.

All of the research used 30 mg of saffron daily. Thesis Confidence has 28 mg, and I’m unsure why they formulated it without the extra 2 mg.

Magnesium Bisglycinate

Magnesium is essential for brain functions and has been researched for its potential cognitive benefits. Magnesium is particularly effective in increasing brain magnesium levels and has shown promise in improving memory and cognition in healthy adults [61] .

However, its role in anxiety and mood disorders is less clear [62] .

Studies indicate magnesium may help reduce symptoms of depression, but results are not consistent across all mental health conditions [63] .

Further research is needed to conclusively establish magnesium’s effectiveness and appropriate use as a therapeutic supplement in various psychiatric and cognitive disorders [64] .

500 mg of magnesium may help if you’re deficient, but there’s no clear benefit to making you more confident.

Sage (Speculative)

Sage is known as Salvia and has been traditionally known to enhance memory. A recent study supports this, showing that acute ingestion of sage oil can significantly improve immediate word recall in healthy young adults [65] .

This suggests that sage may positively influence cognitive functions like memory, potentially due to its acetylcholinesterase inhibition activity in the brain.

However, this has not been replicated.

While historically used for various mental disorders, such as depression and age-related memory loss, contemporary research is needed to fully understand its benefits and potential as a cognitive enhancer.

Regardless of the 333 mg dose, this is one of the more speculative ingredients in all Thesis blends.

Sceletium Tortuosum (Speculative)

As mentioned in the Creativity Blend, Sceletium Tortuosum is known for its mood-enhancing properties. It is the same dose of 25 mg, which is used in human trials.

Magnolia Bark (Speculative)

Magnolia officinalis is commonly used in traditional medicine for mental disorders like anxiety and depression and shows potential as a nootropic supplement.

Studies have demonstrated that its ethanol extract can improve cognitive function and memory in stress-induced situations. It also exhibits anxiolytic properties, reducing anxiety-related behaviors in rats [66] .

The extract’s effectiveness is also evident in lowering stress-induced increases in corticosterone and tyrosine hydroxylase levels.

Moreover, Magnolia officinalis, especially its component honokiol, has neuroprotective effects and can regulate mood disorders by modulating GABA and CB1 receptors in rats [67] .

These are rodent studies, so it’s impossible to extrapolate to humans. Regardless, it’s included based on the mechanistic data with the theory of doing the same thing in humans with the 10 mg dose.

Ashwagandha Leaf & Root

The 120 mg of root and leaf ashwagandha may be enough to have a nootropic effect as the extract dose is between 100-1200 mg, as stated in the Creativity Blend section. However, this is root and leaf, and the main benefits are derived from the root.

Thesis Logic Blend Ingredients

Ginko biloba.

Ginkgo biloba is extracted from the leaves and fruit to improve cognitive function. Its compounds include antioxidants, enhance blood flow, and have anti-inflammatory properties.

Ginkgo biloba extract has been shown in animal studies to help with chronic brain difficulties by modifying inflammatory mediators and the cholinergic system [68] .

It has been shown in clinical trials to improve working memory and processing speed [69] . However, its usefulness in healthy people under the age of 60 is debatable [70] .

Typical daily doses vary from 120 to 300 mg. Although side effects are uncommon, they can include stomach irritation and headaches, which may cause blood to thin, affecting people on certain drugs.

Thesis Logic contains 160 mg of Ginkgo Biloba, which is within the recommended dosage range.

Theobromine

Theobromine is a compound found in chocolate and has been studied for its potential cognitive effects.

Research indicates that theobromine might have a lesser immediate nootropic effect compared to caffeine but could have neuroprotective benefits with long-term consumption, possibly reducing Alzheimer’s disease-related pathology [71] .

Further studies are needed to fully understand its impact on cognition.

Additionally, theobromine’s effects on mood and vigilance appear to be different from caffeine, with some studies suggesting it might not significantly influence these aspects in nutritionally relevant doses [72] .

However, combining theobromine with caffeine could modify its effects, potentially offering cognitive and mood benefits without significant blood pressure increases [73] .

More research is required to confirm theobromine’s cognitive and mood-related effects.

Thesis Logic contains 100 mg of theobromine, but it seems doses greater than 400 mg are needed to enhance cognition.

Phosphatidylserine

Phosphatidylserine is essential for proper brain function. Phosphatidylserine has been proven to be critical for maintaining nerve cell membranes and myelin, which is required for successful neurotransmission [74] .

Phosphatidylserine can help reverse cognitive loss as the brain ages by boosting cognitive activities such as memory formation, learning, concentration, and problem-solving [75] .

It is well absorbed in humans and crosses the blood-brain barrier.

Supplements containing phosphatidylserine have been shown to increase cognitive functions and are generally well-tolerated, with dosages ranging from 100 to 800 mg per day advised for cognitive support [76] [77] .

Thesis Logic contains 400 mg of phosphatidylserine, which may provide you with these cognitive-enhancing effects.

High DHA Algae

DHA is a vital component of neuronal membranes and plays an important role in brain health and cognitive function.

Adult cognitive abilities are improved by DHA consumption, especially when paired with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) [78] .

This impact is most noticeable in older people who have mild memory problems. Higher DHA and EPA doses (above 1 g per day) have been associated with better episodic memory.

Observational studies also show a link between DHA/EPA intake and memory performance in the elderly. DHA, both alone and in combination with EPA, improves memory in the elderly.

Thesis Logic contains 200 mg of DHA, suggesting insufficient DHA to provide a benefit.

Triacetyluridine (Speculative)

Triacetyluridine is being explored as a potential treatment for bipolar depression. In a study involving eleven patients with bipolar depression, high doses of triacetyluridine (up to 18 g per day) were administered over 6 weeks [79] .

The study measured the effects on depression symptoms using the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) and evaluated cellular bioenergetics using phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (P-MRSI).

Results indicated significant early improvement in depression symptoms.

Additionally, triacetyluridine responders showed notable differences in pH changes from baseline, suggesting triacetyluridine may improve mitochondrial function and reduce symptoms of depression.

Thesis Logic has 30 mg of triacetyluridine, which is well below the dose used in this study.

Bacopa Monnieri

Bacopa monnieri is a traditional plant that has been shown to improve cognitive performance, particularly memory.

Bacopa extract, namely bacosides A and B, has been demonstrated in studies to increase memory formation, recall, and cognitive function [80] .

It has neuroprotective properties and is used to treat cognitive dysfunctions such as Alzheimer’s disease.

Adults should take between 200 and 400 mg each day. Bacopa is generally well accepted, with only rare reports of mild drowsiness or stomach difficulties.

Clinical trials show that older people have better memory, attention, mood, and overall cognitive ability [81] [82] [83] . More research is needed, however, to thoroughly grasp its usefulness across many cognitive domains.

Thesis Logic contains 320 mg of Bacopa, giving you the efficacious dose to feel these benefits.

Thesis Nootropics Price

Thesis has two options: one time purchase or a subscription. Here’s how the prices break down:

• Subscription = $79
• One Time Purchase = $119

This is regardless of whether you purchase a personalized starter kit or build your own box.

You can’t buy them individually either. You must purchase 4 boxes. When building your own, you can choose if you want 4 of the same blend or mix and match.

They want you to try each blend for a week as part of the starter kit (there’s only a week’s worth of each blend in each container) to see which you like best.

Thesis has positioned itself as the most expensive nootropic available by adding the personalized element.

Is Thesis Nootropics Really Personalized?

I went through the initial quiz to see how they “personalize” their nootropic stack.

Here is what they recommended me:

Look, I get the marketing angle. In no way is this a truly personalized nootropic product. It’d be nearly impossible to create custom formulations for every unique individual.

However, the fact they have multiple blends means people can experiment to find which works best for them.

I will say, though, if you choose the caffeine options, every blend will work. Many of the ingredients used in these blends are speculative and only based on animal research, with many being underdosed.

Benefits Of Thesis Nootropics

Multiple blends for different purposes.

To be honest, this benefit is more of a marketing tactic. However, some people may find certain blends jive well with them over others, giving you options within the same brand.

Further, Thesis claims the ingredients in each formulation work synergistically. There’s no research to back that claim, but at least know there are no negative side effects from their interaction.

Options For Stimulants Or Not

You can choose whether or not you want stimulants within your Thesis Blends. Every blend will provide similar benefits if you add the caffeine and L-theanine nootropic stack, which is the most potent synergistic brain booster.

However, if you’re already a coffee addict or plan to take Thesis in the evening, having no stimulants is the better option.

My Experience With Thesis

Based on my quiz, I was recommended Thesis Clarity, Logic, Motivation, and Confidence Blends. I tried each for a week to see if one stood out. I took them without caffeine as they all work if you have the caffeine L-theanine stack.

I have to say the Confidence and Motivation Blends did absolutely nothing for me. I didn’t “feel” any brain-boosting effects or feel more confident or motivated.

I felt the Logic and Clarity Blends had small positive effects when concentrating on mentally demanding tasks like writing, coaching, or podcasting.

If I were to continue taking Thesis, I’d opt for either of these two blends.

Who Is Thesis For?

Busy working professionals.

Thesis Nootropics are ideal for busy professionals facing demanding schedules and high-stress environments. These blends can help enhance focus, improve decision-making, and increase productivity.

They are designed to support sustained mental energy throughout the day, enabling professionals to manage their workload more effectively without the usual mental fatigue.

Creative Artists

For creative artists, Thesis offers blends that stimulate creativity and enhance divergent thinking. These nootropics can aid in breaking through creative blocks, fostering innovative thinking, and maintaining a heightened state of inspiration.

They are particularly beneficial for artists seeking longer periods of creative flow and those seeking fresh perspectives.

Students can significantly benefit from Thesis Nootropics, especially during intense studying or when facing challenging academic projects.

The blends are formulated to enhance memory retention, improve concentration, and boost learning capabilities. This makes them a valuable tool for students who need to absorb and retain large amounts of information and perform well in academic assessments.

Gamers find Thesis Nootropics beneficial for improving their gaming performance. The blends can enhance reaction times, increase focus, and improve strategic thinking skills.

They are particularly useful during long gaming sessions, helping gamers stay alert and responsive, which is crucial in competitive gaming scenarios.

Coffee Haters

Thesis Nootropics provides an excellent alternative for those who dislike coffee or want to avoid caffeine jitters.

These blends offer a way to boost mental energy and alertness without relying on caffeine. This makes them ideal for individuals sensitive to caffeine or those seeking to reduce caffeine intake while maintaining high cognitive function.

User Testimonials And Reviews

You can’t access the review database on the Thesis website, so I did some digging to find user reviews. Here’s a couple of positive reviews:

“I must admit that during the weeks that I consistently take them, I perform better & I generally feel better just knowing I’ve ingested something intended to positively alter my natural brain state. Minor tasks/chores no longer seem as daunting and I get this underlying kick to complete my work well.” – ParsnipExtreme2502 (Reddit)

“I didn’t find Weeks 1 and 4 to do anything for me, but Weeks 2 and 3 really helped avoid the post-lunch, post-work slumps I tend to get now that I’ve been working from home; Energy is especially useful for days when I haven’t gotten enough sleep the night before.” – leftylucy88 (Reddit)

I can’t find many negative reviews other than potential side effects like migraines, which can be caused by many different factors.

Thesis Side Effects

Side effects are rare from the ingredients in these blends. I personally didn’t have any adverse reactions to the four blends I tried. However, like any supplement, they may have potential side effects.

Consult with a healthcare provider before starting any nootropic regimen, especially if they have pre-existing health conditions, are pregnant or breastfeeding, or are taking other medications.

Thesis Alternatives

If Thesis Nootropics isn’t quite the right match for you or you’re just curious about other products, here are some alternatives I’ve tried and can provide an insider’s look into.

SAP Nutra nootropic Nooceptin improves memory, concentration, and cognitive performance without stimulants. It offers gradual brain health gains.

It improves memory and focus and provides a prolonged boost without a caffeine crash. Students, gamers, professionals, and seniors should use Nooceptin to boost cognition.

This brain supplement contains Lion’s Mane Extract, Citicoline, Rhodiola Rosea Extract, L-Theanine, Bacopa Monnieri, Ginkgo Biloba, and Panax Ginseng.

Some of these compounds have been shown to be useful, but others are experimental. Nooceptin, a non-stimulant method for long-term cognitive enhancement, usually works after 7-14 days.

Despite the risk of underdosed components and increased cost, Nooceptin may provide a stimulant-free cognitive boost.

Read more in our Nooceptin review .

Mind Lab Pro

Mind Lab Pro is a popular nootropic that has gained appeal as a result of its alleged cognitive benefits.

Pure substances are used in its formulation, which is intended to improve mental clarity and attention. It is stimulant-free, making it an excellent choice for anyone seeking a well-rounded routine.

Its unique combination of 11 research-backed components distinguishes it from competitors in the brain health supplement sector.

These compounds were carefully chosen to help cognitive processes like memory, focus, mental clarity, mood, and cognitive processing speed.

Despite some criticism about the quantity of specific substances and the need for more scientific data, Mind Lab Pro has earned worldwide recognition for its ability to improve cognitive performance in professionals, students, the elderly, and athletes.

Our Mind Lab Pro review goes into great detail.

Braini distinguishes itself by being stimulant-free, providing long-term results, and having a short ingredient list focusing on long-term cognitive gains. It does not, however, deliver the immediate euphoric boost that some users may expect from a brain supplement.

Peptylin, a silk protein peptide with neuroprotective effects and potential benefits for executive function; NeurXcel, which is rich in omega fatty acids; and Wild Canadian Blueberry extract, which is known for its antioxidant characteristics and cognitive support, are all key ingredients in Braini.

Braini is backed by clinical trials, a 60-day money-back guarantee, and a 30-day challenge to scientifically quantify changes in brain function.

Our Braini review contains an in-depth breakdown.

Vyvamind is a nootropic supplement containing caffeine and L-theanine to help focus and improve cognitive performance. Users claim increased focus, vitality, and cognitive abilities without big crashes.

Vyvamind’s formulation, which contains less L-tyrosine and citicoline than some studies suggest, is intended to supplement the major nootropic duo of caffeine and L-theanine.

This combination is well-known for boosting concentration and cognitive function. The supplement is touted as a non-stimulant alternative, appealing to clients seeking a more natural and less intensive approach to cognitive growth.

Vyvamind is suitable for coffee-averse people, busy professionals who require a focus boost, and students during study sessions.

Our Vyvamind review goes into great detail.

Because of its purported fast cognitive effects, NooCube is a popular brain-boosting product. NooCube contains ingredients such as Bacopa Monnieri, L-Tyrosine, and L-Theanine.

These are well-known for their mental health advantages. Several compounds, such as Huperzine-A and Alpha GPC, remain speculative without additional investigation.

NooCube is intended to improve cognition and alertness without using stimulants, and the amounts of each ingredient are clearly labeled.

Because it gives different cognitive benefits without the jittery side effects associated with caffeine, NooCube is especially good for working professionals, students, elders, gamers, and combat athletes.

Our detailed analysis can be found in our NooCube review .

Frequently Asked Questions

What is thesis nootropic and what does it do.

Thesis Nootropic is a personalized supplement formulated to enhance cognitive functions. Users can expect improvements in focus, reduction in procrastination, stress management, and memory recall, depending on which blend you choose.

Does Thesis Work Like Adderall?

Thesis Nootropics and Adderall are used to enhance cognitive functions, but they are fundamentally different. Adderall is primarily prescribed for treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy.

Adderall is an amphetamine, classified as a controlled substance due to its strong stimulating effects and potential for abuse and dependency.

Thesis Nootropics are dietary supplements designed to enhance healthy individuals’ cognitive functions, such as memory, focus, and mental clarity. They are not intended to treat medical conditions like ADHD.

How Long Does It Take Thesis Nootropics To Work?

If you have the caffeine version, within 30 minutes. You may feel the non-stimulant blends kicking in just as quickly, but they won’t be as pronounced. Sometimes, they can take multiple weeks to feel them working.

I’ve taken a deep dive into the world of nootropics and shared my firsthand experience with Thesis Nootropic’s various blends. While the personalization is nothing more than a marketing tactic, the different blends are a nice touch for those who want to experiment with different ingredients.

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Thesis Review: Are Personalized Nootropics Legit?

Calloway Cook Calloway Cook is the President of Illuminate Labs and has reviewed over 1,000 clinical trials. See full bio . , Author | Taylor Graber MD Taylor Graber is a Medical Doctor (MD) and a practicing anaesthesiologist. He's also an entrepreneur who runs a health and wellness startup. See full bio . , Medical Reviewer Last updated: Nov 05, 2023

Calloway Cook Calloway Cook is the President of Illuminate Labs and has reviewed over 1,000 clinical trials. See full bio . , Author

Taylor Graber MD Taylor Graber is a Medical Doctor (MD) and a practicing anaesthesiologist. He's also an entrepreneur who runs a health and wellness startup. See full bio . , Medical Reviewer Last updated: Nov 05, 2023

We review published medical research in respected scientific journals to arrive at our conclusions about a product or health topic. This ensures the highest standard of scientific accuracy.

Illuminate Labs has a team of medical experts including doctors and Registered Dietitians who are assigned to review the accuracy of health claims and medical research summaries based on the relevancy of their expertise to the article topic.

The focus of our articles is to share our opinion on the potential efficacy and safety of health trends and products.

T hesis is a wellness brand that sells personalized nootropics. The brand sells supplements with unique names like “Creativity” and “Motivation,” and claims that their individualized products are “based on your unique brain chemistry.”

But is there legitimate research backing personalized nootropics or is this just a marketing spin? Why does the brand ask for so much personal data? Are their supplements well-formulated? And how do real users rate and describe the effects of Thesis?

In this article we’ll answer all of these questions and more as we share our concerns about the marketing practices and health claims of Thesis.

We’ll also analyze the ingredients in one of their formulations based on medical research to give our take on whether or not it's likely to be effective. We’ll share real, unsponsored user reviews of Thesis nootropics including some from individuals with ADHD.

Is the “Personalized” Approach Fake?

The branding around Thesis is of “personalized nootropic formulas,” however this may be entirely untrue.

We submitted test answers into the health intake form of their site, along with a fake email, and after submitting all of this information we were brought to their “Starter Kit” landing page which is accessible at this link .

If you access the above link in a new window, the products suggested are the exact same, which suggests that Thesis is really collecting sensitive customer health data based on the guise of “personalized” supplements, while providing no additional value, which is a highly questionable marketing approach in our opinion.

The concept of “personalized nootropics” doesn’t even make sense, because the manufacturer would have to literally formulate and package them when a customer placed an order, unique to each customer’s order which is highly unlikely. It would make no business sense for a company to formulate millions of unique products and would be logistically impossible.

It appears that Thesis simply recommends some of their supplements to consumers based on their needs, which is not a “personalized nootropic formula,” it’s a personalized recommendation which literally any brand could offer.

This leads us to our second concern about this brand.

Rather than simply selling supplements, they require users to complete a questionnaire which asks a number of sensitive health questions. 

As shown above, the brand requires users to answer questions about their gender identity and their alcoholic intake in their health quiz. What does this have anything to do with nootropics, and why would any user share this data with a random supplement startup?

We would recommend avoiding this brand based on these marketing and data collection practices alone, but in the next section we’ll analyze the formulation of one of their products.

Ingredient Analysis

Thesis’ “Motivation Formula” contains five active ingredients: l-phenylalanine, Dynamine, vitamin B12, forskolin and artichoke extract.

L-phenylalanine is an amino acid that Thesis describes as supporting mood, attention and motivation, however these claims are uncited and we can’t find any medical evidence supporting them. 

Most of the clinical research we found on this ingredient involves obesity, with this clinical trial finding that l-phenylalanine may increase the sense of fullness and decrease calories consumed in overweight individuals, but only at a dose 20x that in Thesis’ supplement.

Dynamine is a trademarked form of methylliberine, which is a chemical compound that can be isolated from coffee beans and tea. Thesis claims that this compound “supports alertness” but this claim is uncited and we can’t find any medical evidence supporting it.

The manufacturer of this ingredient is a company called Compound Solutions, and the company even states on their website that this ingredient is “typically used in combination with caffeine and TeaCrine,” because all three of the clinical trials that the manufacturer cites on their website use Dynamine in combination with either caffeine or TeaCrine.

However, there is no caffeine or TeaCrine in Thesis Motivation.

Vitamin B12 is often included in nootropic formulations, but we’re unsure why. As we referenced in our review of another nootropic supplement called Noocube which also contains this ingredient, we can’t identify any medical evidence that vitamin B12 improves cognitive function in healthy adults without a vitamin B12 deficiency.

Forskolin was shown in an animal study to reduce memory loss, but the lowest dose used was equivalent to over 200% of the human-equivalent dose in Thesis. We can’t identify any clinical trials with human trial participants proving this compound to be an effective nootropic.

Artichoke extract is the final active ingredient, and Thesis claims that this ingredient “supports blood flow and promotes stress management.” These claims are uncited and we’re unclear on why this ingredient would be included in a nootropic formula, as even the stated health claims do not reference an explicit improvement in cognitive function.

Thesis fails to publish inactive ingredients for Motivation, which is an important consumer safety concern.

Overall we do not consider Thesis Motivation likely to be effective for improving cognitive function or productivity as we are unable to identify a single active ingredient that we would consider effective at the given dose, based on a review of clinical studies.

We do not recommend this supplement or brand, and consider this product to be one of the worst nootropic formulations that we’ve reviewed on Illuminate Health. Most nootropic supplements we review at least contain one effectively-dosed active ingredient.

We Tried Thesis Ourselves

One of our product testers named Matt Donnelly tested Thesis. Here's his experience:

I spent the month trying out the starter pack, which included CLARITY, MOTIVATION, LOGIC, and MOTIVATION.

Of the four, the only one that seemed to have any positive effect was LOGIC. It's good for “Research projects” and “Complex problem-solving” according to the packaging.

I was hoping for good results because I had been sidetracked from creative projects. It seemed like this one may have contributed to more focus overall and focused attention.

On some days I got very tired a few hours after taking the capsules, and needed to lie down in the afternoon.

There are three or four pills in each packet. It seemed to me like a lot to consume on a daily basis, and the pills are large so they could be challenging to swallow.

Overall, I would rate Thesis 3/10 and I wouldn't purchase this product again.

Real, Unsponsored User Review of Thesis

A YouTube creator named “LUKAS YAN” reviewed Thesis nootropics and shared his thoughts on whether or not the supplements improved his physical and mental energy:

Will Thesis Nootropics Cause Side Effects?

Thesis Nootropics do not appear to have been studied in any clinical trials, so it’s impossible to say for certain whether or not they’re likely to cause side effects. However, we can make an educated guess based on their formulations.

Most of the active ingredients in Thesis supplements appear to be safe and well-studied. We don’t have access to the full set of the brand’s supplements because instead of transparently posting all product pages they rely on the “individualized” marketing.

Our concern in regard to side effects is that the brand fails to clearly publish inactive ingredient information, and some inactive ingredients can cause side effects.

We hope that in the future Thesis publishes inactive ingredients in the same section where active ingredients are published for each supplement they sell. This is important for consumer safety.

Our Clean Nootropic Picks

There are compounds which have been shown in medical studies to be effective for cognitive enhancement and memory support.

MCT oil  is a food supplement derived from coconut oil that  improved memory recall by 20% in adults   in a 2022   meta-study .

Bulletproof MCT Oil   is our top MCT oil pick, because its only ingredient is MCT oil derived from coconuts and it has zero additives. It currently retails for   under $16 .

Ginkgo biloba extract  is arguably the most well-studied nootropic supplement apart from caffeine.

A  medical review  published in the  Psychopharmacology  journal  found that ginkgo biloba supplementation improved attention and cognitive performance in healthy, young adults.

Illuminate Labs Ginkgo Biloba Extract   is our supplement which is third-party tested to ensure purity and label accuracy, and retails for   only $15   at a subscription price.

Panax ginseng extract  is another well-studied nootropic supplement. A 2013  clinical trial  found that  ginseng extract caused " overwhelmingly positive effects on neurocognitive function across different cognitive domains."

Illuminate Labs Panax Ginseng Extract   is our supplement which is third-party tested to ensure purity and label accuracy, and retails for   only $15   at a subscription price.

Is Thesis Effective for ADHD?

We don’t recommend using Thesis supplements to treat any specific health condition. There are several TikTok reviews from users with ADHD who tried Thesis supplements.

A TikTok user named “BrigidMarie TV” reviewed the brand here:

@brigid_marietv ADHD med challenge with thesis nootropics has ended. #nootropics #adhd #executivedysfuntion ♬ How`s Your Day - aAp Vision

A TikTok user named “BadKitty” had a less favorable review:

@badkitty7777 #thesisreview #thesis #adhd #anxiety #mentalhealth #scathingreview #trash ♬ original sound - BadKitty

We disagree with the way Thesis markets their products, and we recommend that consumers avoid giving sensitive health data to dietary supplement startups unnecessarily.

The one Thesis supplement that we analyzed based on its active ingredients, called Motivation, was underwhelming. We were unable to identify any effectively-dosed ingredients based on a review of medical research, and the brand fails to clearly publish inactive ingredient information or cite the health claims made about their ingredients.

We do not recommend Thesis supplements although we don’t consider it likely that the supplements will cause side effects.

Some TikTok users with ADHD who tried Thesis supplements had relatively negative feedback.

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Thesis Review | I Tested this Nootropic for 4 Weeks, Did It Work?

In this Thesis review, we’ll take a long look to this nootropic company that offers combinations of various nootropic blends that are tailored to best suit your individual needs.

A thesis, usually presented as a final work for an advanced degree, is a fitting name for this product as there is a several-question quiz that seeks to get a handle on who you are and what you need help with in order to recommend a suite of products.

Those brain supplements comprise of the following blends.

If you have been struggling with anxiety, stress, productivity or energy, you might have certainly looked at brain supplements. These are usually generic blends of natural herbs and mushrooms with positive effects in various areas and processes in your brain.

However, most of the best brain supplements offer comprehensive blends that are suited for 90% of the population. Thus, Thesis offer of tailored nootropics is a very intriguing proposition. But does it work? Does Thesis help you combat anxiety? Help you focus? Is it worth it? Let’s find out!

Table of Contents

Thesis Review at a Glance

• Approach to This Thesis Review

Thesis Nootropic Ingredients

Who wrote the thesis, price and shipping, customer thesis nootropics reviews.

• Verdict: Thesis Review – 4 Weeks with Noticeable Effects

Key Takeaways

• Offers personalized nootropics
• Transparent label
• Effective when tested at increasing clarity and focus
• Good sets of ingredients
• Not the most affordable but worth the price
• Best for long-term use

Approach to This Thesis Nootropics Review

As I alluded to, Thesis presents a questionnaire so to individualize your box. It takes around five minutes to complete, and asks questions that are quantifiable, yes/no or degree based. Everything from your weight, age and sleep quality to how often you exercise, which unhealthy habits you indulge in and how much you procrastinate will all be on the table.

Now, you can skip that entire process and just opt for a starter kit. With the starter kit, you can just simply pick blends you prefer, and you’re off and running.

I’ll be taking four of the six blends for six day intervals and documenting my results. So by the time you’re reading this, I’ll have tried Thesis for the better part of the last month.

It will be a thorough test on the day to day to learn how effective Thesis really is.

So, each blend of course has its own unique formula consisting of ingredients that are supposed to aid in its intended goals. Each blend contains 100mg of caffeine and 200mg L-theanine (unless you opt for caffeine free) and the ingredients differ from there.

The combined effects of caffeine and l-theanine in a 1:2 ratio have been proven to be optimal for cognitive performance and mood; which means that Thesis has a good base.

Furthermore, I welcome the transparency in their labels, which is not usual in nootropics – even in the most popular ones like Alpha Brain .

Here is the breakdown of each formula, and the dosages.

30-Day Thesis Nootropic Test and Results

As pictured above, I have the starter kit.

The kit includes four blends of your choice, each with six individually wrapped doses that are designed to be taken once daily. My kit contains the blends for Clarity, Creativity, Confidence and Motivation . As per the instructions, I’ll pick a blend, take it once daily for six days, with one day off. I’ll evaluate the results, then start the next blend.

A quick bit about me: large male, mostly sedentary with some high activity days, no chemical vices, mostly liquid diet as of late.

I’ll be taking each dose with food as recommended, likely with one our recommended meal replacement shakes such as Soylent, Huel , Ka’Chava or Rootana .

Week 1 – Thesis Clarity Review

This blend consists of four pills, a lot to swallow. The goal for Clarity to improve and maintain focus and attention .

Early on, the effects were pretty noticeable . I did feel more energized when performing physical activity. Also, I did feel more “locked in” when I had to focus, in particular with games that require high execution and fast reactions.

On the flipside, days when I didn’t have much going, I didn’t notice much of a difference. I didn’t feel need to do more, and without something to intently focus on, they may as well be water pills.

For similar effects, you could also try Optimal Nutrition’s nootropic Focus coffee , a more fun way to consume them.

Week 2 – Thesis Motivation Review

Only three pills in this blend, so a bit easier to take.

Motivation is designed for task completion and focuses on reducing procrastination and stress. I did manage to stay focused on my current diet, though I feel that would have happened with or without these pills.

This one really didn’t do it for me. I felt like my sleep was noticeably worse during the week of taking this week.

Week 3 – Thesis Creativity Review

Back to four pills with this one. The highlights of this blend focus on learning, memory and cognition.

At times I felt scattered, like I had to be doing something, which can be detrimental if you need to focus on a set of tasks. But I can see if I needed to innovate something, how this can help, being able to cycle through thoughts and ideas quickly.

Seemingly no ill side effects too. Pleasantly surprised considering I’m not at all very creative.

Week 4 – Thesis Confidence Review

Three pills, with two of them dark. Reminds me of hamster pellets. Moving on….

Of all the blends, I felt the effects of this one the fastest, usually within about 30 minutes, as opposed to an hour or so like the others.

It felt like a spike and gradual leveling off of the effects, which felt less tailored than the others. I didn’t necessarily expect to feel more confident, but it was just harder to pinpoint this one.

It worth noting that this could also be to the accrual effect of having taking nootropics for the past 30 days. Most of the best nootropics take a while to showcase all their positive effects, as there’s a build up period.

“As long as I can remember, people thought I was stupid, lazy, or unmotivated. I started to believe it. In school, I would read the same page over and over again, without absorbing anything. At 16, I dropped out of high school and went to work at a sandwich shop. Fast-forward ten years — I scored in the 99th percentile on the GMAT and earned Master’s degrees from Yale and INSEAD. Nootropics turned everything around for me and helped me form the positive habits that I built my success on. Once I balanced my brain chemistry, I could perform like never before. Dan Freed

Thesis supplement can be purchased as a single box, or part of an ongoing subscription. You choose which blends you prefer and they are shipped to you monthly.

• One time purchase (30 days) – $119
• Subscription purchase (30 days) – $79 per month

Shipping is only within the US, and is free via USPS First Class Mail.

Are Thesis Personalized Nootropics Worth It?

Regarding the price, Thesis offers a very competitive offering when compared to the best Nootropics like Hunter Focus .

In particular when you use the subscription discount, at $2.33/serving I feel like Thesis offers you a very tempting offer. A personalised nootropic blend is a very unique proposition and finding what works best for you can be hard.

Thesis makes this easier, which is already a big plus, and you could see bigger benefits than with other competitors.

Taken that into consideration, I believe that Thesis nootropics are worth it for those considering regular use to improve cognitive function and long-term mental health.

Thesis can only be bought from their own website, which means that there are no Amazon Thesis reviews to look at.

That said, reviews on their site are overwhelmingly positive. Not all products seem as effective, as discussed in our tests, and Creativity and Clarity seem to be the least liked. On the other hand users liked Motivation and Confidence the most, unlike me.

This remarks the importance of choosing the right blend.

I’m going to be honest with you, I was skeptical but I started a new job so I thought maybe it could help.Within a half hour of the first time taking it I saw immediate results.I’m more alert and focused than I’ve been in years.I’m so happy I found Thesis as it has been life changing for me so far. Elliot S, 5-star

I have been off stimulants for months now and these formulas are far superior. My husband and daughter both noticed the change and said I have been more productive, focused, less anxious, and more “thinking outside the box”. I have tried for years to get off stims and nothing would work. Thank you for making such an amazing product. Debbie M, 5-star

If you’re new to nootropics, we can guide you to the blends we believe will work best for you based on your lifestyle and goals. You can make adjustments to these blends based on what works best for you.

Our Starter Kit is designed so that you can try multiple formulations to identify which nootropics work best with your unique brain chemistry. Each week you will sample one of your recommended blends, and record how you respond. Things to note would include increased productivity, decreased procrastination, enhanced focus and any changes in your routine At the end of the first month, you should have a good idea as to which blends work most effectively for you. These will be the blends you will continue with in your next month.

You will receive four distinct nootropic formulations totaling a four week supply, an instructional booklet, and access to our team of nootropic experts and wellness coaches to help you set and achieve your goals! You will also receive email messages with additional instructions to make the most of this exploratory month.

We offer the most advanced nootropic system available, to find the exact compliment for your specific brain chemistry and desired areas of focus. Our innovative Starter Kit allows you to experience multiple formulations, and determine what works best. Our process is complex because we’ve found that it yields the best results in the shortest amount of time. If we could formulate one pill that would work for everyone, we would! Because the human brain is deeply complex, that is just not possible.

Depending on your genetics and experience with nootropics, the effects can be felt in as little as 30 minutes after taking each blend. Nootropics have the most impact when taken on an empty stomach, just after waking from a normal night of rest. Some people may need a few days of consecutive use to feel the effects of the nutrients.

Verdict: Thesis Nootropic Review – 4 Weeks with Noticeable Effects

This has been a long review, probably my longest as you have to nootropics time in your routine and in your system to truly reap the benefits.

I find the approach that Thesis is taking to be a sound one. While some may be annoyed or turned off by the initial quiz, it’s certainly a necessary step in the overall process of finding which blends work for you, and which you should avoid. Also, without it, it would be a one size fits all product, and there are plenty of those already on the market.

Personally, I thought that Clarity and Creativity did the most for me . They each had noticeable effects that were largely in line with what was expected. Motivation and Confidence I wouldn’t have again, as Motivation seemed to to correspond with poor sleep and Confidence just didn’t provide enough of a benefit for me.

There are a couple of others in Energy and Logic that I did not try but would like to…and that alone may bring me back. Plus, I much rather have caffeine free, and I think it’s cool that’s even an option.

Bottom Line – If serious about adding nootropics to your routine, Thesis offers a great way to find what’s best for you.

Thesis Nootropics

Ingredients

Effectiveness, nootropic blend.

• Personalized nootropics for each goal
• It was effective when tested
• Clarity was our favorite
• Short and long-term positive effects
• There are more comprehensive blends out there that do all
• Only in the US

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The Best Nootropics Supplements Personalized to Your Brain?

Updated: 01/25/2024

Affiliate Disclosure: This post contains affiliate links , which means Outliyr LLC gets a small commission if you buy (at no cost to you). Thanks for your support!

Your brain is a primary difference between winning a Nobel prize and living a life of mediocrity.

How well it functions isn’t solely a matter of genetics.

Neuroscience research, and overwhelming anecdotal experience, show that we can dramatically upgrade our:

• Mental clarity
• Productivity
• Access to the flow state
• Information processing speed

Welcome to the world of “neurohacking”. Using special ingredients and lifestyle practices to optimize the brains and increase our overall quality of life.

But there’s one glaring issue…

Companies making the best brain-boosting supplements recognize this and customize their formulas to your unique lifestyle.

One such nootropic experience is a “newcomer” (you’ll learn why this isn’t exactly true) called Thesis. You take a short brain assessment, they send you a starter kit, and their complimentary coach helps you hone the perfect brain supplements — customized to you!

This post will thoroughly review of TakeThesis, how it compares to other nootropics companies, and whether this is the last brain supplement you’ll need.

In a hurry?

Use the exclusive Thesis code URBAN to save 10%

Quick & Dirty Intro to Nootropics

These are different from the off-label use of prescription pharmaceuticals like Adderall.

Essentially, nootropics are a special class of ingredients that satisfy ALL the following criteria:

• Safe and non-toxic
• Enhance learning and memory
• Protect against injury
• Boost natural cognitive ability (memory, logic, creativity, focus, etc)

There’s something that makes them even better…

Nootropics upgrade your baseline performance even after you stop taking them . They cause long-term changes to brain structure and function. Almost like training you how to operate at a higher level and forming positive habits.

At the same time, the good ones provide a quick and noticeable pick-me-up. You don’t wonder if they’re working.

The right formulas help you reach your full potential faster and more effectively.

What is Take Thesis Nootropics?

Thesis is the masterpiece of expert brain supplement formulators Dan Freed and Adam Greenfield. This duo began researching nootropics out of personal need. Both struggled with poor cognitive performance. They learned how to balance brain chemistry to maximize performance.

Now they’re sharing their discoveries with the world.

After great success with their original product, Find My Formula (which I reviewed here), they revamped their formulations and process.

While each of us has unique neurochemistries, after working with enough people, they began to spot patterns in which ingredients, the forms of those ingredients, and doses work best. Over the span of years, they’ve amassed a huge dataset:

• 30,000+ users
• 550,000 recommendations made
• 127 ingredients tested

Resulting in 86% of users reporting higher energy levels, better mood, more reliable memory, and greater motivation.

Unsurprisingly, Thesis has garnered a stellar 96% customer satisfaction.

The company also has soul. By donating a portion of each sale to both the Covenant House and The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), they’re evolving the future of brain enhancement and also making it more accessible to the world.

Thesis Nootropics Ingredients

When evaluating any nootropic, you must consider how they source and test ingredients.

The sad truth is that most of the products on the market are WORSE than useless. Contaminated with heavy metals, mycotoxins, pathogens, even adulterated with banned (dangerous) substances.

Thesis puts each ingredient through a rigorous, multi-step ethical, medical, and legal evaluation. Before acquiring and testing the ingredients for safety and purity, every ingredient must be supported as safe and effective by clinical trials.

This team keeps up with the ever-changing regulations.

Since the days of Find My Formula, a lot has changed. Each of their blends has undergone a major overhaul.

One of the common gripes with naturals is that you don’t feel anything.

How Thesis Works

Thesis isn’t your run-of-the-mill supplement company.

They’ve streamlined a process resulting in 86 percent of users finding their neurochemically tuned formulations in less than one month.

This is how to best use Thesis:

• Assess your unique brain
• Establish your baseline
• Begin your Starter Kit
• Notice what works for you and what doesn’t
• Tweak and optimize with complimentary coaching

Your Thesis journey begins with a short survey to understand your basic lifestyle, how your brain functions, and your goals for using nootropics. The entire “quiz” takes just a few minutes. When you finish, their AI finds your “digital twin” to determine which formulations are most likely to work for you.

A few days later, you’ll receive the Thesis Starter Kit in the mail, with the four separate blends best matched to your brain.

I suggest jotting down the way you feel, your challenges, and goals. That way you’ll have something to reference after several weeks of testing. Bonus points for including audio/video in your log.

You’ll follow the directions, testing each product for six days in a row. Then take a break over the weekend, allowing your body to reset. Though you don’t need two days off, I notice better effects when I give my body the extra rest day.

If you’re sensitive, I suggest taking these capsules first thing in the morning.

At any point, you can schedule a call with one of the resident Thesis Nootropics Experts. They’ll help coach you to ensuring the best possible experience and tweak your kit as necessary. Definitely take advantage of the experts, as they’re a key bonus of Thesis !

By the end of the month, you’ll have discovered your favorite blends and the ones that you don’t like. It’s perfectly normal to not like some of them, and your future orders will only include the products you love most.

The Thesis Nootropic Blends for Every Goal

Note that I’ve written about five blends below, but your Starter Kit will only contain four. Once you’ve gone through the Starter Kit, you’ve demoed the blends.

Hopefully, you’ve discovered the ones that work great for you.

For every subsequent order, you get four slots to customize however you prefer. My favorite combo is:

• (2) Clarity

But if I really loved a particular blend, for example, I could just do:

• (4) Creativity

You can request any of the formulations in either of two versions: caffeinated or caffeine-free.

Don’t pay much attention to the names of each. They’re merely general suggestions of the most often reported benefits. It’s entirely possible that you’ll get more clarity from Creativity, or better logical reasoning from Energy.

Let’s examine each of the different blends.

Thesis Energy

I reach for Energy when I get less than 7 hours of sleep, or when I need extra energy to crush a workout and power through a long Monday. It’s also useful for travel days, or when I know I’ll wind up in energy-depleting situations. Others use it to reinforce new healthy habits.

Thesis Energy blend ingredients include:

• Zynamite® – 300mg
• TeaCrine® – 100mg
• Sabroxy® – 100mg
• CDP Choline – 300mg
• N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine – 300mg
• N-Acetyl Cysteine – 500mg
• Optional: Caffeine – 100mg
• Optional: L-Theanine – 200mg

Sabroxy is an ancient Ayurvedic extract that comes from the bark of the Indian trumpet tree. Research suggests it enhances memory, focus, immunomodulation, mood, and even skin health.

From previous experience, I know that I respond well to Zynamite and TeaCrine. The former is an extract of mango leaf, and the latter is a molecular cousin of caffeine that comes from a tea plant, is non-habit forming, and with fewer side effects. Both noticeably increase energy, as expected. As a bonus, I find that these two also lift my mood.

Compared to the previous Energy formula, this iteration is smoother and more refined. Each sachet contains three capsules, and I start feeling effects 15 minutes after swallowing them.

I’ve been a big fan of all the Energy blends I’ve tested so far. It’s constantly ranked in my top 2 favorites due to the pronounced effects. It feels like a more full-body caffeine without the jitters or crash.

Thesis Clarity

As the package insert describes, Clarity supports a calm, focused flow and is great for optimal performance during high-stakes days. Good for presentations, content creation, and non-stimulating concentration.

I’ve found this description to be spot on. The formula has undergone a complete overhaul, featuring two ingredients I haven’t found in other nootropics.

Thesis Clarity blend ingredients include:

• 7,8 Dihydroxyflavone – 30mg
• Camellia Sinesis Extract – 250mg
• Alpha GPC – 250mg
• Epicatechin – 250mg
• Lion’s Mane 8:1 Extract – 500mg

7, 8 Dihydroxyflavone is a man-made flavonoid that can penetrate the blood-brain barrier and mimic the effects of BDNF (dubbed “MiracleGro for the brain”). Camellia Sinesis is the ingredient that earned tea’s reputation as a health drink. It’s a potent source of the relaxing compound l-Theanine. Epicatechin also comes from tea, and it promotes optimal blood flow, mood, and neuroprotection.

A dose of Clarity takes three capsules, and I couldn’t pinpoint the exact time I started feeling it. The effects became more pronounced after approximately one hour.

Don’t expect a huge boost in energy or racing thoughts from this one. Once I released that expectation, I noticed that I felt clear, calm yet alert, steady, and mentally sharp . All without overstimulation. I flowed through my work, easily focusing on each task through completion.

To my surprise, Clarity went from among my least favorite Find My Formula blends, to my Thesis top pick.

I’m confident that this is one of the only nootropics that I can take in the afternoon (or even evening) and still sleep great.

Thesis Creativity

Creativity helps you generate new ideas, think abstractly, and finally bring your dream projects to fruition. It works by quieting overthinking and helping integrate both hemispheres of the brain.

The stack of powerful adaptogenic herbs also makes it an excellent choice for stressful situations, or to relax in social events.

You can rest assured that it contains some of the most researched and scientifically proven herbs on the planet. Ashwagandha and Panax Ginseng are staples in Ayurvedic (Indian) and Traditional Chinese Medicine. Thousands of studies back their use.

Thesis Creativity blend ingredients include:

• KSM-66 Ashwagandha – 300mg
• GS15-4 Panax Ginseng – 200mg
• Zembrin® – 25mg
• Agmatine Sulfate – 250mg
• Alpha GPC – 150mg

The Thesis formulators did a great job here, handpicking the strongest, cleanest, and most bioavailable forms of each ingredient.

Zembrin is one I hadn’t heard of, but am impressed by what I’ve learned. It’s a plant extract known to boost mood, improve workout focus, alleviate nervousness, and enhance complex problem-solving.

Approximately 45 minutes after my three-capsule dose, I noticed myself feeling slightly less reactive to urgent emails and other daily stressors. I could also more easily discern wisdom from my intuition. Each time I followed my instinct, I made the right choice.

I do already regularly take Ashwagandha and Ginseng in my own supplement regimen (which I stopped for this experiment), so it’s likely that my reaction is milder than most.

Thesis Logic

The name summarizes it well. Logic supports rational thinking. Making a popular choice among lawyers, bankers, programmers, scientists, academics, and those looking to boost their analytical abilities.

Though I didn’t get it selected for my Starter Kit, I reached out to their customer service to have it swapped in. As a Data Scientist, I knew that this would fit me well.

I was right. My first experience with the original Find My Formula Logic blend quickly took silver (only behind their original Energy). It hit the sweet spot between energetic stimulation and effortless focus. I went from spec sheet to finished product 35 percent faster than normal.

Thesis Logic blend ingredients include:

• Triacetyluridine – 30mg
• Vegan Omega-3 Lysine complex (EPA + DHA) – 200mg
• Phosphatidylserine – 200mg
• Theobromine – 100mg
• Gingko Biloba – 160mg
• Synapsa® (Bacopa monnieri extract) – 320mg

As its name suggests, Triacetyluridine is a more potent version of the nootropic uridine. It’s known to improve learning, memory, energy, mood, and reduce neuroinflammation.

Theobromine is a mild stimulant related to caffeine naturally occurring in cacao. It increases blood flow, and improves focus.

Those interested in memory enhancement may know Bacopa — one of the greatest ancient memory-enhancing herbs. Gingko is another notable natural herb, known to improve alertness, concentration, focus, and memory.

Phosphatidylserine comes from sunflowers. It gently alleviates stress without drowsiness, improves memory, and increases alertness.

Indeed, the Logic formulation improves working memory, offsets stress, and accelerates learning. On days I reluctantly approached tedious work, the two capsule dose of Logic took the edge off within about 20 minutes.

I’m still experimenting with the latest Logic blend, but so far it stacks up with the original. The new Logic feels slightly weaker, but I greatly prefer the new ingredients.

Thesis Motivation

Motivation comes in a lime-green sachet. It’s Thesis’ take on the classic and original CILTEP nootropic stack.

Motivation bills itself as best for:

• Crushing your TODO list
• Building healthy habits
• Increasing discipline and drive

It’s one of the blends that’s most polarizing. You either love it, or you hate it.

I’ve tested this exact formulation produced by several different companies (including NaturalStacks and Find My Formula), and I’ve had bad experiences every single time.

The predominant effect I notice is a headache (which I never get). I also feel slightly spacey. This time I came prepared and used Semax to pull me out of my CILTEP fog.

But just as many people rave about their Motivation.

Thesis Motivation blend ingredients include:

• Forskolin – 250mg
• Methylcobalamin – 1000mcg
• Dynamine – 100mg
• L-Phenylalanine – 500mg
• Artichoke Extract – 450mg

It’s safe to say that after two days of use, you’ll know which Motivation camp you fall into.

Thesis Confidence

Confidence is a newer Thesis blend that came out in mid-2022 after heavy internal research and development. I’ve been using it for the last few weeks and it’s certainly one of my favorites. Perhaps my top non-stimulating Thesis Formula.

Typical use cases for Confidence include:

• Important situations
• Doing uncomfortable or new things
• Times of leadership
• Stopping overwhelm

My experience with Thesis Confidence has been overwhelmingly positive. Within about 30 minutes, I felt a smooth and definite mood boost. The day seemed to flow easily. I didn’t feel jitters or nervousness before overwise stressful no-agenda meetings.

This one is great for social situations. I’m noticing that I feel more comfortable and bold as a newbie Bachata dancer.

Although it’s not very stimulating, I noticed a slight rush kind of like the effect of finishing a good workout. Increased blood flow and slight flushing paired with relaxation (but certainly not any sedation).

Thesis Confidence blend ingredients include:

• Saffron extract (affron®) – 28mg
• Ashwagandha extract (Shoden®) – 120mg
• Sage extract – 333mg
• Magnesium threonate – 50mg
• Magnolia bark extract (DHH-B) – 10mg

This is an excellent formula. I love the synergy between the ingredients. Plus, many of these (like Saffron) are expensive and commonly faked in supplements. By using the patented versions, we’re assuredly getting the real thing.

How to Use Thesis

When the shipment finally arrives in the mail, you might feel overwhelmed.

Here’s what to expect…

Inside the large box, you’ll find four smaller boxes. Each box contains five sachets. Monday through Saturday mornings, you take one full sachet (2-3 capsules).

I suggest you take notes beforehand on what you wish to get out of the experience. Some popular examples include:

• Spending less time distracted on social media
• Output at your main job
• Progress toward hobbies, projects, or other work
• Starting a new skill, language, or health habit
• Finish work faster

Then, at the end of each day, spend 15-seconds jotting down notes in the provided instruction manual. Trust me, this makes a huge difference. After completing week four, you’ll probably forget which blends you loved, the effects they had, and which ones didn’t work for you.

Some of the ingredients last slightly longer in your system, so I take the entire weekend off to allow my neurochemistry to reset. This also ensures you get the most bang for your buck.

After repeating this process for all four boxes, you’ll have discovered your favorite blends. A Thesis coach can help you customize future orders so you’ll only receive the ones you want!

Tips to Get the Most Out of Thesis Nootropics

Nootropics aren’t cheap.

You can skip this entire section, but these tips will help ensure that you get the most out of your experience.

Caffeine-free . If you’re new to nootropics, start with the non-caffeinated versions. I drink coffee most days. Sometimes two cups. But I always get my nootropics caffeine-free. For several reasons. First, nootropics potentiate caffeine. One coffee can feel like 3. If you’re not used to the combo, going caff-free gives you more control. Caff-free also means that I can take nootropics later in the day. Also, the health benefits of coffee don’t come from caffeine but from the polyphenols, flavonoids, and other phytochemicals. Plus, I just like the taste of coffee.

If you like this kind of thing, join my FREE nootropics mini-course where you’ll learn:

• How professionals choose products
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Thesis Nootropics Questions & Answers

Should i take thesis with caffeine.

I recommend taking Thesis without caffeine to start. Caffeine greatly increases the effects of certain nootropics. For some, this can be too much and lead to panic, headaches, and unease. You can always add coffee and more easily control your caffeine dosage later.

What’s the difference between Thesis and Find My Formula nootropics?

Thesis is the latest generation of Find My Formula nootropics. They’ve refined, upgraded, and revamped every single one of their formulas according to the latest neuroscience research. Find My Formula products are no longer available.

Which Thesis blend is best?

Your ideal Thesis stack depends on your neurochemistry, lifestyle, and goals. People either love or hate their Motivation blend. My favorites (in order) are Clarity, Energy, and then Logic.

How much do Thesis nootropics cost?

Thesis offers two different buying options: one-time, and subscription. One-time purchases cost $119.00 and subscriptions cost $79.00 per month. Use code URBAN and save an extra 15 percent! Thesis backs all purchases with a full 30-day no-questions-asked money-back guarantee.

Thesis Nootropics Review: Boosting Your Brain With Precision Formulas

Ignore those that say you’re stuck with a less-than-optimal brain.

According to the latest neuroscience (and countless personal examples), that’s demonstrably false.

That is if you use the right products.

The most popular nootropics today are:

I’m constantly trying the latest nootropic formulas.

I take most of them for a month and see little benefit.

Thesis is one exception, featuring an impressive array of the highest-quality forms of well-researched ingredients. Drawing from their millions of data points, they’ve come up with unique formulas that give you both a quick boost and long-term benefits .

So that one day, should you choose, you can completely stop supplementing and continue enjoying all the fruits of an upgraded brain.

I personally prefer their Clarity, Energy, and Logic. Each serves a role specific to the type of day I have ahead.

Since the original Find My Formula blends, I’m impressed with their improvements. They’ve moved away from some of the man-made ingredients and embraced natural (but effective) bioharmonizing compounds.

As of January 2022, Thesis has amassed a 4.5+ star rating on 7,411 ratings.

Try it yourself with the exclusive Outliyr discount:

Thesis nootropics code URBAN saves you 10%

To the long-term Formula users — what do you think of the update? Have you enjoyed the new Thesis blends?

Let’s have a discussion in the comments below!

Post Tags: Brain & Cognition , Lifestyle , Nootropics , Review , Supplements

12 thoughts on “The Best Nootropics Supplements Personalized to Your Brain?”

Unfortunately, I can not use any of the samples sent by Thesis. Each packet contained the caffeine equal to a cup of coffee.

What a bummer!

I’m not sure how you do with caffeine, but it also includes l-theanine which is a natural amino acid that really smoothes out the negative effects of caffeine (I won’t use any form of caffeine without it). You might want to reach out to their team about this, but last I heard, one of the pills in each sachet is exclusively caffeine/theanine. I’ve received a few caffeinated boxes, and just threw away the smallest white caffeine/theanine pill.

Or you can reach out to them and they will likely make it right.

Hey, I had the same issue. Fortunately, the caffeine portion comes in its own separate capsule (the white capsule in each packet), so you can choose to leave it out!

Correct. It’s the smaller white one if there are multiple white capsules.

I’ll be honest. I think this is a scam, like snake oil.

Hi Andrew. Not sure what you mean. Have you ever used nootropics? Or botanicals/herbals? What makes you think this is a scam?

This is my first time visiting the website although I’m no stranger to nootropics. I don’t remember where or how I discovered acetyl choline—AGP?—but it was a game changer for me. I’d been taking phosphatidylserine for memory enhancement for at least 2 decades, L-Tyrosine to boost dopamine, PEA, for the same reason. All on my own initiative, as a result of my own independent research. What disturbs me about Thesis is: 1). I suffer from a congenital disease for which there is no cure—Lipedema—and this is allegedly at the root of the fatigue which has blighted my entire life and which I have been attempting to overcome for most of it. The disease afflicts about 10% of women and as one doctor blithely informed me, “you;d be better off with cancer. At least there’s a chance you might recover.” As a result of the quiz I took, Thesis informed me I was in the bottom 4% of applicants and never investigated further. Well, Hello. 2). Quiz had questions about exercise but nothing about diet or meditation, Since I follow functional and integrative Medicine, these gaps disappointed me. I still haven’t made up my mind about becoming a member, but I am grateful to Andrew Huberman for drawing my attention to this range of products.

Hi Jacqueline, sorry about the super slow response here! Glad you’ve found things that work for you. That’s strange. When I took the quiz, they didn’t show percentiles. I agree, diet and meditation are essential. Impossible to overlook really, especially when we’re discussing nutraceuticals. I’ll let them know when I talk to them next.

Update on “the ingredients are not evenly distributed throughout the pills.” I spoke to a Thesis rep this week, and after a detailed conversation regarding the caffeine pills (the small white pill in each caffeine line of products), she clarified that the other pills (not the 100mg of caffeine + 200 mg of L-Theanine small white pill) have the remaining blend evenly distributed between the pills.

Loved your article, how you spelt it out, and agree strongly with the feelings on Clarity being “clear, calm yet alert, steady, and mentally sharp. All without overstimulation.”

Good correction! The caffeine/theanine pill is easy enough to spot.

Thanks for the feedback. Which are your favorite(s)?

Nick, this is an awesome intro to nootropics and Thesis, thank you for breaking this down! I was a Formula customer for years and my favorite blends were Clarity and Creativity. With the new Thesis formulations Energy has been added into my routine! I feel like I have tools at my disposal for any occasion… Creativity is great for social situations or other experiences that would otherwise leave me mentally fatigued, Clarity is great when I have a ton I want to accomplish without interruption, Energy is great when I haven’t had great sleep or need to do more physical stuff. I don’t use it every day, but it’s there when I need a lift. Great read, thanks for the knowledge!

Thanks! How often do you use Thesis? Do you combine it with anything else?

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Nick Urban  is the Founder of Outliyr, an expert Biohacker with 12+ years of experience, a Data Scientist, a Certified CHEK Practitioner, Host of the Mind Body Peak Performance Podcast, and a High-Performance Coach. Click  here  to read how Nick went from struggling pre-diabetic, to collegiate rugby national champion. To send Nick a message, visit his  Contact Page .

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What Is Thesis?

How does it work, thesis nootropics benefits, thesis blend breakdown, thesis energy benefits, clarity benefits, motivation benefits, logic benefits, creativity benefits, side effects, who should take it, who shouldn't take it, where can you buy it, other user reviews, how does thesis compare to other supplements, our verdict on thesis nootropics.

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Thesis Nootropics Review (2024) Is It Worth The Hype?

As a fitness coach, I've seen the impact of high-quality nootropic supplements on motivation and concentration during workouts.

Teaming up with my dietitian and 12 clients, we documented the significant cognitive benefits and general effects of Thesis over a period of four weeks.

Does it genuinely fulfill its promise of enhancing your mental performance and focus?

Before trying out the supplement, keep reading and find out if it's right for your mental wellness needs.

Thesis is a stack of supplements that aims to improve cognitive function, mental stamina, mood, and overall mental energy levels.

Thesis nootropics' energy formula claims to boost energy levels while catering to individuals following a certified gluten-free diet, promoting positive habits and supporting nerve health.

What's particularly interesting about purchasing this stack is the Thesis algorithm.

It’s a set of questions that assess your personal needs to create a bespoke starter kit.

More on this shortly.

As a result, you get a recommendation from a couple of their products to provide personalized blends for nootropics.

Let’s learn more about how Thesis supplements work with your brain health.

Thesis Nootropics

The Thesis experience begins with a questionnaire to assess your needs and goals, like improved physical and mental energy.

Based on your responses, the algorithm will recommend different Thesis blends to help you achieve your goals.

After going through the quiz, you get a recommended Thesis starter kit.

The five different products Thesis then recommends claim to work similarly to smart drugs by boosting your cognitive function and mood.

But unlike prescription medications, Thesis uses natural ingredients like vitamins, amino acids, minerals, and herbs.

“Nootropics, a greek word meaning 'Towards the Mind', are compounds that are both (1) neurologically active and (2) directly or indirectly enhance cognitive potential via increased capabilities (ie. reflexes), state of well-being, or learning potential.” - Kamal Patel, MPH, MBA at Examine.com

Once you are a Thesis customer, you can also set up a meeting with a Thesis coach to review your stack and the effects you are looking for and experiencing.

But does that make Thesis legit?

Let’s see what our detailed clinical research reveals.

The first thing that we got our testing team to do is to go through a full week of keeping an hourly journal to self-evaluate their mood, concentration, and cognitive function.

Then we put them through three weeks of taking their Thesis recommended stack and got them all to keep their hourly journaling going.

The first thing we noted was that the energy blend and creativity formula seemed to give our clients a good boost in brain performance.

And the folks that took the motivation blend a few hours before heading to the gym also found they were more focused on their workouts.

However, the majority of our test group highlighted that the effects seemed to wear off after about 4–5 hours.

We also noted that the logic formula didn’t provide a huge benefit, which could be down to a lack of a proven formula.

We also found that the Thesis nootropics cost can mount up if you want to stack a few of them.

• Allows you to combine different product formulas for personal goals
• Provides support from coaches to help you refine your stack
• Positive impacts on mood and concentration levels
• Some of the ingredients are not supported by reliable clinical trials
• You may need to swallow quite a few capsules, depending on your particular blend

Thesis Nootropics offers a unique blend of ingredients that target thesis energy, thesis creativity, cellular function, and even skin health, making it a notable contender in the supplement industry.

For this part of the Thesis supplements review, I got my dietitian to help out and analyze the Thesis formula for each of the products.

We also tested the effects with 12 clients to see whether the marketing hype lives up to expectations.

Let's have a more detailed look at the features and benefits of each blend.

The idea behind Thesis Energy is to help people clear brain fog and feel more mentally energized.

To verify this, we paid close attention to the journal entries our testing team made in the afternoons. This is typically when people feel a slump.

What we found was that folks who took this supplement after lunch gained some mental clarity.

But it seems like the effect wears off after about four hours, so you don’t gain an all-day effect like with other nootropics.

Key Ingredients:

• Choline: According to PubMed, this mineral may boost memory function and verbal fluency [ 1 ].
• L-Theanine: A controlled trial posted in Nutritional Neurosciences suggests that this amino acid can work well with caffeine to increase alertness without causing jitters [ 2 ].
• Caffeine: This stimulant can boost alertness, but you can get this from a morning coffee, so I’m not overly impressed that it’s added here [ 3 ].

Thesis Clarity is another product that aims to improve neural communication and allow you to think more clearly and effectively.

Thesis Nootropics' clarity formula provides an extra boost of cognitive performance, targeting stress response reduction and improving sleep quality, all while delivering a healthy dose for enhanced mental clarity and improved ability.

We did note in our testing review that there seems to be an improvement in mental function for several hours after taking it.

But this also seemed to happen more with those testers who took the clarity and energy formula.

• 7,8-DHF: Studies have shown that Dihydroxyflavone can cross the blood-brain barrier and act as a neuroprotective ingredient [ 4 ].
• Alpha GPC: This is an ingredient that has been shown to protect against neurological decline [ 5 ].
• Lion’s Mane: This mushroom is common in nootropics and has been shown to improve mental performance and creativity [ 6 ].

A large part of improving mental health comes down to how focused and motivated you are with daily tasks. Our clients who tested the Thesis Motivation noted that it seemed to help them remain more motivated during workouts.

But this doesn’t seem to happen if you take it in the morning and go to the gym later in the day. So you’d need to get your timing right.

• L-Phenylalanine: Research has shown that this ingredient can help with signs of depression and improve overall mood [ 7 ].
• Dynamine: Also known as Methylliberine, studies have highlighted that it can impact your mental well-being when combined with caffeine [ 8 ].
• Forskolin: The interesting thing about this herbal ingredient is that it can improve blood flow to the brain for better focus and motivation [ 9 ].

For this product, we looked at what our clients noted in their journals when they were at work or studying. While they did find a boost in focus, none of them noted that it helped improve verbal fluency or problem-solving skills.

• Ginkgo Biloba: This is a common ingredient in traditional medicine, but modern clinical trials have shown that it can help brain health through improved blood flow and anti-inflammatory properties [ 10 ].
• Ashwagandha: This herb can have a direct impact on stress and memory, allowing you to think clearly and effectively [ 11 ].
• Saffron: It’s the most expensive herb in the world, and studies have linked it to improved stress, mood, and cognitive capacity [ 12 ].

A few of our clients tried the creativity blends, but this is one of the products where most of them didn’t report any significant improvements.

Combinations with other products above did positively impact mood and stress, but we couldn’t find any comments where our clients highlighted that they felt more creative in their work or any other creatively demanding context.

• Agmatine: This amino acid doesn’t just boost cognitive performance but may also help to protect brain cells against oxidative stress [ 13 ].
• Zembrin: Research has shown that this herb can impact both stress and anxiety, but there’s no specific evidence that it can help with creativity [ 14 ].
• Ginseng: This is a common ingredient in diet supplements as it can improve blood sugar levels, but that wouldn’t directly influence creativity [ 15 ].

We also asked all of our clients to provide any feedback they had on side effects related to the nootropic blends.

Overall, the majority of people found that it didn't cause any major issues.

We only noted that one person had a bit of a rash, which could have been a result of an allergic reaction to one of the ingredients.

We also found that it’s best not to take these capsules on an empty stomach. Ideally, take them within 20 minutes of eating a meal to avoid stomach upset.

Based on my personal experience, people who want to achieve a moderate boost in brain function may want to take nootropic supplements.

You would need to experiment with the timing as these capsules don’t provide effects for the entire day. But after about a week, you should be in a position to spread out the capsules for maximum effect.

You can also contact a coach directly for advice on timing. It's especially important when you have no prior experience in taking these supplements. However, a good starting point is to take the minimum and adjust from there.

Based on our own experience, people with high blood pressure or neurological diseases shouldn’t take Thesis natural nootropics to enhance cognitive function.

In such cases, it’s best to have a doctor review your detailed medical history and the nootropic ingredients for any potential side effects.

Our testing team didn’t note any improvements whatsoever, and when we specifically asked them after the trial, none of them said they saw a noticeable difference.

You can buy Thesis Nootropics directly from the company website.

We generally recommend avoiding third-party retailers to ensure that you always get the real product, so this is a positive highlight.

We placed two orders, and the package arrived within four days, which is about average for nootropic supplement companies.

One thing to point out on the Thesis supplements shipping policy is that currently, the company doesn’t offer international shipping.

We also had a look for other nootropic reviews online to see what users were saying.

“It gave me more energy. I have struggled with low energy and I felt like my old self again. I could get up & get things done.” - Laurie C., taketheseis.com

“After 1 month of using Energy, Creativity, Clarity and Logic pack, I do not note any difference in mindset. I opted for the non-caffeinated blends as I am not a big caffeine person to begin with so a caffeinated blend might show some improvement.” - Beefnug, Reddit

“I have been continuously nauseated every day using thesis packets. I have given it a week and a half and cannot handle the negative side effects. Disappointed.” - AdGroundbreaking5162, Reddit

Our Thesis scientific research suggests that it doesn’t compare well to our testing of three other products for improving cognitive function.

First of all, we looked at the results we have for Mind Lab Pro .

The one thing that stands out the most is that it seems to be effective for many more hours than Thesis, so the timing doesn’t become an issue.

The second one we compared is Onnit Alpha Brain . This nootropic supplement seems to provide a lot more focus and motivation, especially while you’re at the gym.

Compared to Gorilla Mind Smooth , Thesis doesn’t have the same effect on boosting energy and reducing stress.

Related Articles:

• Avantera Elevate Review
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Is It Safe To Take Thesis Nootropics Every Day?

Yes, it is safe to take Thesis Nootropics every day. We found Thesis to be generally easy to process, but you need to look out for allergies to any of the ingredients. A good way to do this is to ask your physician for advice since they will know whether these ingredients are good for your health.

Does Thesis Nootropics Contain Banned Ingredients?

No, Thesis Nootropics doesn’t contain any banned ingredients. All of the ingredients are based on minerals, amino acids, and herbs that won’t cause a positive drug test result.

Based on our feedback from a nutritionist and the test results with 12 clients, we don't recommend Thesis.

Not only do its effects wear off after a few hours, which makes timing your intake a problem, but it also burns a hole in your pocket for just a stack of three or four products.

Instead, I highly recommend one of the best nootropic brands we have tested so far: Mind Lab Pro .

Our results show that its effects last for most of the day and provide great clarity, energy, focus, and concentration, making it a favorite among clients of all age groups.

We Recommend This Instead

Mind Lab Pro

• Great combination of herbs and amino acids that work as a cognitive enhancer
• Added B vitamins to support red blood cell production and boosted energy levels
• Great feedback from users that it can help with relieving anxiety
• Get the BEST PRICE until the end of April
• The capsules are not the smallest ones to swallow

About The Author

James Cunningham is an author and dietary supplement connoisseur with a solid academic foundation, holding a BSc in Sport & Exercise Science from the University of Hertfordshire. Specializing in Performance Psychology, his expertise is backed by both rigorous study and practical experience.

As an author, James is committed to guiding his readers towards optimal health and performance, providing actionable insights and strategies through his writings.

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Thesis Nootropics Review 2024: Honest Thoughts + Am I Still Buying?

• Last updated: March 19, 2024

About Dr. Steve Kim, MD

Physician Advisor

After using Thesis nootropics for more than a year, for me, the higher price point is definitely worth it for the cognitive benefits I’ve experienced. Specifically, I’ve noticed that I am not feeling overwhelmed as often as I was prior, and I am able to focus and complete tasks with more ease.

Thesis Overview

• Price:  $119 for one-time purchase or $79 with subscription
• Helps With:  Cognitive function, including motivation, memory, focus, and more
• Side Effects:  Headache, stomachache, and more
• Safety: Made with ingredients that are Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) by the FDA or have passed Phase III clinical trials
• Dietary Information:  Vegan, and made without gluten, eggs, and nuts

Thesis offers a variety of  nootropics, also called “smart drugs,” which are medicinal substances that improve cognitive function, specifically memory, thinking, and learning. While some prescription nootropics are FDA-approved, Thesis is not regulated by the FDA and is available over-the-counter (OTC). However, their ingredients are third-party tested and they only use ingredients that are either Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) by the FDA or have passed through Phase III clinical trials. 

I’ve been taking Thesis for over a year now, about six times a week, and I’ve noticed some significant improvements in terms of how often I feel overwhelmed, as well as my ability to focus and stay on task. While I know Thesis won’t work well for everyone, these nootropics agree well with me and I’ll continue using them to help boost my productivity, focus, and more. 

In this article, I’ll delve into my experience using Thesis nootropics, as well as discuss their potential benefits, side effects, and more.

• Custom blends
• Personal coaching / support by nootropic experts
• No proprietary blends (AKA no hidden ingredients!)
• Caffeinated or noncaffeinated formulas
• Effective ingredients
• No free trials
• Relatively high monthly cost

My Experience Taking Thesis Nootropics

I’ve been loving Thesis since I started using their products, specifically the Clarity, Creativity, Logic, and Energy blends, over a year ago. While there’s no nootropic that’ll offer you the same potency you’d get from Adderall, or other prescription stimulant medications, I’ve found Thesis to work surprisingly well for my needs.

When using them 6 times a week, they have offered notable improvements in how well I’m able to focus and stay on task. In practice, this usually looks like a clearer mind and an improved ability to maintain a relaxed state of mind while completing various tasks. As someone who feels overwhelmed fairly often, this is a welcomed change of pace.

With their Clarity and Creativity blends, in particular, I just feel leveled out. I’m able to sit down and work, without feeling like I’m just hopped up on too much caffeine, a feeling that really makes me uncomfortable. 

In the world of nootropics, where certain products don’t seem noticeable whatsoever, it cannot be overstated just how awesome my experience with Thesis has been.

Benefits of Thesis

As a customer, you’ll have the opportunity to speak with their coaches at any time. I have reached out on a few occasions, just to talk about the fascinating world of nootropics. In particular, I have had amazing conversations with one of their neurologists, Cindy. It truly is nice to speak with other individuals who are as fascinated with the science behind nootropics as I am.

Another aspect of Thesis that I really respect is that they clearly publish not only which ingredients they include, but also the exact amounts of each ingredient. This matters because it allows consumers to actually cross-check the research behind the ingredients/dosages, an unfortunate rarity in the supplement space.

•  6 custom blends, each with unique effects that may work well for many individuals
• Personal coaching/support from nootropic experts
• No proprietary blends (hidden ingredients)
• Caffeinated or non-caffeinated formulas
• Effective ingredients that are backed by science and are third-party tested
• Available OTC
• Not FDA-approved
• Relatively high monthly price, which may not work for everyone

How Does Thesis Work?

You’ll start by filling out a questionnaire on their website, which should only take a few minutes. Once you’re done with the survey, Thesis’ algorithm will run through its millions of data points to predict which of their blends may work best for you. 

Once you place your order, either as a one-time purchase or as a subscription, you’ll be shipped your blends.

Per the instructions, you’ll begin taking your blends and note how you feel in the included daily journal. This will help your track whether your blends are the right fit for your needs or if they need to be adjusted. You’ll also be able to speak with one of their coaches at any time for additional support. 

Related reading: Stasis Supplement Review – Our Research, Testing, and Impressions

Thesis vs. Alternatives

 We’ve created this comparison table to pit Thesis up against Onnit and Mind Lab Pro , two other popular nootropic brands.

Thesis Nootropics Side Effects

The ingredients in Thesis may lead to side effects in some individuals, including: 

• Stomachache
• Signs of an allergic reaction

If you experience any prolonged discomfort, stop taking Thesis and reach out to your healthcare provider. Seek urgent medical care if you experience serious symptoms of an allergic reaction.

The Verdict: Are Thesis Nootropics Worth It?

Thesis offers a complete toolkit of nootropics that are tailored to your needs, in addition to ongoing expert support. Unlike other nootropics, which may include unnecessary or hidden ingredients, Thesis only offers what you need with their six unique blends that focus on supporting logic, energy, creativity, clarity, motivation, and confidence. Once you find the blend or blends that work for you, you can opt into a subscription and save on costs. 

While the monthly cost may be on the higher side, the ability to select only the blends you need, instead of opting for a nootropic that may include ingredients that are unnecessary for your particular needs, is definitely a major benefit of opting for this provider over others.

Keep in mind that Thesis will not feel as potent as prescription stimulant medication and that certain blends may lead to side effects, like gastrointestinal problems or headaches, in some. It’s always best to speak with your healthcare provider prior to trying Thesis to ensure that it is safe for you to do so.

Thesis will not be as potent as Adderall, a prescription medication. However,  Thesis , a type of nootropic or “smart drug,” may work well for some individuals in boosting cognitive function, focus, and more. 

Some nootropics can be used every day. However, it’s best to follow the specific’s products instructions, as well as speak to your healthcare provider about safe use.

Thesis  may be safe for some individuals to use. According to the company, they only use ingredients that are either classified as Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) by the FDA or that havve passed through Phase III clinical trials. However, it’s always best to speak with your healthcare provider prior to trying Thesis to ensure that it is safe for you to use.

Thesis does not offer free samples, however, they do offer a no-questions-asked refund. 

Thesis offer caffeinated and caffeine-free formulas.

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Home Lifestyle Curious About Brain Optimization? Thesis Nootropics May Be Your In

Curious About Brain Optimization? Thesis Nootropics May Be Your In

• By Will Price & Rebekah Harding
• January 2, 2024

Our product picks are editor-tested, expert-approved. We may earn a commission through links on our site. 

E ver feel like you have the ability but not the willpower or inspiration to excel at your job? Or maybe you’re stuck in a creative rut and are struggling to get yourself out. Thesis , a nootropics company, wants you to stop being so hard on yourself.

Nootropics are the buzzy brain-boosting substances of the moment, and Thesis attempts to match people to different nootropic blends designed for certain needs—creativity, confidence, energy, clarity, logic, and so on. But can you really summon the powers of creativity on demand from a pill? Myself, and fellow Edge writer Rebekah Harding, tried Thesis for three months to find out. Here’s what you need to know. 

Why You Should Trust Us

Hone Health is a team of health-obsessed journalists, editors, fitness junkies, medical reviewers, and product testers. The two authors of this review, Rebekah Harding and Will Price, spent months taking Thesis’ nootropics blends and logging how we felt. We’ve reported on the ingredients Thesis incorporates in its nootropic blends extensively, such as ashwagandha , Alpha-GPC , Lion’s mane , and more.

For this review, we opted to review the product and service independently, as nootropics do not all affect people in the same way. Here’s what we found. 

What Is Thesis?

Thesis’s thesis (sorry, I had to) is that you are capable of more. But as co-founder and CEO Dan Freed says on the back of the box the pills come in, “…people thought I was lazy, stupid, or unmotivated. I knew there was more in me.” Freed and his brand propose that the solution to this conundrum many of us face may be nootropics, which are substances that aim to improve cognitive performance. 

New users are funneled through a quiz that determines the best nootropic blends for them—each named for the feeling they’re meant to evoke, e.g. confidence, clarity, creativity. Boxes come with four blends, each of which should last one week, with auto-renewing deliveries shipping at $79 a month. (Note: you can buy Thesis for just one month, but it will cost $119). 

You’re meant to take notes on how each blend makes you feel and, after you’ve completed your first box, adjust which blends you receive going forward.

What are nootropics?

Nootropics are medicinal substances (some pharmaceutical, some natural) that take aim at improving brain performance—memory, creativity, motivation, mood, as well as anxiety reduction and sleep improvement.

While many have heard of popular pharmaceutical nootropics like Modafinil, Adderall, and Ritalin, most over-the-counter nootropic supplements—like Thesis—are formulated largely with herbs, vitamins, minerals, and other natural compounds that are known to benefit the brain.

Thesis ingredients

Each Thesis blend contains different ingredients, many of which are supported by solid research. Here are a handful. 

Lion’s mane: Mushrooms that contain hericenones and erinacines, which can stimulate nerve growth and may offer potential cognitive benefits ( 1 ). In addition to thinking capacity, these mushrooms may lower the risk of age-related brain diseases, like Alzheimer’s disease ( 2 ).

Alpha-GPC: May increase your levels of a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine, which facilitates memory and learning, and plays an important role in cognitive function ( 3 ). 

L-Theanine: An amino acid that can positively affect mood. Studies have found L-theanine may be a beneficial nootropic for mood and mental health. It may also help ease anxiety and stress levels ( 4 ).  

Ashwagandha: An ancient herb taken for thousands of years, ashwagandha is an adaptogen that has been found to reduce cortisol —stress—levels in humans, which can have a number of powerful knock-on effects on the brain ( 5 ). 

DHA (Omega-3): This omega-3 fatty acid plays a role in supporting cognitive function and promoting growth and maintenance of brain cells . Research suggests that DHA may improve memory, learning, and overall cognitive performance ( 6 ). 

Synapsa: This patented extract of Water Hyssop boasts nootropic benefits such as enhanced memory and cognitive function ( 7 ). Research shows that taking Synapsa regularly may improve your information processing speed, increase your attention span and enhance your memory ( 8 ).

Ginkgo Biloba: Ginkgo Biloba has antioxidant properties, which are associated with cerebral blood flow and neuroprotection ( 9 ). Studies suggest that this nootropic may boost memory, mental clarity, and overall cognitive function ( 10 ).

Theacrine: This natural plant compound acts as a mild stimulant, without the tolerance build-up and jitters associated with caffeine ( 11 ). Theacrine may boost energy, mental clarity, and focus.

What’s Good About Thesis Nootropics?

Personalized recommendations.

There are a lot of folks interested in nootropics. Google reports something like 100,000 monthly searches for the term each month. The issue many have is simple: nootropics aren’t easy. 

It’s not easy to know what companies are selling legitimate products and which are pushing low-grade stuff. It’s not easy to get a handle on what the many, many different nootropics are meant to do. Sometimes it’s not easy to know if the good week you just had was thanks to a nootropic you just took, or the absence of some stressor you forgot about. Then there’s dosage, doctors, and the way in which these substances play off each other to worry about. 

Getting your foot in the door with nootropics is a challenging task. Thesis’s approach is designed to simplify this, and it largely works.

The personalization is somewhat limited, in that the blends themselves cannot be changed, but the blends you receive can. Interested customers are prompted to complete a simple questionnaire that asks about physical traits as well as your goals in taking nootropics. You’re then given a “Starter Kit” that includes four different blends suited to what you’re after. 

High-quality ingredients

The more you delve into nootropics, the more you realize there are, broadly, two classes of company: the legit class and the not-so-legit class. Thesis, by our account, is the former. The company’s products are products in FDA-approved cGMP facilities, which ensures the manufacturing of the product is sound. More importantly, though, and this will sound humorous if you’ve never shopped for nootropics, Thesis actually tells you what’s in its blends. 

Thesis is not the only company selling nootropic blends as a shortcut for people not interested in doing months of research. There are a great many companies that don’t specify ingredients (“focus blend”) or, more commonly, aren’t clear on dosage of each individual nootropic.

Thesis’s nutrition label is crystal clear on what’s inside each serving of its nootropic blend.

Excellent customer service

When launching oneself into a health category one doesn’t know much about, having a friend can be helpful and reassuring. Thesis’s customer support service—available via email or phone—is the weird science friend you need. 

I pestered them numerous times and each issue was responded to and resolved within 24 hours every time. The first time I called. Is there a way to remove the caffeine from the blends (there’s 100mg, or a cup of coffee’s worth in each pack)? You can request non-caffeinated blends on your next order, but for the time being simply don’t take the white pill in the daily dose packet. My email questions were answered with similar speed as well. 

There’s also Thesis’s coaching feature, which is effectively customer service for questions about your specific blends, how the blends make you feel, and so on. When I called into it I mentioned that some of the blends made me slightly antsy, some made me feel great, and others seemed to have no effect at all. Not only is this common, it’s expected: these substances do not affect us all in the same way, so there is a necessary trial period to get through. 

Having a source of reassurance when trying something new to improve our health makes the process more comfortable. 

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What’s not good about thesis nootropics, not for everybody.

As previously mentioned, not all blends will work for you. Several reviews online suggest there are people for which none of them will work. My fellow reviewer and I each found one or two blends that worked especially well, some blends that didn’t seem to have any effect at all, and others that caused some minor anxiety. 

This is sort of the rub with nootropics. Different people will be hit different by different nootropics ; and even then there is the matter of dosage and duration, as most research suggests there is bedding-in period associated with nootropic effectiveness ( 12 ).

So is this a con for Thesis or for nootropic supplementation more generally? It’s a little of both, but more so a hurdle with the wider world of nootropics.

If you’re already waist deep in nootropics as a hobby or interest area, you can likely build your own nootropic stacks for cheaper than what Thesis offers.

Thesis costs $79 a month, or $3.29 per serving, once you’ve set up your account for automatic renewal. This is, unsurprisingly, on the middle-higher end of the nootropic blend market. 

Budget brands like Focus Factor come in at less than a dollar per serving. Mind Lab Pro , a brand closer to Thesis’s efficacy and quality, goes for about $2.10 per serving. The popular NooCube blend is also about $2.15 per serving. 

It should be said that I’m obviously comparing apples to oranges here. Each of these blends are made of up different stuff. Each of these companies is selling to a different customer. It could be argued that Thesis’s hyper responsive customer service and task-focused personalization model makes the $79 a month bill a fair deal. That said, the price doesn’t pull you in quite like the promise the rest of the product provides. 

What It’s Like to Take Thesis Nootropics

Tester #1 info : Female, 23 years old Reason for taking : diagnosed ADHD, brain fog, difficulty concentrating, anxiety Blends taken : Confidence, Motivation, Energy, Clarity

When I was diagnosed with ADHD in 2016, everything clicked. I’ve struggled with brain fog, task paralysis, and extreme difficulty concentrating for as long as I can remember. But all I have to show for my diagnosis is a raging caffeine addiction, two failed tries at taking prescription stimulant medication, and an ever-changing-never-working supplement stack.

As a neurodivergent person, the idea of nootropics—supplements that may improve cognitive performance—is intriguing to me. The idea of spending hours researching different blends and stand alone supplements, however, is not. That’s where Thesis comes in. 

To order your four-blend starter kit, Thesis kicks things off with a quick 25-question quiz. The questions were quick and multiple choice, and didn’t take more than a couple of minutes. (As a company that markets to ADHD-ers, I have to say they know their audience.) The quiz covers questions like how much sleep you clock in each night, your typical mood, and your procrastination habits—and a memory test at the end that I won’t spoil. At the end, you plug in an email and receive a customized recommendation based on your goals and struggles. 

I’m ultra-productive, but I have extreme anxiety and frequent brain fog depending on the state of my hormones. Thesis recommended four blends—Confidence, Motivation, Energy, and Clarity—to boost my mental health, promote relaxation, and fight off brain fog. 

I took each blend for six days each—as directed—with one day in between to reset.

Week one I opted for Confidence—a blend that includes saffron, ashwagandha, sage, and magnesium—which oddly produced the opposite of its intended effect. Two days in, I ditched the separate, white caffeine pill in the packet, but that only alleviated my anxiety slightly. Week two, I took Motivation—which contains artichoke extract, vitamin B12, methylliberine, and L-theanine. I enjoyed this blend the most, and felt like my mood and concentration got a decent boost. Weeks 3 and 4 I took Energy (mango leaf extract, theacrine, citicoline, and more) and Clarity (Lion’s Mane, L-theanine, and more) respectively. I noticed no changes these weeks.

Overall, I think Thesis is worth a shot for the nootropic-curious. Especially if you don’t have the time or patience to research these trendy supplements. However, I don’t think I’ll be stocking up on any of their blends any time soon.

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Tester #2 info : Male, 30 years old Reason for taking : brain fog, unfocused, spark creativity Blends taken : Clarity, Logic, Creativity, Energy

I’ve not been evaluated for or diagnosed with any neurological or neurodevelopmental matters, but I have struggled to train my mind’s gaze on one thing for long periods of time for as long as I can remember. Call it brain fog or something else, it’s been a persistent issue of mine going back to my high school and college years, where I’d substitute just about any distraction available to me instead of something that would require real attention.

A Thesis ad on Instagram suggested this issue may not be my own failing (a source of great personal anxiety), but perhaps something that could be fixed with nootropics. I’m willing to believe most anything that suggests my failings are not my failings, so I ordered my personalized starter kit. 

My kit came with the Clarity, Logic, Creativity, and Energy blends. I quickly eliminated Clarity and Logic from the rotation, and both seemed to trigger a mix of uncomfortable headaches and anxiety (a quick browse of the internet suggests this isn’t an uncommon reaction to these specific blends). Energy, while effective, wasn’t the most useful to me, someone who doesn’t struggle as much with alertness. 

Creativity was different, though. During the second month of testing, once I’d taken Creativity for a few weeks straight (remember there is a bedding-in period!), things started to click. I started to feel the gears turning a bit more in brainstorm meetings at work, and I could think more deeply about how I could build a workout plan for a friend.

That’s how I would describe the feeling: a noticeable but slight improvement in my ability to untangle a problem of some kind. It wasn’t as though the shackles of my brand were removed and I launched a Fortune 500 company which, thankfully, Thesis does not suggest in any of its marketing materials. 

I’ve taken the Creativity tablets for a few months now and find them to be good value for the money, for me. For those curious about nootropics, I think of Thesis as the ideal first stop. Once you figure out what works for your brain and needs, you might seek out other solutions. 

The Bottom Line

Thesis nootropics are probably the best way to get into nootropics without having to do loads of research. The brand isn’t the cheapest out there, but the product is quality and the customer service is excellent. 

1. Lai, Puei-Lene et al (2013). Neurotrophic properties of the Lion’s mane medicinal mushroom, Hericium erinaceus (Higher Basidiomycetes) from Malaysia. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24266378/

2. skubel tomasz et al (2022). therapeutic potential of lion’s mane (hericium erinaceus) in neurological and cognitive disorders – a review of the literature. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363300485_therapeutic_potential_of_lion, 3. ham, juhee et al (2018). cholinergic modulation of the hippocampal region and memory function. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc5645066/, 4. williams, jackson l. et al (2019). the effects of green tea amino acid l-theanine consumption on the ability to manage stress and anxiety levels: a systematic review. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31758301/, 5. lopresti, adrian l. et al (2019). an investigation into the stress-relieving and pharmacological actions of an ashwagandha (withania somnifera) extract. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc6750292/, 6. yurko-mauro, karin et al (2015). docosahexaenoic acid and adult memory: a systematic review and meta-analysis. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4364972/, 7. downey, luke a. et al (2012). an acute, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study of 320 mg and 640 mg doses of a special extract of bacopa monnieri (cdri 08) on sustained cognitive performance. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23281132/, 8. kumar, navneet et al (2016). efficacy of standardized extract of bacopa monnieri (bacognize®) on cognitive functions of medical students: a six-week, randomized placebo-controlled trial. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc5075615/, 9. mashayekhu, ameneh et al (2012). effects of ginkgo biloba on cerebral blood flow assessed by quantitative mr perfusion imaging: a pilot study. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc3163160/, 10. ge, wei et al (2021). ginkgo biloba extract improves cognitive function and increases neurogenesis by reducing aβ pathology in 5×fad mice. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc8014356/, 11. bello, marissa l. et al (2019). the effects of teacrine® and caffeine on endurance and cognitive performance during a simulated match in high-level soccer players. https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-019-0287-6, 12. malik, matej et al (2022). nootropics as cognitive enhancers: types, dosage and side effects of smart drugs. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc9415189/, more hands-on reviews.

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The Edge is Hone Health’s editorial operation. Hone is an online clinic that helps people optimize their hormones. As part of your subscription and as medically indicated, physicians prescribe medications, and recommend supplements that are delivered to you from the comfort of your home.

Hone-affiliated medical practices are independently owned and operated by licensed physicians who provide services using the Hone telehealth platform. For more information about the relationship between Hone and the medical practices click here .

Any medical information published on this website is not intended as a substitute for informed medical advice and you should not take any action before consulting with a healthcare professional. Our content is intended for informational purposes only. Recommendations on information found on The Edge do not infer a doctor-patient relationship. Hone Health provides no warranty for any information. 

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Thesis Nootropics Helped Me Ditch My 3-Coffee-A-Day Habit

Here's what to know about the personalized supplement brand.

As someone who pours herself a tall glass of iced coffee three times a day — and sometimes even more, oops — I figured it wouldn’t hurt to look into other ways to boost my energy and focus. Of course, I also try to get enough sleep, water, and exercise, too. But I was also down to try a few supplements from Thesis, a nootropics company that aims to make you feel more productive with its plant-based blends.

If you’re not familiar, nootropics are similar to adaptogens in that they’re a class of functional plants that are buzzy in the wellness world. But nootropics — which include ingredients like ashwagandha , L-theanine , choline , and functional mushrooms — are more focused on activating different parts of your brain to support motivation, mood, memory, and cognitive processing . That’s why they’re sometimes called smart drugs or cognitive enhancers — and thus have a different role to play than everyday vitamins.

At Thesis, you’re hooked up with a kit of personalized vitamins , adaptogens , and nootropics that are meant to help support you in accomplishing your goals and feeling more energized and productive. I tried them out for a month and I have some thoughts. Here’s what it was like to try Thesis, in case you’re also a coffee fiend who could use a little more focus and energy.

• Price: $79/monthly subscription
• Best for: Energy, focus
• My rating: 4/5
• What we like: Personalized supplements, supportive coaches
• What we don't like: Can seem pricey, you have to be ready for some trial and error

What Is Thesis?

To get started, you’ll first take a quiz on the Thesis website that asks you about how you feel on a day-to-day basis, how much coffee you drink, what your energy levels are like, and how much you sleep (among other lifestyle questions) so that it can determine the best supplements for you. It’ll then send you a starter kit with six different supplement blends targeted for each issue you might be experiencing. From there, it’s up to you to decide which ones you want to continue using. It works like a process of elimination — you experiment by taking each supplement for six days to see whether or not it feels effective.

The Thesis line features eight different supplement blends: Creativity, Focus, Motivation, Clarity, Energy, Motivation, Confidence, and Logic. Though the brand notes it would love to formulate one pill that works for everyone, brain chemistry is so complex, so it decided it’s better to take the long route and have customers try multiple supplements in order to find the best fit for their noggin. That’s why Thesis also puts you in contact with a wellness coach, so you can chat and ask questions with an expert along the way.

How Do Nootropics Work?

Nootropics are meant to allow your brain to do its thing, only faster and with more efficiency. So, instead of slogging away at your desk with brain fog , you might notice that you feel perkier, extra organized, and more on-point than you normally do as you continue taking the supplements.

Some of the blends contain the nootropic acetylcholine , which is a neurotransmitter from the essential nutrient choline known for memory, learning, and healthy brain function . There are also plenty of amino acids, vitamins, and plant-based adaptogens in each packet to fight off fatigue and stress while protecting your brain from toxins so it’s easier to take in info — and actually remember what you learned. Other staple nootropics include ginkgo biloba , certain kinds of mushrooms, and caffeine, each of which plays a unique function in your cognitive function.

My Experience

When I took the Thesis quiz , I said that I wanted to improve my energy, focus, and mood. A few days later, I received my starter kit, which contained Clarity , Confidence , Motivation , and Logic all laid out in cute little boxes. You’re supposed to pick one — each box contains six sachets full of pills — and take a packet a day for six days. I was immediately drawn to Clarity, a supplement combo that’s supposed to help with high-pressure situations, concentration, and tasks that require focus and attention. It has Lion’s Mane extract (a mushroom), caffeine, L-theanine , and a few other ingredients meant to support a calm, focused flow. The idea is to take the supplements in the morning so they kick in before you start your day, and most of the effects are said to last from four to six hours.

I’d been taking Clarity for a few days when I had a phone call with Cindy Yan , a Thesis wellness coach and nootropics expert. We chatted about my usual routine, how I’d been feeling, and any questions I had about the process. When I said I felt a slight uptick in focus, but nothing too dramatic, Yan told me the first couple days are called the “loading phase” which is when the nutrients work their way into your body. If you don’t feel anything after that point, it’s a sign the supplement isn’t necessary or right for your neurochemistry. If you do like how you feel, it’s a keeper.

As we chatted about my routine, Yan realized I’d benefit from Creativity, an ashwagandha-based supplement meant for brainstorming and public speaking, so that I could feel like a rockstar at work. I also told her that I tend to crave a nap around 3 p.m., so she suggested the Energy supplement made with choline and mango leaf extract , which you can take every day or on extra-busy days, before a workout , or whenever you want to feel alert.

Talking to a coach as I tested the supplements was a true perk. While the quiz got me started with some great options, having access to Yan helped me hone in on what I truly needed.

Yan suggested I log how I felt every day as I took each supplement so I could keep track of any noticeable differences. A week in, I looked at the scribbles in my notebook and noticed that I did seem more productive during the six days I took Clarity. I wasn’t launching rockets to the moon, but I was getting through my emails and typing away like a woman on fire.

The next supplement on my agenda was Energy, a blend meant for busy days, intense workouts, and staying alert thanks to its mango leaf, theacrine , caffeine, and n-acetyl cysteine — and this is the one that gave me the most benefit. Yan was right on the money. She said I could take it in the morning and/or right after lunch to nip my afternoon slump in the bud, and it truly worked — no fourth mid-day coffee for me.

The more I took Energy, the less I felt like I needed to unhinge my jaw and dump as much cold brew into my face as possible. I found myself drinking a sensible cup or two in the morning, and that was that. Thesis says you can feel the effects of the supplements in as little as 30 minutes or it can take up to five days for all the benefits to sink in as your body and brain adjust. For me, though, Energy kicked in pretty quickly.

The Bottom Line

Typically, Thesis users land on two or three supplements for their regimen. After the month-long trial phase, you can order just the ones you want and forget about the rest. Personally, I’m sold on Energy and can see myself hanging onto Clarity, too.

Thesis seems to have figured things out in the nootropic supplement realm. While the boxes seem pricey, it isn’t so bad when you think about buying each supplement on your own individually — and the fact that you get a wellness coach, too.

TL;DR: I’d recommend it for anyone who feels fatigued, unproductive, or unfocused, or for folks who rely on caffeine to get through the day, like me. You might just find that there’s a better way.

Studies referenced:

Baba, Y. (2021). Effects of l-Theanine on Cognitive Function in Middle-Aged and Older Subjects: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Study. J Med Food. doi: 10.1089/jmf.2020.4803. Epub 2021 Mar 22.

Coqueiro, AY. (2019). Glutamine as an Anti-Fatigue Amino Acid in Sports Nutrition. Nutrients. doi: 10.3390/nu11040863.

Gelabert-Rebato, M. (2019). A Single Dose of The Mango Leaf Extract Zynamite ® in Combination with Quercetin Enhances Peak Power Output During Repeated Sprint Exercise in Men and Women. Nutrients. 2019 Oct 28;11(11):2592. doi: 10.3390/nu11112592.

Lai, PL. (2013). Neurotrophic properties of the Lion's mane medicinal mushroom, Hericium erinaceus (Higher Basidiomycetes) from Malaysia. Int J Med Mushrooms. doi: 10.1615/intjmedmushr.v15.i6.30.

Malík, M, Tlustoš P. Nootropics as Cognitive Enhancers: Types, Dosage and Side Effects of Smart Drugs. Nutrients. 2022 Aug 17;14(16):3367. doi: 10.3390/nu14163367. PMID: 36014874; PMCID: PMC9415189.

Mokhtari, V. (2017). A Review on Various Uses of N-Acetyl Cysteine. Cell J. doi: 10.22074/cellj.2016.4872.

Penry, JT. (2008). Choline: an important micronutrient for maximal endurance-exercise performance? Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.18.2.191.

Sam, C. (2022). Physiology, Acetylcholine. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan–. PMID: 32491757.

Silberstein, R. B. (2010). Examining Brain-Cognition Effects of Ginkgo Biloba Extract: Brain Activation in the Left Temporal and Left Prefrontal Cortex in an Object Working Memory Task. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : ECAM , 2011 . https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/164139

Suliman, NA. (2016). Establishing Natural Nootropics: Recent Molecular Enhancement Influenced by Natural Nootropic. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. doi: 10.1155/2016/4391375.

Todorova, V. (2021). Plant Adaptogens-History and Future Perspectives. Nutrients. doi: 10.3390/nu13082861.

Wiedeman, AM. (2018). Dietary Choline Intake: Current State of Knowledge Across the Life Cycle. Nutrients. doi: 10.3390/nu10101513.

Thesis Nootropic Review - Do Personalized Nootropics Work? I Found Out.

O dds are if you hadn’t heard about nootropics before the early 2010s, you’ve heard about them now. Nootropics burst onto the scene around that time, and they’ve been trending ever since. Why? Well, with bold claims of making you feel more focused, calmer, and even smarter , it’s no wonder that these unique supplements have been catching people’s attention. Especially after the toll of the pandemic on all of our mental wellbeing…

If you’re dealing with brain fog, fatigue, and poor productivity, nootropics probably sound enticing. But, finding natural, effective, no-nonsense nootropics in today’s crowded wellness market can seem like a steep order. 

That’s where Thesis comes in. Takethesis.com is an online brand that’s been a leader in personalized nootropics for years. With all-natural supplement blends that they claim are rooted in science, Thesis promises to bring a new meaning to the term “smart drugs”. 

But as someone who’s always reserved a healthy level of skepticism around the efficacy of supplements in general, I decided to try Thesis nootropics firsthand to see what the hype was all about. In this review, I’ll share my experience with Thesis, including my honest reaction after taking their formulas for greater focus, confidence, logic, and more.

Curious if Thesis can introduce you to the valuable world of nootropics, without the BS? Keep reading to learn what’s inside Thesis ‘ supplements and whether or not their nootropic blends had any effect on my brain.

What are nootropics?

Any natural or synthetic substance that can positively affect cognition, focus, memory, and other mental faculties, and sometimes your mood, is considered a nootropic.

Prescription stimulants like Adderall for ADHD are included as well. And while prescription drugs work for many, they typically exhibit a high instance of unwanted side effects. Natural remedies that boost mental performance, including organic supplements and dietary changes, are generally more sustainable over the long term. In fact, many ADHD patients first discover nootropics after seeking healthier alternatives to Adderall and other pharmaceuticals.

Read our full comparison of nootropics vs Adderall for more details on the key differences.

Source: Thesis

How long have nootropics been around?

The use of nootropics first became widespread in the 70s, when  Piracetam first became widely known as a treatment for motion sickness, then later was found to boost cognitive performance. This spurred more of an effort toward discovering and developing more nootropics . It’s since become a thriving market, especially after the global pandemic wreaked havoc on mental health and left many with persistent brain fog. Today, the internet is awash with countless brain-boosting products available to consumers without prescription, and most don’t have FDA approval or much clinical data to support their claims.

While we love having options, the wide range of (unproven) nootropic supplements available today makes it hard to know which could work for you. There are dozens of brands, each offering various different nootropic blends, all claiming to be the best in class. Should you really be expected to try them all?

Thesis is on a mission to solve this conundrum. The company emerged to not only offer great quality and transparency around their blends, but also to recognize patients’ need for personalized recommendations from experts.

Let’s dive in to see what nootropics Thesis offers, and how the support they offer differs from typical supplement companies.

What are Thesis nootropics?

Thesis (rebranded from FindMyFormula.com) is a longstanding nootropics company with an impressive customer base of over 500,000 users. Having been in the space for years, Thesis has developed a comprehensive data set of nootropics research that dwarfs those of their competitors. I found this data-driven pitch compelling, and thus decided that I’d give Thesis a shot as my first foray into the world of nootropics in general.

1. How Thesis works

To get started, complete Thesis’ online questionnaire . They only ask for basic info – you don’t have to share specific lab tests or detailed medical history. Next, the Thesis algorithm will process your answers to recommend one or more nootropic blends best suited to your needs, which will be shipped to your house within 1-3 business days. 

Thesis recommends you sample their nootropic blends for a month before selecting ones that you believe work the best for you. Of course, you don’t have to stick with just one – and many Thesis customers opt to continue taking two or more blends for varied nootropic benefits as desired. Customer’s purchase data then funnels back to bolster Thesis’s algorithm, further strengthening the reliability of its recommendation engine. Pretty cool, I must admit.

2. What makes Thesis unique

Thesis’ personalized nootropic recommendation algorithm, paired with the ability to try out four unique nootropic blends before selecting your go-to formula, is what defines the Thesis process. They spare you from the difficult, time-intensive testing of individual nootropics on your own, which could easily take months (and cost a serious amount of $). By first paring down your options to the supplements that are most likely to work for you, Thesis takes the legwork out of trying nootropics. 

Plus, when you become a Thesis customer, you’ll also get access to a nootropics expert. This coach is available for consultation at any time to help you optimize your nootropics routine so that you get the most out of these specialized supplements. This includes keeping track of your progress, as well as answering any and all questions you may have about the science supporting each ingredient.

What’s inside Thesis’s unique nootropic blends?

At this point, you’re probably wondering what nootropic blends Thesis has to offer, and what secret sauce ingredients lie within. Thesis currently has six different formulations, each designed to target specific needs:

After filling out Thesis’ online questionnaire, I was recommended all but their Creativity blend . Below, I’ll outline the key nootropic ingredients inside each, as well as review my own personal experience in experimenting with them for the first time.

Energy formula Ingedients

Thesis’ Energy formula is designed to boost energy, fight fatigue, and improve mental stamina. Its ingredients include:

• Choline, for learning and memory
• NAC, for detoxification
• NALT, to support nerve cell communication
• Sabroxy®, for a dopamine boost and heightened memory
• TeaCrine®, for improved motivation, energy, and cognitive function
• Zynamite®, for mental and physical energy
• Caffeine, for energy and alertness
• L-Theanine, for an improved stress response

Review of Thesis energy – did it work for me?

Keep in mind that the power of placebo is well documented, as is the tremendous bias in self-reporting of any kind. These two factors, in combination with the day-to-day choppiness of life in general, make it hard to objectively determine how well supplements of any kind work for a given individual, much less the general population at large. 

That said, putting those caveats aside for sec, I took Thesis’ energy blend for 6 days straight, and I definitely felt more ALERT. The results were noticeable and fairly instant – I felt more alive and energetic within the first hour of taking the four recommended pills , and the feeling generally continued late into the afternoon. 

Fearful that my morning cup of coffee might overshadow or confound the nootropic’s effects, my routine was to take Thesis’ energy formula first thing in the morning with just a glass of water. It could just be the pill’s healthy dose of caffeine (or again, perhaps just placebo?), but regardless, I no longer craved coffee. Thesis’ Energy nootropics jolted me to full attention and kept my energy high for hours. If you’re looking for a caffeine replacement, or perhaps just an extra boost after a night of poor sleep, I definitely recommend Thesis’ blend for higher energy. Here’s what they pills look like up close:

The one downside? I ended up trying Thesis Energy with coffee one morning and felt pretty jittery. Of course, caffeine (and nootropics!) affect everyone differently, so if you’re eager to give these a shot, try them with and without your normal dose of coffee or tea to see how you feel. For me, I only needed one, not both, but it’s worth testing to find out what works for you!

Clarity formula ingredients

Do you find yourself often feeling foggy or forgetful? If so, Thesis’s Clarity formula may be worth a try. Formulated for increased focus and attention span, the Clarity nootropics are designed to help you more easily enter a flow state. 

What ingredients are inside Thesis’ Clarity? Their unique formula contains:

• 7,8-DHF, for neural communication, neurogenesis, and neuroprotection
• Alpha GPC, for memory, neurogenesis, and neuroprotection
• Epicatechin, for improved mood, blood flow, and neuroprotection
• Lion’s Mane, for improved memory consolidation and neuroprotection
• L-Theanine, for a better response to stress

Review of Thesis clarity – my personal experience

In my next phase of experimentation with Thesis nootropics, I decided to sample the Clarity blend for 6 days straight. Note that these six days did not overlap with days I took other nootropics, as I wanted to document my reaction to their blends independently, rather than seeing how I felt taking all of them together at once.

Although the benefits of Thesis’ Clarity blend were admittedly less immediate and noticeable than those I experienced with their Energy blend, I can honestly report that on the days I took Clarity, I found it easy to maintain a state of mental flow for longer . I generally don’t struggle to enter flow and engage deeply with my work, and this remained true while taking Thesis Clarity. What was different for me, however, was the duration of my flow, and I did my best to document these benefits closely through journaling.

To try and make my process as scientific as possible, at lunch each day I recorded how long I was able to stay focused that AM, and then again at dinner, noting how long I had been able to focus in that afternoon. Upon comparing my notes from the week I took Clarity vs the week I didn’t take anything at all, some clear benefits emerged. Overall, I was able to stay in a state of flow for ~35% longer with Thesis Clarity , although I’d be careful not to assume similar results too broadly for a couple of key reasons.

For one, placebo could very much be to blame given that I wanted to be more focused, and thus that desire alone could be to blame for my positive results. There’s also a small sample bias. Having only taken Clarity for one week, my self-reported data is a long way from “scientific significance”. 

That said, nootropics and supplements are all about how you feel, and the end conclusion remains the same: I felt focused for longer when taking Thesis’ recommended blend for Clarity. If you find yourself being overly fidgety, forgetful, or disengaged at work, I recommend you give Thesis Clarity a shot.

Motivation formula ingredients

The Motivation formula is intended to boost willpower and productivity while reducing procrastination. This formula from Thesis includes the following nootropic ingredients:

• Artichoke extract, for stress management and circulation
• Dynamine®, for crash-free energy and a mood boost
• Forskolin, for improved cognitive function
• L-Phenylalanine, for mood, attention, and motivation
• B12, for energy and nerve wellness
• Theanine, for an improved stress response

Review of Thesis Motivation – does it actually work?

Although I consider myself highly motivated, we all have days when we feel kind of “meh”. Rather than sampling Thesis’ Motivation nootropic every day for six days in a row, as I had with other blends, I instead opted to only experiment with them on days I woke up feeling noticeably uninspired. Interestingly, but perhaps not so surprisingly, these mostly fell on Mondays, although I felt less inclined to face my responsibilities on other days as well.

So, on these days of lower motivation when I took Thesis’ recommended Motivation nootropics, how did they make me feel? Honestly, I’m not sure. When reviewing my journal entries, I don’t notice any strong signs that the Thesis’ Motivation nootropics helped me significantly. It’s possible they acted in more subtle or slower ways because, by the afternoon, my notes indicate that I always felt fully engaged and motivated with whatever I was doing. But I must admit, I felt no sudden rush of motivation or anything super perceptible about Thesis’ nootropics for Motivation.

This may be because I didn’t adequately measure my personal motivation level while journaling. It could also be that on cherry-picking days I felt less motivated and heavily on biased my experience. For instance, I wonder if my results would have been more pronounced if I took Motivation consistently every day? Ultimately, I should probably test Thesis’ Motivation blend more before drawing any hard conclusions. And again, it’s worth noting that everyone’s body is quite different. While I don’t struggle with day-to-day motivation, others clearly do, and thus might see more noticeable results than I did.

Creativity formula ingedients

Thesis’s Creativity formula is designed to spark inspiration, improve verbal fluency, and provide a boost of confidence. It contains:

• Agmatine, for stress management
• Alpha GPC, support for memory, neuroprotection, and neurogenesis
• Ginseng, for learning and memory
• Ashwagandha, to promote calm in stressful settings
• Zembrin®, for mood regulation and blood flow to the brain
• Caffeine, for energy

My review of thesis creativity

Unfortunately, Thesis didn’t recommend this formula to me, so I can’t comment on its efficacy. That said, it’s one of Thesis’ most popular formulations, and thus seems to work for thousands of happy customers. I’ll update this section when I have a chance to try it first-hand.

Confidence formula ingredients

Confidence is the newest nootropic blend from Thesis. It contains ingredients to target stress and insecurities while fostering a sense of self-assurance. The idea behind the Confidence blend is that it will help users to feel more sure of themselves and stay in the present.

The Confidence nootropic ingredients include:

• Magnesium L-threonate

Ashwagandha

Review of thesis confidence – does it work.

Even the most self-assured among us crave more confidence. That’s because it’s attractive and infectious. As Thesis’ newest nootropic blend, Confidence is recommended for “high-pressure situations” when you want to “expand your comfort zone”, so I decided to reserve mine for situations in which I was meeting new people, which often, for me, means anticipatory social anxiety.

Recording how I felt two hours before leaving to meet new folks (both for business and pleasure), and then comparing that to my notes from just one hour before each meeting, a clear pattern emerged. In all cases, I reported feeling more relaxed and ready for new encounters after taking Thesis nootropics .

Absent any supplements whatsoever, my typical levels of social anxiety generally increase steadily up until the moment I see people. Generally, I turn to meditation to try to remedy that in the short term. However, that didn’t appear to be the case the 6 times I sampled Thesis’ confidence formula, although it’s unclear why. Perhaps it’s a placebo effect. But in any event, I was encouraged to keep trying Thesis Confidence nootropics before performative moments of all kinds.

Do Thesis nootropics really work?

I didn’t expect any nootropics to have a significant perceptible impact on my mood or cognition, yet 3 of the 4 blends that I tried brought real benefits. In case you missed it, I chronicled my experience trying various nootropic blends from Thesis above. Overall, I have to say I was pretty impressed with their results. 

For me, Thesis’ Energy and Confidence blends worked the best. Clarity also helped me maintain flow for longer during the workday, but I didn’t notice any strong effects from their Motivation supplements. Of course, I don’t know for sure that the nootropics are directly responsible for the benefits I perceived after trialing each variety 6 times. It could have just been placebo effect or some other internal bias altering my perception of reality. But honestly, does it really matter? The effects were very positive, and for the most part, perceptible, too. That’s a win-win!

That said, everyone responds differently to nutrients, which explains why you should maintain a healthy dose of skepticism about how well nootropic blends might work for you. How can something as simple as an herb really make you feel happier, more focused, and more productive? You won’t know unless you try them for yourself and pay close attention to how you feel.

Since my initial exploration, several members of my team have tried Thesis nootropics as well. While we all agree that you likely won’t feel as stark of a mental difference from all natural nootropics as you would with synthetic prescription drugs, but we all experienced a noticeable, positive effect on mood, memory, energy, and focus. This corroborating evidence – albeit self-reported – reassured me that perhaps my experience wasn’t all placebo after all.

What’s it like to talk to a Thesis nootropic coach?

After trying Thesis supplements, I was eager to chat with their team of expert nootropic coaches to discuss my experience. Naturally, I wanted to know if what I felt was “normal”, as well as how to further optimize the benefits I felt by making adjustments. I know there are lots of telehealth platforms on the market and having a coach with the knowledge of something that I knew less about made me much more comfortable.

I was able to schedule a call within just a few days and chatted with someone named Cindy with a degree in neurobiology. She was able to explain how the various nootropics I had tried likely contributed to my experience and offered a few recommendations around what to try next given my individual results.

Ultimately, I not only enjoyed the conversation but felt like I had clear next steps. It was reassuring to know I could get advice again at any time in the future. This is an amazingly personal feature that makes Thesis stand out against other nootropic brands.

What active ingredients does Thesis include in their compounds?

Each ingredient included in Thesis’s formulations is backed by science, which you can find right on their website. There are ways to test for any deficiencies  that you might have, which can also help you decide which supplements would benefit you. Here’s an overview:

Synapsa® (Bacopa monnieri plant)

Bacopa has been shown to boost memory recall and be neuroprotective. 

TAU (uridine)

The body uses uridine to create choline (a cognitive enhancer), construct nerve cell membranes, and help prevent neuron damage. 

7,8-DHF (dihydroxyflavone)

Studies indicate that 7,8-DHF can help protect against brain damage and neurological decline. 

Choline supports nerve health, cerebral metabolism, and the function of neurotransmitters. It also has been shown to have neuroprotective benefits, preserving the health of your brain. 

When it’s taken regularly, DHA has been shown to boost memory and reaction time. 

Ashwagandha root helps regulate the body’s response to cortisol, the “ stress hormone”. 

The active components of GS15-4 Panax Ginseng have been found to boost memory formation and learning. 

NALT (N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine)

NALT can increase alertness, energy, and cognitive function . 

Artichoke extract

Artichoke extract is rich in antioxidants that can boost your overall bodily function and offer protection against stress and toxins. 

NAC boosts levels of glutathione, which can reduce oxidative stress and help naturally detoxify the body. 

Methylcobalamin, a form of vitamin B12, is used in Thesis supplements to improve nerve health and energy levels. 

Lion’s Mane mushrooms

Lion’s Mane mushrooms can enhance your mood and quality of sleep while reducing stress levels.

There are a total of 28 ingredients found in Thesis nootropic blends . Others not listed above include alpha GPC, Zembrin®, phosphatidylserine, forskolin, Sabroxy®, TeaCrine®, agmatine, epicatechin, alpha GPC, Dynamine®, L-theanine, Zynamite®, L-Phenylalanine, theobromine, ginkgo Biloba, and caffeine. 

How much do Thesis nootropics cost?

For a one-time purchase, Thesis costs $119 for a one-month supply . This isn’t the most economical way to try their nootropics, though. Instead, we’d recommend signing up for a subscription , which costs $79 for a one-month supply, and will force you to properly test Thesis over a longer period for more credible results.

Thesis offers a 30-day money-back guarantee, which eliminates the risk of trying them out. If you’re not sold after a month, you can simply get your investment back – no questions asked. 

Thesis alternatives: How does Thesis compare to other nootropic brands?

Of course, Thesis is far from the only nootropic company in town. How does it stack up vs alternatives? Take a look for yourself:

Thesis Nootropic reviews: What are customers saying?

Before diving into nootropics with Thesis, we knew that you’d want to read what other customers are praising or complaining about in their reviews. Here’s what we found online:

Source: Facebook

Source: Reddit

The verdict: Are Thesis nootropics legit?

Armed with all of the information, including my own personal journey trying their nootropics for the first time, and a comparison of Thesis vs other popular alternatives… should you give Thesis a shot?

While Thesis is pricier than its competitors, we believe that their personalized approach is ultimately worth it for the value. For one, Thesis offers you access to an expert nootropics coach, who can seriously enhance your experience with the supplements and guide you on your journey to optimal mental performance.

Additionally, Thesis has done the heavy lifting of finding legitimate ingredients that are backed by reputable science and are more transparent with their ingredients and dosage than other brands. If we’re comparing to taking it upon yourself to test out individual nootropics on your own, Thesis will save you a ton of time.

Plus, the company’s unique blends pair ingredients that complement each other, and you won’t find these formulations anywhere else. They are custom formulas based on your individual needs, and you can try them for 30 days risk-free thanks to their money-back guarantee.

When push comes to shove, we’d recommend Thesis to anyone who’s interested in testing nootropics for the first time and doesn’t know where to start, as well as more experienced wellness enthusiasts looking to make nootropics a regular part of their self-care routine. For greater focus, energy, motivation, and a major mood boost, nootropics from Thesis worked for me, and with thousands of happy customers, it’s reasonable to assume their blends can work wonders for anyone willing to experiment under the guidance of one of their coaches. Of course, you’ll never know unless you try it out for yourself. Just don’t forget to use our promo code FINVSFIN for 10% off at checkout.

Remember to always consult with your doctor before starting a new supplement to ensure it’s right for you.

Have you tried out nootropics? Let us know about your experience and result in the comments below!

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

For a one-time purchase, Thesis costs $119 for a  one-month supply . This isn’t the most economical way to try their nootropics, though. Instead, we’d recommend signing up for a  subscription , which costs $79 for a one-month supply, and will force you to properly test Thesis over a longer period for more credible results.

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TruBrain Sleep Review – Is It the Best Nootropic Drink for Better Sleep?

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Stasis Review – Can It Really Eliminate the Negative Effects of Stimulants?

Stimulants, like Adderall, may be incredibly useful for some people in managing symptoms associated with ADHD. Unfortunately, they may also come with side effects, such as decreased sleep and appetite, as well as increased heart rate and blood pressure. A severe side effect called neurotoxicity, which describes changes to the nervous system’s typical activity after exposure to a toxic substance, is also possible.    Some supplements, such as Stasis daily supplements, are aiming to combat these side effects by replenishing certain nutrients that stimulants may deplete from your body temporarily. When taken correctly and under the guidance of your healthcare

• Ingredients

blends tailored to your unique needs.

RECLAIM YOUR ATTENTION

Starter Kits Purchased

Ingredients Tested

Find a Blend that Works

10,000+ Verified 5-star Reviews

Nootropics aren’t one size fits all

We formulate potent nutrient compounds to enhance mental performance and make personalized recommendations based on your goals and unique brain chemistry

Your Personalized Thesis Journey

1. take the quiz.

Tell us about yourself and your goals. We’ll use your answers to determine your baseline and build your recommendations.

2. Get Your Starter Kit

You’ll sample 4 blends over the course of the month to understand what you can accomplish with each formulation.

3. Optimize with a Coach

Check in with your wellness coach and our nootropics experts to customise your blends based on your experience so far.

A powerful, natural way to boost your cognition

Thesis can help you.

• Raise your energy level
• Feel more motivated
• Clear brain fog
• Increase focus

We’ve Helped Over 500,000 People Find Their Formula

“Motivation gets me going during my six days in a row at work, and Clarity keeps my mind sharp and alert so I’m performing at my best . Creativity does just as it says -- I love this one for when I’m doing the Reading Comprehension and/or Arguments section of LSAT prep; I truly feel like it gives me an edge.”

Britney’S BLENDS

"I did feel different since day one. I got more motivated and had an overall better mood. [Thesis] has been a game changer for me."

Ondrej's BLENDS

“I always feel energized and focus without the afternoon crash that I typically experience with coffee. I can get hours of work done and stay motivated all day.”

Renee’S BLENDS

"For someone who has struggled with attention and staying awake, [Thesis has] been life saving."

Trish's BLENDS

Trusted by experts

Dr. gabrielle lyon.

Functional Medicine & Nutritional Sciences

“I work with CEOs, celebrities, and other top performers in my practice. Thesis is what I recommend and take personally for focus and cognition. I even used it to help me nail my first TedX talk.”

Gabrielle’s blends

Professional Basketball Player & Mental Health Advocate

“With a busy life on and off the court, Thesis gives me energy and focus to get through the longest days and keep me sharp.”

Kevin's blends

Ultra-endurance Athlete & Nutrition Advocate

"Thesis has provided a substantial benefit to my ability to focus. Creativity works best for me — I take it 30 mins before a podcast or writing and it helps get me into the zone."

RICH’s blends

Pure and effective ingredients

Potent active ingredients.

Quality counts when supplementing, and only the active ingredients in a blend make an impact.

Clinically Studied Dosage

We only use nutrients that have been proven to safely deliver desired effects in clinical trials.

All ingredients in each batch are tested with a third party lab to ensure optimal potency and purity.

“ The Thesis process was developed by systematically testing different combinations of high quality ingredients. We made the process of finding the right nootropics quicker & safer.”

DAN FREED CEO & Founder, Thesis

Our research and product development teams review clinical studies and information on safety, side effects, and any potential interactions for each ingredient being considered for a Thesis blend.

Each ingredient goes through two rounds of internal testing, in which members of our research and product development team share feedback on individual ingredients.

The research and product development team reviews existing clinical literature about synergistic benefits between ingredients and integrates it as we continue to formulate, developing 2-4 blends to move forward to Phase 3 testing.

We test each prospective blend internally, as members of our research and product development team try each of the blends before we move forward to Beta testing.

Next, we test multiple iterations of each blend with a group of 100 Thesis beta group customers and collect quantitative and qualitative feedback to help us refine the final blend.

We finalize our winning blend (based on the Alpha and Beta test feedback) by completing a final round of safety testing by our third party lab partners before we release it. Ongoing safety testing occurs with each batch of production.

After the blend undergoes third party lab testing for safety, we launch a limited release to 5,000 customers to help us gather additional feedback and work through our supply chain process

Once a blend passes the limited release phase, we launch full production in a cGMP facility and release it to all customers.

The Thesis Story

As long as I can remember, people thought I was stupid, lazy, or unmotivated. I started to believe it. In school, I would read the same page over and over again, without absorbing anything. At 16, I dropped out of high school and went to work at a sandwich shop.

Fast-forward ten years — I scored in the 99th percentile on the GMAT and earned Master’s degrees from Yale and INSEAD. Nootropics turned everything around for me, and helped me form the positive habits that I built my success on. Once I balanced my brain chemistry, I could perform like never before.

I take Energy to get me going in the morning and Motivation to power through long afternoons.

DAN’s blends

• Attention and Focus Energy Memory Mood

Thesis: The Personalized, Just for You Nootropics Experience

Wondering if Thesis is right for you? Let’s take a deep dive into the Thesis process and formulas so you can decide for yourself whether Thesis is the nootropics solution for you.

From the minute you take the short quiz that generates a personalized formula to the moment you receive the starter pack of nootropic goodies, Thesis provides you a custom experience unlike any nootropic or supplement you’ve ever tried before.

What makes Thesis unique is that they do all the legwork for you. With coaching support, they’ll narrow down what will likely work best for you, then you have the opportunity to experiment with over thirty high-quality ingredients in a systematic way that yields real results.

Thesis will help you find a blend that’s tailored to your goals, lifestyle, and genetics — for a custom, made just for you nootropic experience.

How Thesis Works

Whether you’re a seasoned fan of Thesis nootropics or just wondering how Thesis personalized formulas can fire up your brainpower, here are all the details you need.

Take the quick and easy quiz to find the right formula for you. You’ll just have to answer a few simple questions about your lifestyle and goals…and then swoosh the system generates a shiny new set of nootropic recommendations just for you. How is Thesis able to determine exactly what’s likely to help you the most? Well, their formulas are rooted in cutting-edge science and then melded with data collected from over 30K customers.

The result is spot-on, ridiculously accurate recommendations every time.

Thesis will send you a four-week starter pack. This is where the fun begins. You’ll experience the magic of nootropics. Feel the difference as your neurotransmitters begin to fire differently. And get to know how your formula makes you feel.

Step Three:

Now, it’s time to tweak. Maybe once your brain fog clears, you realize you need a little more energy in the mornings. Or you thought your mood was your main concern but turns out you really need a bit of a boost in the focus and memory department, too. The best part? You d

on’t have to figure all of this out on your own. Thesis’ expert coaches will help you figure out how to best maximize your supplements and find your brain bliss.

What To Expect From Thesis

Thesis formulas are designed to help you accomplish your goals. Thesis is crafted from the highest-quality, U.S.-sourced ingredients and their formulas are manufactured in FDA-certified facilities. They’re also third-party verified for purity and quality. In short, you can trust every one of their ingredients to bring you the brain boost you want and the peace of mind you need — you can rest easy knowing Thesis products are safely created and sourced.

Receiving Your First Shipment

If you were to explore this process on your own, it would cost over $800, take six months to complete, and would likely not provide the same results.

When you get your first shipment of Thesis, it’s kind of like the first day of the rest of your life. After you do a happy dance and open your package, you’ll find all of the details and instructions you need to make sure you get the most of your specific formula.

As a general rule, it’s recommended to:

• Take your Thesis early in the day (or about thirty minutes before an important task)
• Take your Thesis on an empty stomach
• Keep a log of your Thesis journey. Taking notes regarding your mood, focus, and energy levels can help you realize how far you’ve come…and figure out what else you need to feel your absolute best
• When in doubt, reach out. You can book a consult with a nootropics expert at any time on the Thesis website, or reach out via email, phone, or text.

How Thesis Makes You Feel

Don’t be surprised if you feel something pretty quickly. Thesis formulas are designed to give you totally crash-free improvements in mood, focus, and energy right off the bat.

You’ll also notice that your results compound over time. You’ll be able to tell after a month or so that your brain is stronger than it was before.

But everyone’s brain is different, and nootropics are not a one-size-fits-all solution.

Which is why Thesis offers you the flexibility to tinker with your formula as much as you need to… to get to the other side of optimization. The other side is a pretty sweet place to be, too. It feels like banishing brain fog, finding your motivation , ditching procrastination, and generally getting unstuck from those pesky neurotransmitter imbalances that are holding you back from living your best life.

Some folks require a bit of an adjustment period, and it takes them a bit longer to feel the effects of their Thesis stack. If that’s you, don’t worry. If you stick with it and commit to finding your perfect blend, you’ll find the benefits you’re after.

Long Term Benefits Of Taking Thesis

One of the things we love about nootropics is that their benefits compound over time. Which means the longer you stick with your Thesis regimen, the better your brain will respond.

What Happens If You Don’t Love Your Nootropic Stack?

You don’t have to commit to a formula or an ingredient that you don’t love. With Thesis, you can adjust your stack infinitely until you find the one that works best for you.

Which Thesis Formula Should I Take?

Which Thesis formula you choose is based entirely on your goals, genetics, and lifestyle.

But if you have an idea of what you’d like to enhance in your brain, here’s an outline of the basic blends and some of the key ingredients they include.

This formula helps get those creative juices flowing. For those times where you feel stuck, frustrated, and unable to move past your blocks.

Our Clarity formula is kind of like a chill pill. It helps you become a calm, focused zen master — no matter how stressful your situation may be.

Motivation you can access at will, plus the self-discipline and focus to make things happen? That’s the kind of procrastination buster Motivation is.

If your energy’s low, it’s hard to accomplish much. Which is where our energy formula comes in. This crash-free formulation is our most stimulating, which means it gives you the get-up and go you need to get stuff done. It also means that you may no longer find the need for coffee in the morning.

Logic is the formula to turn to when you need to tackle a big project. It’s kind of like a real-life thinking cap.

Feel The Thesis Difference For Yourself

Pop on over and take the short quiz . It will only take a few minutes, promise! Within days, you’ll be able to check out your starter pack and be well on your way to optimizing your brainpower.

Click here to take the quiz and get started.

References [ + ]

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Thesis Nootropics Review: Unveiling the Effects on Cognitive Enhancement

Nootropics , often referred to as “smart drugs” or cognitive enhancers, have gained popularity for their potential to improve mental functions such as cognition, memory , intelligence, motivation, attention, and concentration . As an avid researcher in the field of cognitive enhancement , I have come across various products that claim to offer these benefits. Thesis, a company that provides personalized nootropic stacks, presents a unique approach to cognitive enhancement by customizing supplements to match individual needs and goals.

My personal journey with nootropics led me to investigate Thesis Nootropics further. Their promise hinges on the tailoring of their product to the user’s specific cognitive profile. This level of customization is intended to maximize the benefits while minimizing potential side effects. In reviewing Thesis Nootropics, I examined the ingredients used, the science behind them, the efficacy as reported by users, and how they compare to other products in the market.

Key Takeaways

• Thesis provides personalized nootropic stacks to enhance cognitive functions.
• Customization of supplements is designed to optimize benefits and reduce side effects.
• Examining user experiences and comparative analysis is crucial in evaluating Thesis Nootropics.

Understanding Nootropics

Nootropics, often referred to as “smart drugs,” have garnered attention for their potential cognitive benefits . I’ll give you an overview of their history and types, specifically focusing on natural versus synthetic variants.

History and Definition

Nootropics, a term coined in 1972 by psychologist Corneliu E. Giurgea, refer to substances that can improve mental performance. Initially, nootropics were associated with compounds that met very specific criteria that include the enhancement of learning and memory while providing protection to the brain under various conditions. The concept has since expanded to include a variety of nootropic supplements that claim to boost cognitive functions such as memory, creativity, and motivation.

Natural vs. Synthetic

Natural nootropics are compounds found in nature such as herbs and plant extracts that may offer cognitive enhancements. Common examples include:

• Ginkgo Biloba: Often used with an aim to improve memory.
• Panax Ginseng : Sought for its potential to boost brain function.

Conversely, synthetic nootropics are manufactured compounds like racetams and amphetamine derivatives. They include:

• Piracetam: The first synthetic nootropic, designed to aid in memory and learning.
• Modafinil: Prescribed for sleep disorders but often used off-label for its concentration-enhancing effects.

Both types aim to offer cognitive benefits, but their effects and mechanisms can widely differ. Natural nootropics are typically preferred by those seeking milder effects and a more holistic approach, whereas synthetic ones are chosen for their strong, targeted actions.

Thesis Nootropics Specifics

I’ve researched Thesis Nootropics intricately to provide accurate details on their product lineup, the customization process, and the intricacies of their subscription model.

Product Offerings

Thesis Nootropics presents a range of dietary supplements, each targeting specific cognitive functions. Their offerings typically include Thesis Energy , designed to boost stamina and focus , Thesis Clarity , intended to enhance cognitive sharpness, and Thesis Motivation , aimed at increasing users’ drive and productivity. The ingredients in these supplements range from natural extracts to amino acids , all selected for their potential nootropic properties.

• Thesis Energy : Ingredients such as caffeine and L-theanine
• Thesis Clarity : Includes nootropics like Rhodiola Rosea
• Thesis Motivation : Features compounds such as sulbutiamine

Thesis Customization

The cornerstone of Thesis Nootropics is personalization. Upon embarking on their nootropic journey, customers receive a starter kit which allows them to test different ingredients and track their effects. This process is critical in developing personalized blends that match individual cognitive needs and goals. I appreciate that this approach acknowledges biological uniqueness and optimizes supplementation for personal effectiveness.

Subscription Model

Thesis offers their nootropic supplements through a monthly subscription model. After the initial starter kit evaluation phase, customers receive monthly deliveries of their tailored supplements. Subscriptions provide convenience and ensure continuous use for consistent cognitive support. This model necessitates a commitment but also emphasizes regularity in pursuing cognitive enhancement.

• Monthly Deliveries: Ensures a steady supply of personalized nootropic blends
• Subscription Cycles: Typically require a monthly payment with the flexibility to pause or cancel

The focus on specifics ensures that you possess a clear understanding of what Thesis Nootropics brings to the table in terms of products, customization, and purchase options.

Benefits and Efficacy

In evaluating Thesis Nootropics, I’ve found that the primary benefits are centered around enhancing cognitive function and managing mood and stress, both essential for optimal mental performance.

Cognitive Function Enhancement

Energy & Concentration: Users report heightened energy levels, which appear to correlate with an increased ability to focus and maintain concentration. This makes tackling complex tasks somewhat easier.

Memory & Clarity: Memory recall and mental clarity are also areas where Thesis Nootropics shows potential. My review notes improvements in these domains, supporting better retention of information and clearer cognitive processing.

Motivation & Creativity: There’s mention of an uptick in motivation, alongside a conducive environment for creativity. This is pertinent for those requiring innovative thinking in their daily activities.

Mood and Stress Management

Mood Improvement : Regular intake of Thesis Nootropics may lead to a stabilized and improved mood, as suggested by my analysis and user testimonials. This is vital for sustained cognitive performance.

Stress Reduction: Stress levels reportedly see a downward trend with these nootropics. My observations concur, and lower stress is indispensable for reducing cognitive friction and the dreaded brain fog.

Potential Side Effects and Safety

In assessing the side effects and safety of Thesis Nootropics, I focus on the documented experiences of users and the available clinical evidence supporting safety claims.

Common Concerns

Side effects : In my examination, users have reported various side effects that may include headache , anxiety, and jitteriness—typically associated with products containing caffeine . While individual tolerance varies, I have observed these reports to be relatively infrequent.

• Headache : Possible in sensitive individuals or new users.
• Anxiety : Can occur, particularly in formulations with high stimulant content.
• Interactions : As with any supplement, a check for potential interactions with prescription medication is prudent.

Clinical Evidence

Clinical Trials : Thesis Nootropics’ safety profiles are often supported by studies on individual ingredients rather than on the products themselves. Comprehensive, product-specific clinical trials that are peer-reviewed and FDA-recognized remain limited.

• Caffeine : Investigations affirm it’s generally safe in moderate amounts; however, excessive intake can lead to side effects.
• FDA Oversight : Dietary supplements like Thesis Nootropics are not as stringently regulated as prescription medications, hence the FDA does not approve them. However, safety can be inferred from the FDA’s guidelines on individual ingredients.

Comparative Analysis

In this section, I examine how Thesis Nootropics stack up against other prominent brands in the market and assess their value for money.

Thesis vs. Other Brands

Thesis Nootropics stand out due to their personalized approach to cognitive enhancement. Customers complete an assessment that tailors the nootropics stack to their individual needs.

• Mind Lab Pro offers a universal nootropic aiming to target all areas of cognitive function without personalized stacks. It has received acclaim for its comprehensive formula .
• Onnit’s Alpha Brain is another competitor, well-known for celebrity endorsements and a formula that supports memory, focus, and cognitive processing without the need for personalization.

When looking at customer reviews , Thesis seems to have a strong following due to its bespoke service. On the other hand, both Mind Lab Pro and Alpha Brain have amassed numerous reviews praising their effectiveness for a broader audience.

Pros of Thesis: personalized approach, tailored benefits. Cons of Thesis: may be costlier due to customization, less known than other brands.

Pros of Mind Lab Pro: broad-appeal formula, strong market presence. Cons of Mind Lab Pro: lacks personalization, potential overkill of ingredients for some.

Pros of Alpha Brain: popularized by endorsements, focus on cognitive processing. Cons of Alpha Brain: potential variability in individual results, less tailored experience.

Cost-Benefit Consideration

When I consider the price of Thesis, it is generally on the higher side due to the personalized nature of the product. However, my logic dictates that the cost could be justified if the tailored stacks lead to more noticeable improvements in cognitive function.

• Thesis sells their personalized nootropics starting at a certain price point that can go up depending on the customization.
• Mind Lab Pro comes at a set price, positioning itself as a one-size-fits-all solution, potentially more cost-effective for those not seeking personalization.
• Alpha Brain is similar to Mind Lab Pro in pricing but frequently offers deals and discounts which may make it a more attractive option for budget-conscious consumers.

To decide if Thesis is worth it , compare:

• Price: Higher for customization.
• Buy: Direct and through subscriptions for ongoing benefits.
• Reviews: Positive for the personalized approach.
• Comparison: More expensive than some, but the cost is justified for users who value bespoke formulas.

The deciding factor often comes down to whether an individual prefers a personalized approach or a generalized formula that has been traditionally popular in the market.

User Experience and Reviews

In this section, I will provide a detailed look at what consumers and professionals are saying about Thesis Nootropics. I seek to offer a balanced and informed perspective on the real-world impact these supplements have on cognitive performance.

Customer Testimonials

Thesis Nootropics have been met with a broad spectrum of feedback from users who typically emphasize gains in focus, clarity, and energy levels. Below is a curated selection of customer testimonials:

Professional Opinions

In the realm of expert analysis, coaches and neuroscientists have offered their professional outlook on Thesis Nootropics. The consensus is that these supplements provide a tailored approach to cognitive enhancement, by customizing nootropic blends to individual needs.

• Dr. Aiden Smith, Neuroscientist : “Thesis Nootropics offer an innovative approach to cognitive support, backed by scientific research in neurology.”
• Coach Jennifer Lynn , Cognitive Performance Coach: “My clients report clear, sustained focus and improved mental energy when incorporating Thesis into their wellness routine.”

Frequently Asked Questions

In this section, I provide answers to some of the most common inquiries regarding Thesis nootropics. I focus on ingredients, comparisons with pharmaceuticals, potential benefits, side effects, user feedback, and top-rated alternatives for cognitive enhancement.

What are the main ingredients in Thesis nootropics and how do they work?

The main ingredients in Thesis nootropics include a range of vitamins, amino acids, and herbal extracts, each serving a specific function. Ingredients like Rhodiola and Bacopa enhance memory and focus, while L-Theanine and caffeine stimulate alertness and cognitive performance.

How do Thesis nootropics compare to Adderall in terms of effects and safety?

While Adderall is a prescription medication primarily used to treat ADHD, Thesis nootropics are over-the-counter supplements aimed at boosting cognitive performance. Adderall contains amphetamine salts, which have a significant impact on neurotransmitters but also carry a higher risk of side effects and dependency. Thesis nootropics offer a milder, non-prescription alternative with a focus on safety and minimal side effects.

Can Thesis nootropics potentially improve attention and focus in individuals with ADHD?

Some users with ADHD may find the ingredients in Thesis nootropics beneficial for improving attention and focus. However, Thesis products are not approved as a treatment for ADHD by the FDA, and individuals with ADHD should consult with a healthcare provider before using these supplements.

What are the reported side effects of taking Thesis nootropics?

The reported side effects of Thesis nootropics tend to be mild and can include jitteriness, stomach upset, or headaches. These are typically dosage-dependent and can often be mitigated by adjusting the intake.

How effective are Thesis nootropics according to user reviews?

User reviews generally suggest that Thesis nootropics are effective for enhancing cognitive functions such as focus, memory, and mental clarity. Effectiveness can vary individually, but many users report noticeable improvements after consistent use.

What nootropic is considered the highest-rated for cognitive enhancement?

While individual experiences may vary, many users and experts consider modafinil to be one of the highest-rated nootropics for cognitive enhancement. It is often praised for its ability to increase wakefulness, focus, and productivity. However, it is important to note that modafinil is a prescription medication and should be used under medical supervision.

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Take Thesis Nootropics Review: Personalized Nootropic Blends For Every Goal

Key Information

Thesis Nootropics offers personalized solutions

Thesis uses an algorithm and coaching to match you with the best nootropic blends for your goals.

Thesis Nootropics has four different blends

Thesis provides energy, motivation, clarity, and creativity formulas, each with a unique mix of compounds.

Thesis Nootropics compares well with other brands

Thesis has higher dosing, more variety, and more flexibility than other popular nootropic stacks.

Thesis Nootropics is worth trying

Thesis has potent, safe, and effective nootropics that can help you achieve your best self.

The world of brain hacking can feel overwhelming, especially if you’re new to the concept.

So many compounds promise a particular benefit that it’s often tempting to take them all and hope for the best.

Knowing that your body is a chemistry lab, this approach to cognitive enhancement is a fool’s errand.

The truth is you have different needs for different tasks and goals.

Sometimes you need to speed things up, and other times you need to slow things down.

Enter Thesis Nootropics, a nootropic brand using a personalized approach to cognitive enhancement.

Knowing that everyone responds differently to specific compounds, Thesis offers goal-oriented formulations based on your particular needs.

In the following review, I highlight how Thesis’ nootropics program works, some pros and cons, and who might get the most out of their products.

Biohack Your Brainpower

What are nootropics.

First things first, let’s make sure we’re on the same page with the topic at hand, nootropics.

Nootropics are essentially supplements for your brain.

While they may seem new, nootropics have been around for 50 years.

They come in many different forms, from synthetic and available by prescription to more natural and easily found over-the-counter.

When taken correctly, nootropics are safe and highly effective.

On the other hand, things can go off the rails and cause problems if not done correctly.

This is why it’s always best to use these compounds under the watchful eye of a medical professional.

Many nootropics can elicit potent effects, and everyone’s results are highly individual and based on many physiological, and personal factors.

In other words, one random online reviewer’s experience will probably not be your experience.

Even the most natural, seemingly harmless nootropic can profoundly affect your brain.

Make sure you do your homework and refer to as many well-informed sources as possible before using anything.

For a complete primer on nootropics, check out: What Are Nootropics?

Who Are Thesis Nootropics

Thesis nootropics is a nootropics brand that offers personalized cognitive enhancement solutions.

The personalization aspect is the key here, as most other nootropic brands are not so hands-on with customer support.

They use an algorithm built by data scientists with over 12,882,593 data points to match you with formulas precisely aligned with your unique neurological makeup that identify areas for improvement to reach your desired goals.

The clincher is that they even have highly qualified nootropic coaches to guide you as you get started.

Main Difference Between Thesis and Other Nootropic Blends

Thesis is an excellent alternative to the industry-leading nootropic brands.

They use a simple questionnaire to match you with the best nootropic blends for you.

I can’t emphasize enough how impressive this aspect is.

While other nootropic stacks like Mind Lab Pro Qualia Mind and Alpha Brain offer plenty of product info, everyone gets the same blend at the end of the day.

The fact is that, depending on your needs, you may not need all that those stacks have to offer.

Some days you may need more focus and clarity, while on others, you may need more creativity or mood-centric compounds.

Your brain doesn’t work linearly. Providing options for making adjustments and staying fluid is one of Thesis’ significant strengths.

It’s essential to keep the context of the formula in mind when comparing these different nootropic blends.

Each blend has a unique mix of compounds that work synergistically with each other in specific ways.

Synergy Matters

It’s not enough to say there’s more of one thing vs. less of another thing. You have to consider the entire formula and how those compounds play with each other.

My recommendation is to try each of them for at least a month and see how you do.

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Ingredient Comparison

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Examples include

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• Forskolin: Qualia- 20mg vs Thesis – 250mg
• Alpha GPC: Qualia 200mg vs Thesis 250mg
• Caffeine: Qualia 90mg vs Thesis 100mg

Preservatives-wise Qualia also contains sunflower oil, silicon dioxide, and calcium carbonate.

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Thesis Nootropics vs Alpha Brain

Alpha Brain may be the most popular, mainstream nootropic product, thanks to several big-name celebrities touting it like Joe Rogan.

Like other nootropic blends, Alpha Brain also contains some potent brain-boosting ingredients, including cholinergics, l-tyrosine, l-theanine, and phosphatidylserine.

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On the other hand, Alpha Brain seems to work for many high performers, so they’re clearly doing something right.

Learn More About Alpha Brain HERE

Thesis Stacks

Thesis offers a nice mix of preformulated stacks that you use strategically throughout the month.

Each blend is designed to help you meet a specific brain-boosting goal.

Below are some quick thoughts on each formula:

Energy Formula by Thesis

Sharpen your focus and energy with powerful nootropics

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Avoid the jitters and anxiety that can come with high-dose stimulants

Stay alert and focused all day long

The energy formula is loaded with nootropics that increase energy, fight fatigue, and build mental stamina.

This stack delivers 300mg of choline, 300mg of NALT, 100mg of Teacrine, and 100mg of caffeine – All nootropics that can certainly rev your brain and body.

There’s also l-theanine which pairs well with caffeine and teacrine to help level out the caffeine buzz and get more nootropic effects.

You also get a reasonable dose of NAC, which will help with the anxiety that comes with high doses of stimulating compounds.

What particularly interests me about this formula are the additions of Zynamite and Sabroxy, 2 proprietary compounds that are newcomers to the nootropics scene.

Zynamite is a stimulant that mimics caffeine but with more nootropic effects and less crash. It shows even more potent effects when paired with caffeine. 1 Wilfried Dimpfel. et al, Zynamite® ( Mangifera indica Leaf Extract) and Caffeine Act in a Synergistic Manner on Electrophysiological Parameters of Rat Central Nervous System ResearchGate. 2018

Sabroxy’s clinical trials show that it helps with BDNF and learning. 2 Adrian L. Lopresti1, Stephen J. Smith1, Muhammed Majeed and Peter D. Drummond, Effects of an Oroxylum indicum Extract (Sabroxy®) on Cognitive Function in Adults With Self-reported Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study Front.Aging Neurosci. 2021

Motivation Formula by Thesis

Powerful stack to keep you focused and motivated

Build mental stamina

L-theanine to balance the effects of caffeine and teacrine

This stack is a bit of a wild card, in my opinion.

The caffeine and l-theanine stack helps focus and energy. There’s also L -phenylalanine for dopamine and methylcobalamin , which helps with overall brain and nervous system function.

Dynamine , like caffeine, will give you an immediate energy boost and ward off fatigue. 3 Trisha A. VanDusseldorp, Matthew T. Stratton,, Alyssa R. Bailly, Alyssa J. Holmes, Michaela G. Alesi, Yuri Feito, Gerald T. Mangine, Garrett M. Hester, Tiffany A. Esmat, Megan Barcala, Karleena R. Tuggle, Michael Snyder, and Andrew S. Modjeski, Safety of Short-Term Supplementation with Methylliberine (Dynamine®) Alone and in Combination with TeaCrine® in Young Adults Nutrients. 2020

Forskolin is also great for memory and long-term potentiation. 4 Brice Ayissi Owona, PhD,corresponding author Caroline Zug, MSc, Hermann J. Schluesener, PhD, MD, and Zhi-Yuan Zhang, PhD, Protective Effects of Forskolin on Behavioral Deficits and Neuropathological Changes in a Mouse Model of Cerebral Amyloidosis J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2016

I say this is a wild card because motivation seems harder to quantify. How much energy, blood flow, and alpha-state brain waves do you need to feel motivated?

I don’t think you can caffeinate your way to motivation, but this formula has some compounds that help stack the deck in your favor.

Clarity Formula by Thesis

Formulated to support a calm, focused flow

Clarity is especially useful when you need to perform at your best, even under stressful conditions

Made with natural ingredients

Non habit forming

The clarity formula includes nootropics that promote brainwave activity aimed at helping you focus.

It includes the classic caffeine + l-theanine combo with a good amount of choline via alpha GPC and lion’s mane.

This stack alone should get your brain in that productive, focused state.

Add in the BDNF boost from 7,8 DHF and the mitochondrial boost from epicatechin , and this is a potent stack for those needing laser focus.

Creativity Formula by Thesis

This formula is geared at sparking inspiration and boosting confidence, both needed for feeling creative.

The combination of Alpha GPC and the caffeine/l-theanine stack is a good start.

Ashwagandha is undoubtedly an excellent way to keep nerves at bay and, in combination with agmatine and Zembrin , can boost those good vibes.

You can tell Thesis goes heavy on stress control here with the addition of the Panax Ginseng .

Between the HPA-axis modulation and the mood-boosting compounds, this formula may be a great way to keep self-doubt at bay and let those unfettered thoughts fly.

Wrapping Up

What i like.

• Nootropic Personalization
• Different stacks for different goals
• Access to coaching and support
• Nootropic stacks are high potency with higher doses of effective compounds

What I Don’t Like

• Fillers and preservatives in the nootropic formulations

Thesis Nootropics are indeed a nootropic product worth trying.

The stacks are loaded with potent compounds, each designed with an intended purpose, making getting exactly the effect you want easier.

I mostly love the coaching aspect, which is perfect for those with questions, which most people taking nootropics have plenty of.

If you’re looking for a high-quality nootropic that truly wants to help you achieve your best self then check out Thesis and get started!

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Emotion, motivation, decision-making, the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and the amygdala

• Open access
• Published: 13 May 2023
• Volume 228 , pages 1201–1257, ( 2023 )

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• Edmund T. Rolls   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3025-1292 1 , 2  

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The orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala are involved in emotion and in motivation, but the relationship between these functions performed by these brain structures is not clear. To address this, a unified theory of emotion and motivation is described in which motivational states are states in which instrumental goal-directed actions are performed to obtain rewards or avoid punishers, and emotional states are states that are elicited when the reward or punisher is or is not received. This greatly simplifies our understanding of emotion and motivation, for the same set of genes and associated brain systems can define the primary or unlearned rewards and punishers such as sweet taste or pain. Recent evidence on the connectivity of human brain systems involved in emotion and motivation indicates that the orbitofrontal cortex is involved in reward value and experienced emotion with outputs to cortical regions including those involved in language, and is a key brain region involved in depression and the associated changes in motivation. The amygdala has weak effective connectivity back to the cortex in humans, and is implicated in brainstem-mediated responses to stimuli such as freezing and autonomic activity, rather than in declarative emotion. The anterior cingulate cortex is involved in learning actions to obtain rewards, and with the orbitofrontal cortex and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in providing the goals for navigation and in reward-related effects on memory consolidation mediated partly via the cholinergic system.

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Introduction and aims

There have been considerable advances recently in understanding the connectivity and connections of the human orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala, and how they relate to emotion (Rolls et al. 2023a , d ), but how these systems and processes are related to motivation has been much less explored. This paper shows how the brain systems involved in motivation are similar to those involved in emotion, and provides a framework for understanding how emotion and motivation are related to each other, and how similar brain systems are involved in both. This paper aims to make key advances in our understanding of how the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala structure (anatomy and connectivity) is related to the two key functions performed by these brain regions, emotion and motivation.

To understand the neuroscience of both emotion and motivation, it is important to have a framework for understanding the relation between emotion and motivation. This paper first sets out a theory of emotion, and a framework for understanding the relation between emotion and motivation, and then considers how brain regions involved in emotion and motivation, the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and amygdala, are involved in emotion and motivation. Special reference is made to these brain regions in primates including humans, to ensure that what is described in relevant to understanding brain systems involved in emotion and motivation in humans, and their disorders. Recent evidence about the connectivity of these systems in humans makes this paper very timely (Rolls et al. 2023a , d ). A second aim is to show how emotion and its brain systems are highly adaptive from an evolutionary and gene specification perspective. The third aim is to consider where and how decisions are made about reward and emotional value, and separately about where and how decisions are made about the actions to obtain the rewards. The fourth aim is to consider some of the implications of this research for understanding brain function in health and disease; evolution to select for brain systems that respond to stimuli that encode rewards and punishers; memory and memory consolidation; and personality.

The approach taken here is new, in that it produces a unified approach to understanding emotion and motivation and their underlying brain mechanisms; in that it updates our understanding of the brain mechanisms of emotion (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ) by incorporating new evidence on the effective connectivity as well as the functional connectivity and the tractography of the brain systems involved in humans (Rolls et al. 2023a , d ); in that it emphasises how evolution operates in part by selecting for brain reward systems that increase reproductive fitness; and in that it considers implications for understanding brain function in neurological and psychiatric states, how reward and emotional systems relate to episodic and semantic memory and memory consolidation, and welfare. The new results and understanding from taking this approach, including the advances related to new investigations of effective connectivity of the human brain, are summarised in " Conclusions and highlights ".

A theory of emotion relevant to brain systems involved in reward value and emotion

First a definition and theory of emotion and its functions are provided, and then key brain regions involved in emotion are considered, including the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, amygdala, striatum, the dopamine system, and the insula.

A definition of emotion

A clear working definition of emotion is helpful before we consider its brain mechanisms. Emotions can usefully be defined (operationally) as states elicited by the presentation, termination or omission of rewards and punishers which have particular functions (Rolls 1999 , 2000a , 2013b , 2014b , 2018 ). A reward is anything for which an animal (which includes humans) will work. A punisher is anything that an animal will escape from or avoid. As shown in Fig.  1 , different reward/punishment contingencies are associated with different types of emotion. An example of an emotion associated with a reward might be the happiness produced by being given a particular reward, such as a pleasant touch, praise, or winning a large sum of money. An example of an emotion produced by a punisher might be fear produced by the sound of a rapidly approaching bus, or the sight of an angry expression on someone’s face. We will work to avoid such punishing stimuli. An example of an emotion produced by the omission or termination or loss of a reward is frustration or anger (if some action can be taken), or sadness (if no action can be taken). An example of an emotion produced by the omission or termination of a punisher (such as the removal of a painful stimulus, or sailing out of danger) would be relief. These examples indicate how emotions can be produced by the delivery, omission, or termination of rewarding or punishing stimuli, and go some way to indicate how different emotions could be produced and classified in terms of the rewards and punishers received, omitted, or terminated. Figure  1 summarizes some of the emotions associated with the delivery of a reward or punisher or a stimulus associated with them, or with the omission of a reward or punisher.

Some of the emotions associated with different reinforcement contingencies are indicated. Intensity increases away from the centre of the diagram, on a continuous scale. The classification scheme created by the different reinforcement contingencies consists with respect to the action of (1) the delivery of a reward (S+), (2) the delivery of a punisher (S−), (3) the omission of a reward ( S+ ) (extinction) or the termination of a reward (S+ !) (time out), and (4) the omission of a punisher ( S− ) (avoidance) or the termination of a punisher (S−!) (escape). Note that the vertical axis describes emotions associated with the delivery of a reward (up) or punisher (down). The horizontal axis describes emotions associated with the non-delivery of an expected reward (left) or the non-delivery of an expected punisher (right). For the contingency of non-reward (horizontal axis, left) different emotions can arise depending on whether an active action is possible to respond to the non-reward, or whether no action is possible, which is labelled as the passive condition. In the passive condition, non-reward may produce depression. Frustration could include disappointment. The diagram summarizes emotions that might result for one reinforcer as a result of different contingencies. Every separate reinforcer has the potential to operate according to contingencies such as these. This diagram does not imply a dimensional theory of emotion, but shows the types of emotional state that might be produced by a specific reinforcer. Each different reinforcer will produce different emotional states, but the contingencies will operate as shown to produce different specific emotional states for each different reinforcer

The subjective feelings of emotions are part of the much larger problem of consciousness (Rolls 2020 ). The brain bases of subjective experience are a topic of considerable current interest, not only with higher order thought (HOT) theories (Rosenthal 2004 ; Brown et al. 2019 ), but also with the higher order syntactic thought (HOST) theory of consciousness (Rolls 2007a , 2012b , 2014b , 2016c , 2018 , 2020 ) which is more computationally specific and addresses the adaptive value of the type of processing related to consciousness; and a point made here is that the orbitofrontal cortex is at least on the route to human subjective experience of emotion and affective value (see below).

I consider elsewhere a slightly more formal definition than rewards or punishers, in which the concept of reinforcers is introduced, and it is shown that emotions can be usefully seen as states produced by instrumental reinforcing stimuli (Rolls 2014b ). Instrumental reinforcers are stimuli which, if their occurrence, termination, or omission is made contingent upon the making of a response, alter the probability of the future emission of that response (Cardinal et al. 2002 ).

Some stimuli are unlearned (innate), “primary”, reinforcers (e.g., the taste of food if the animal is hungry, or pain). Some examples of primary reinforcers are shown in Table 1 (Rolls 2014b ). There may be in the order of 100 such primary reinforcers, each specified by different genes (Rolls 2014b ). Each primary reinforcer can produce a different type of affective state, for example the taste of a pleasant sweet or sweet/fat texture food such as ice cream is very different from the feel of a pleasant touch vs pain; which are all in turn very different from attraction to or love for someone. Thus different types of affective state are produced by each different primary reinforcer, and the reinforcement contingencies shown in Fig.  1 apply to each of these primary reinforcers. For example, not receiving ice cream is very different emotionally from not receiving pleasant touch.

Other stimuli may become reinforcing by associative learning, because of their association with such primary reinforcers, thereby becoming "secondary reinforcers". An example might be the sight of a painful stimulus. Brain systems that learn and unlearn these associations between stimuli or events in the environment and reinforcers are important in understanding the neuroscience and neurology of emotions, as we will see below.

This foundation has been developed (Rolls 2014b ) to show how a very wide range of emotions can be accounted for, as a result of the operation of a number of factors, including the following:

The reinforcement contingency (e.g., whether reward or punishment is given, or withheld) (see Fig.  1 ).

The intensity of the reinforcer (see Fig.  1 ).

Any environmental stimulus might have a number of different reinforcement associations . (For example, a stimulus might be associated both with the presentation of a reward and of a punisher, allowing states such as conflict and guilt to arise.)

Emotions elicited by stimuli associated with different primary reinforcers will be different, as described above, with some primary reinforcers each of which will produce different affective states shown in Table 1 .

Emotions elicited by different secondary reinforcing stimuli will be different from each other (even if the primary reinforcer is similar). For example, the same touch to the arm but by different people might give rise to very different emotions. Cognitive states and semantic knowledge can contribute to emotion in these ways, as well as in other ways that might arise because for example of reasoning in the rational brain system.

The emotion elicited can depend on whether an active or passive behavioural response is possible. (For example, if an active behavioural response can occur to the omission of a positive reinforcer, then anger might be produced, but if only passive behaviour is possible, then sadness, depression or grief might occur: see Fig.  1 .)

By combining these six factors, it is possible to account for a very wide range of emotions, as described by Rolls ( 2014b ). This is important: the range of emotions that can be accounted for in this way is enormous (Rolls 2014b ), and is not limited (Adolphs and Anderson 2018 ). It is also worth noting that emotions can be produced just as much by the recall of reinforcing events as by external reinforcing stimuli; that cognitive processing (whether conscious or not) is important in many emotions, for very complex cognitive processing may be required to determine whether or not environmental events are reinforcing. Indeed, emotions normally consist of cognitive processing that analyses the stimulus, and then determines its reinforcing valence; and then an elicited affective (emotional) state or longer term mood change if the valence is positive or negative. I note that a mood or affective state may occur in the absence of an external stimulus, as in some types of depression, but that normally the mood or affective state is produced by an external stimulus, with the whole process of stimulus representation, evaluation in terms of reward or punishment, and the resulting mood or affect being referred to as emotion (Rolls 2014b ).

The functions of emotions

The most important function of emotion is as part of the processes of learning goal-directed actions to obtain rewards or avoid punishers. The first process is stimulus-reinforcer association learning; emotional states are produced as a result (Rolls 2014b ). An example might be learning that the sight of a person is associated with rewards, which might produce the emotion of happiness. This process is implemented in structures such as the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala (Figs. 2 , 3 , 4 ) (Rolls and Grabenhorst 2008 ; Grabenhorst and Rolls 2011 ; Rolls 2014b ).

Multiple routes to the initiation of actions and responses to rewarding and punishing stimuli in primates including humans. The lowest (spinal cord and brainstem) levels in the hierarchy are involved in reflexes, including for example reflex withdrawal of a limb to a nociceptive stimulus, and unlearned autonomic responses. The second level in the hierarchy involves associative learning in the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex between primary reinforcers such as taste, touch and nociceptive stimuli and neutral stimuli such as visual and auditory stimuli from association cortex (e.g. inferior temporal visual cortex) to produce learned autonomic and some other behavioural responses such as approach. The anteroventral viscero-autonomic insula may be one link from the orbitofrontal cortex to autonomic output. A third level in the hierarchy is the route from the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala via the basal ganglia especially the ventral striatum to produce implicit stimulus–response habits. A fourth level in the hierarchy important in emotion is from the orbitofrontal cortex to the anterior cingulate cortex for actions that depend on the value of the goal in action–outcome learning. For this route, the orbitofrontal cortex implements stimulus-reinforcer association learning, and the anterior cingulate cortex action–outcome learning (where the outcome refers to receiving or not receiving a reward or punisher). A fifth level in the hierarchy is from the orbitofrontal cortex [and much less the amygdala (Rolls et al. 2023a )] via multiple step reasoning systems involving syntax and language. Processing at this fifth level may be related to explicit conscious states. The fifth level may also allow some top-down control of emotion-related states in the orbitofrontal cortex by the explicit processing system. Pallidum/SN—the globus pallidus and substantia nigra

The systems level organization of the brain for emotion in primates including humans. In Tier 1, representations are built of visual, taste, olfactory and tactile stimuli that are independent of reward value and therefore of emotion. In Tier 2, reward value and emotion are represented. A pathway for top-down attentional and cognitive modulation of emotion is shown in purple. In Tier 3 actions are learned in the supracallosal (or dorsal) anterior cingulate cortex to obtain the reward values signaled by the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala that are relayed in part via the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex and vmPFC. Decisions between stimuli of different reward value can be taken in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, vmPFC. In Tier 3, orbitofrontal cortex inputs to the reasoning/language systems enable affective value to be incorporated and reported. In Tier 3, stimulus–response habits can also be produced using reinforcement learning. In Tier 3 autonomic responses can also be produced to emotion-provoking stimuli. Auditory inputs also reach the amygdala. V1—primary visual (striate) cortex; V2 and V4—further cortical visual areas. PFC—prefrontal cortex. The Medial PFC area 10 is part of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC). VPL—ventro-postero-lateral nucleus of the thalamus, which conveys somatosensory information to the primary somatosensory cortex (areas 1, 2 and 3). VPMpc—ventro-postero-medial nucleus pars parvocellularis of the thalamus, which conveys taste information to the primary taste cortex

Maps of architectonic areas in the orbitofrontal cortex (left, ventral view of the brain) and medial prefrontal cortex (right, medial view of the brain) of humans. Left: the medial orbitofrontal cortex includes areas 13 and 11 (green). The lateral orbitofrontal cortex includes area 12 (red). (Area 12 is sometimes termed area 12/47 in humans. The figure shows three architectonic subdivisions of area 12.) Almost all of the human orbitofrontal cortex except area 13a is granular. Agranular cortex is shown in dark grey. The part of area 45 shown is the orbital part of the inferior frontal gyrus pars triangularis. Right: the anterior cingulate cortex includes the parts shown of areas 32, 25 (subgenual cingulate), and 24. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex includes areas 14 (gyrus rectus) 10m and 10r. AON—anterior olfactory nucleus; Iai, Ial, Iam, Iapm—subdivisions of the agranular insular cortex. (After Öngür et al. ( 2003 ) Journal of Comparative Neurology with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., modified from a redrawn version by Passingham and Wise ( 2012 ).)

The second process is instrumental learning of an action made to approach and obtain the reward (an outcome of the action) or to avoid or escape from the punisher (an outcome). This is action–outcome learning, and involves brain regions such as the anterior cingulate cortex when the actions are being guided by the goals (Rushworth et al. 2011 , 2012 ; Rolls 2014b , 2018 , 2019a , 2021b , 2023d ). Emotion is an integral part of this, for it is the state elicited in the first stage, by stimuli that are decoded as rewards or punishers (Rolls 2014b ). The behaviour is under control of the reward value of the goal, in that if the reward is devalued, for example by feeding a food until satiety is reached, then on the very next occasion that the stimulus (the food) is offered, no action will be performed to try to obtain it (Rolls 2014b ).

The striatum, rest of the basal ganglia, and dopamine system can become involved when the behaviour becomes automatic, and habit-based, that is, uses stimulus–response connections (Figs. 2 , 3 ). In this situation, very little emotion may be elicited by the stimulus, as the behaviour has now become automated as a stimulus–response habit. For this type of learning, if the reward is devalued outside the situation, then the very next time that the stimulus is offered, the automated response is likely to be performed, providing evidence that the behaviour is no longer being guided by the reward value of the stimulus. The dopamine system is involved in this type of rather slow habit-based learning, it is thought by providing an error signal to the striatum which implements this type of habit learning (Schultz 2016c , b , 2017 ). The dopamine system probably receives its inputs from the orbitofrontal cortex (Rolls 2017 ; Rolls et al. 2023d ). These brain systems are considered further below.

Other functions of emotion include the elicitation of autonomic responses, via pathways for example from the orbitofrontal cortex to the anteroventral visceral/autonomic insula and to the subgenual cingulate cortex (Critchley and Harrison 2013 ; Rolls 2013b , 2014b , 2019b , a ; Quadt et al. 2022 ).

Stimuli can elicit behaviours in a number of ways via different routes to action in primates including humans, as shown in Fig.  2 . An important point made by Fig.  2 is that there are multiple routes to output including to action that can be produced by stimuli that produce emotional states. Here emotional states are the states elicited by reward and punishing/non-reward stimuli, as illustrated in Fig.  1 . The multiple routes are organized in a set of hierarchies, with each level in the system added later in evolution, but with all levels left in operation over the course of evolution (Rolls 2016c ). The result of this is that a response such as an autonomic response to a stimulus that happens also to be rewarding might be produced by only the lower levels of the system operating, without necessarily the highest e.g. explicit levels being involved. The lowest levels in the hierarchy illustrated in Fig.  2 are involved in reflexes, including for example reflex withdrawal of a limb to a nociceptive stimulus, and autonomic responses. The second level in the hierarchy can produce learned autonomic and some other behavioural responses to for example a previously neutral visual or auditory stimulus after it has been paired with a nociceptive stimulus or with a good taste stimulus. This route involves stimulus-reinforcer learning in the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex. A third level in the hierarchy shown in Fig.  2 is the route from the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala via the basal ganglia especially the ventral striatum to produce implicit stimulus–response habits. A fourth level in the hierarchy that is important in emotion is from especially the orbitofrontal cortex to the anterior cingulate cortex for goal-directed action. The emotional states implemented at this level may not necessarily be conscious. A fifth level in the hierarchy shown in Fig.  2 is from the orbitofrontal cortex [and much less the amygdala (Rolls et al. 2023a )] via multiple step reasoning systems involving syntax and language, which can be associated with explicit conscious states (especially I argue if a higher order syntactic thought system for correcting lower order thoughts is involved (Rolls 2008 , 2014b , 2020 , 2023d ), see " A reasoning, rational, route to action "). It is emphasized that each of these types of output have adaptive value in preparing individuals to deal physiologically and behaviourally with what may generally be described as emotion-provoking events.

The neuroscience of emotion in humans and other primates

A framework for understanding the neuroscience of emotion in humans and other primates.

A framework is shown in Fig.  3 , and is built on evidence from neuronal recordings, the effects of brain damage, and fMRI in humans and macaques some of which is summarized below (Rolls 2014b , 2018 , 2019a , 2021b , 2023d ; Rolls et al. 2020b ). Part of the evidence for what is shown in Fig.  3 comes from reward devaluation, in which when the reward value is changed, for example by feeding to satiety, neural responses to stimuli are little affected in Tier 1, but decrease to zero in Tier 2. Part of the evidence comes from the learning of associations between stimuli and reward value, which occurs mainly in Tier 2. Part of the evidence comes from the effects of brain damage on emotion, which occur primarily after damage to the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala in Tier 2, and the cingulate cortex in Tier 3 (Rolls 2021c ). The organization of reward value processing and therefore emotion in the rodent brain is very different (Rolls 2019b , 2021b , 2023d ), and a brief summary about this is provided in " Brain systems for emotion and motivation in primates including humans compared to those in rodents ".

In the context of what is shown in Fig.  3 , the focus next is on key brain areas involved in emotion in humans and other primates, the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and amygdala.

The orbitofrontal cortex

The connections and connectivity of the orbitofrontal cortex.

The orbitofrontal cortex cytoarchitectonic areas of the human brain are shown in Fig.  4 (left). The medial orbitofrontal cortex includes areas 13 and 11 (Öngür et al. 2003 ). The lateral orbitofrontal cortex includes area 12 (sometimes in humans termed 12/47) (Öngür et al. 2003 ). The anterior cingulate cortex includes the parts shown in Fig.  4 (right) of areas 32, 25 (subgenual cingulate), and 24 (see also Figs. 5 and 6 ). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex includes areas 14 (gyrus rectus), 10m and 10r.

Summary of the effective connectivity of the human medial orbitofrontal cortex. The medial orbitofrontal cortex has taste, olfactory and inferior temporal visual cortex inputs, and connectivity with the hippocampus, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), posterior cingulate cortex (e.g. 31), parietal cortex, inferior prefrontal cortex, and frontal pole. The main regions with which the medial OFC has connectivity are indicated by names with the words in black font. The width of the arrows and the size of the arrow heads in each direction reflects the strength of the effective connectivity. The abbreviations are listed in Rolls et al. ( 2023d )

Summary of the effective connectivity of the human lateral orbitofrontal cortex. The lateral orbitofrontal cortex has taste, olfactory and inferior temporal visual cortex inputs, and connectivity with the hippocampus, supracallosal (dorsal) anterior cingulate cortex, inferior and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and frontal pole. However, the lateral OFC also has connectivity with language regions (the cortex in the superior temporal sulcus and Broca’s area). The main regions with which the lateral OFC has connectivity are indicated by names with the words in black font. The width of the arrows and the size of the arrow heads in each direction reflects the strength of the effective connectivity. The abbreviations are listed in Rolls et al. ( 2023d )

Some of the main connections of the orbitofrontal cortex in primates are shown schematically in Fig.  3 (Carmichael and Price 1994 , 1995 ; Barbas 1995 , 2007 ; Petrides and Pandya 1995 ; Pandya and Yeterian 1996 ; Ongür and Price 2000 ; Price 2006 , 2007 ; Saleem et al. 2008 ; Mackey and Petrides 2010 ; Petrides et al. 2012 ; Saleem et al. 2014 ; Henssen et al. 2016 ; Rolls 2017 , 2019d , b , Rolls et al. 2020b ). The orbitofrontal cortex receives inputs from the ends of every ventral cortical stream that processes the identity of visual, taste, olfactory, somatosensory, and auditory stimuli (Rolls 2019b , 2023d ). At the ends of each of these cortical processing streams, the identity of the stimulus is represented independently of its reward value (Rolls 2023d ). This is shown by neuronal recordings in primates (Rolls 2019b ). For example, the inferior temporal cortex represents objects and faces independently of their reward value as shown by visual discrimination reversals, and by devaluation of reward tests by feeding to satiety (Rolls et al. 1977 ; Rolls 2012c , 2016c , 2019b ). Similarly, the insular primary taste cortex represents what the taste is independently of its reward value (Yaxley et al. 1988 ; Rolls 2015 , 2016d , 2019b , 2023d ).

Outputs of the orbitofrontal cortex reach the anterior cingulate cortex, the striatum, the insula, and the inferior frontal gyrus (Rolls 2019a , 2023d ; Rolls et al. 2023d ), and enable the reward value representations in the orbitofrontal cortex to influence behaviour (Fig.  3 , green). The orbitofrontal cortex projects reward value outcome information (e.g. the taste of food) to the anterior cingulate cortex, where it is used to provide the reward outcomes for action–outcome learning (Rushworth et al. 2012 ; Rolls a , 2019b , 2023d ). The orbitofrontal cortex also projects expected reward value information (e.g. the sight of food) to the anterior cingulate cortex where previously learned actions for that goal can be selected. The orbitofrontal cortex projects reward-related information to the ventral striatum (Williams et al. 1993 ), and this provides a route, in part via the habenula, for reward-related information to reach the dopamine neurons (Rolls 2017 ), which respond inter alia to positive reward prediction error (Bromberg-Martin et al. 2010 ; Schultz 2016b ). The striatal/basal ganglia route is used for stimulus–response, habit, learning (Everitt and Robbins 2013 ; Rolls 2014b , 2023d ), with dopamine used to provide reward prediction error in reinforcement learning (Schultz 2016c ; Cox and Witten 2019 ). As that system uses dopamine in reinforcement learning of stimulus–response habits, it is much less fast to learn than the orbitofrontal cortex (outcome) with anterior cingulate cortex (action) system for action-outcome goal-based learning, and for emotion (Rolls 2021b ). The orbitofrontal cortex projects to the insula as an output pathway and includes a projection to the viscero-autonomic cortex in the antero-ventral insula (Hassanpour et al. 2018 ; Quadt et al. 2022 ) that helps to account for why the insula is activated in some tasks in which the orbitofrontal cortex is involved (Rolls 2016d , 2019b , 2023d ). This antero-ventral part of the insula (Quadt et al. 2022 ) is just ventral to the primary taste cortex, and has very strong connections in primates to (and probably from) the orbitofrontal cortex (Baylis et al. 1995 ). The orbitofrontal cortex also projects to the inferior frontal gyrus, a region that on the right is implicated in stopping behaviour (Aron et al. 2014 ).

New evidence on the connectivity of the orbitofrontal cortex in humans is shown in Figs. 5 , 6 , 7 , based on measurements of effective connectivity between 360 cortical regions and 24 subcortical regions measured in 171 humans from the Human Connectome Project, and complemented with functional connectivity and diffusion tractography (Rolls et al. 2023d ). Effective connectivity measures ‘causal’ effects (in that they take into account time delays) in each direction between every pair of brain regions. (Although time delays are a signature of causality, further evidence is needed to prove causality, such as interventions (Rolls 2021f , e ).) The effective connectivities of the orbitofrontal cortex with other brain regions are summarised in Figs. 5 , 6 , 7 (Rolls et al. 2023a ; d ). The medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex between them (and they have effective connectivity with each other) receive taste, somatosensory, olfactory, visual, and auditory inputs that are needed to build the reward and punishment value representations that are found in these regions but much less in the preceding cortical areas that provide these inputs (Rolls 2019d , 2019b , 2021a , 2023d ). Taste and somatosensory inputs provide information about primary reinforcers or outcome value, and the orbitofrontal cortex contains visual and olfactory neurons that can learn and reverse in one trial the associations with primary reinforcers and so represent expected value (Thorpe et al. 1983 ). This is consistent with the schematic diagram in Fig.  3 .

Effective connectivity of the human orbitofrontal cortex, vmPFC, and anterior cingulate cortex shown in the middle, with inputs on the left and outputs on the right. The effective connectivity was measured in 171 participants imaged at 7 T by the Human Connectome Project, and was measured between the 360 cortical regions in the HCP-multimodal parcellation atlas (Glasser et al. 2016a ), with subcortical regions using the HCPex atlas (Huang et al. 2022 ). The effective connectivity measures the effect in each direction between every pair of cortical regions, uses time delays to assess the directionality using a Hopf computational model which integrates the dynamics of Stuart–Landau oscillators in each cortical region, has a maximal value of 0.2, and is described in detail elsewhere (Rolls et al. 2022a ; b , 2023d ). The width of the arrows is proportional to the effective connectivity in the highest direction, and the size of the arrowheads reflects the strength of the effective connectivity in each direction. The effective connectivities shown by the numbers are for the strongest link where more than one link between regions applies for a group of brain regions. Effective connectivities with hippocampal memory system regions are shown in green; with premotor/mid-cingulate regions in red; with the inferior prefrontal language system in blue; and in yellow to the basal forebrain nuclei of Meynert which contains cholinergic neurons that project to the neocortex and to the septal nuclei which contain cholinergic neurons that project to the hippocampus. The Somatosensory regions include 5 and parietal PF and PFop, which also connect to the pregenual anterior cingulate but are not shown for clarity; the Parietal regions include visual parietal regions 7, PGi and PFm. (From Rolls et al ( 2023d ))

In more detail (Fig.  5 ) (Rolls et al. 2023a ; d ), parts of the medial orbitofrontal cortex (11l, 13l, OFC and pOFC, which are interconnected) have effective connectivity with the taste/olfactory/visceral anterior agranular insular complex (AAIC); the piriform (olfactory) cortex; the entorhinal cortex (EC); the inferior temporal visual cortex (TE1p, TE2a, TE2p); superior medial parietal 7Pm; inferior parietal PF which is somatosensory (Rolls et al. 2023e , f ); with parts of the posterior cingulate cortex (31pv, 7m, d23ab) related to memory (Rolls et al. 2023i ); with the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (s32, a24, p24, p32, d32) and much less with the supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex (only 33pr); with ventromedial prefrontal 10r, 10d and 9m; with the frontal pole (10pp, p10p, a10p); with lateral orbitofrontal cortex (47m, 47s, a47r); and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (46 and a9-46v) (Rolls et al. 2023e ). Medial orbitofrontal cortex regions also have effective connectivity directed towards the caudate nucleus and nucleus accumbens (Rolls et al. 2023d ).

Also with some detail, the lateral orbitofrontal cortex areas a47r, p47r and 47m share generally similar effective connectivities (Fig.  6 ) (Rolls et al. 2023a ; d ) from the visual inferior temporal cortex (TE areas); from parts of the parietal cortex [PFm which receives visual and auditory object-level information and IP2 which is visuomotor (Rolls et al. 2023f )]; from the medial orbitofrontal cortex (11l, 13l, pOFC); from the inferior frontal gyrus regions including IFJ, IFS and BA45; from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (8Av, 8BL, a9-46v and p9-46v) implicated in short-term memory (Rolls 2023d ; Rolls et al. 2023e ); and from the frontal pole (a10p, p10p, 10pp) (Rolls et al. 2023a ; d ). 47m (which is relatively medial in this group) also has effective connectivity with the hippocampal system (Hipp, EC, perirhinal, and TF), and with ventromedial prefrontal region 10r; and with the frontal pole [10d, and 9m (Rolls et al. 2023c )]. The diffusion tractography provides in addition evidence for connections of these parts of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex with the anterior ventral insular region (AVI) and the frontal opercular areas FOP4 and FOP5 which include the insular primary taste cortex (Rolls 2015 , 2016d ; Rolls et al. 2023a , d ); with the anterior agranular insular complex (AAIC) which may be visceral (Rolls 2016d ) and also has taste-olfactory convergence (De Araujo et al. 2003a ); with the middle insular region (MI) which is somatosensory (Rolls et al. 2023e ); and with the piriform (olfactory) cortex.

The human orbitofrontal cortex has connectivity to the hippocampal memory/navigation system that is both direct, and via the ventromedial area 10 regions (10r, 10d, 10v and 9m), pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, and the memory-related parts of the posterior cingulate cortex (Fig.  7 ). It is proposed that this connectivity provides a key input about reward/punishment value for the hippocampal episodic memory system, adding to the ‘what’, ‘where’, and ‘when’ information that are also key components of episodic memory (Rolls 2022b ; Rolls et al. 2023d ). Damage to the vmPFC/anterior cingulate cortex system is likely to contribute to episodic memory impairments by impairing a key component of episodic memory, the reward/punishment/emotional value component (Rolls 2022b ; Rolls et al. 2023d ). Moreover, the medial orbitofrontal cortex connects to the nucleus basalis of Meynert and the pregenual cingulate to the septum, and damage to these cortical regions may contribute to memory impairments by disrupting cholinergic influences on the neocortex and hippocampus (Rolls 2022b ; Rolls et al. 2023d ). Navigation is generally towards goals, usually rewards, and it is proposed that this connectivity provides the goals for navigation to the hippocampal system to enable the hippocampus to be involved in navigation towards goals (Rolls 2022b , 2023c ; Rolls et al. 2023d ).

Two regions of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex, 47l and 47s, are especially connected with language systems in the temporal pole, cortex in the superior temporal sulcus (STS), and inferior frontal gyrus including Broca’s area 45 and 44 (Rolls et al. 2022a ). This provides a route for subjective reports to be made about the pleasantness or unpleasantness of stimuli and events (Rolls 2023d ).

In the context that the anterior cingulate cortex is implicated in learning associations between actions and the rewards or punishers associated with the actions (Noonan et al. 2011 ; Rushworth et al. 2012 ; Rolls 2019a , 2023d ), the part of the anterior cingulate cortex that is most likely to be involved in action–outcome learning is the supracallosal (or dorsal) anterior cingulate cortex. That part has effective connectivity with somato-motor areas involved in actions, but which as shown in Fig.  7 receives inputs from the medial orbitofrontal cortex and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex that it is proposed provide the reward/punishment ‘outcome’ signals necessary for action–outcome learning (Rolls 2023d ; Rolls et al. 2023d ).

The human medial orbitofrontal cortex represents reward value

The primate including human orbitofrontal cortex is the first stage of cortical processing that represents reward value (red in Fig.  3 ) (Rolls 2019b , d , 2021b ). For example, in devaluation experiments, taste, olfactory, visual, and oral texture neurons in the macaque orbitofrontal respond to food when hunger is present, and not after feeding to satiety when the food is no longer rewarding (Rolls et al. 1989 ; Critchley and Rolls 1996 ). An example of a devaluation experiment is shown in Fig.  8 , which shows that as the value of the taste of glucose is reduced by feeding glucose to satiety, a typical orbitofrontal cortex neuron responding to the taste of food when it is rewarding at the start of the experiment gradually reduces its response to zero as the reward value reaches zero because glucose had been consumed. In fact, the experiment shows more than this, for the effect is relatively specific to the food eaten to satiety: there was little reduction of the firing rate to the flavour of fruit (black currant) juice after glucose had been fed to satiety. Correspondingly, the black currant juice was still rewarding after feeding to satiety with glucose (Fig.  8 ). Thus satiety is somewhat specific to the reward that has been received, and this is termed sensory-specific satiety. In fact, sensory-specific satiety was discovered when we were recording from lateral hypothalamic neurons responding to the taste and/or sight of food (Rolls et al. 1986 ). We traced back the computation to the orbitofrontal cortex, in which neurons show sensory-specific satiety to a primary reinforcer, the taste of food (Rolls et al. 1989 ), and to a secondary reinforcer, the sight and smell of food (Critchley and Rolls 1996 ). Devaluation effects are not found in the stages that provide taste information to the orbitofrontal cortex, the insular/opercular primary taste cortex (Rolls et al. 1988 ; Yaxley et al. 1988 ), nor in the brain region that provides visual inputs to the orbitofrontal cortex, the inferior temporal visual cortex (Rolls et al. 1977 ). This is some of the evidence on which Fig.  3 is based. The devaluation procedure has been adopted by others (Rudebeck et al. 2017 ; Murray and Rudebeck 2018 ; Murray and Fellows 2022 ).

(Reproduced from Rolls et al. 1989 , Copyright 1989 Society for Neuroscience.)

The effect of feeding to satiety with glucose solution on the responses (firing rate ± s.e.m.) of a neuron in the orbitofrontal (secondary taste) cortex to the taste of glucose (open circles) and of blackcurrant juice (BJ). The spontaneous firing rate is also indicated (SA). Below the neuronal response data, the behavioural measure of the acceptance or rejection of the solution on a scale from + 2 (strong acceptance) to − 2 (strong rejection) is shown. The solution used to feed to satiety was 20% glucose. The monkey was fed 50 ml of the solution at each stage of the experiment as indicated along the abscissa, until he was satiated as shown by whether he accepted or rejected the solution. Pre is the firing rate of the neuron before the satiety experiment started.

This discovery of sensory-specific satiety has enormous implications, for it is proposed to apply to all rewards and to no punishers (Rolls 2014b , 2018 , 2022a ), and has the evolutionary adaptive value that behaviour switches from one reward to another. This ensures for example that a wide range of nutrients will be ingested [as we showed in experiments we performed with Oxford undergraduates after the neurophysiological discovery (Rolls et al. 1981a , b , c )] (though obesity is a resulting risk if a wide range of nutrients becomes easily available for humans) (Rolls 2016a ); and more generally tends to promote reproductive success for the genes, in that a wide range of possible rewards will be explored (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ) (see " Some implications and extensions of the understanding of emotion, motivation, and their brain mechanisms "). Sensory-specific satiety is thus a key factor in emotion.

Further evidence that reward value is represented in the orbitofrontal cortex is that in visual discrimination reversal experiments, neurons in the macaque orbitofrontal cortex reverse the visual stimulus to which they respond in as little as one trial when the reward vs punishment taste received as an outcome for the choice reverses (Thorpe et al. 1983 ; Rolls et al. 1996 ). This is rule-based reversal, in that after a previously rewarded visual stimulus is no longer rewarded, the macaques choose the other stimulus on the very next trial, even though its previous reward association was with punishment, as illustrated in Fig.  10 c which also illustrates a non-reward neuron active at the time of the reversal (Thorpe et al. 1983 ). (Non-reward refers here to not obtaining an expected reward.) This capability requires a rule to be held in memory and reversed by non-reward (Deco and Rolls 2005c ; Rolls and Deco 2016 ) (which is described as model-based), is very appropriate for primates including humans who in social situations may benefit from being very responsive to non-reward vs reward signals, and may not occur in rodents (Rolls 2019b , 2021b ; Hervig et al. 2020 ). The macaque orbitofrontal cortex also contains visual neurons that reflect face expression and face identity (both necessary to decode the reward/punishment value of an individual) (Thorpe et al. 1983 ; Rolls et al. 2006 ), and also social categories such as young faces (Barat et al. 2018 ). Information about face expression and movements important in social communication probably reaches the orbitofrontal cortex from neurons we discovered in the cortex in the macaque superior temporal sulcus that respond to these stimuli (Hasselmo et al. 1989a , b ), in what is a region now accepted as important for decoding visual stimuli relevant to social behaviour (Pitcher et al. 2019 ; Pitcher and Ungerleider 2021 ). Economic value is represented in the orbitofrontal cortex, in that for example single neurons reflect the trade-off between the quality of a reward and the amount that is available (Padoa-Schioppa and Cai 2011 ; Padoa-Schioppa and Conen 2017 ). These investigations show that some orbitofrontal cortex neurons respond to outcome value (e.g. the taste of food), and others to expected value (of future rewards). The expected value neurons are not positive reward prediction error neurons, for they keep responding to the expected reward even when there is no prediction error (Rolls 2021b ). Consistent with this, lesions of the macaque medial orbitofrontal cortex areas 13 and 11 make the animals less sensitive to reward value, as tested in devaluation experiments in which the animal is fed to satiety (Rudebeck et al. 2017 ). Neurotoxic lesions of the macaque orbitofrontal cortex produce effects that are difficult to interpret (Murray and Rudebeck 2018 ; Sallet et al. 2020 ), perhaps because these lesions have not always been based on knowledge of where neurons and activations related to reversal learning are found, and the difficulty of disabling all such orbitofrontal cortex neurons. Further, the tasks used in these studies are sometimes complicated, whereas a prototypical task is deterministic one-trial Go-NoGo rule-based visual discrimination reversal between the a visual stimulus and taste (Thorpe et al. 1983 ; Rolls et al. 1996 ), or in humans between a visual stimulus and winning or losing points or money (Rolls et al. 2020c ). Rodents appear not to be able to perform this one-trial rule-based visual-reward reversal task (Hervig et al. 2020 ).

Neuroimaging experiments in humans produce consistent evidence (De Araujo et al. 2003a ; Kringelbach et al. 2003 ; Kringelbach and Rolls 2003 ; Grabenhorst and Rolls 2008 ; Grabenhorst et al. 2008a ), and allow the types of reward to be extended to include monetary reward (O'Doherty et al. 2001 ; Xie et al. 2021 ), face expressions (Kringelbach and Rolls 2003 ), and face beauty (O'Doherty et al. 2003 ). Further, in humans activations of the medial orbitofrontal cortex are linearly related to the subjective (conscious) pleasantness of stimuli (Grabenhorst and Rolls 2011 ; Rolls 2019b ). These reward-related effects are found for odors (Rolls et al. 2003b ), flavor (De Araujo et al. 2003a ; Kringelbach et al. 2003 ), pleasant touch (Rolls et al. 2003c ; McCabe et al. 2008 ), monetary reward (O'Doherty et al. 2001 ; Xie et al. 2021 ), and amphetamine (Völlm et al. 2004 ). A recent study with 1140 participants emphasizes these points, by showing that the medial orbitofrontal cortex is activated by reward [such as winning money or candies), and that the lateral orbitofrontal cortex is activated by not winning (Fig.  9 (Xie et al. 2021 )].

(Modified from Xie et al. 2021 .)

The lateral orbitofrontal cortex is activated by not winning, and the medial orbitofrontal cortex by winning, in the monetary incentive delay task. The lateral orbitofrontal cortex region in which activations increased towards no reward (No Win) in the monetary incentive delay task are shown in red in 1140 participants at age 19 and in 1877 overlapping participants at age 14. The conditions were Large win (10 points) to Small Win (2 points) to No Win (0 points) (at 19; sweets were used at 14). The medial orbitofrontal cortex region in which activations increased with increasing reward from No Win to Small Win to High Win) is shown in green. The parameter estimates are shown from the activations for the participants (mean ± sem) with the lateral orbitofrontal in red and medial orbitofrontal cortex in green. The interaction term showing the sensitivity of the medial orbitofrontal cortex to reward and the lateral orbitofrontal cortex to non-reward was significant at p  = 10 –50 at age 19 and p  < 10 –72 at age 14. In a subgroup with depressive symptoms as shown by the Adolescent Depression Rating Scale, it was further found that there was a greater activation to the No Win condition in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex; and the medial orbitofrontal cortex was less sensitive to the differences in reward value.

Further, humans with orbitofrontal cortex lesions may also be less sensitive to reward, as shown by their reduced subjective emotional feelings (Hornak et al. 2003 ), and their difficulty in identifying face and voice emotion-related expressions, which are important for emotional and social behaviour (Hornak et al. 1996 , 2003 ).

The human lateral orbitofrontal cortex represents punishers and non-reward, and is involved in changing emotional behaviour

The macaque orbitofrontal cortex has neurons that respond when an expected reward is not received (Thorpe et al. 1983 ), and these have been termed non-reward neurons (Rolls 2014b , 2019b , d , 2021b ) (see example in Fig.  10 c). They can be described as negative reward prediction error neurons, in that they respond when a reward outcome is less than was expected (Rolls 2019b ). These neurons do not respond to expected punishers [e.g. the discriminative stimulus for saline in Fig.  10 c (Thorpe et al. 1983 )], but other neurons do respond to expected punishers (Rolls et al. 1996 ), showing that non-reward and punishment are represented by different neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex. The finding of non-reward neurons is robust, in that 18/494 (3.6%) of the neurons in the original study responded to non-reward (Thorpe et al. 1983 ), consistent results were found in different tasks in a complementary study (10/140 non-reward neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex or 7.1%) (Rosenkilde et al. 1981 ), and an fMRI study has shown that the macaque lateral orbitofrontal cortex is activated when an expected reward is not obtained during reversal (Chau et al. 2015 ) (Fig.  10 d). The hypothesis is that the non-reward responsiveness of these neurons is computed in the orbitofrontal cortex, because this is the first brain region in primates at which expected value and outcome value are represented, as summarized in Fig.  3 and with the evidence set out fully by Rolls ( 2019b , 2021b , 2023d ), and these two signals are those required to compute non-reward, that is, that reward outcome is less than the expected value.

a Evidence that the human lateral orbitofrontal cortex is activated by non-reward. Activation of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex in a visual discrimination reversal task on reversal trials, when a face was selected but the expected reward was not obtained, indicating that the subject should select the other face in future to obtain the reward. a A ventral view of the human brain with indication of the location of the two coronal slices ( b , c ) and the transverse slice ( d ). The activations with the red circle in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC, peaks at [42 42 − 8] and [− 46 30 − 8]) show the activation on reversal trials compared to the non-reversal trials. For comparison, the activations with the blue circle show the fusiform face area produced just by face expressions, not by reversal, which are also indicated in the coronal slice in c . b A coronal slice showing the activation in the right orbitofrontal cortex on reversal trials. Activation is also shown in the supracallosal anterior cingulate region (Cingulate, green circle) that is also known to be activated by many punishing, unpleasant, stimuli (see Grabenhorst and Rolls ( 2011 )). (From NeuroImage 20 (2), Morten L. Kringelbach and Edmund T. Rolls, Neural correlates of rapid reversal learning in a simple model of human social interaction, pp. 1371–83, Copyright, 2003, with permission from Elsevier.). b Activations in the human lateral orbitofrontal cortex are related to a signal to change behaviour in the stop-signal task. In the task, a left or right arrow on a screen indicates which button to touch. However on some trials, an up-arrow then appears, and the participant must change the behaviour, and stop the response. There is a larger response on trials on which the participant successfully changes the behaviour and stops the response, as shown by the contrast stop-success–stop-failure, in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex in a region including the lateral orbitofrontal cortex, with peak at [− 42 50 − 2] indicated by the cross-hairs, measured in 1709 participants. There were corresponding effects in the right lateral orbitofrontal cortex [42 52 − 4]. Some activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in an area implicated in attention is also shown. (After Deng, Rolls et al. 2016). c Non-reward error-related neurons maintain their firing after non-reward is obtained. Responses of an orbitofrontal cortex neuron that responded only when the macaque licked to a visual stimulus during reversal, expecting to obtain fruit juice reward, but actually obtained the taste of aversive saline because it was the first trial of reversal (trials 3, 6, and 13). Each vertical line represents an action potential; each L indicates a lick response in the Go-NoGo visual discrimination task. The visual stimulus was shown at time 0 for 1 s. The neuron did not respond on most reward (R) or saline (S) trials, but did respond on the trials marked S x, which were the first or second trials after a reversal of the visual discrimination on which the monkey licked to obtain reward, but actually obtained saline because the task had been reversed. The two times at which the reward contingencies were reversed are indicated. After responding to non-reward, when the expected reward was not obtained, the neuron fired for many seconds, and was sometimes still firing at the start of the next trial. It is notable that after an expected reward was not obtained due to a reversal contingency being applied, on the very next trial the macaque selected the previously non-rewarded stimulus. This shows that rapid reversal can be performed by a non-associative process, and must be rule-based. (After Thorpe et al. 1983 .) d Bold signal in the macaque lateral orbitofrontal related to win-stay/lose-shift performance, that is, to reward reversal performance. (After Chau et al 2015 )

Corresponding to this, the human lateral orbitofrontal cortex is activated when a reward is not obtained in a visual discrimination reversal task (Kringelbach and Rolls 2003 ) (Fig.  10 a), and when money is not received in a monetary reward task (O'Doherty et al. 2001 ; Xie et al. 2021 ), and in a one-trial reward reversal task (Rolls et al. 2020c ). Further, the human lateral orbitofrontal cortex is also activated by punishing, subjectively unpleasant, stimuli (Grabenhorst and Rolls 2011 ; Rolls 2019b , d , 2021b ). Examples include unpleasant odors (Rolls et al. 2003b ), pain (Rolls et al. 2003c ), losing money (O'Doherty et al. 2001 ), and receiving an angry face expression indicating that behaviour should change in a reversal (Kringelbach and Rolls 2003 ). The human right lateral orbitofrontal cortex/inferior frontal gyrus is also activated when behavioural correction is required in the stop-signal task (Fig.  10 b) (Aron et al. 2014 ; Deng et al. 2017 ). These discoveries show that one way in which the orbitofrontal cortex is involved in decision-making and emotion is by representing rewards, punishers, and errors made during decision-making. This is supported by the problems that orbitofrontal cortex damage produces in decision-making, which including failing to respond correctly to non-reward, as described next.

Consistent with this neurophysiological and neuroimaging evidence, lesions of the orbitofrontal cortex can impair reward reversal learning during decision-making in humans (Rolls et al. 1994 ; Hornak et al. 2004 ; Fellows 2011 ), who continue responding to the previously rewarded, now non-rewarded, stimulus. The change in contingency between the stimulus and reward vs non-reward is not processed correctly. In macaques, damage to the lateral orbitofrontal cortex impairs reversal and extinction (Butter 1969 ; Iversen and Mishkin 1970 ), and damage of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex area 12 extending around the inferior convexity impaired the ability to make choices based on whether reward vs non-reward had been received (Rudebeck et al. 2017 ; Murray and Rudebeck 2018 ). Further evidence that the lateral orbitofrontal cortex is involved in learning contingencies between stimuli and reward vs non-reward is that in humans, lateral orbitofrontal cortex damage impaired this type of 'credit assignment' (Noonan et al. 2017 ). This type of flexibility of behaviour is important in primate including human social interactions, and indeed many of the effects of damage to the human orbitofrontal cortex, including the difficulty in responding appropriately to the changed circumstances of the patient, and the changed personality including impulsivity, can be related to these impairments in responding to non-reward and punishers (Rolls et al. 1994 ; Berlin and Rolls 2004 ; Berlin et al. 2004 ; Hornak et al. 2004 ; Rolls 2018 , 2019b , d , 2021c , b ; Rolls et al. 2020b ).

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex and reward-related decision-making

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC, which can be taken to include the gyrus rectus area 14 and parts of 10m and 10r, Fig.  4 ) receives inputs from the orbitofrontal cortex, and has distinct connectivity (with strong functional connectivity with the superior medial prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, and angular gyrus Du et al. 2020 ; Rolls et al. 2023d )). The vmPFC has long been implicated in reward-related decision-making (Bechara et al. 1997 , 2005 ; Glascher et al. 2012 ), this region is activated during decision-making contrasted with reward valuation (Grabenhorst et al. 2008b ; Rolls and Grabenhorst 2008 ), and it has the signature of a decision-making region of increasing its activation in proportion to the difference in the decision variables, which correlates with decision confidence (Rolls et al. 2010a , b ; Rolls 2019b , 2021b ). Consistently, in macaques single neurons in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex rapidly come to signal the value of the chosen offer, suggesting that this vmPFC system serves to produce a choice (Strait et al. 2014 ), also consistent with the attractor model of decision-making (Rolls and Deco 2010 ; Rolls et al. 2010a , b ; Rolls 2014b , 2016c , 2021b ).

The attractor model of decision-making is a neuronal network with associatively modifiable recurrent collateral synapses between the neurons of the type prototypical of the cerebral cortex (Wang 2002 ; Rolls and Deco 2010 ; Rolls 2021b ) (see Fig.  11 ). The decision variables (the inputs between which a decision needs to be made) are applied simultaneously, and the network, after previous training with these decision variables, reaches a state where the population of neurons representing one of the decision variables has a high firing rate (Rolls and Deco 2010 ; Deco et al. 2013 ; Rolls 2016c , 2021b ). There is noise or randomness in this model of decision-making that is related to the approximately Poisson distributed firing times of neurons for a given mean firing rate. This approach to decision-making (see also Rolls et al. 2010a , b ), illustrated in Fig.  11 , provides a much more biologically well-founded model with integrate-and-fire neurons coupled in an attractor network than accumulator models of decision-making in which noise is added to two variables to see which one wins (Deco et al. 2013 ; Shadlen and Kiani 2013 ).

a Attractor or autoassociation single network architecture for decision-making. The evidence for decision 1 is applied via the λ 1 inputs, and for decision 2 via the λ 2 inputs. The synaptic weights have been associatively modified during training in the presence of λ 1 and at a different time of λ 2 . When λ 1 and λ 2 are applied, each attractor competes through the inhibitory interneurons (not shown), until one wins the competition, and the network falls into one of the high firing rate attractors that represents the decision. The noise in the network caused by the random spiking of the neurons means that on some trials, for given inputs, the neurons in the decision 1 (D1) attractor are more likely to win, and on other trials the neurons in the decision 2 (D2) attractor are more likely to win. This makes the decision-making probabilistic, for, as shown in c , the noise influences when the system will jump out of the spontaneous firing stable (low energy) state S, and whether it jumps into the high firing state for decision 1 (D1) or decision 2 (D2). b The architecture of the integrate-and-fire network used to model decision-making (see text). c A multistable “effective energy landscape” for decision-making with stable states shown as low “potential” basins. Even when the inputs are being applied to the network, the spontaneous firing rate state is stable, and noise provokes transitions into the high firing rate decision attractor state D1 or D2 (see Rolls and Deco 2010 ; Rolls et al. 2010a , b ; Rolls 2021b )

A key conceptual point can be made here about reward-related decision-making, which will typically be between two or more rewards. The inputs (decision variables, λ 1 and λ 2 in Fig.  11 ) that drive each of the reward attractor neuronal populations in Fig.  11 , need to produce as output the identity of the reward signal, so that behaviour can be directed towards making these goal neurons fire. Effectively, the two sets of output neurons in Fig.  11 , each driven by λ 1 and λ 2 in Fig.  11 , are the reward neurons, competing with each other through the inhibitory interneurons. This results in the output of the decision-making network being the identity of the reward that won, and that can be used as the goal for behaviour. It is not useful to have a common currency for reward, if common currency means some general reward representation (Cabanac 1992 ). Instead, the output of the decision-making needs to be the specific reward that won in the computation, and the fact that this is an attractor network provides a way to maintain the firing of the winning neurons so that they can continue firing to act as the goal for the motivated behaviour (Rolls 2014b , 2021b ). To place this in the context of emotion: each pleasure associated with each type of reward (with examples in Table 1 ) must be different, and feel different, so that we know that we have been successful in obtaining the correct reward that was being sought. Of course, having different rewards on the same scale of magnitude is useful, so that the decision-making network weights the two inputs on the same reward value scale (Grabenhorst et al. 2010a ).

The amygdala

The amygdala in rodents, in which the orbitofrontal cortex is much less developed than in primates (Passingham and Wise 2012 ; Passingham 2021 ), has been implicated in emotion-related responses such a conditioned autonomic responses, conditioned freezing behavior, cortical arousal, and learned incentive effects in fear conditioning in which an auditory tone is associated with foot shock (LeDoux 1995 , 1996 ; Quirk et al. 1996 ). Synaptic modification in the amygdala is implicated in the learning of these types of response (Davis 1992 , 1994 ; Davis et al. 1995 ; Rogan et al. 1997 ; LeDoux 2000a , b ; Davis 2011 ). In macaques, bilateral lesions of the amygdala impair the learning of fear-potentiated startle to a visual cue (Antoniadis et al. 2009 ). In macaques, connections reach the lateral and basal amygdala from the inferior temporal visual cortex, the superior temporal auditory cortex, the cortex of the temporal pole, and the cortex in the superior temporal sulcus (Van Hoesen 1981 ; Amaral et al. 1992 ; Ghashghaei and Barbas 2002 ; Freese and Amaral 2009 ). The visual and auditory inputs from these cortical regions may be associated in the primate amygdala with primary reinforcers such as taste from the anterior insular primary taste cortex, and with touch and nociceptive input from the insular somatosensory cortex (Leonard et al. 1985 ; Rolls 2000c , 2014b ; Kadohisa et al. 2005a , b ; Wilson and Rolls 2005 ; Rolls et al. 2018 ). The outputs of the primate amygdala include connections to the hypothalamus, autonomic centres in the medulla oblongata, and ventral striatum (Heimer et al. 1982 ; Amaral et al. 1992 ; Freese and Amaral 2009 ; Rolls 2014b ). In addition, the monkey amygdala has direct projections back to many areas of the temporal, orbitofrontal, and insular cortices from which it receives inputs (Amaral et al. 1992 ), including even V1 (Freese and Amaral 2005 ), and to the hippocampal system (Stefanacci et al. 1996 ). In addition, different fMRI responses of the macaque inferior temporal cortex to different face expressions were reduced after amygdala lesions (Hadj-Bouziane et al. 2012 ).

Although the primate amygdala thus has some of the same connections as the orbitofrontal cortex in monkeys (see Fig.  3 ) (Rolls 2014b , 2023d ), in humans it has much less connectivity with the neocortex than the orbitofrontal cortex (Fig.  12 ) (Rolls et al. 2023a ). In humans, the amygdala receives primarily from auditory cortex A5, and semantic regions in the superior temporal gyrus and temporal pole regions; the piriform (olfactory) cortex; the lateral orbitofrontal cortex 47m; somatosensory cortex; the memory-related hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex; and from the cholinergic nucleus basalis (Rolls et al. 2023a ). The amygdala has effective connectivity to the hippocampus, entorhinal and perirhinal cortex; to the temporal pole; and to the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (Fig.  12 ) (Rolls et al. 2023a ). Given the paucity of amygdalo-neocortical effective connectivity in humans, and the richness of its subcortical outputs in rodents (Quirk et al. 1996 ) and in humans (Klein-Flugge et al. 2022 ), it is proposed that the human amygdala is involved primarily in autonomic and conditioned responses via brainstem connectivity, rather than in reported (declarative) emotion (Rolls et al. 2023a ).

Effective connectivity of the human amygdala: schematic diagram. The width of the arrows reflects the effective connectivity with the size of the arrowheads reflecting the connectivity in each direction. The connectivity from most cortical areas (anterior temporal lobe STGa and TGd, STSda and A5, and pyriform olfactory cortex) is only towards the amygdala. The connectivity with the hippocampal system (Hipp, entorhinal cortex EC, and perirhinal cortex PeEc) is in both directions. The sulci have been opened sufficiently to show the cortical regions in the sulci. The cortical regions are defined in the Human Connectome Project Multi-Modal Parcellation atlas (Glasser et al. 2016a ; Huang et al. 2022 ). The abbreviations are provided elsewhere (Huang et al. 2022 ; Rolls et al. 2023a )

This new evidence about the connectivity of the human amygdala is consistent with the evidence that the amygdala is an evolutionarily old brain region, and appears to be overshadowed by the orbitofrontal cortex in humans (Rolls 2014b , 2019b , 2021b , c , 2023d ; Rolls et al. 2020b ). For example, the effects of damage to the human amygdala on emotion and emotional experience are much more subtle (Adolphs et al. 2005 ; Whalen and Phelps 2009 ; Delgado et al. 2011 ; Feinstein et al. 2011 ; Kennedy and Adolphs 2011 ; Damasio et al. 2013 ; LeDoux and Pine 2016 ; LeDoux et al. 2018 ; Rolls et al. 2023a ) than of damage to the orbitofrontal cortex (Rolls et al. 1994 ; Hornak et al. 1996 , 2003 , 2004 ; Camille et al. 2011 ; Fellows 2011 ; Rolls 2019b ). Indeed, LeDoux and colleagues have emphasized the evidence that the human amygdala is rather little involved in subjective emotional experience (LeDoux 2012 ; LeDoux and Pine 2016 ; LeDoux and Brown 2017 ; LeDoux et al. 2018 ; LeDoux 2020 ; Taschereau-Dumouchel et al. 2022 ). That is in strong contrast to the orbitofrontal cortex, which is involved in subjective emotional experience, as shown by the evidence just cited. LeDoux’s conundrum is: if not the amygdala for subjective emotional experience, then what (LeDoux 2020 )? My answer is: the human orbitofrontal cortex is the key brain region involved in subjective emotion (Rolls 2014b , 2019b , 2023d ; Rolls et al. 2023a ). Further, consistent with the poor rapid reversal learning found by amygdala neurons (Sanghera et al. 1979 ; Rolls 2014b , 2021b ) compared to orbitofrontal cortex neurons, it has been found that neuronal responses to reinforcement predictive cues in classical conditioning update more rapidly in the macaque orbitofrontal cortex than amygdala, and activity in the orbitofrontal cortex but not the amygdala was modulated by recent reward history (Saez et al. 2017 ).

The problem of over-interpreting the role of the amygdala in emotion was that rodent studies showed that some responses such as classically conditioned autonomic responses and freezing are elicited by the amygdala with its outputs to brainstem systems, and it was inferred that therefore the amygdala is involved in emotion in the way that it is experienced by humans (LeDoux 1995 , 1996 , 2000a ; Quirk et al. 1996 ). It turned out later that humans with amygdala damage had similar response-related changes, but little impairment in subjectively experienced and reported emotions (Whalen and Phelps 2009 ; Delgado et al. 2011 ; Damasio et al. 2013 ; LeDoux and Pine 2016 ; LeDoux et al. 2018 ; Rolls et al. 2023a ). It is important therefore it is argued not to infer subjective reported emotional states in humans from responses such as conditioned autonomic and freezing responses (Rolls et al. 2023a ). This dissociation of autonomic response systems from subjectively felt and reported emotions in humans is further evidence against the James-Lange theory of emotion and the related somatic marker hypothesis (Damasio 1994 , 1996 ) (see Rolls ( 2014b ) and the Appendix).

Although as described further below the amygdala may be overshadowed in humans by the orbitofrontal cortex, which has connectivity with the amygdala and that could influence amygdala neuronal responses, it is of interest that in macaques, some amygdala neurons not only respond to faces (Leonard et al. 1985 ), but also respond to socially relevant stimuli when macaques interact socially (Grabenhorst et al. 2019 ; Grabenhorst and Schultz 2021 ).

The anterior cingulate cortex

Based on cytoarchitecture, connectivity and function, the anterior cingulate cortex can be divided into a pregenual part (regions s32, a24, p24, p32, and d32 in Fig.  5 ) that is activated by rewards, and a supracallosal or dorsal part (regions a32pr, a24pr, 33pr, p32pr and p23pr in Fig.  6 ) activated by punishers and non-reward (Grabenhorst and Rolls 2011 ; Rolls et al. 2023d ), with further background provided in Vogt ( 2009 , 2019 ).

The human pregenual cingulate cortex is activated by many of the same rewards as the medial orbitofrontal cortex; and the supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex is activated by many of the same punishers, and by non-reward during reward reversal, as the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (Grabenhorst and Rolls 2011 ; Rolls 2019a , 2021b ; Rolls et al. 2020c ) (see e.g. Fig.  10 a). Thus value representations reach the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). To provide examples, pain activates an area typically 10–30 mm posterior to and above the most anterior (i.e. pregenual) part of the ACC, in what can be described as the supracallosal (or dorsal) anterior cingulate cortex (Vogt et al. 1996 ; Vogt and Sikes 2000 ; Rolls et al. 2003c ). Pleasant touch activated the pregenual cingulate cortex (Rolls et al. 2003c ; McCabe et al. 2008 ). Pleasant temperature applied to the hand also produces a linear activation proportional to its subjective pleasantness in the pregenual cingulate cortex (Rolls et al. 2008b ). Somatosensory oral stimuli including viscosity and the pleasantness of the texture of fat in the mouth also activate the pregenual cingulate cortex (De Araujo and Rolls 2004 ; Grabenhorst et al. 2010b ). Pleasant (sweet) taste also activates the pregenual cingulate cortex (de Araujo et al. 2003b ; De Araujo and Rolls 2004 ) where attention to pleasantness (Grabenhorst and Rolls 2008 ) and cognition (Grabenhorst et al. 2008a ) also enhances activations. Pleasant odours also activate the pregenual cingulate cortex (Rolls et al. 2003b ), and these activations are modulated by word-level top-down cognitive inputs that influence the pleasantness of odours (De Araujo et al. 2005 ), and also by top-down inputs that produce selective attention to odour pleasantness (Rolls et al. 2008a ). Unpleasant odours activate the supracallosal ACC (Rolls et al. 2003b ). The pregenual cingulate cortex is also activated by the ‘taste’ of water when it is rewarding because of thirst (de Araujo et al. 2003c ), by the flavour of food (Kringelbach et al. 2003 ), and by monetary reward (O'Doherty et al. 2001 ). Moreover, the outcome value and the expected value of monetary reward activate the pregenual cingulate cortex (Rolls et al. 2008c ). Grabenhorst and Rolls ( 2011 ) show the brain sites of some of these activations.

In these investigations, the anterior cingulate activations were linearly related to the subjective pleasantness or unpleasantness of the stimuli, providing evidence that the anterior cingulate cortex represents value on a continuous scale, which is characteristic of what is found in the sending region, the orbitofrontal cortex (Rolls 2019a , b , d , 2021b ). Moreover, evidence was found that there is a common scale of value in the pregenual cingulate cortex, with the affective pleasantness of taste stimuli and of thermal stimuli delivered to the hand producing identically scaled BOLD activations (Grabenhorst et al. 2010a ).

We now consider how these value representations are used in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). We start with the evidence that primate orbitofrontal cortex neurons represent value, but not actions or behavioural responses (Thorpe et al. 1983 ; Padoa-Schioppa and Assad 2006 ; Grattan and Glimcher 2014 ; Rolls 2019b , d , 2023d ), and therefore project value-related information but not action information to the anterior cingulate cortex. In contrast, there is evidence that the anterior cingulate cortex is involved in associating potential actions with the value of their outcomes, in order to select an action that will lead to the desired goal (Walton et al. 2003 ; Rushworth et al. 2007 , 2011 ; Grabenhorst and Rolls 2011 ; Kolling et al. 2016 ; Morris et al. 2022 ). Indeed, consistent with its strong connections to motor areas (Morecraft and Tanji 2009 ), lesions of the ACC impair reward-guided action selection (Kennerley et al. 2006 ; Rudebeck et al. 2008 ), in humans the ACC is activated when information about outcomes guides choices (Walton et al. 2004 ; Morris et al. 2022 ), and neurons in the ACC encode information about actions, outcomes, and prediction errors for actions (Matsumoto et al. 2007 ; Luk and Wallis 2009 ; Kolling et al. 2016 ). For example, if information about three possible outcomes (different juice rewards) had to be associated with two different actions, information about both specific actions and specific outcomes was encoded by neurons in the ACC (Luk and Wallis 2009 ).

Given the evidence described above, and the connectivity shown in Fig.  7 (Rolls et al. 2023d ), it is now proposed that the part of the anterior cingulate cortex involved in action–outcome learning is the supracallosal (dorsal) part, because this has effective connectivity to premotor cortical areas involved in actions with the body, including the mid-cingulate cortex. The route for value input to reach the supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex appears to be from the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex and medial orbitofrontal cortex (Fig.  7 (Rolls et al. 2023d )). The findings that aversive stimuli including pain activate the supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex may relate to the fact that actions to escape from or avoid aversive, unpleasant, stimuli often involve actions of the body, such as those involved in fight, flight or limb withdrawal (Rolls et al. 2023d ). The supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex was also implicated in human action–outcome learning in a learning theory-based analysis (Morris et al. 2022 ).

Further, given the evidence described above, and the connectivity shown in Fig.  7 (Rolls et al. 2023d ), it is now proposed that the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, which receives from the medial orbitofrontal cortex and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and connects to the hippocampal system (Rolls et al. 2023d ), in part via the memory-related parts of the posterior cingulate cortex (Rolls et al. 2023i ), provides a route for affective value to be incorporated into hippocampal system episodic memory (Rolls 2022b , 2023a , c ), and also to provide the information about goals that is required for navigation (Rolls 2022b , 2023c ; Rolls et al. 2023d ). Indeed, it has been pointed out that navigation typically involves multistep routes to reach a goal (Rolls 2021d , 2023c ; Rolls et al. 2023d ).

Further, the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex has connectivity to the septal region which has cholinergic neurons that project to the hippocampus (Fig.  7 ) (Rolls et al. 2023d ), and this may contribute (Rolls 2022b ) to the memory problems that can be present in humans with damage to the anterior cingulate cortex and vmPFC region (Bonnici and Maguire 2018 ; McCormick et al. 2018 ; Ciaramelli et al. 2019 ).

Putting all this evidence together, it appears that the anterior cingulate cortex is a key brain region in emotion, for it provides part of the route via which actions can be learned and guided by the reward/punishment outcomes that are received via the orbitofrontal cortex after a goal-directed action is performed. When instrumental learning under control of the goal was referred to previously, this is the brain region that appears to be involved in this aspect of emotion. This capability requires a computational ability to remember previous actions, which could be implemented by attractor networks in the anterior cingulate cortex, and then to associate the remembered actions with the reward or punishment outcome. However, an interesting new extension to this concept is that while the supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex is implicated in body responses such as an action with the limbs to obtain a goal or avoid a punisher, or, fight, or flight, the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex has outputs to the hippocampal system to enable actions such as navigation to obtain goals, as well as to allow reward information to be incorporated into hippocampal episodic memory, for possible future use in finding goals again (Rolls 2021d , 2022b , 2023c ; Rolls et al. 2023d ).

Consistent with these concepts that the anterior cingulate cortex is involved in emotion, damage to the human anterior cingulate cortex can produce emotional changes and problems in identifying face and voice emotional expressions (Hornak et al. 2003 ). Also consistent with inputs from reward systems in the orbitofrontal cortex driving actions via the anterior cingulate cortex, the functional connectivity between the medial orbitofrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex is higher in sensation-seekers (Wan et al. 2020 ), in risk-takers (Rolls et al. 2022c ), and in those with a high BMI that may relate to being over-stimulated by the sensory properties of food (Rolls et al. 2023g ).

The subgenual cingulate cortex (area 25), and also the orbitofrontal cortex, may link rewards and punishers to autonomic output (Critchley and Harrison 2013 ; Rolls 2016d , 2019a ; Quadt et al. 2018 , 2022 ). Although it has been argued by Rolls ( 2014b ) that the autonomic system is not normally in a circuit through which behavioural responses are produced (i.e., against the James-Lange and related somatic theories of emotion (Damasio 1996 ), see Appendix), there may be some influence from effects produced through the endocrine system (and possibly the autonomic system, through which some endocrine responses are controlled) on behaviour (Quadt et al. 2018 , 2022 ), or on the dual emotional and rational systems (" A reasoning, rational, route to action ") that control behaviour.

A comparison of my theory of emotion with other theories of emotion is provided in the Appendix, but to maintain the continuity of the argument presented in this paper, I now move to relate my theory of emotion to my theory of motivation.

A theory of motivation, and brain systems that implement motivation

I now describe Rolls’ theory of motivation, which complements and utilises many of the same brain systems, as Rolls’ theory of emotion described above.

The outline of a theory of motivation

First, the essence of Rolls’ approach to motivation is described. My definition of motivation is that motivational states are states that are present when rewards and punishers, that is, instrumental reinforcers, are the goals for action (Rolls 2014b , 2016f ). A reward is anything for which an animal (and this includes humans) will work. A punisher is anything that an animal will work to escape or avoid, or that will suppress actions on which it is contingent (Rolls 2014b ). The force of ‘instrumental’ in this definition is that the motivational states are seen as defining the goals for arbitrary behavioural actions, made to obtain the instrumental reinforcer. This is very different from classical conditioning, in which a response, typically autonomic, may be elicited to a stimulus without any need for an intervening state (Rolls 2014b ). The motivational states modulate the reward value of instrumental reinforcers that have particular functions (Rolls 2014b , 2016f ). It is important in this definition that the reward values of potential goals are controlled appropriately, with for example factors such as plasma glucose, gastric distension and absorbed food acting to control the reward value of food (Rolls 2016a ), and cellular and extracellular dehydration modulating the reward value of water (Rolls et al. 1980a , b ; Rolls and Rolls 1981 ).

An example of a motivational state might thus be a hunger state in which the animal will perform goal-directed actions to obtain the reinforcer or goal. Another example is that the omission or termination of a reward (‘extinction’ and ‘time out’ respectively) can produce a motivational state of frustration, in which the probability of the action may become reduced if no action is possible to regain the reward, or may increase if further motivated attempts are likely to lead to the reward (Rolls 2014b , 2016f ).

These examples show that the reinforcement contingency as well as the particular reinforcer or goal object (e.g. food, water, aversive stimulation) lead to particular motivational states. The types of motivational state produced by different reinforcement contingencies are illustrated in Fig.  13 . The diagram summarizes motivational states that might arise for one reinforcer as a result of different contingencies. Every separate reinforcer has the potential to operate according to contingencies such as these. Each different reinforcer will produce different motivational states, but the contingencies will operate as shown to produce different specific motivational states for each different reinforcer. Thus hunger might be present when the appetite is for the goal object of food, and thirst when the appetite is for the goal object of water. Definitions of reinforcers, and of the contingencies with which they operate, are elaborated by Rolls ( 2014b ).

Some of the motivational states associated with different reinforcement contingencies are indicated. Intensity increases away from the centre of the diagram, on a continuous scale. The classification scheme shows how different motivational states created by the different reinforcement contingencies consist of being in a state that leads to (1) performing an action to obtain a reward (S+), (2) performing an action to escape from or avoid a punisher (S−), (3) performing an action, or not, because of the omission of a reward ( S+ ) (extinction) or the termination of a reward (S+!) (time out), and (4) performing an action, or not, because of the omission of a punisher ( S− ) (avoidance) or the termination of a punisher (S−!) (escape). Note that the vertical axis describes motivational states associated with the delivery of a reward (up) or punisher (down). The horizontal axis describes motivational states associated with the non-delivery of an expected reward (left) or the non-delivery of an expected punisher (right). The diagram summarizes motivational states that might arise for one reinforcer as a result of different contingencies. Every separate reinforcer has the potential to operate according to contingencies such as these. Each different reinforcer will produce different motivational states, but the contingencies will operate as shown to produce different specific motivational states for each different reinforcer

We must be clear about the difference between motivation and emotion. According to Rolls’ theory of emotion described above, emotion is the state that results from having received, or not having received, the instrumental reinforcer, the goal object (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ). In contrast, motivation is the state when the instrumental reinforcer is being worked for, before the outcome stage, where the outcome is the delivery or not of the reinforcer. An important attribute of this theory of motivation and emotion is that the goal objects can be the same for motivation and emotion, simplifying the biological specification, with the difference being that motivation is the phase before the outcome, and emotion is the phase after the outcome. An additional property is that emotions, states occurring after the delivery or not of the reinforcer, can be motivating (Rolls 2014b ). A good example is that if an expected reward is not obtained, then the frustrative non-reward can be motivating, and make the animal (including humans) work harder to obtain the goal object (Rolls 2014b ).

As described above for emotion, reinforcers, that is rewards or punishers, may be unlearned or primary reinforcers , or learned, that is secondary reinforcers. An example of a primary reinforcer is pain, which is innately a punisher. The first time a painful stimulus is ever delivered, it will be escaped from, and no learning that it is aversive is needed. Similarly, the first time a sweet taste is delivered, it acts as a positive reinforcer, so it is a primary positive reinforcer or reward. Other stimuli become reinforcing by learning, because of their association with primary reinforcers, thereby becoming ‘ secondary reinforcers ’. For example, the sight of a food that regularly precedes the flavour of the food can rapidly become a secondary reinforcer.

Some examples of primary reinforcers are provided in Table 1 . All of the primary reinforcers or goal objects can elicit different, specific, motivational states. As these are primary reinforcers, they are likely to be gene-specified.

Motivational states are states that modulate the reward or punishment value of instrumental reinforcers, and are different from the mechanisms involved in taxes, approach responses, classical conditioning, and stimulus–response habits

A simple design principle is to incorporate mechanisms for taxes into the design of organisms. Taxes consist at their simplest of orientation towards stimuli in the environment, for example the bending of a plant towards light that results in maximum light collection by its photosynthetic surfaces. When just turning rather than locomotion is possible, such responses are called tropisms. With locomotion possible, as in animals, taxes include movements toward sources of nutrient, and movements away from hazards such as very high temperatures. The design principle here is that animals have, through a process of natural selection, built receptors for certain dimensions of the wide range of stimuli in the environment, and have linked these receptors to response mechanisms in such a way that the stimuli are approached or escaped from.

Habit or stimulus–response learning

In this second level of complexity, involving reinforcers, learning may occur. If an organism performs trial-and-error responses, and as the result of performing one particular response is more likely to obtain a reward, then the response may become linked by a learning process to that stimulus as a result of the reinforcement received. The reward is said to reinforce the response to that stimulus, and we have what is described as stimulus–response or habit learning. The reward acts as a positive reinforcer in that it increases the probability of a response on which it is made contingent. A punisher reduces the probability of a response on which it is made contingent. It should be noted that this is an operational definition, and that there is no implication that the punisher feels like anything in particular—the punisher just has, in the learning mechanism, to reduce the probability of responses followed by the punisher. Stimulus–response or habit learning is typically evident after over-training, and once habits are being executed, the behaviour becomes somewhat independent of the reward value of the goal, as shown in experiments in which the reward is devalued. This is described in more detail in the " Wanting vs liking and goal-directed motivational behaviour ". (Stimulus–response habit learning is quite different from action–outcome learning, in which actions are performed and learned to obtain a goal, and in which the value of the goal therefore influences the actions Cardinal et al. 2002 ; Rolls 2014b ).)

Once a behaviour becomes automated as a habit, aversive stimuli can be avoided with very little sign of an emotional state.

The dopamine system is implicated in providing the training signal for this type of habit learning implemented in the striatum (Rolls 2014b , 2021b , 2023d ; Schultz 2016a , c ).

Rewards and punishers: instrumental goals for action towards which motivation is directed

As soon as we have approach to stimuli at one end of a dimension (e.g. a source of nutrient) and away from stimuli at the other end of the dimension (in this case lack of nutrient), we can start to wonder when it is appropriate to introduce the terms ‘rewards’ and ‘punishers’ for the stimuli at the different ends of the dimension. By convention, if an animal’s response consists of a fixed response to obtain the stimulus (e.g. locomotion up a chemical gradient), we shall call this a taxis not a reward. If a fixed behavioural response or action pattern such as skeletomotor freezing and autonomic responses are elicited by a stimulus, they may be adaptive, but are essentially stimulus–response reflexes, with no need for an intervening motivational state, such as the representation of a goal to be reached. On the other hand, if an arbitrary operant action (an instrumental action) can be performed by the animal in order to approach the stimulus or goal, then we will call this rewarded behaviour, and the stimulus that the animal works to obtain a reward, the goal for the action, and the state of wanting and being willing to work for the goal a motivational state. The arbitrary operant response can be thought of as any arbitrary action that the animal will perform to obtain the stimulus. This criterion, of an arbitrary operant response, is often tested by bidirectionality. For example, if a rat can be trained to either raise its tail, or lower its tail, in order to obtain a piece of food, then we can be sure that there is no fixed relationship between the stimulus (e.g. the sight of food) and the response, as there is in a taxis. I, and a number of other authors (Teitelbaum 1974 ), reserve the term ‘motivated behaviour’ for that in which an arbitrary operant action, an instrumental action, will be performed to obtain a reward or to escape from or avoid a punisher. This is the action–outcome learning described above in which the anterior cingulate cortex is implicated. If this criterion is not met, and only a fixed response can be performed, then the term ‘drive’ can be used to describe the state of the animal when it will work to obtain or escape from the stimulus.

We can thus distinguish a first level of approach/avoidance mechanism complexity in a taxis, with a fixed response available for the stimulus, from a second level of complexity in which any arbitrary response (or action) can be performed, in which case we use the term reward when a stimulus is being approached, and punisher when the action is to escape from or avoid the stimulus. The motivational, intervening, state is one in which the animal will perform an arbitrary action to obtain a goal. Again, we should distinguish habit-related stimulus–response implemented instrumental behaviour, from action-outcome instrumental behaviour that is under the control of the goal.

The role of natural selection in this process is to guide animals to build sensory systems that will respond to dimensions of stimuli in the natural environment along which actions of the animals can lead to better survival to enable genes to be passed on to the next generation, which is what we mean by fitness. Fitness refers to the fitness of genes, but this must be measured by the effects that the genes have on the organism. The animals must be built by such natural selection to perform actions that will enable them to obtain more rewards, that is to work to obtain stimuli that will increase their fitness. Correspondingly, animals must be built to perform actions that will enable them to escape from, or avoid (when learning mechanisms are introduced), stimuli that will reduce their fitness. There are likely to be many dimensions of environmental stimuli along which actions of the animal can alter fitness. Each of these dimensions may be a separate reward-punisher dimension. An example of one of these dimensions might be food reward. It increases fitness to be able to sense nutrient need, to have sensors that respond to the taste of food, and to perform behavioural responses to obtain such reward stimuli when in that need or motivational state. Similarly, another dimension is water reward, in which the taste of water becomes rewarding when there is body-fluid depletion (Rolls 2005 ).

One aspect of the operation of these reward-punisher systems that these examples illustrate is that with very many reward-punisher dimensions for which actions may be performed, there is a need for a selection mechanism for actions performed to these different dimensions. In this sense, each specific reward and punisher is on a common scale (Grabenhorst et al. 2010a ) to facilitate the operation of action selection mechanisms. Evolution must set the magnitudes of each of the different reward systems so that each will be chosen for action in such a way as to maximize overall fitness. Food reward must be chosen as the aim for action if some nutrient depletion is present, but water reward as a target for action must be selected if current water depletion poses a greater threat to fitness than does the current degree of food depletion. This indicates that for a competitive selection process for rewards, each reward must be carefully calibrated in evolution to have the right value on a common scale for the selection process (but not converted into a common currency) (Rolls 2014b ). Other types of behaviour, such as sexual behaviour, must be performed sometimes, but probably less frequently, in order to maximize fitness (as measured by gene transmission into the next generation).

There are many processes that contribute to increasing the chances that a wide set of different environmental rewards will be chosen over a period of time, including not only need-related satiety mechanisms that reduce the rewards within a dimension (such as hunger signals described below), but also sensory-specific satiety mechanisms, which facilitate switching to another reward stimulus (sometimes within and sometimes outside of the same main dimension), and attraction to novel stimuli. Attraction to novel stimuli, i.e. finding novel stimuli rewarding, is one way that organisms are encouraged to explore the multidimensional space within which their genes are operating. The suggestion is that animals should be built to find somewhat novel stimuli rewarding, for this encourages them to explore new parts of the environment in which their genes might do better than others’ genes. Unless animals are built to find novelty somewhat rewarding, the multidimensional genetic space being explored by genes in the course of evolution might not find the appropriate environment in which they might do better than others’ genes (Rolls 2014b ). The primate orbitofrontal cortex contains neurons that respond to novel stimuli (Rolls et al. 2005 ).

Motivation, and instrumental, action-outcome, goal-directed, learning

When behaviour is under control of the goal, the reward or punisher, then we call this motivated behaviour. A test of whether the behaviour is under the control of the goal is reward devaluation. For example, if humans and other animals are fed to satiety with a food, they show sensory-specific satiety for the food, rate its subjective pleasantness as zero, and are no longer motivated to obtain and ingest it. The motivation for other foods not eaten to satiety usually remains. The hallmark of a devaluation experiment showing that a behaviour is under the control of the goal and therefore qualifies for being described as ‘motivated’ is that when the goal is devalued, the human or other animal will not perform an instrumental action to obtain it the first time that the stimulus is presented (see " Wanting vs liking and goal-directed motivational behaviour ").

Two-stages of learning may be involved in such motivational goal-controlled instrumental learning. Rewards and punishers provide the basis for guiding behaviour within a dimension, and for selecting the dimension towards which action should be directed.

The first stage of the learning is stimulus-reinforcer association learning, in which the reinforcing value of a previously neutral, e.g. visual or auditory, stimulus is learned because of its association with a primary reinforcer, such as a sweet or salt taste (Kehoe and Blass 1985 ) or a painful touch. This learning is of an association between one stimulus, the conditioned or secondary reinforcer, and the primary reinforcer, and is thus stimulus-stimulus association learning. This stimulus-reinforcer learning can be very fast, in as little as one trial. For example, if a new visual stimulus is seen and then placed in the mouth and a sweet taste is obtained, an instrumental action such as reaching for the object will be made on the next trial. Moreover, this stimulus-reinforcer association learning can be reversed very rapidly, at least in primates including humans though not in rodents. For example, if subsequently the object is made to taste of salt, then the visual stimulus is no longer reached for, and the stimulus is even likely to be actively pushed away. This stimulus-reinforcer association learning is implemented in the primate including human orbitofrontal cortex, and leads to representations of expected value (Rolls 2014b , 2018 , 2019b , 2021b , 2023d ).

The second process or stage in this type of learning is instrumental learning of an action (or ‘operant response’) made in order to obtain the stimulus now associated with reward (or avoid the stimulus associated by learning with the punisher). This is action–outcome learning (implemented in brain regions such as the anterior cingulate cortex as described above Grabenhorst and Rolls 2011 ; Rushworth et al. 2011 ; Rolls 2014b , 2019a , 2023d )). The outcome could be a primary reinforcer, but often involves a secondary reinforcer learned by stimulus-reinforcer association learning. The action–outcome learning may be much slower than the stimulus-reinforcer learning, for action–outcome learning may involve trial-and-error learning of which action is successful in enabling the animal to obtain the stimulus now associated with reward or avoid the stimulus now associated with a punisher. However, this second stage may be greatly speeded if an operant response or strategy that has been learned previously to obtain a different type of reward (or avoid a different punisher) can be used to obtain (or avoid) the new stimulus now known to be associated with reinforcement. It is in this flexibility of the action that two-factor learning has a great advantage over stimulus–response learning. The advantage is that any action (even, at its simplest, approach or withdrawal) can be performed once an association has been learned between a stimulus and a primary reinforcer. This flexibility in the action is much more adaptive (and could provide the difference between survival or not) than no learning, as in taxes, or stimulus–response habit learning. The different processes that are involved in instrumental learning are described in more detail by Rolls ( 2014b ).

Another key advantage of this type of two-stage learning is that after the first stage the different rewards and punishers available in an environment can be compared in a selection mechanism, using the common scale of different rewards and punishers for the comparison and selection process (Grabenhorst et al. 2010a ; Rolls 2014b ). In this type of system, the many dimensions of rewards and punishers are again the basis on which the selection of an action to perform is made (Rolls 2014b ).

Gene-specified rewards and the mechanisms of evolution

Part of the process of evolution can be seen as identifying the factors or dimensions that affect the (reproductive) fitness of an animal, and providing the animal with sensors that lead to rewards and punishers that are tuned to the environmental dimensions that influence fitness. The example of sweet or salt taste receptors being set up by evolution to provide reward when physiological nutrient need is present (Kehoe and Blass 1985 ) has been given above, and shows how genes are involved in specifying motivational states.

We can ask whether there would need to be a separate sensing mechanism tuned to provide primary (unlearned) reinforcers for every dimension of the environment to which it may be important to direct motivational behaviour. (The motivated behaviour has to be directed to climb up the reward gradient to obtain the best reward, or to climb a gradient up and away from punishers). It appears that there may not be. For example, in the case of the so-called specific appetites, for perhaps a particular vitamin lacking in the diet, it appears that a type of stimulus-reinforcer association learning may actually be involved, rather than having every possible flavour set up to be a primary reward or punisher. The way that this happens is by a form of association learning. If an animal deficient in one nutrient is fed a food with that nutrient, it turns out that the animal’s physiological state is ‘better’ some time after ingesting the new food, and the animal associates this better physiological state with the taste of that particular food. Later, that food will be chosen. The point here is that the first time the animal is in the deficient state and tastes the new food, that food may not be chosen instead of other foods. It is only after the post-ingestive conditioning that, later, that particular food will be selected (Rozin and Kalat 1971 ; Berthoud et al. 2021 ; Rolls 2023e ). Thus in addition to a number of specific primary (unlearned) reward systems (e.g. sweet taste for nutrient need, salt taste for salt deficiency (Kehoe and Blass 1985 ), pain for potentially damaging somatosensory stimulation), there may be great opportunity for other arbitrary sensory stimuli to become conditioned rewards or punishers by association with some quite general change in physiological state. The implication here is that a number of bodily signals can influence a general bodily state, and we learn to improve the general state, rather than to treat the signal as a specific reinforcer that directs us to a particular goal. Another example might be social reinforcers. It would be difficult to build-in a primary reinforcer system for every possible type of social reinforcer. Instead, there may be a number of rather general primary social reinforcers, such as acceptance within a group, approbation, greeting, face expression, and pleasant touch, which are among the primary rewards; and by association with these primary rewards, other stimuli can become secondary social reinforcers.

To help specify the way in which stimulus-reinforcer association learning operates, a list of what may be in at least some species primary reinforcers is provided in Table 1 . The reader will doubtless be able to add to this list, and it may be that some of the reinforcers in the list are actually secondary reinforcers. The reinforcers are categorized where possible by modality, to help the list be systematic. Possible dimensions to which each reinforcer is tuned are suggested.

In Rolls’ theories of motivation and emotion, there may be a set of approximately 100 gene-specified primary reinforcers of the type described in Table 1 . Each primary reinforcer accounts for a motivational state in which the reward is the target of an instrumental action, and for the emotional state that is produced when the reward or punisher is or is not received. These motivational and emotional states must all be specific; for example hunger must increase food reward but not water reward. These reward value systems must be modulated by the correct selective signals; for example, sensors of metabolic state that relate to hunger must increase the reward value of food but not of water. In so doing, there must be mechanisms to lead animals, when in a motivational state, to navigate and perform appropriate actions to find a specific reward (Deutsch 1960 ). The reward is produced by the sensory input produced by taste, smell, flavour, touch, sight, and sound, etc., and not by a reduction in the motivational signal. Some of the evidence for this is that very small sensory inputs, such as a drop of food, act as powerful rewards, but reducing hunger by placing food into the stomach produces little reward (Rolls 2014b , 2023e ). Consistent with this, reducing the firing of hunger neurons has only a minor rewarding effect (Sternson 2013 ), so reducing hunger or more generally motivation does not normally act as the reward for instrumental behaviour.

In the reward-based motivational system that I describe, each reward must be scaled to a similar range, so that the different rewards are selected at least sometimes by competing in a decision-making process, so that each reward can contribute to survival and reproductive success (Rolls 2014b ). Motivational behaviour can be seen from this approach as an animal operating with a set of initially gene-specified goals for actions (though subject to learned re-evaluation) which compete in a high-dimensional space of rewards for a decision to be taken about which is most rewarding at the time, depending on modulators such as hunger signals, sensory-specific satiety, etc. (Rolls 2014b ). The decision taken will also reflect the costs of the actions required to obtain the different rewards (Rolls 2014b ). Evidence about how the underlying mechanisms operate are described in Emotion and Decision-Making Explained (Rolls 2014b ) and elsewhere (Rolls 2018 , 2021b , 2023d ).

Biological economy in the specification of rewards and punishers, for they can be used to implement both motivation and emotion

We now come to the heart of the adaptive value of my approach to motivation and emotion.

My proposal is that the same gene-specified rewards and punishers can be used for both motivation and emotion. This produces great simplification in the genetic specification of motivation and emotion, for the genes have to specify just one set of primary rewards and punishers. The reward has to be motivating, in that animals need to be built to want to perform actions to obtain rewards. Each gene-specified reward then needs to be modulated by the appropriate motivational state. For example, the motivational state of hunger, which modulates the reward value of the taste, smell and sight of food, is signalled by many factors including plasma and gut nutrients and metabolic hormones, as described in detail elsewhere (Rolls 2014b , 2016a , f , 2018 ). The motivational state of thirst, which modulates the reward value of the taste and sight of water, is signalled by cellular and extracellular fluid volume (Rolls et al. 1980a , b ; Rolls and Rolls 1982 ; de Araujo et al. 2003c ; Rolls 2005 ). Factors that influence the reward value of stimuli involved in sexual behaviour are numerous, and typically adaptive for the genes (Buss 1989 , 2015 ; Rolls 2014b , 2018 ). For example, in males, the reward value of sexual behaviour typically decreases soon after ejaculation, as a further ejaculate in the same female soon would be unlikely to increase markedly the probability of reproductive success, and it may be adaptive to conserve some sperm for a possible opportunity for reproductive success with another female, with sensory-specific satiety here being referred to as the Coolidge effect (Buss 1989 , 2015 ; Rolls 2014b , 2018 ). The reward value of sexual behaviour in females is also subject to modulation by many factors that influence reproductive success (Buss 1989 , 2015 ; Rolls 2014b , 2018 ). The key point here is that the value of each type of reward must be modulated by appropriate motivational signals, such as gut and plasma nutrient signals for food reward, cellular and extracellular volume reductions for water reward, and factors such as the probability of reproductive success in passing on genes to the next generation for sex rewards (Buss 1989 , 2015 ; Rolls 2005 , 2014b , 2018 ).

The same set of rewards, and punishers, when received after for example an instrumental action, lead to emotional states, as described above.

The great utility of both emotional and motivational states relating to rewards and punishers is that this is a highly efficient way for behaviour to be organised, in that the genes specify stimuli that are rewards and punishers, and leave it open to the animal to perform any instrumental action to obtain the reward or avoid the punisher. This is very much more efficient than having genes specify a fixed response to stimuli, such as pecking at small grains as they may be food. The latter type of mechanism of gene-specified responses can have utility for a few responses to a few stimuli, as in the case of chickens pecking at grains of corn. But the genetic specification of many such stimulus–response pairs would be genetically expensive, and would have the great disadvantage that there would be no or little flexibility of the response. Instead, when genes are used to specify rewards and punishers, of the type set out in Table 1 , then an almost unlimited set of actions can be learned to obtain the rewards or avoid the punishers. For this reason, I argue that the specification of rewards and punishers by genes, rather than fixed behavioural responses, is a major factor in the design of brains for evolutionary success.

These concepts (including that an important way for genes to influence behaviour is by specifying the reward and punishment value of stimuli) were developed and made clear by Rolls ( 2005 , 2014b , 2016f , 2018 ), but were not featured in The Selfish Gene and subsequent books (Dawkins 1976 , 1982 , 1986 ). These concepts are key to understanding how in practice genes frequently increase their (selfish) success by specifying stimuli that are rewards and punishers. Operating in this way, so that the same genes specify rewards and punishers appropriate for both motivation and emotion, and do not specify actions, leads to great adaptiveness and elegance in brain design (Rolls 2016c , f , 2021b , 2023d ).

Wanting vs liking and goal-directed motivational behaviour

Rolls’ theory of motivation holds that each gene-specified reward is a goal for action, that is, accounts for motivation (Rolls 2016f ); and also, when the reward is received, it generates emotion (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ). An important attribute of these theories of motivation and emotion is that the same specification of a goal object, a reward, perhaps genetically or by stimulus-reward learning, accounts for both the motivation, which has to be produced if the animal is ever to seek the reward, and the emotion, which is associated with the reward when it is received. This makes for great economy in evolution, for genes are needed to specify goal objects, and in doing this, have to produce both working to obtain those goal objects (‘wanting’) and the emotional state when the goal object is received or not received (‘liking’) (Rolls 2014b ).

It is useful in this context to discuss an apparent dissociation between ‘wanting’ and ‘liking’ (or ‘desire’ vs ‘pleasure’) that has been raised (Berridge 1996 ; Berridge and Robinson 1998 ; Berridge et al. 2009 ). ‘Wanting’ or conditioned ‘incentive salience’ effects are used to describe classically conditioned approach behaviour to rewards (Berridge and Robinson 1998 , 2003 ), and this learning is implemented via the amygdala and ventral striatum, is under control of dopamine (Cardinal et al. 2002 ), and contributes to addiction (Robinson and Berridge 2003 ). Conditioned ‘incentive salience’ effects can influence instrumental responses made, for example, to obtain food.

A first point is that Berridge and Robinson ( 1998 ) suggest that ‘liking’ can be measured by orofacial reflexes such as ingesting sweet solutions or rejecting bitter solutions. There is evidence that brain opioid systems are involved in influencing the palatability of and hedonic reactions to foods, in that humans report a reduction in the pleasantness of sucrose solution following administration of naltrexone which blocks opiate receptors, but can still discriminate between sucrose solutions (Gosnell and Levine 2009 ; Stice et al. 2013 ). One problem here is that orofacial reflexes may reflect brainstem mechanisms that are not at all closely related to the reward value of food as reflected in instrumental actions performed to obtain food (see Fig.  2 ). Some of the evidence for this is that these responses occur after decerebration, in which the brainstem is all that remains to control behaviour (Grill and Norgren 1978 ) [with consistent evidence from anencephalic humans (Steiner et al. 2001 )]. Care must be taken about such inferences as there are many routes to behavioural responses (Rolls 2014b , 2021b , 2023d ; Balleine 2019 ) (Fig.  2 ).

A second point is that normally the rated reward value or pleasantness given in humans to food is closely related to instrumental actions performed to obtain food, as shown by the close relation between pleasantness ratings (‘liking’) by humans given to a food in a sensory-specific satiety experiment, and whether that food is subsequently eaten in a meal (‘wanting’) (Rolls et al. 1981c ).

Third, a confusion may arise when a stimulus–response habit is formed by overlearning, and persists even when the reward is devalued by, for example, feeding to satiety. This persistence of stimulus–response habits after reward devaluation should not necessarily be interpreted as ‘wanting’ when not ‘liking’, for it may just reflect the operation of a stimulus–response habit system that produces responses after overlearning without any guidance from reward, pleasantness, and liking (Cardinal et al. 2002 ; Rolls 2014b ; Balleine 2019 ). Indeed, I emphasize that after overtraining, responses may become inflexibly linked to stimuli, and the goals, and the reward value of the goals, may no longer be directly influencing behaviour in an ongoing way. If behaviour becomes overlearned and a habit or stimulus–response connection is built up by another brain system (such as the basal ganglia), then animals may make automatic responses that are not goal directed (Cardinal et al. 2002 ; Rolls 2014b ; Balleine 2019 ). There has been considerable confusion in the literature caused by overlooking this point (Berridge and Robinson 1998 ; Berridge et al. 2009 ; Berridge and Dayan 2021 ; Nguyen et al. 2021 ; Warlow and Berridge 2021 ). Indeed, just as in the research on the amygdala described above in which LeDoux inferred full emotions from conditioned responses, it is unwarranted and potentially misleading to use subjective emotion-laden words such as ‘wanting’ and ‘liking’ that describe emotional feelings (Berridge 1996 ; Berridge and Robinson 2003 ; Robinson and Berridge 2003 ; Berridge et al. 2009 ; Berridge and Dayan 2021 ; Nguyen et al. 2021 ; Warlow and Berridge 2021 ), when classically conditioned responses such as Pavlovian-Instrumental Transfer, and orofacial reflexes and stimulus–response habits are what has been measured (Cardinal et al. 2002 ; Rolls 2014b ; Balleine 2019 ). The fact that behaviour can become stimulus–response and no longer under the control of the goal need not surprise us. Normally, and certainly during learning before habits set in, we want a goal, and when we get the goal we like it: goal stimuli normally specify what is wanted, and what is liked. Indeed, my theory is that normally we want because we like. This is inherent in my theory, for the genes that make a stimulus (such as a sweet taste) rewarding (i.e. wanted, a goal for action) also make the stimulus liked (i.e. accepted, with a subjective correlate of pleasure, pleasantness, and affective liking).

My approach is that I believe that liking, defined by pleasantness ratings of stimuli, is normally very closely related to wanting, that is being willing to perform behaviour (instrumental actions) to obtain a reward of the pleasant stimulus (Rolls 2014b , 2016f ). Thus motivational behaviour is normally controlled by reward stimuli or goals (unless the behaviour is overlearned), and motivational state (e.g. hunger) modulates the reward value of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli such as the taste and sight of food. Thus normally, liking a goal object and wanting it are different aspects of how reward systems control instrumental behaviour, and this follows from the approach to gene-specified goal or value representations which in a unifying way account for wanting a goal, and liking the goal object when it is obtained (Rolls 2014b , 2016f , 2018 , 2021b , 2023d ). For further clarification, consider a probabilistic decision-making task in which the probability P of obtaining a reward outcome (such as the taste of food) is 0.5, and the reward outcome value is 1 if the reward is delivered (e.g. fruit juice), and is 0 when the reward is not delivered. Then the Expected (reward) Value when the offer is made is 0.5 (Expected reward Value =  P × Outcome Value (Rolls 2014b )), and the value of the motivational state at that time (which is before the outcome is known) is 0.5. Then later in the trial, the affective/emotional state (which is after the outcome is delivered) is 1 for the fruit juice reward, and 0 if nothing is obtained as the outcome.

Thus, it is possible to identify the brain mechanisms involved in ‘wanting’ and ‘liking’ experimentally, and to distinguish them from the classically conditioned ‘incentive salience’ stimuli that influence approach and instrumental actions and which influence ‘appetitive’ behaviour, implemented in part separately from the reward systems that are activated by a primary reinforcer such as the taste of food during ‘consummatory’ behaviour (Cardinal et al. 2002 ; Rolls 2014b ).

Some implications and extensions of the understanding of emotion, motivation, and their brain mechanisms

Top-down cognitive effects on reward value and affective responses, for example on the reward value and pleasantness of taste, olfactory, and flavor stimuli.

To what extent does cognition influence the reward value of stimuli, and how far down into the sensory system does the cognitive influence reach? Alternatively, is the reward value in brain regions such as the orbitofrontal cortex independent of cognitive factors, with reward value being interfaced to cognition in other, perhaps language-related, brain regions?

We discovered that word-level cognitive effects have top-down modulatory effects on reward value processing in the orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex. This was shown for olfactory (De Araujo et al. 2005 ), taste (Grabenhorst et al. 2008a ), and touch and the sight of touch (McCabe et al. 2008 ) reward value. For example, a standard test odor (isovaleric acid combined with cheddar cheese odor, presented orthonasally using an olfactometer) was paired with a descriptor word on a screen, which on different trials was “Cheddar cheese” or “Body odor”. Participants rated the affective value of the standard test odor, isovaleric acid, as significantly more pleasant when labelled “Cheddar Cheese” than when labeled “Body odor”, and these effects reflected activations in the medial orbitofrontal cortex and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (De Araujo et al. 2005 ). The implication is that cognitive factors can have profound effects on our responses to the reward value and subjective reported pleasantness of olfactory stimuli, in that these effects are manifest quite far down into reward value processing (in the orbitofrontal cortex), so that hedonic representations of odors are affected (De Araujo et al. 2005 ).

Similar cognitive effects and mechanisms have also been found for the taste and flavor of food, where the cognitive word level descriptor was, for example, ‘rich delicious flavor’ and activations to flavor were increased in the orbitofrontal cortex and regions to which it projects including the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex and ventral striatum, but were not influenced in the insular primary taste cortex where activations reflected the intensity (concentration) of the stimuli (Grabenhorst et al. 2008a ).

For the sight of touch, the cognitive modulation was produced by word labels, ‘Rich moisturizing cream’ or ‘Basic cream’, while cream was being applied to the forearm, or was seen being applied to a forearm. The cognitive labels influenced the activations to the sight of touch and also the correlations with pleasantness in the pregenual anterior cingulate/orbitofrontal cortex and ventral striatum (McCabe et al. 2008 ).

The wider implication of these discoveries is that our cognitive processes can actually modulate the representation of reward value and subjective pleasantness in brain regions involved in reward value representations such as the orbitofrontal and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, and this can potentially provide important ways in which the appreciation of other rewards such as music, art and aesthetics can be influenced by cognitive factors acting on the reward value representations in parts of the brain that represent reward value and subjective pleasantness. In this way, the appropriate top-down cognitive bias could enhance the pleasure being experienced.

The mechanisms of top-down cognitive modulation are understood as biased activation being applied to the orbitofrontal cortex from brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex which maintain the biasing information in short-term memory (Deco and Rolls 2003 , 2004 , 2005a , 2005b ; Deco et al. 2005 ; Rolls and Deco 2006 , 2010 ; Rolls 2013a , 2016c , 2021b , 2023d ).

Effects of top-down selective attention to affective value versus intensity on representations of stimuli including those involved in taste, olfactory, and flavour processing

We have found that with taste, flavor, and olfactory food-related stimuli, selective attention to pleasantness modulates representations in the orbitofrontal cortex, whereas selective attention to intensity modulates activations in areas such as the primary taste cortex (Grabenhorst and Rolls 2008 , 2010 ; Rolls et al. 2008a ; Ge et al. 2012 ; Luo et al. 2013 ; Rolls 2013a ).

This differential biasing of brain regions engaged in processing a sensory stimulus depending on whether the cognitive or attentional demand is for affect-related vs more sensory-related processing may be an important aspect of cognition and attention which has implications for how strongly the reward system is driven by food, and thus for eating and the control of appetite, but also for other types of reward (Grabenhorst and Rolls 2008 , 2011 ; Rolls et al. 2008a ; Rolls 2012a , 2014b ).

The wider implication is that top-down attention directed to the reward value and subjective pleasantness of stimuli can enhance activations to these stimuli in reward-related brain regions, and this has potential applications to enhance the subjective pleasantness of many types of reward, including aesthetic types of reward (e.g. music and art). Attention applied in this way may divert brain systems from maintaining unpleasant ruminating events in memory, and this is of potential use in for example the treatment of depression and other unpleasant states including pain (Rolls 2016b , 2018 , 2021b ; Rolls et al. 2020b ).

The mechanisms of top-down attentional modulation are understood as biased competition and biased activation being applied to the orbitofrontal cortex from brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex which maintain the biasing information in short-term memory (Deco and Rolls 2003 , 2004 , 2005a , b ; Deco et al. 2005 ; Rolls and Deco 2006 , 2010 ; Luo et al. 2013 ; Rolls 2013a , 2016c , 2021b , 2023d ).

Individual differences in the reward systems, evolution, and personality

An important hypothesis is that different humans may have reward systems that differ in how strongly each of their reward systems are activated, driven by the sensory and cognitive factors that make stimuli attractive. In a test of this, we showed that activations to the sight and flavor of chocolate in the orbitofrontal and pregenual cingulate cortex were much higher in chocolate cravers than non-cravers (Rolls and McCabe 2007 ), though there were no differences at the level of the insular taste cortex where taste perception is represented. This provides evidence that differences in specific reward systems, and not necessarily in earlier sensory processing, can lead to individual differences in behaviour to different types of rewarding stimuli. (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ). This concept that individual differences in responsiveness to food reward are reflected in brain activations in regions related to the control of food intake (Beaver et al. 2006 ; Rolls and McCabe 2007 ) may provide a way for understanding and helping to control food intake and obesity (Rolls 2012a , 2014b , 2016a , 2018 ).

But the concept is much more general than this. The wider implication is that part of the way in which evolution operates is by utilizing natural variation in each of the specific reward systems (examples of which are shown in Table 1 ), and selecting for reward systems with sensitivities that lead to reproductive success. This results in each individual having a different set of sensitivities of perhaps 100 different gene-specified reward systems of the type shown in Table 1 (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ).

The sensitivity of an individual to different rewards and punishers, and the ability to learn and be influenced by rewards and punishers, provide a basis for different personalities (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ). Part of the basis of personality may be differential sensitivity to different rewards and punishers, and omission and termination of different rewards and punishers (the reinforcement contingencies shown in Fig.  1 ), and this could give rise to many types of personality when we take into account that there are many different types of reinforcer. This can be related to brain function, in that for example the medial orbitofrontal cortex involved in different rewards and the lateral orbitofrontal cortex involved in different punishers and non-rewards could have different sensitivities of these systems for different types of reward. An extreme example might be that if humans were insensitive to social punishers following orbitofrontal cortex damage, we might expect social problems and impulsive behaviour, and indeed Tranel et al ( 2002 ) have used the term ‘acquired sociopathy’ to describe some of these patients. Indeed, we might expect sensitivity to different types of reinforcer (including social reinforcers) to vary between individuals both as a result of gene variation and as a result of learning, and this, operating over a large number of different social reinforcers, might produce many different variations of personality based on the sensitivity to a large number of different reinforcers.

Hans J. Eysenck developed the theory that personality might be related to different aspects of conditioning. He analysed the factors that accounted for the variance in the differences between the personality of different humans (using, for example, questionnaires), and suggested that the first two factors in personality (those which accounted for most of the variance) were introversion vs extraversion, and neuroticism (related to a tendency to be anxious). He performed studies of classical conditioning on groups of subjects, and also obtained measures of what he termed arousal. Based on the correlations of these measures with the dimensions identified in the factor analysis, he suggested that introverts showed greater conditionability (to weak stimuli) and are more readily aroused by external stimulation than extraverts; and that neuroticism raises the general intensity of emotional reactions (Eysenck and Eysenck 1968 ).

Jeffrey Gray ( 1970 ) reinterpreted the findings, suggesting that introverts are more sensitive to punishment and frustrative non-reward than are extraverts; and that neuroticism reflects the extent of sensitivity to both reward and punishment. However, in addition extraverts may perform less well at vigilance tasks (in which the subject must detect stimuli that occur with low probability); may tend to be more impulsive; and perform better when arousal is high (e.g. later in the day), and when rapid responses rather than reflective thought is needed (Matthews and Gilliland 1999 ).

In functional neuroimaging studies, it has been found that happy face expressions are more likely to activate the human amygdala in extraverts than in introverts (Canli et al. 2002 ). This supports the conceptually important point made above that part of the basis of personality may be differential sensitivity to different rewards and punishers, and omission and termination of different rewards and punishers.

In one update of this approach, links have been made to behavioural economics by relating loss aversion to greater negative valuation sensitivity compared to positive valuation sensitivity; by suggesting that tendencies to approach or avoid have distinct sensitivities to those of the valuation systems; that approach-avoidance conflict is a distinct process from the basic approach and avoidance systems; and linking these to a reinforcer sensitivity theory of personality (Corr and McNaughton 2012 ).

Another example is the impulsive behaviour that is a part of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), which could reflect factors such as less sensitivity to the punishers associated with waiting for rational processing to lead to a satisfactory solution, or changes in internal timing processes that lead to a faster perception of time (Berlin and Rolls 2004 ; Berlin et al. 2004 ). It was of considerable interest that the BPD group (mainly self-harming patients), as well as a group of patients with damage to the orbitofrontal cortex, scored highly on a Frontal Behaviour Questionnaire that assessed inappropriate behaviours typical of orbitofrontal cortex patients including disinhibition, social inappropriateness, perseveration, and uncooperativeness. In terms of measures of personality, using the Big Five personality measure (which identifies five major components of personality (Trull and Widiger 2013 ), both groups were also less open to experience (i.e. less open-minded). In terms of other personality measures and characteristics, the orbitofrontal and BPD patients performed differently: BPD patients were less extraverted and conscientious and more neurotic and emotional than the orbitofrontal group (Berlin and Rolls 2004 ; Berlin et al. 2004 , 2005 ). Thus some aspects of personality, such as impulsiveness and being less open to experience, but not other aspects, such as extraversion, neuroticism and conscientiousness, were especially related to orbitofrontal cortex function.

However, in terms of detailed understanding of how the computations in different brain regions relate to personality, research is still in its early stages (DeYoung et al. 2022 ).

A reasoning, rational, route to action

Routes to action that are related to the emotional system are described in " The neuroscience of emotion in humans and other primates ", and are indicated in Fig.  2 .

Another main route to action in humans, and perhaps some other species, involves a computation with many "if … then" statements, to implement a multi-step plan to obtain a reward. In this case, the reward may actually be deferred as part of the plan, which might involve working first to obtain one reward, and only then to work for a second more highly valued reward, if this was thought to be overall an optimal strategy in terms of resource usage (e.g., time). In this case, syntax is required, because the many symbols (e.g., names of people) that are part of the plan must be correctly linked or bound. Such linking might be of the form: "if A does this, then B is likely to do this, and this will cause C to do this …". The requirement of syntax for this type of planning implies that involvement of language systems in the brain is required for this type of planning (Rolls 2014b , 2018 , 2021b , 2023d ). Thus the explicit language system in humans may allow working for deferred rewards by enabling use of a one-off, individual, plan appropriate for each situation.

Another building block for such planning operations in the brain may be the type of short-term memory in which the prefrontal cortex is involved. This short-term memory may be for example in non-human primates of where in space a response has just been made. A development of this type of short-term response memory system in humans to enable multiple short-term memories to be held in place correctly, preferably with the temporal order of the different items in the short-term memory coded correctly, may be another building block for the multiple step "if …. then" type of computation in order to form a multiple step plan. Such short-term memories are implemented in the (dorsolateral and inferior convexity) prefrontal cortex of non-human primates and humans (Goldman-Rakic 1996 ; Fuster 2014 ; Fuster 2015 ; Rolls 2016c ; Miller et al. 2018 ; Kolb and Whishaw 2021 ; Rolls 2021b , 2023d ; Rolls et al. 2023e ), and may be part of the reason why prefrontal cortex damage impairs planning (Shallice and Cipolotti 2018 ).

Decisions between the emotional and reasoning systems

The question then arises of how decisions are made in animals such as humans that have both the implicit, direct reward-based, and the explicit, rational, planning systems (Rolls 2011 , 2014b , 2018 , 2019c , 2021b , 2023b ). One particular situation in which the first, implicit, system may be especially important is when rapid reactions to stimuli with reward or punishment value must be made, for then the direct connections from structures such as the orbitofrontal cortex to the basal ganglia may allow rapid actions (Rolls 2014b ). Another is when there may be too many factors to be taken into account easily by the explicit, rational, planning, system, when the implicit system may be used to guide action. In contrast, when the implicit system continually makes errors, it would then be beneficial for the organism to switch from direct, action based on obtaining what the orbitofrontal cortex system decodes as being the most positively rewarding choice currently available, to the explicit conscious control system which can evaluate with its long-term planning algorithms what action should be performed next. Indeed, it would be adaptive for the explicit system to regularly be assessing performance by the goal-based and habit-based systems, and to switch itself in to control behaviour quite frequently, as otherwise the adaptive value of having the explicit system would be less than optimal.

There may also be a flow of influence from the explicit, verbal system to the implicit system, in that the explicit system may decide on a plan of action or strategy, and exert an influence on the implicit system that will alter the reinforcement evaluations made by and the signals produced by the implicit system (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ).

It may be expected that there is often a conflict between these systems, in that the first, implicit, emotional, system is able to guide behaviour particularly to obtain the greatest immediate reinforcement, whereas the explicit system can potentially enable immediate rewards to be deferred, and longer-term, multi-step, plans to be formed (Rolls 2019c , 2023b ). This type of conflict will occur in animals with a syntactic planning ability, that is in humans and any other animals that have the ability to process a series of "if … then" stages of planning. This is a property of the human language system, and the extent to which it is a property of non-human primates is not yet fully clear. In any case, such conflict may be an important aspect of the operation of at least the human mind, because it is so essential for humans to correctly decide, at every moment, whether to invest in a relationship or a group that may offer long-term benefits, or whether to directly pursue immediate benefits (Rolls 2014b , 2018 , 2019c , 2023b ).

The thrust of the argument (Rolls 2014b , 2018 , 2019c , 2020 ) thus is that much complex animal including human behaviour can take place using the implicit, emotional, often unconscious, route to action. We should be very careful not to postulate intentional states (i.e., states with intentions, beliefs and desires) unless the evidence for them is strong, and it seems to me that a flexible, one-off, linguistic processing system that can handle propositions is needed for intentional states. What the explicit, linguistic, system does allow is exactly this flexible, one-off, multi-step planning ahead type of computation, which allows us to defer immediate rewards based on such a plan.

The selfish gene vs the selfish phene, and evolution

I have provided evidence above that there are two main routes to decision-making and goal-directed action. The first route selects actions by gene-defined goals for action, and is closely associated with emotion. The second route involves multistep planning and reasoning which requires syntactic processing to keep the symbols involved at each step separate from the symbols in different steps (Rolls 2019c , 2020 , 2023b , d ). (This second route is used by humans and perhaps by closely related animals.) Now the ‘interests’ of the first and second routes to decision-making and action are different. As argued very convincingly by Richard Dawkins in The Selfish Gene (Dawkins 1989 ), and by others (Hamilton 1964 , 1996 ; Ridley 1993 ), many behaviours occur in the interests of the survival of the genes, not of the individual (nor of the group), and much behaviour can be understood in this way.

I have extended this approach by arguing that an important role for some genes in evolution is to define the goals (i.e. the rewards and punishers) for actions that will lead to better survival of those genes; that emotions are the states associated with these gene-defined goals; and that the defining of goals for actions rather that actions themselves is an efficient way for genes to operate, as it leaves flexibility of choice of action open until the animal is alive (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ). This provides great simplification of the genotype as action details do not need to be specified, just rewarding and punishing stimuli, and also flexibility of action in the face of changing environments faced by the genes. This is a useful and interesting advance beyond what was considered in The Selfish Gene and later books (Dawkins 1976 , 1982 , 1986 , 1989 ). In any case, the interests that are implied when the first route to action is chosen are those of the “selfish genes”, not those of the individual, the phenotype.

However, the second route to action allows, by reasoning, decisions to be taken that might not be in the interests of the genes, might be longer term decisions, and might be in the interests of the individual, the phenotype (Rolls 2011 , 2014b ). An example might be a choice not to have children, but instead to devote oneself to science, medicine, music, or literature. The reasoning, rational, system presumably evolved because taking longer-term decisions involving planning rather than choosing a gene-defined goal might be advantageous at least sometimes for genes. But an unforeseen consequence of the evolution of the rational system might be that the decisions would, sometimes, not be to the advantage of any genes in the organism. After all, evolution by natural selection operates utilizing genetic variation like a Blind Watchmaker (Dawkins 1986 ). In this sense, the interests when the second route to decision-making is used are at least sometimes those of the “selfish phenotype”. (Indeed, we might euphonically say that the interests are those of the “selfish phene” (where the etymology is Gk phaino, ‘appear’, referring to appearance, hence the thing that one observes, the individual. The term ‘phene’ was coined (Rolls 2011 , 2014b ) to refer to the individual or phenotype, but to emphasize that here we have an individual who can choose between the goals specified by the genes from earlier stages of evolution, and the goals that may be relevant to the reasoning individual who might make a choice using reasoning that might not be in the interests of those emotion-related genes.) Hence the decision-making referred to above is between a first system where the goals are gene-defined, and a second rational system in which the decisions may be made in the interests of the genes, or in the interests of the phenotype and not in the interests of the genes. Thus we may speak of the choice as sometimes being between the “Selfish Genes” and the “Selfish Phene”.

Now what keeps the decision-making between the “Selfish Genes” and the “Selfish Phene” more or less under control and in balance? If the second, rational, system chose too often for the interests of the “Selfish Phene”, the genes in that phenotype would not survive over generations. Having these two systems in the same individual will only be stable if their potency is approximately equal, so that sometimes decisions are made with the first route, and sometimes with the second route. If the two types of decision-making, then, compete with approximately equal potency, and sometimes one is chosen, and sometimes the other, then this is exactly the scenario in which stochastic processes in the decision-making mechanism are likely to play an important role in the decision that is taken (Rolls and Deco 2010 ; Rolls 2014b , 2016c , 2019c , 2023b ). The same decision, even with the same evidence, may not be taken each time a decision is made, because of noise in the system.

The system itself may have some properties that help to keep the system operating well. One is that if the second, rational, system tends to dominate the decision-making too much, the first, gene-based emotional system might fight back over generations of selection, and enhance the magnitude of the reward value specified by the genes, so that emotions might actually become stronger as a consequence of them having to compete in the interests of the selfish genes with the rational decision-making processes.

Another property of the system may be that sometimes the rational system cannot gain all the evidence that would be needed to make a rational choice. Under these circumstances the rational system might fail to make a clear decision, and under these circumstances, basing a decision on the gene-specified emotions is an alternative. Indeed, Damasio ( 1994 ) argued that under circumstances such as this, emotions might take an important role in decision-making. In this respect, I agree with him, basing my reasons on the arguments above. He called the emotional feelings gut feelings, and, in contrast to me, hypothesized that actual feedback from the gut was involved. His argument seemed to be that if the decision was too complicated for the rational system, then rely on outputs sent to the viscera, and whatever is sensed by what they send back could be used in the decision-making, and would account for the conscious feelings of the emotional states. My reading of the evidence is that the feedback from the periphery is not necessary for the emotional decision-making, or for the feelings, nor would it be computationally efficient to put the viscera in the loop given that the information starts from the brain, but that is a matter considered in the Appendix and elsewhere (Maia and McClelland 2004 ; Rolls 2014b , 2018 ).

Another property of the system is that the interests of the second, rational, system, although involving a different form of computation, should not be too far from those of the gene-defined emotional system, for the arrangement to be stable in evolution by natural selection. One way that this could be facilitated would be if the gene-based goals felt pleasant or unpleasant in the rational system, and in this way contributed to the operation of the second, rational, system. This is something that I propose is the case (Rolls 2011 , 2014b , 2018 , 2020 ).

If the multistep syntactic reasoning/planning system fails, there may be a credit assignment problem, in that the faulty step in the series of steps needs to be identified. It has been argued that this computation requires a higher order thought system, which can think about the first order thought (the plan), and can correct it. This higher order thought system needs syntax, as it has to perform computations on the first order syntactic thoughts, the plan. I have proposed that it is a property of this Higher Order Syntactic Thought system that when it operates, it would feel like something, to be thinking about one’s own first order thoughts, and that is a basis for my HOST theory of consciousness (Rolls 2007b , 2008 , 2011 , 2020 ). It is suggested that anything that is being dealt with by the HOST computational system becomes conscious, and that is also how qualia, raw sensory feels, are produced (Rolls 2020 ).

This raises the issue of what the relation is between the mind and the brain (Descartes 1644 ; Dennett 1991 ; Block 2005 ; Carruthers 2019 ). In the neuroscience-based approach that I propose for the relation between the mind and the brain, the proposal is that events at the sub-neuronal, neuronal, and neuronal network levels take place simultaneously to perform a computation that can be described at a high level as a mental state, with content about the world (Rolls 2021e , f ). It is argued that as the processes at the different levels of explanation take place at the same time, they are linked by a non-causal relationship: causality can best be described in brains as operating within but not between levels. This mind-brain theory allows mental events to be different in kind from the mechanistic events that underlie them; but does not lead one to argue that mental events cause brain events, or vice versa: they are different levels of explanation of the operation of the computational system (Rolls 2021e , f ). This computational neuroscience levels of explanation approach to causality (Rolls 2023d ) provides an opportunity to proceed beyond Cartesian dualism (Descartes 1644 ) and physical reductionism (Carruthers 2019 ) in considering the relations between the mind and the brain (Rolls 2020 , 2021e , f ).

The dopamine system in a broader context of brain reward systems and emotion

The primate striatum receives from all cortical regions including motor and premotor cortical regions, and is implicated in stimulus–response habit learning, probably by having the ability to associate any stimulus with any response (Rolls 2016c , 2021b , 2023d ). Dopamine neurons, by responding to reward prediction errors, are thought to strengthen or weaken particular stimulus–response connections depending on whether the reward outcome is better or worse than predicted (Schultz 2013 , 2016b , c , 2017 ). That hypothesis does not specify where the dopamine neurons receive their reward prediction error input from. It has been proposed that the dopamine system receives its inputs from the orbitofrontal cortex, partly directly, and partly via the ventral striatum and habenula (Rolls 2017 ), and this hypothesis is supported by the effective connectivity recently demonstrated in humans from the orbitofrontal cortex to the dopaminergic substantia nigra pars compacta (Rolls et al. 2023d ) (Fig.  7 ). The proposal is also supported by the fact that the primate ventral striatum and adjoining part of the head of the caudate nucleus receive connections from the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala (Haber and Knutson 2010 ; Rolls 2014b ). Consistent with this, some neurons in these striatal regions respond to the taste, flavor, and/or sight of food (Rolls et al. 1983b ; Rolls and Williams 1987 ; Williams et al. 1993 ; Rolls 2014b ; Strait et al. 2015 ).

One comment is that this dopaminergic system is a small part of the circuitry involved in emotion-related responses described here, as is evident in Fig.  3 , where is it shown as part of the habit system, which is not the instrumental system involved in action under control of the goal that is related to emotion in this paper. Other brain systems than the basal ganglia/dopamine system appear to be more involved in goal-dependent actions to obtain rewards and avoid punishers such as the orbitofrontal cortex, vmPFC and anterior cingulate cortex, and which are therefore closely involved in emotion. It is true that there are some dopamine inputs to the orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate cortex, but these regions already have the relevant reward/punisher information, so the roles of dopamine inputs to these regions are not clear. There are also some dopamine inputs to temporal cortex regions, but whether they implement some stamping in of connectivity as proposed for the striatum is not known.

A second comment is that although the striatum receives a dopaminergic input that it has been suggested is a positive reward prediction error signal (Schultz 2013 ), there may be too much diversity in the activity of dopamine neurons for this to apply in a simple way (Bromberg-Martin et al. 2010 ; Rolls 2014b , 2023d ). Moreover, there is no evidence that the dopamine neurons encode a specific reward signal (for example for the taste of food vs. the texture of fat) in the way that is required to account for the control of goal-directed motivated behaviour and that is present in the primate orbitofrontal cortex (Rolls 2014b ). Further, the activity of ventral striatal neurons appears to be more influenced by orbitofrontal cortex types of signals rather than by positive reward prediction error signals (Strait et al. 2015 ). The role of the striatum and dopamine in the control of behaviour is considered in more detail elsewhere (Rolls 2014b , 2021b , 2023d ), but they appear to be much less important than the orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex in emotion, as described here.

Decision-making and noise in the brain

The attractor model of decision-making is a neuronal network with associatively modifiable recurrent collateral synapses between the neurons of the type prototypical of the cerebral cortex as shown in Fig.  11 (Wang 2002 ; Rolls and Deco 2010 ; Rolls 2021b ). The decision variables are applied simultaneously, and the network, after previous training with these decision variables, reaches a state where the population of neurons representing one of the decision variables has a high firing rate (Rolls and Deco 2010 ; Deco et al. 2013 ; Rolls 2016c , 2021b ). There is noise or randomness in this model of decision-making that is related to the approximately Poisson distributed firing times of neurons for a given mean firing rate (Rolls and Deco 2010 ; Deco et al. 2013 ; Rolls 2016c , 2021b ). It is this noise that makes decision-making probabilistic.

An implication is that if the odds are almost equal, it is wise to take any decision at least 3 times, as noise in the brain might have influenced a single decision. Another implication is that variability in behaviour can be produced by the randomness in this type of decision-making, and this is important for understanding the variability of emotional states, for understanding how decisions are made between the emotional and reasoning systems in our brains, and for understanding many related processes including the advantageous unpredictability of some behaviour, and how creativity is facilitated in the brain by this ‘noise in the brain’ (Rolls and Deco 2010 ).

The neurology of human emotion

Some disorders of human emotion produced by brain damage or disease can be understood using the approach taken here (Rolls 2021c ). Humans with damage to the orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex fail to reverse correctly in a stimulus-reward reversal task, revealing that they cannot change their behaviour rapidly when the reinforcement contingencies change (Rolls et al. 1994 ; Hornak et al. 2004 ; Fellows 2011 ). These patients also have an impaired ability to identify facial and voice expressions of emotions, and this is likely to contribute to their changes in social behaviour (Hornak et al. 1996 , 2003 ; Tsuchida and Fellows 2012 ). For these reasons, these patients are often impulsive and disinhibited, have an altered personality, and have impaired subjective feelings of emotion.

In an fMRI study, we showed that the human orbitofrontal cortex is especially involved in pleasant touch and pain, relative to the somatosensory cortex which is more activated by physically strong somatosensory stimuli (Rolls et al. 2003c ; Rolls 2010b , 2016e ). This raises the issue of where the emotional aspects of pain are represented in the brain. The orbitofrontal cortex, together with the supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex (Vogt and Sikes 2000 ; Rolls et al. 2003c , 2023d ), are thereby implicated in pain processing, and consistent with this, clinical reports provide evidence that patients with orbitofrontal cortex damage know when a painful stimulus is applied, but have a reduced emotion pain reaction. There is room for this evidence on the important contributions of the orbitofrontal cortex in the emotional, affective, subjective, aspects of pain to be incorporated into investigations of pain systems in the brain (Segerdahl et al. 2015 ; Tracey 2017 ).

In humans, amygdala damage has much less effect on emotion than does orbitofrontal cortex damage (Rolls 2021c ). For example, the effects of damage to the human amygdala on emotion and emotional experience are much more subtle (Whalen and Phelps 2009 ; Delgado et al. 2011 ; LeDoux and Pine 2016 ; LeDoux et al. 2018 ) than the effects of damage to the orbitofrontal cortex (Rolls et al. 1994 ; Hornak et al. 1996 , 2003 , 2004 ; Camille et al. 2011 ; Fellows 2011 ; Rolls 2019b ). Indeed, LeDoux and colleagues have emphasized the evidence that the human amygdala is rather little involved in subjective emotional experience (LeDoux and Pine 2016 ; LeDoux and Brown 2017 ; LeDoux et al. 2018 ). This is in strong contrast to the orbitofrontal cortex, which is involved in subjective emotional experience, as described above. The orbitofrontal cortex provides the answer to LeDoux’s conundrum: if not the amygdala for subjective emotional experience, then what? The role of the amygdala in the processing of emotions may be reduced in humans because of the great evolutionary development of the orbitofrontal cortex, which with its cortical design contains attractor networks that are useful in remembering previous emotion-related inputs, and that are useful in decision-making (Rolls 2021c , 2023d ).

A psychiatric disorder of emotion: depression

Not obtaining an expected reward can lead to sadness, and feeling depressed (Rolls 2018 ; Rolls et al. 2020b ) (Fig.  1 ). The concept is advanced that an important brain region in depression is the orbitofrontal cortex, with depression related to over-responsiveness and over-connectedness of the non-reward-related lateral orbitofrontal cortex, and to under-responsiveness and under-connectivity of the reward-related medial orbitofrontal cortex (Rolls 2016b , 2017 , 2019d ; Zhang et al. 2023 ). Evidence from large-scale voxel-level studies and supported by an activation study has been described that provides support for this hypothesis (Rolls 2016b , 2017 ; Rolls et al. 2020b ) (Fig.  14 ).

Functional connectivity (FC) differences of the medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex in major depressive disorder. Higher functional connectivity in depression is shown by red connecting lines, and includes higher functional connectivity of the non-reward/punishment-related lateral orbitofrontal cortex with the precuneus, posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), subcallosal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), angular gyrus, and inferior frontal gyrus. Lower functional connectivity in depression is shown by blue connecting lines, and includes lower functional connectivity of the medial orbitofrontal cortex with the parahippocampal gyrus memory system (PHG), amygdala, temporal cortex and supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). The part of the medial orbitofrontal cortex in which voxels were found with lower functional connectivity in depression is indicated in green. The areas apart from the medial orbitofrontal cortex shown are as defined in the automated anatomical labelling atlas (Rolls et al. 2015 ), although the investigations that form the basis for the summary were at the voxel level

Increased functional connectivity of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex with brain areas that include the precuneus and posterior cingulate cortex and angular gyrus is found in patients with depression, and is reduced towards the levels in controls when treated with medication (Cheng et al. 2016 , 2018a , 2018b ; Rolls et al. 2020a ). This is interpreted as related to negative self-esteem and enhanced language-related rumination in depression (Cheng et al. 2016 ; Rolls et al. 2020b ; Zhang et al. 2023 ).

Decreased functional connectivity of the medial orbitofrontal cortex with medial temporal lobe areas involved in memory is found in patients with depression (Cheng et al. 2016 ). This is interpreted as being related to less processing or efficacy of systems involved in happy memories in depression (Rolls et al. 2020b ; Zhang et al. 2023 ).

In an activation study with more than 1000 participants, it was found that in individuals with some symptoms of depression, the lateral orbitofrontal cortex has increased sensitivity to not winning, and the medial orbitofrontal cortex has decreased sensitivity to winning in the monetary incentive delay task (Xie et al. 2021 ). This provides support for Rolls’ theory of depression (Rolls 2016b , 2018 ; Rolls et al. 2020b ).

Some treatments for depression may act by reducing activity or connectivity of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (Rolls et al. 2020b ). New treatments are needed that increase activity or connectivity of the medial orbitofrontal cortex as a possible treatment for depression (Rolls et al. 2020b ), and one possibility is that ketamine implements this (Zhang et al. 2023 ).

These concepts, and that of increased activity in non-reward attractor networks, have potential for advancing our understanding and treatment of depression. Indeed, the hypothesis is developed that the orbitofrontal cortex has a special role in emotion and decision-making and depression in part because as a cortical area and because of its connectivity with other cortical regions it can implement attractor networks useful in maintaining reward and emotional states online including ruminating thoughts, and in decision-making (Rolls et al. 2020b ; Rolls 2021b ). Maintaining language-related ruminating thoughts because of cortico-cortical feedback loops involving attractor networks may make depressive states particularly severe in humans (Rolls 2016b , 2018 ).

Role of reward and emotion in episodic and semantic memory

The human orbitofrontal cortex connecting with the vmPFC and anterior cingulate cortex provides a route to the hippocampus for reward and emotional value to be incorporated into episodic memory, enabling memory of where a reward was seen (Rolls 2022b ; Rolls et al. 2023b , 2023d ) (Figs. 5 and 15 ). In particular, the green arrows in Fig.  15 show how reward regions of the orbitofrontal cortex, vmPFC (pOFC, 10r, 10v) and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (a24 and p32), and punishment/non-reward regions of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (47m) have effective connectivity with the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and perirhinal cortex. Consistent with this, some neurons in the primate hippocampus respond to a combination of a spatial view and the reward value that is available at that location in a scene location—reward memory task (Rolls and Xiang 2005 ). It is argued that reward, punishment, and more generally emotional value are important components of episodic memory (Rolls 2022b ).

Effective connectivity of the Ventrolateral Visual Stream which reaches inferior temporal cortex TE regions in which objects and faces are represented (red arrows): schematic overview. One of the red arrows shows how the Ventrolateral Visual Stream provides ‘what’ input to the hippocampal memory system via parahippocampal gyrus TF to perirhinal PeEc connectivity from FFC, PH, TE1p, TE2a and TE2p. The green arrows show how reward regions of the orbitofrontal cortex, vmPFC (pOFC, 10r, 10v) and pregenual anterior cingulate (a24 and p32), and punishment/non-reward regions of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (47m) have effective connectivity with the hippocampus (Hipp), entorhinal cortex (EC), and perirhinal cortex (PeEC). The Ventrolateral Visual Stream also provides input to the semantic language system via TGd. The Ventrolateral Visual Stream also has connectivity to the inferior parietal visual area PFm, PGs and PGi as indicated by 2 green arrows. The widths of the lines and the size of the arrowheads indicate the magnitude and direction of the effective connectivity. After Rolls et al ( 2023i )

Beyond this, it is proposed that this reward value component results in primarily episodic memories with some value component to be repeatedly recalled from the hippocampus so that they are more likely to become incorporated into neocortical semantic and autobiographical memories (Rolls 2022b ). This is thus a theory of how reward or utility value is important in influencing what information is stored in semantic long-term memory (Rolls 2022b ), which is a key aspect of memory consolidation.

The same orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate regions also connect in humans to the septal and basal forebrain cholinergic nuclei (Rolls et al. 2023d ) (Fig.  7 ), which in turn project to the hippocampus and neocortex respectively, where acetylcholine is known to be important in memory consolidation (Hasselmo and Sarter 2011 ; Zaborszky et al. 2018 ). It is therefore proposed that key brain systems in the orbitofrontal cortex, vmPFC, and anterior cingulate cortex involved in reward value decoding and emotion play key roles in consolidation of information into hippocampal episodic and also semantic long-term neocortical memory (Rolls 2022b ). This also helps to account (Rolls 2022b ) for why damage to the vmPFC and anterior cingulate cortex impairs memory (Bonnici and Maguire 2018 ; McCormick et al. 2018 ).

Brain systems for emotion and motivation in primates including humans compared to those in rodents

Emphasis is placed on research in primates and humans, because there is evidence that the rodent taste and food reward systems operate somewhat differently in primates and humans vs rodents (Rolls 2014b , 2015 , 2016d , 2023d ). In brief, the taste system is different in rodents in that there is a pontine taste area which then projects subcortically, but in primates there is no pontine taste area and cortical processing is performed first (Fig.  16 ).

Taste pathways in the macaque and rat. In the macaque , gustatory information reaches the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), which projects directly to the taste thalamus (ventral posteromedial nucleus, pars parvocellularis, VPMpc) which then projects to the taste cortex in the anterior insula (Insula). The insular taste cortex then projects to the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala. The orbitofrontal cortex projects taste information to the anterior cingulate cortex. Both the orbitofrontal cortex and the amygdala project to the hypothalamus (and to the ventral striatum). In macaques, feeding to normal self-induced satiety does not decrease the responses of taste neurons in the NTS or taste insula (and by inference not VPMpc) (see text). In the rat , in contrast, the NTS projects to a pontine taste area, the parabrachial nucleus (PbN). The PbN then has projections directly to a number of subcortical structures, including the hypothalamus, amygdala, and ventral striatum, thus bypassing thalamo-cortical processing. The PbN in the rat also projects to the taste thalamus (VPMpc), which projects to the rat taste insula. The taste insula in the rat then projects to an agranular orbitofrontal cortex (AgOFC), which probably corresponds to the most posterior part of the primate OFC, which is agranular. (In primates, most of the orbitofrontal cortex is granular cortex, and the rat may have no equivalent to this Wise 2008 ; Small and Scott 2009 ; Passingham and Wise 2012 ; Rolls 2014b , 2015 ). In the rat, satiety signals such as gastric distension and satiety-related hormones decrease neuronal responses in the NTS (see text), and by inference therefore in the other brain areas with taste-related responses, as indicated in the Figure

Second, in rodents, the taste and olfactory systems are modulated peripherally [in the nucleus of the solitary tract and the olfactory bulb respectivelyPager et al. 1972 ; Palouzier-Paulignan et al. 2012 ; Rolls 2015 )] by hunger so that reward is represented peripherally and is entangled with sensory processing, whereas in primates and humans food perception is separated from its reward value, as described elsewhere (Rolls 2014b , 2016d , 2019b , 2021b , 2023d ) (Fig.  16 ). A perceptual correlate of this is that when humans feed to satiety, the intensity of the flavor changes very little, whereas the pleasantness of the flavor decreases to zero (Rolls et al. 1983a ; Rolls and Rolls 1997 ), showing that in humans perceptual representations of taste and olfaction are kept separate from hedonic representations. This is adaptive, in that we do not go blind to the sight, taste, and smell of food after eating it to satiety, and can therefore still learn about where food is located in the environment even when we are not hungry (Rolls 2014b ).

Third, the orbitofrontal cortex is very little developed in rodents (with only an agranular part) (Wise 2008 ), yet is one of the major brain areas involved in taste and olfactory processing, and emotion and motivation, in primates, including humans (Rolls 2014b , 2023d ). These findings make the rodent taste and olfactory system a poor model of neural reward processing in humans, and for that reason emphasis is placed here on discoveries in primates and humans (Rolls 2014b , 2015 , 2016d , 2019b , 2021b , 2023d ). For example, in rodents, movements and actions may be represented in the ‘orbitofrontal cortex’ or what in fact may be the agranular insula (Wilson et al. 2014 ; Sharpe et al. 2015 ).

Fourth, the visual system is very different in primates including humans vs rodents, partly because of foveate vision (Rolls 2023a , d ). In primates, ventral visual stream object and face recognition become computationally tractable because the fovea provides for fixation in which only one or a very few objects are present, and performs object recognition with a relatively small receptive field in complex natural scenes (Rolls et al. 2003a ; Aggelopoulos et al. 2005 ; Aggelopoulos and Rolls 2005 ; Rolls 2021b , a , 2023d ). In the primate dorsal visual system, there is also great development to provide mechanisms to provide for the fixation of objects in complex natural scenes, and then to perform actions such as reaching and grasping of fixated objects (Itti and Koch 2000 ; Bisley and Goldberg 2010 ; Rolls and Webb 2014 ; Fattori et al. 2017 ; Galletti and Fattori 2018 ; Gamberini et al. 2021 ; Rolls 2023d ; Rolls et al. 2023b ). Foveate vision has an enormous impact too on other brain systems, including the hippocampal memory system (Rolls 2021b , 2023a , c ). There are even differences at a trivial level, in that locomotion greatly increases the firing of rodent visual cortex (Zatka-Haas et al. 2021 ), whereas the primate inferior temporal visual cortex is little affected by whether an action is performed or not (Rolls et al. 1977 , 2003a ; Aggelopoulos et al. 2005 ; Aggelopoulos and Rolls 2005 ), and instead elegantly represents the identity of the stimulus that is being shown without the great interference described for the rodent. Further, rodents have no posterior cingulate cortex (Vogt 2009 ; Rolls 2021b ). Further, the prefrontal cortex appears to be very different in primates including humans compared to rodents (Passingham 2021 ).

Fifth, understanding of the functions of different subregions of the rodent orbitofrontal cortex is still limited (Izquierdo 2017 ; Barreiros et al. 2021 ).

For these reasons, emphasis here is placed on systems-level investigations in primates and humans, for there is evidence that many cortical systems operate so differently in rodents (Passingham 2021 ; Rolls 2021b , 2023d ). Some of these differences are set out in Sect. 19.10 of Rolls ( 2023d ).

Implications for welfare

An implication of the above approach to emotion and motivation is that when considering animal welfare, it is likely to be important to take into account what value each species places on different rewards and the avoidance of possible aversive stimuli. This can in principle be measured by measuring the choices that animals make between different rewards or avoiding different potential punishers. The procedures are well known in neuroeconomics, in which it is possible to measure for example how many drops of fruit juice A are chosen equally often as two drops of fruit juice B (Padoa-Schioppa and Assad 2006 ; Padoa-Schioppa 2007 ; Padoa-Schioppa and Assad 2008 ; Padoa-Schioppa 2011 ; Padoa-Schioppa and Cai 2011 ; Cai and Padoa-Schioppa 2012 ; Glimcher and Fehr 2013 ; Rolls 2014b ; Platt et al. 2016 ; Padoa-Schioppa and Conen 2017 ; Yamada et al. 2018 ; Cai and Padoa-Schioppa 2019 ; Kuwabara et al. 2020 ; Dawkins 2021 ). Similar titration procedures could be used to measure what value, measured by choice, a species places on for example food vs bedding vs having other animals nearby vs overcrowding vs being able to take a swim or shower vs being able to sit on a perch vs being able to reach a branch high above the ground vs being able to perform reproductive behaviour, etc. (Dawkins 2023 ). When measuring these choices, it is important to ensure that the choice is being made by the goal-directed reward system for instrumental action, and not by any system involved in a reflex or fixed action pattern, or a learned habit.

Measuring instrumental goal-directed choices made by particular species may be useful to minimize over-anthropomorphic inferences about the value that a species may place on different ‘goods’ (the term used in neuroeconomics). Further, even the evidence taken from humans may need to be carefully assessed, for humans are able to provide reasons with their declarative system for their choices made with their syntactic learning system, but may confabulate reasons why they chose a good when the choice has been made by the emotional or by the automatic habit system (Gazzaniga and LeDoux 1978 ; Rolls 2010a , 2011 , 2020 , 2023d ).

Another implication is that the taste, olfactory and food texture systems present in different species may result in adequate nutrition in their natural environment, but care may be needed to ensure in other environments that the nutrition being made available is appropriate. In this context, it must be remembered that animals do not have flavour mechanisms built to ensure that every possible nutrient needed is being selected by specific appetites for different nutrients. Instead, in the natural environment animals condition to new foods that provide useful nutrients by physiological effects that may occur some time after the food is ingested (Berthoud et al. 2021 ; Rolls 2023d ).

When considering emotional states, we should remember that there are a set of hierarchically organised neural systems that connect what might be defined as emotion-provoking inputs to different types of output, as illustrated in Fig.  2 . I define emotional states as states elicited by rewards and punishers that guide goal-directed instrumental behaviour and that are under the control of the reward (or punishment) value of the goal. I refer here therefore to action–outcome learning where the behaviour is under the control of the reward value of the goal in that devaluation of the goal (e.g. by feeding to satiety) results in an immediate cessation of the behaviour, which is not the case for habits or stimulus–response behaviour (Fig.  2 ). Emotional states are therefore the states involved in implementing this type of goal-dependent instrumental behaviour. We must be very careful to distinguish these emotional states from further states that are related to the subjective feelings, that is to states that in humans are declarative and can be reported and are described as conscious (Rolls 2020 ). Thus the word ‘emotion’ is ambiguous, and it is always essential to make it clear whether the emotional state is one that might link a stimulus input to for example goal-directed goal-dependent behaviour that utilises action–outcome learning, from a state involved in subjective experience, that may involve further brain systems (Fig.  2 ). The corresponding situation arises for the word motivation, which as used here and by others refers to goal-directed behaviour of the type just described, with the word ‘drive’ used for simpler behaviors such as approach to food that may not require internal functional states of the type involved in action–outcome learning (Teitelbaum 1974 ). Thus, for the word ‘motivation’, we should always distinguish systems involved in goal-directed actions, from subjective feelings of being motivated, having ‘desires’.

A set of criteria for achieving good welfare in farm animals, known as the Five Freedoms (Farm Animal Welfare Council 2009 ) consist of: 1. Freedom from hunger and thirst. 2. Freedom from discomfort. 3. Freedom from pain, injury and disease. 4. Freedom to express normal behaviour. 5. Freedom from fear and distress. The present approach suggests that when assessing (4), it will be useful to measure the value of the different types of ‘normal behaviour’ to help assess priorities. The present approach suggests that when assessing (5), farm animals may often be protected from the fears, stressors, and predators that are present in the natural world, but that these provide a scale against which other fear and distress might be calibrated.

Conclusions and highlights

A new approach is taken here to produce a unified understanding of emotion and motivation and their underlying brain mechanisms. In this unified theory of emotion and motivation, motivational states are states in which instrumental goal-directed actions are performed to obtain rewards or avoid punishers, and emotional states are states that are elicited when the reward or punisher is or is not received. This greatly simplifies our understanding of emotion and motivation, for the same set of genes and associated brain systems can define the primary or unlearned rewards and punishers such as sweet taste or pain that can be used for both emotion and motivation.

New evidence on the connectivity in humans of brain systems involved in emotion and motivation is described, which measures the effective connectivity between 360 cortical regions in the Human Connectome Project MultiModal Parcellation atlas (HCP-MMP) (Glasser et al. 2016a ), and is complemented by the addition of 66 subcortical regions (Huang et al. 2022 ). The cortical regions in this atlas are defined by anatomical characteristics (cortical myelin content and cortical thickness), functional connectivity, and task-related fMRI, and provide a useful basis for understanding brain regions with different connectivity and potentially different computational functions. Some of the following points reflect advances in our understanding of brain systems involved in emotion by taking into account the effective connectivity of the human brain, complemented by functional connectivity and diffusion tractography (Rolls et al. 2022a , 2023a , b , d , e , f , i ).

It is shown that the primate including human orbitofrontal cortex represents primary reinforcers such as taste, pain, and pleasant touch, with this information reaching the orbitofrontal cortex from the primary taste cortex in the anterior insula and from somatosensory cortical regions. It is shown that the primate including human orbitofrontal cortex learns associations between these primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers such as the sight of food or of an aversive stimulus in one trial, and can reverse these associations in one trial using a rule- or model-based computation. These stimulus-stimulus learned representations are of expected value. The representations in the orbitofrontal cortex are value-based, and are appropriate for being the goals for motivated behaviour, and for eliciting emotional states. Actions are not represented in the primate orbitofrontal cortex. Other inputs to the orbitofrontal cortex are about socially relevant stimuli such as face expression and face identity, and relate to inputs from the cortex in the superior temporal sulcus. Rewards tend to be represented in the human medial orbitofrontal cortex, and punishers and non-reward in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex. This evidence is complemented by the effects of damage to the orbitofrontal cortex in humans, which impairs reward-related reversal learning, emotional responses, and subjective emotional feelings. In primates, reward and punisher value is not represented in cortical stages of sensory processing prior to the orbitofrontal cortex, such as the insular primary taste cortex and inferior temporal visual cortex.

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) receives from the orbitofrontal cortex, is activated by rewards, is implicated in reward-related decision-making, and has connectivity to the pregenual and supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex (Rolls et al. 2023d ) (Fig.  7 ).

The human medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex, and the vmPFC, have connectivity to the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, which is strongly activated by rewards, and which projects to the hippocampal system, both directly, and via the posterior cingulate cortex (Figs. 5 , 6 , 7 ) (Rolls et al. 2023d ). It is proposed that this provides the route for rewards and emotional states to become part of episodic memory. It is further proposed that the reward/emotional value of recalled episodic memories is important in influencing which memories are further processed and become incorporated into long-term semantic memory. It is further proposed that this route enables goals for navigation to enter the human hippocampal system, and indeed navigation is almost always to obtain goals, and which are reflected in hippocampal neuronal activity (Rolls 2023a , c ).

The human pregenual anterior cingulate cortex has effective connectivity to the septum, from which cholinergic neurons important in memory consolidation project to the hippocampus (Fig.  7 ) (Rolls et al. 2023d ). The human medial orbitofrontal cortex (region pOFC) has effective connectivity to the basal forebrain magnocellular nucleus of Meynert, from which cholinergic neurons important in memory consolidation project to the hippocampus (Fig.  7 ) (Rolls et al. 2023d ). It is proposed that by these routes the value system can influence memory consolidation. Consistent with this, damage to the vmPFC/anterior cingulate cortex in humans impairs memory. It is argued that the human orbitofrontal cortex/vmPFC/pregenual anterior cingulate cortex is not a memory system, but a value system, and that this value system influences memory and memory consolidation by these connectivities (Rolls 2022b ).

The orbitofrontal cortex and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex have connectivity in humans to the supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex, which in turn has connectivity to premotor cortical regions including the midcingulate premotor cortex. It is proposed that these routes provide for action–outcome learning in the supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex, where the outcome is the reward or punisher received from the orbitofrontal cortex and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex.

With this foundation, it is proposed that the function of the primate orbitofrontal cortex in emotion is to represent rewards and punishers, and to implement stimulus – reward/punisher association learning and reversal (i.e. stimulus-stimulus learning). It is argued that in contrast, the role of the supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex is to learn associations between actions and the rewards/punishers that follow the actions, and with this action–outcome learning to influence the future choice of actions when reward/aversive expected value stimuli are received from the orbitofrontal cortex.

It is shown that the human amygdala has effective connectivity from relatively few cortical regions, primarily those in the anterior temporal lobe, and even less effective connectivity back to the neocortex. The outputs of the human amygdala are directed primarily to brainstem regions involved in autonomic responses, cortical arousal, and some behavioural responses. In line with this, there is evidence that the human amygdala is much less involved in reported, experienced, declarative emotion than the orbitofrontal cortex. This is a key re-evaluation of the functions of the human amygdala in human emotion (Rolls, Deco, Huang and Feng 2023a).

It is shown that in addition to these emotion-related outputs to behaviour, in humans and perhaps in other animals there is a rational, reasoning, route to action, that may over-ride the genes selected during evolution to specify the rewards and punishers important in the control of goal-directed behaviour. The reasoning route to action may make choices in the interests of the individual, the phenotype, not in the interests of the gene-specified rewards.

Damage to the orbitofrontal cortex in humans can produce neurological changes such as reduced ability to respond correctly to emotion-relevant stimuli such as face and voice expression, and to learn and change behaviour in response to reinforcement contingencies. It is shown that altered connectivity of the orbitofrontal cortex with other brain regions, and sensitivity of the medial orbitofrontal cortex to rewards and of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex to punishers is involved in human depression.

In relation to welfare, it is proposed that measurement by choice of the value of goal-related options is important to consider, and needs to be distinguished from other routes to responses such as fixed action patterns, reflexes, taxes, and habits that result from over-training.

Data availability

No new data were analysed for this review paper. The effective connectivity, functional connectivity, and diffusion tractography analyses referred to here (Huang et al. 2021 ; Ma et al. 2022 ; Rolls et al. 2022a , b , 2023a , b , d , e , f , h , i ) were performed with Human Connectome Project data (Glasser et al. 2016b ), which are available at the HCP website http://www.humanconnectome.org/ . The Human Connectome Project Multimodal Parcellation atlas and its availability are described by Glasser et al. ( 2016a ), and the extended version HCPex is described by Huang et al. ( 2022 ), and is available at https://www.oxcns.org .

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the UK Medical Research Council. The participation of many colleagues in the studies cited is sincerely acknowledged. They include Ivan de Araujo, Gordon Baylis, Leslie Baylis, Heather Berlin, Wei Cheng, Hugo Critchley, Gustavo Deco, Jianfeng Feng, Paul Gabbott, Fabian Grabenhorst, Michael Hasselmo, Julia Hornak, Mikiko Kadohisa, Morten Kringelbach, Christiana Leonard, Christian Margot, Ciara McCabe, Francis McGlone, John O’Doherty, Barbara Rolls, Juliet Rolls, Thomas Scott, Zenon Sienkiewicz, Simon Thorpe, Maria Ines Velazco, Justus Verhagen, and Simon Yaxley.

This paper did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Other theories of emotion

For completeness, I now outline some other theories of emotion, and compare them with the above (Rolls’) theory of emotion. Surveys of some of the approaches to emotion that have been taken in the past are provided by Strongman ( 2003 ) and Keltner et al. ( 2018 ).

The James-Lange and other bodily theories of emotion including Damasio’s theory

James ( 1884 ) believed that emotional experiences were produced by sensing bodily changes, such as changes in heart rate or in skeletal muscles. Lange ( 1885 ) had a similar view, although he emphasized the role of autonomic feedback (for example from the heart) in producing the experience of emotion. The theory, which became known as the James-Lange theory, suggested that there are three steps in producing emotional feelings. The first step is elicitation by the emotion-provoking stimulus of peripheral changes, such as skeleto-muscular activity to produce running away, and autonomic changes, such as alteration of heart rate. But, as pointed out above, the theory leaves unanswered perhaps the most important issue in any theory of emotion: Why do some events make us run away (and then feel emotional), whereas others do not? This is a major weakness of this type of theory. The second step is the sensing of the peripheral responses (e.g. running away, and altered heart rate). The third step is elicitation of the emotional feeling in response to the sensed feedback from the periphery.

The history of research into peripheral theories of emotion starts with the fatal flaw that step one (the question of which stimuli elicit emotion-related responses in the first place) leaves unanswered this most important question. The history continues with the accumulation of empirical evidence that has gradually weakened more and more the hypothesis that peripheral responses made during emotional behaviour have anything to do with producing the emotional behaviour (which has largely already been produced anyway according to the James-Lange theory), or the emotional feeling. Some of the landmarks in this history are described by Rolls ( 2014b ).

First, the peripheral changes produced during emotion are not sufficiently distinct to be able to carry the information that would enable one to have subtly different emotional feelings to the vast range of different stimuli that can produce different emotions. The evidence suggests that by measuring many peripheral changes in emotion, such as heart rate, skin conductance, breathing rate, and hormones such as adrenaline and noradrenaline (known in the United States by their Greek names epinephrine and norepinephrine), it may be possible to make coarse distinctions between, for example, anger and fear, but not much finer distinctions (Keltner et al. 2018 ). Brain processing must of course produce the somewhat different autonomic responses in the first place, and there is evidence that the orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate cortices, perhaps acting via an insular visceral cortex region, are involved in producing autonomic responses (Critchley and Harrison 2013 ; Quadt et al. 2018 ). Of course there are pathways from the viscera to the brain, and visceral changes can influence the brain (Critchley and Harrison 2013 ; Quadt et al. 2018 ; Quadt, Critchley and Nagai 2022), but whether those visceral changes are in the normal causal chain for the elicitation of emotional states is much more difficult to prove.

Second, when emotions are evoked by imagery, then the peripheral responses are much less marked and distinctive than during emotions produced by external stimuli (Ekman et al. 1983 ; Levenson et al. 1990 ). This makes sense in that although an emotion evoked by imagery may be strong, there is no need to produce strong peripheral responses, because no behavioural responses are required.

Third, disruption of peripheral responses and feedback from them either surgically (for example in dogs (Cannon 1927 , 1931 ), or as a result of spinal cord injury in humans (Hohmann 1966 ; Bermond et al. 1991 ), does not abolish emotional responses. What was found was that in some patients there was apparently some reduction in emotions in some situations (Hohmann 1966 ), but this could be related to the fact that some of the patients were severely disabled (which could have produced its own consequences for emotionality), and that in many cases the patients were considerably older than before the spinal cord damage, and this could have been a factor. What was common to both studies was that emotions could be felt by all the patients; and that in some cases, emotions resulting from mental events were even reported as being stronger (Hohmann 1966 ; Bermond et al. 1991 ).

Fourth, when autonomic changes are elicited by injections of, for example, adrenaline or noradrenaline, particular emotions are not produced. Instead, the emotion that is produced depends on the cognitive decoding of the reinforcers present in the situation, for example an actor who insults your parents to make you angry, or an actor who plays a game of hula hoop to make you feel happy (Schachter and Singer 1962 ). In this situation, the hormone adrenaline or noradrenaline can alter the magnitude of the emotion, but not which emotion is felt. This is further evidence that it is the decoded reinforcement value of the input stimulus or events that determines which emotion is felt. The fact that the hormone injections produced some change in the magnitude of an emotion is not very surprising. If you felt your heart pounding for no explicable reason, you might wonder what was happening, and therefore react more or abnormally.

Fifth, if the peripheral changes associated with emotion are blocked with drugs, then this does not block the perception of emotion (Reisenzein 1983 ).

Sixth, it is found that in normal life, behavioural expressions of emotion (for example smiling when at a bowling alley) do not usually occur when one might be expected to feel happy because of a success, but instead occur when one is looking at one’s friends (Kraut and Johnson 1979 ). These body responses, which can be very brief, thus often serve the needs of communication, or of action, not of producing emotional feelings.

Despite this rather overwhelming evidence against an important role for body responses in producing emotions or emotional feelings, Damasio ( 1994 ) effectively tried to resurrect a weakened version of the James-Lange theory of emotion from the nineteenth century, by arguing with his somatic marker hypothesis that after reinforcers have been evaluated, a bodily response (‘somatic marker’) normally occurs, then this leads to a bodily feeling, which in turn is appreciated by the organism to then make a contribution to the decision-making process. [In the James-Lange theory, it was emotional feelings that depend on peripheral feedback; for Damasio, it is the decision of which behavioural response to make that is normally influenced by the peripheral feedback. A quotation from Damasio ( 1994 , p 190) follows: “The squirrel did not really think about his various options and calculate the costs and benefits of each. He saw the cat, was jolted by the body state, and ran.” Here it is clear that the pathway to action uses the body state as part of the route. Damasio would also like decisions to be implemented using the peripheral changes elicited by emotional stimuli. Given all the different reinforcers that may influence behaviour, Damasio ( 1994 ) even suggests that the net result of them all is reflected in the net peripheral outcome, and then the brain can sense this net peripheral result, and thus know what decision to take.] The James-Lange theory has a number of major weaknesses just outlined that apply also to the somatic marker hypothesis.

The somatic marker hypothesis postulates that emotional decision-making is facilitated by peripheral feedback from for example the autonomic nervous system. In a direct test of this, emotional decision-making was measured using the Iowa Gambling Task (Bechara, Damasio, Tranel and Damasio 2005) in patients with pure autonomic failure (Heims et al. 2004 ). In this condition, there is degeneration of the peripheral autonomic system, and thus autonomic responses are severely impaired, and there can be no resulting feedback to the brain. It was found that performance in the Iowa Gambling Task was not impaired, and nor were many other tests of emotion and emotional performance, including face expression identification, theory of mind tasks of social situations, and social cognition tasks. Thus emotional decision-making does not depend on the ongoing feedback from somatic markers related to autonomic function. Damasio might argue that feedback from the autonomic system is not actually important, and that it is feedback from skeletomotor responses such as arm movements or muscle tension that is important. He might also argue that the autonomic feedback is not usually necessary for emotional decision-making, because it can be ‘simulated’ by the rest of the brain. However, the study by Heims et al ( 2004 ) does show that ongoing autonomic feedback is not necessary for normal emotional decision-making, and this leaves the somatic marker hypothesis more precarious.

Part of the evidence for the somatic marker hypothesis was that normal participants in the Iowa Gambling Task were described as deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy (Bechara, Damasio, Tranel and Damasio 1997). The interpretation was that they had implicit (unconscious) knowledge implemented via a somatic marker process that was used in the task, which was not being solved by explicit (conscious) knowledge. Maia and McClelland ( 2004 ; 2005) however showed that with more sensitive questioning, normal participants at least had available to them explicit knowledge about the outcomes of the different decks that was as good as or better than the choices made, weakening the arguments that the task was being solved implicitly and using somatic markers (Bechara, Damasio, Tranel and Damasio 1997; Bechara, Damasio, Tranel and Damasio 2005).

Another argument against the somatic marker hypothesis is that there can be dissociations between autonomic and other indices of emotion, thus providing evidence that behaviour may not follow from autonomic and other effects. For example, lesions of different parts of the amygdala influence autonomic responses and instrumental behaviour differently (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ).

Another major weakness, which applies to both the James-Lange and to Damasio’s somatic marker hypothesis, and to the roles of feedback from the autonomic system to the brain (Quadt, Critchley and Nagai 2022), is that they do not take account of the fact that once an information processor has determined that a response should be made or inhibited based on reinforcement association, a function attributed in Rolls’ theory of emotion (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ) to the orbitofrontal cortex, it would be very inefficient and noisy to place in the execution route a peripheral response, and transducers to attempt to measure that peripheral response, itself a notoriously difficult procedure. Even for the cases when Damasio ( 1994 ) might argue that the peripheral somatic marker and its feedback can be by-passed using conditioning of a representation in, e.g., the somatosensory cortex to a command signal (which might originate in the orbitofrontal cortex), he apparently would still wish to argue that the activity in the somatosensory cortex is important for the emotion to be appreciated or to influence behaviour. (Without this, the somatic marker hypothesis would vanish.) The prediction would apparently be that if an emotional response were produced to a visual stimulus, then this would necessarily involve activity in the somatosensory cortex or other brain region in which the ‘somatic marker’ would be represented. This prediction could be tested (for example in patients with somatosensory cortex damage), but it seems most unlikely that an emotion produced by a visual reinforcer would require activity in the somatosensory cortex to feel emotional or to elicit emotional decisions. However, it has been found that the more damage there is to somatosensory cortex, the greater the impairment in the emotional state reported by patients (Adolphs et al. 2000 ). However, the parts of the somatosensory system that appear to be damaged most frequently in the patients with emotional change are often in the anterior and ventral extensions of the somatosensory cortex in insular and nearby areas, and it would be useful to know whether this damage interrupted some of the connections or functions of the orbitofrontal cortex areas just anterior.

More recently, Damasio has stated the somatic marker hypothesis in a weak form, suggesting that somatic markers do not even reflect the valence of the reinforcer, but just provide a signal that depends on the intensity of the emotion, independently of the type of emotion. On this view, the role of somatic markers in decision-making would be very general, providing, as Damasio says, just a jolt to spur the system on (A.R. Damasio, paper delivered at the 6th Annual Wisconsin Symposium on Emotion, April 2000).

The alternative view proposed here and elsewhere (Rolls 1990 , 2000a , b , 2014b , 2018 ) is that where the reinforcement value of the visual stimulus is decoded, namely in the orbitofrontal cortex and the amygdala, is the appropriate part of the brain for outputs to influence behaviour (via, e.g., the orbitofrontal to cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal-to-striatal connections), and that the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala, and brain structures that receive connections from them, are the likely places where neuronal activity is directly related to emotional states.

Appraisal theory

Appraisal theory (Frijda 1986 ; Moors et al. 2013 ; Keltner et al. 2018 ) generally holds that two types of appraisal are involved in emotion. Primary appraisal holds that “an emotion is usually caused by a person consciously or unconsciously evaluating an event as relevant to a concern (a goal) that is important; the emotion is felt as positive when a concern is advanced and negative when a concern is impeded” (Oatley and Jenkins 1996 ). The concept of appraisal presumably involves assessment of whether something is a reward or punisher, that is whether it will be worked for or avoided. The description in terms of rewards and punishers adopted here (and by Rolls ( 2014a ) simply seems much more precisely and operationally specified. If primary appraisal is defined with respect to goals, it might be helpful to note that goals may just be the reinforcers specified in Rolls’ theory of emotion (Rolls 1999 , 2000a , 2005 , 2014a ), and if so the reinforcer/punisher approach provides clear definitions of goals. Secondary appraisal is concerned with coping potential, that is with whether for example a plan can be constructed, and how successful it is likely to be.

Scherer ( 2009 ) summarizes his appraisal theory approach as follows. He suggests that there are four major appraisal objectives to adaptively react to a salient event:

Relevance: How relevant is this event for me? Does it directly affect me or my social reference group?

Implications: What are the implications or consequences of this event and how do they affect my well-being and my immediate or long-term goals?

Coping Potential: How well can I cope with or adjust to these consequences?

Normative Significance: What is the significance of this event for my self-concept and for social norms and values?

To attain these objectives, the organism evaluates the event and its consequences on a number of criteria or stimulus evaluation checks, with the results reflecting the organism's subjective assessment (which may well be unrealistic or biased) of consequences and implications on a background of personal needs, goals, and values. Scherer ( 2009 ) states that an important feature of the model is that it does not include overt instrumental behaviour. Instead he sees emotion as a reaction to significant events that prepares action readiness and different types of alternative, possibly conflicting, action tendencies but not as a sufficient cause for their execution. This is a clear difference from my theory, in that my theory is that emotions are states that have a key role in brain design by providing a way for stimuli to produce states that are the goals for instrumental actions. Of course stimuli that are instrumental reinforcers, goals for action, can also produce adaptive autonomic and skeletomotor reflexes (such as freezing), but these are responses, and can be classically conditioned, but do not require intervening goal-related representations or states, which are emotional and motivational states.

I note that appraisal theory is in many ways quite close to the theory that I outline here and elsewhere (Rolls 1999 , 2000a , 2005 , 2014a ), and I do not see them as rivals. Instead, I hope that those who have an appraisal theory of emotion will consider whether much of what is encompassed by primary appraisal is not actually rather close to assessing whether stimuli or events are instrumental reinforcers; and whether much of what is encompassed by secondary appraisal is rather close to taking into account the actions that are possible in particular circumstances.

An aspect of some flavours of appraisal theory with which I do not agree is that emotions have as one of their functions releasing particular actions, which seems to make a link with species-specific action tendencies or responses, or ‘fixed action patterns’ (Panksepp 1998 , 2011 ) or more ‘open motor programs’ (Ekman 2003 ). I argue that rarely are behavioural responses programmed by genes, but instead genes optimize their effects on behaviour if they specify the goals for (flexible) actions, that is if they specify rewards and punishers (Rolls 2014b ). The difference is quite considerable, in that specifying goals is much more economical in terms of the information that must be encoded in the genome; and in that specifying goals for actions allows much more flexibility in the actual actions that are produced. Of course I acknowledge that there is some preparedness to learn associations between particular types of secondary and primary reinforcers (Seligman 1970 ), and see this just as an economy of sensory-sensory convergence in the brain, whereby for example it does not convey much advantage to be able to learn that flashing lights (as contrasted with the taste of a food just eaten) are followed by sickness.

Panksepp’s theory of emotion

Panksepp’s approach to emotion had its origins in neuroethological investigations of brainstem systems that when activated lead to behaviours like fixed action patterns, including escape, flight and fear behaviour (Panksepp 1998 , 2011 ). Using evidence from brain stimulation that elicits behaviours, he has postulated that there are a set of basic emotions, including for example Seeking, Rage, Fear, Lust, Care, Panic/Grief and Play. He argued that these are ‘natural kinds’, things that exist in nature as opposed to being inventions (constructions) of the human mind. My view is that there are not a few basic emotions, that emotions do not involve fixed action patterns as these do not require intervening emotional states to support goal-directed instrumental actions, and that emotions can be classified based on the specific reinforcer, the specific reinforcement contingency, the actions that are available, etc. as described in Rolls’ theory of emotion (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ).

Dimensional, categorical, and other theories of emotion

Dimensional and categorical theories of emotion suggest that there are a number of fundamental or basic emotions. Charles Darwin for example in his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin 1872 ) showed that some basic expressions of emotion are similar in animals and humans. Some of the examples he gave are shown in Table 1 . His focus was on the continuity between animals and humans of how emotion is expressed.

In a development of this approach, Ekman ( 1992 ; 2003 ) has suggested that humans categorize face expressions into a number of basic categories that are similar across cultures. These face expression categories include happy, fear, anger, surprise, grief and sadness.

A related approach is to identify a few clusters of variables or factors that result from multidimensional analysis of questionnaires, and to identify these factors as basic emotions. (Multidimensional analyses such as factor analysis seek to identify a few underlying sources of variance to which a large number of data values such as answers to questions are related.)

One potential problem with some of these approaches is that they risk finding seven plus or minus two categories, which is the maximal number of categories with which humans normally operate, as described in a famous paper by George Miller ( 1956 ). A second problem is that there is no special reason why the first few factors (which account for most of the variance) in a factor analysis should provide a complete or principled classification of different emotions, or of their functions. In contrast, the theory described here does produce a principled classification of different emotions based on reinforcement contingencies, the nature of the primary and secondary reinforcers, etc., as set out by Rolls ( 2014b ). Moreover, the present theory links the functions of emotions to the classification produced, by showing how the functions of emotion can be understood in terms of the gene-specified reinforcers that produce different emotions (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ).

An opposite approach to the dimensional or categorical approach is to attempt to describe the richness of every emotion (Ben-Ze'ev 2001 ). Although it is important to understand the richness of every emotion, I believe that this is better performed with a set of underlying principles of the type set out above and by Rolls ( 2014b ), rather than without any obvious principles to approach the subtlety of emotions.

LeDoux has described a theory of the neural basis of emotion (LeDoux 1992 , 1995 , 1996 , 2012 ) that is probably conceptually similar to that of Rolls (Rolls 1999 , 2000a , 2005 , 2014a , 2018 ) except that he focuses mostly on the role of the amygdala in emotion (and not on other brain regions such as the orbitofrontal cortex, which are poorly developed in the rat); except that he focuses mainly on fear (based on his studies of the role of the amygdala and related structures in fear conditioning in the rat); and except that he suggests from his neurophysiological findings that an important route for conditioned emotional stimuli to influence behaviour is via the subcortical inputs (especially auditory from the medial part of the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus) to the amygdala. In contrast, I suggest that cortical processing to the object representation level before the representation is then sent to areas such as the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex is normally involved in emotion, as emotions normally occur to objects, faces, etc. and not to spots of light or pure tones, which is what are represented precortically. Further, LeDoux ( 2012 ) has emphasized especially reflexes and classically conditioned reflexes such as autonomic responses and freezing, which I argue have adaptive value or in LeDoux’s words ‘survival value’, whereas Rolls’ theory is that emotional and motivational states are important intervening states in relation to instrumental actions. The way in which the rodent and amygdala literature has focussed on conditioned responses and not on emotional feelings is described by LeDoux and colleagues (LeDoux, Brown, Pine and Hofmann 2018; LeDoux and Daw 2018 ; Mobbs et al. 2019 ; LeDoux 2020 ; Taschereau-Dumouchel et al. 2022 ). Indeed, in this more recent research, LeDoux has reached the view that in humans the amygdala is not closely involved in emotional feelings, but does not suggest an alternative. I propose that the key parts of the human brain involved in emotional feelings are the orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate cortex, with the evidence provided above (Rolls 2014b , 2018 ; Rolls, Deco, Huang and Feng 2023a).

Barrett proposed a theory of constructed emotion (Barrett 2017 ) in which “the dynamics of the default mode, salience and frontoparietal control networks form the computational core of a brain’s dynamic internal working model of the body in the world, entraining sensory and motor systems to create multi-sensory representations of the world at various time scales from the perspective of someone who has a body, all in the service of allostasis.” “In other words, allostasis (predictively regulating the internal milieu) and interoception (representing the internal milieu) are at the anatomical and functional core of the nervous system (see also (Kleckner et al. 2017 )).” Claude Bernard introduced the concept of regulation of the internal milieu (Bernard 1865 ), and Cannon developed this into the concept of homeostasis (Cannon 1929 ; Goldstein 2019 ). Rolls’ theory is that many physiological processes involve regulation, but that emotion is linked to instrumental behavioural actions required to obtain rewards and avoid punishers. Rewards and punishers may be useful for homeostasis, but are also useful for many other functions including for example reproduction, and for example in humans using the reasoning system to perform actions in the interests of phenotypes, which can be other individuals.

Other approaches to emotion are summarized by Keltner et al. ( 2018 ).

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Rolls, E.T. Emotion, motivation, decision-making, the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and the amygdala. Brain Struct Funct 228 , 1201–1257 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-023-02644-9

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Agmatine (250mg): A molecule that is thought to be produced by the gut microbiome, agmatine is an amine molecule that is believed to alleviate depressive-like symptoms and even support metabolic syndromes like diabetes and obesity; albeit the mechanism of such is unclear. (4)

Ginseng (200mg): A centuries-old remedy originating from East Asia, ginseng is known to be a preventative measure for neurodegeneration disorder, Alzheimer’s, as well as remediate depressive symptoms in numerous clinical studies. (5)

Ashwagandha (300mg): Ashwagandha, Withania somnifera , is an Ayurvedic wonder that is known for its natural adaptogenic (ability to handle stress in a methodical, sequential manner) properties, as well as its anxiolytic ( anxiety-reducing ) characteristics. Plus, in numerous clinical studies, there is statistically significant indication of ashwagandha’s antioxidant properties; helping to reduce free radicals that cause cellular damage and early signs of aging throughout numerous organ systems. (6,7)

Zembrin® (25mg): A proprietary blend containing selectium or also known as kanna, Mesembryanthemum tortuosum , Zembrin is known for its anti-anxiety properties that holds no sedative qualities but offers an elevate, peaceful state of being. (8)

Thesis Clarity Review

Thesis’s Clarity is endorsed to get you in—and improve—your flow state. With a heightened sense of focus and analytical processing, let’s see if the ingredients really live up to its name:

Alpha GPC (500mg): (see benefits in Creativity ingredient list above)

Lion’s Mane (500mg): Lion’s mane, Hericium erinaceus , has been studies in numerous scientific studies examining the effect of lion’s mane in reducing depressive episodes among patient with mild to severe depression by reducing an inflammation pathway that has been linked to worsening depression and possessing a chemical structure like dopamine and serotonin—the “happy” chemicals of the brain. Happy chemicals, clearer intention. (9)

Epicatechin (278mg): A potent flavanol found in apples, berries, cacao, and tea, within large scale studies, these molecules have been found to improve cerebral (brain) blood flow; improving flow of nutrients to neurons, aiding in repair and regeneration. (10)

7,8-DHF (30mg): 7,8 DHF, short for 7,8-dihydroxyflavone, is a humble, yet mighty molecule that is known to act on a vital pathway in the brain’s regenerative properties (acting similar to brain-derived neurotrophic factor). Why should we care and why with Thesis place this essential ingredient into their Clarity formulation? Studies suggest that because of 7,8 DHF’s ability to act on this pathway, we now have a way to consume on a daily basis a molecule that protects neurons from free radical damage and encourage neuronal growth. It seems the Thesis team has really placed the science and biology at the forefront of their formulations. (11)

Thesis Motivation Review

Take 30 minutes prior your daily tasks and settle into a routine of dedicated, goal-driven mindset to get you through any task you need to accomplish in the day ahead. How does Thesis make an impossible feat possible with its Motivation formulation? Let’s look:

Artichoke Extract: Although the scientific community is still seeking true influence of artichoke extract on brain protection, current studies have suggested that artichoke extract, rich in flavonoid, has an anticholinesterase blocking property. Why should we care? In certain neurodegenerative diseases (i.e., Alzheimer’s), blocking this anticholinesterase enzyme has been shown to improve the long-term outcomes of such diseases. With the added benefits of neuroprotection, we get why Thesis include artichoke extract in the Motivation ingredient line-up. (12)

Forskolin: A pure molecule extracted by the East Asian plant, Coleus forskohlii , known by the scientific community to increase cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels, this is vital for optimum cognition and, like the artichoke extract, acts as a neuroprotectant. (13)

L-Phenylalanine: One of the 26 amino acids, has been suggested to have a direct correlation between levels of l-phenylalanine and dopamine, the reward chemical . With dopamine, humans quite literally lose motivation for even the most primal of needs (i.e., eating, procreating, sleeping, etc.). Important to stay motivated? We think so, too. (12)

Vitamin B12: Also known as cobalamin, vitamin B12 is vital for cognitive function in both the central (brain and spinal cord) as well as peripheral nervous system ; albeit the exact daily dose to provide this benefit is still debated amongst the medical community. (13)

Thesis Energy Review

It’s likely universally agreed that we could all use more of this currency (in addition to time!). But what makes Thesis’s Energy a true remedy for energy deficiency? Let’s peek:

Choline (300mg): According to Numerous clinical studies, choline, a nutrient present in eggs and liver, increases dopamine levels and assist in memory loss. Wonder if dopamine plays a role in energy? Absolutely it does! Our limbic reward system is directly ties to excitement and perceivable elevation of energy. (14)

Zynamite® (300mg): Known also as mangiferin ( Mangifera indica ), studies have suggested to have a synergistic effect during states of exercise by increasing the rates of oxygenation in the brain; supporting neurons with nutrient-dense electrolytes and glucose. Why did Thesis include this? More glucose to the brain means more sustained energy.  (15) 

TeaCrine® (100mg): Originating from the tree, Camellia kucha, TeaCrine has been known to support cognitive functioning as well as sustain energy throughout the day; especially when taken in conjunction with natural forms of caffeine (i.e., green tea extract). (16)

NAC (500mg): Although the mechanism as to whether NAC, N-acetyl cysteine, affects and promotes sustained energy levels throughout the day, researchers have noted potent antioxidant properties; suggesting there is some form of neurological protection as many neurodegenerative disorders are initiated by an inflammatory insult from free radicals. (17)

Sabroxy® (100mg): A study by Lopresti et al (2021) found that daily use of Oroxylum indicum extract (Sabroxy) had notable improvement in speed of processing thoughts when acquiring or approaching a new task in their subject groups. Important to sustain that energy by higher processing speeds? Absolutely. (18)

NALT (300mg): Known as N-acetyl tyrosine, NALT has been suggested to improve energy levels throughout the day as well as having evidence for improvement of dismantling longer term memory loss. (19)

Thesis Logic Review

So you have the energy, the motivation, the clarity, and creativity, but what is that all goof for if you quite literally have no logical sense of the actions you are performing? Thesis agrees. That is why they’ve included Logic in their mind wellness lineup. Although they have their handy quiz to help support you in your specific cognitive needs, we like to think we saved the one of the most important for last to review this powerful ingredient roster:

Ginkgo Biloba (160mg): Gingko biloba extract, coming from Ginkgo biloba, has a multitude of properties that all act in favor of your nervous system. Gingko biloba has been suggested to improve your innate levels of serotonin and dopamine, as well as improve long term cognition of hippocampal function and act as a free radial scavenger, protecting the prefrontal lobe where executive functioning takes place (i.e., the logical portion of your brain!). (20)

Theobromine (100mg): Extracted from the cacao tree, theobromine is believed to act on a series of pathways whereby improved working memory (your current memory that, for example, recalled the name of the company in which this article is written about). Important for logic? Without a doubt. Well done, Thesis team! (21)

Phosphatidylserine (400mg): Phosphatidylserine is known for its neuroprotective properties; supporting the myelin sheath (the protective layer around each neuron that improve its efficacy of neuronal transmission). (22)

DHA (200mg): Abbreviated DHA for docosahexaenoic acid, this is the most abundant omega-3 in the brain. This molecule integrates into the cellular integrity of brain cells to ensure structural integrity. Think of this as the “grease” that ensures the brain is functioning with optimum logic. (23)

TAU (30mg): Tau is a protein found within the brain that, when it becomes misfolded during its production from DNA into protein, it can become a conglomerate of protein mass that causes the ever-so-known neurodegenerative disease, Alzheimer’s . Logic is severely limited in these cases that is why Thesis utilizes a tau-target remedy as a proactive measure; keeping your logic in-tact for decades to come? Perhaps so. (24)

Synapsa® (320mg): Although unable to find from scientific articles, Thesis endorses on their site that Synpasa® comes from the extract of Bacopa Monnieri that is suggested “to improve cognitive function as well as overall neurological health.” (25)

Thesis Reviews – Customer Testimonies

What are customers saying about the efficacy of Thesis’s lineup of memory-enhancing, brain-protecting, logic-boosting formulations?

George L., a verified customer shares:

“I absolutely love this stuff, seriously. I’ve tried just about every nootropic in addition to making formulas for myself, but nothing comes close to Thesis. I’m actually shocked at how well it works. I work anywhere from 10-14 hours seven days a week and I can feel myself and being more motivated, even after 14 hours, I’ll be a customer for life and I recommend your products to my people.”

It’s always great to see a former skeptic take a complete 180-degree turn and find so much benefit in a product that they  intend to keep it as a daily regiment for life. Quality speaks for itself.

Debbie M writes her experience with Thesis Creativity:

“I have been off stimulants for months now and these formulas are far superior. My husband and daughter both noticed the change and said I have been more productive, focused, less anxious, and more “thinking outside the box”. I have tried for years to get off stims and nothing would work. Thank you for making such an amazing product.”

A happy mom is a happy household. Plus, to hear your fellow humanity share that they are “thinking outside of the box” in a world that is seemingly placing everyone with a “label” what an incredible breakthrough! The power of nootropics and adaptogens at its finest!

Kyle B. shares a heartfelt response on his experience with Thesis products and the team:

“You guys have been a lifesaver for me. I’m not sure how I could have done this past year without some help and you really were there for me. Great experiences and awesome customer service!”

Amazing, integrity inside and out—well done, Thesis.

Most recently, Elliott S. shares his initial skepticism with taking Thesis for the first time:

“I’m going to be honest with you, I was skeptical but I started a new job so I thought maybe it could help. Within a half hour of the first time taking it I saw immediate results. I’m more alert and focused than I’ve been in years. I’m so happy I found Thesis as it has been life changing for me so far.”

Skepticism is good—it means you think before you jump on the latest and greatest health fad. Amazingly, it seems Thesis has erased all wavering on efficacy for Elliott. Thesis products seemingly prove time and again.

Frequently Asked Questions

All of Thesis product are regulated by the current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP) a manufacturing and processing standard that is regulated by the Food & Drug Administration (FDA). All ingredients used by Thesis are third party tested, pass all phrase three clinical trials and the FDA deems all of Thesis’s ingredients as Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS).

Daily! Thankfully, Mother Nature never intentionally harms us and with plenty of scientific studies conducted, nootropics can be taken daily. With all of Thesis’s products, you can take up to two packets per day (one in the morning and next around lunchtime).

Every single body is so unique, so the loading phase (the amount needed during a duration of time to deem notable effects) is also unique. However, some users have found notable difference as soon as 30 minutes upon consumption.

No worries! Thesis isn’t hardcore strict. They believe the personalized formula should be just that: personalized for you. Contact Thesis at 646-647-3599 or send an email to [email protected] to swap out a line that is more appropriate for you.

All orders are sent within same day or next-day upon processing. Packages usually arrive within 3-7 formal business days.

Thesis will do their best to meet your needs, swap out any product you are not satisfied with or refund entirely. Contact Thesis at 646-647-3599 or send an email to [email protected] .

Check out Thesis’s full Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) section here !

Subscribe & Refer A Friend Program

Join Thesis’s Subscribe Program to receive $40 off every order you spend. Cancel or modify without any additional fee. Get your nootropics for a fraction of the cost !

For every friend you refer to Thesis, your friend will receive $25 off their next order and a $25 credit will be applied to your account upon your next purchase! Share the nootropic goodness!

Community Mission

The team at Thesis believes in supporting not just their customers, but their community in the form of sending a part of their proceeds to The Covenant House , a homeless shelter for runaway and at-risk youth. CEO, Dan Freed, knows firsthand what it is like to be at the mercy of an unforgiving system. What better way than to give back? Much respect, team Thesis.

Where Can I Find Thesis?  

Thesis can be found on their main site at Thesis and on their Instagram page, @takethesis .

Final Takeaway

Functional mushrooms to meet your daily cognitive needs? Thesis has created an extensive, yet poignant, lineup of Creativity, Energy, Motivation, Logic, and Clarity. With potent nootropics like lion’s mane, choline, alpha GPC, and ayurvedic powerhouses including ashwagandha and gingko biloba, Thesis has seemingly integrated a handful of pure ingredients into each formulation that is cGMP certified and locally sourced within the United States.

With community outreach to help serve organizations that service homeless children, Thesis was based on a mission beyond their consumer wellness . CEO, Dan Freed, wanted humanity to know that they are not alone. The mental fogginess, the inability to concentrate for longer sets of time, inability to foster an ounce of creativity, Dan knew this wasn’t a human deficiency but  a nutrient deficiency.

Tired of wondering if your mental strain could be remedied by daily consumption of a personalized nootropic lineup? Thesis might just offer the personalized support you’ve been seeking.

Embark on a holistic health and well-being exploration with these popular brands:

• FULLER Overnight Oats
• Natural Stacks

Article Sources

(1) Thesis. AboutUs. Takethesis.com. Updated 2023. Accessed January 29, 2023. https://takethesis.com/

(2) Malík M, Tlustoš P. Nootropics as Cognitive Enhancers: Types, Dosage and Side Effects of Smart Drugs. Nutrients. 2022;14(16):3367. Published 2022 Aug 17. doi:10.3390/nu14163367 (19) Wachtel-Galor, S., Yuen, J., Buswell, J., & Benzie, F. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects . 2 nd edition; 2011. Accessed January 25, 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92757/

(3) Tamura Y, Takata K, Matsubara K, Kataoka Y. Alpha-Glycerylphosphorylcholine Increases Motivation in Healthy Volunteers: A Single-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Human Study. Nutrients. 2021;13(6):2091. Published 2021 Jun 18. doi:10.3390/nu13062091

(4) Valverde AP, Camargo A, Rodrigues ALS. Agmatine as a novel candidate for rapid-onset antidepressant response. World J Psychiatry. 2021;11(11):981-996. Published 2021 Nov 19. doi:10.5498/wjp.v11.i11.981

(5) Lee S, Rhee DK. Effects of ginseng on stress-related depression, anxiety, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. J Ginseng Res. 2017;41(4):589-594. doi:10.1016/j.jgr.2017.01.010

(6) Salve J, Pate S, Debnath K, Langade D. Adaptogenic and Anxiolytic Effects of Ashwagandha Root Extract in Healthy Adults: A Double-blind, Randomized, Placebo-controlled Clinical Study. Cureus. 2019;11(12):e6466. Published 2019 Dec 25. doi:10.7759/cureus.6466

(7) Panossian A, Wikman G. Effects of Adaptogens on the Central Nervous System and the Molecular Mechanisms Associated with Their Stress-Protective Activity. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2010;3(1):188-224. Published 2010 Jan 19. doi:10.3390/ph3010188

(8) Brendler T, Brinckmann JA, Feiter U, et al. Sceletium for Managing Anxiety, Depression and Cognitive Impairment: A Traditional Herbal Medicine in Modern-Day Regulatory Systems. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2021;19(9):1384-1400. doi:10.2174/1570159X19666210215124737

(9) Chong PS, Fung ML, Wong KH, Lim LW. Therapeutic Potential of Hericium erinaceus for Depressive Disorder. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;21(1):163. Published 2019 Dec 25. doi:10.3390/ijms21010163

(10) Haskell-Ramsay CF, Schmitt J, Actis-Goretta L. The Impact of Epicatechin on Human Cognition: The Role of Cerebral Blood Flow. Nutrients. 2018;10(8):986. Published 2018 Jul 27. doi:10.3390/nu10080986

(10) Liu C, Chan CB, Ye K. 7,8-dihydroxyflavone, a small molecular TrkB agonist, is useful for treating various BDNF-implicated human disorders. Transl Neurodegener. 2016;5:2. Published 2016 Jan 6. doi:10.1186/s40035-015-0048-7

(11) El-Nashar HAS, Abbas H, Zewail M, et al. Neuroprotective Effect of Artichoke-Based Nanoformulation in Sporadic Alzheimer’s Disease Mouse Model: Focus on Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Amyloidogenic Pathways. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2022;15(10):1202. Published 2022 Sep 28. doi:10.3390/ph15101202

(12) Lou HC. Dopamine precursors and brain function in phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 1994;407:86-88. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.1994.tb13461.x

(13) Health Quality Ontario. Vitamin B12 and cognitive function: an evidence-based analysis. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser. 2013;13(23):1-45. Published 2013 Nov 1.

(14) Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Nutrition, Trauma, and the Brain. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel . National Academies Press. 2011. Accessed January 29, 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK209327/#:~:text=CHOLINE%20AND%20THE%20BRAIN,and%20can%20ameliorate%20memory%20impairment .

(15) Gelabert-Rebato M, Wiebe JC, Martin-Rincon M, et al. Mangifera indica L. Leaf Extract in Combination With Luteolin or Quercetin Enhances VO2peak and Peak Power Output, and Preserves Skeletal Muscle Function During Ischemia-Reperfusion in Humans. Front Physiol. 2018;9:740. Published 2018 Jun 8. doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.00740

(16) Sheng YY, Xiang J, Wang ZS, et al. Theacrine From Camellia kucha and Its Health Beneficial Effects. Front Nutr. 2020;7:596823. Published 2020 Dec 17. doi:10.3389/fnut.2020.596823

(17) Mokhtari V, Afsharian P, Shahhoseini M, Kalantar SM, Moini A. A Review on Various Uses of N-Acetyl Cysteine. Cell J. 2017;19(1):11-17. doi:10.22074/cellj.2016.4872

(18) Lopresti AL, Smith SJ, Majeed M, Drummond PD. Effects of an Oroxylum indicum Extract (Sabroxy®) on Cognitive Function in Adults With Self-reported Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. Front Aging Neurosci. 2021;13:728360. Published 2021 Aug 31. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.728360

(19) https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/tyrosine

(20) Nguyen, T., & Alzahrani, T. Gingko biloba. StatPearls Publishing . Last updated July 4, 2022. Accessed January 29, 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541024/#:~:text=A%20multicenter%20double%2Dblinded%20randomized,%25%20in%20the%20placebo%20group ).

(21) Islam R, Matsuzaki K, Sumiyoshi E, et al. Theobromine Improves Working Memory by Activating the CaMKII/CREB/BDNF Pathway in Rats. Nutrients. 2019;11(4):888. Published 2019 Apr 20. doi:10.3390/nu11040888

(22) Glade MJ, Smith K. Phosphatidylserine and the human brain. Nutrition. 2015;31(6):781-786. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2014.10.014

(23) Weiser MJ, Butt CM, Mohajeri MH. Docosahexaenoic Acid and Cognition throughout the Lifespan. Nutrients. 2016;8(2):99. Published 2016 Feb 17. doi:10.3390/nu8020099

(24) Gómez-Pinilla F. Brain foods: the effects of nutrients on brain function. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9(7):568-578. doi:10.1038/nrn2421

(25) Thesis. Logic. Takethesis.com. Updated 2023. Accessed January 29, 2023 https://takethesis.com/pages/logic

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Grace morse.

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Thesis Nootropics Review 2024: Effectiveness & Results

In our quest for cognitive enhancement, we recently put Thesis nootropics to the test.

Our goal was simple: to determine if this brain-boosting supplement lives up to its promises.

With a market flooded with various nootropic brands all claiming superior benefits, we understand the importance of an honest and thorough supplement review.

We’ve done the groundwork, scrutinizing every detail from efficacy to side effects, ensuring you get a clear picture of what Thesis offers without any fluff or unnecessary jargon.

Thesis Nootropics Review

Our team at WholisticResearch has put Thesis nootropics to the test, and we’re ready to share our findings. After extensive use, we’ve observed noticeable improvements in our focus, cognitive agility, and memory performance at work.

The effects were subtle but distinct, enhancing our productivity without any adverse side effects. We also appreciated the personalized approach that Thesis takes with its supplements, tailoring them to individual needs.

Analyzing other customer reviews revealed a pattern of satisfaction among users who praised the product for its effectiveness.

However, some noted it took time to find the right formula, which underscores the importance of patience when starting on nootropics.

Pros of Thesis Nootropics

Here are the key advantages we found:

• Improved concentration and mental clarity
• Customized nootropic stacks based on personal assessments
• Absence of significant side effects

Cons of Thesis Nootropics

Despite many benefits, there are drawbacks:

• Time required to identify an effective personal stack
• Premium pricing compared to non-customized options

About Thesis

Thesis is a brand that stands out in the crowded nootropic market. They claim to offer personalized brain enhancement solutions. Unlike other supplement companies, they emphasize customization of their products for individual needs .

The company has gained traction among those interested in cognitive enhancement with nootropics. Their approach allows users to tailor their experience by selecting specific nootropic blends. Each “ Thesis box ” includes four distinct blend packs, providing a month’s supply. A blend pack has each day’s dosage separated in individual sachet packets.

Their popularity stems from the promise of aiding with focus, memory, brain health, and mental clarity. The option to customize allows users to address their unique cognitive demands effectively.

In our collective journey towards optimal mental performance, we’ve observed how people seek products with the right ingredients that resonate with their personal health philosophy and boost energy and motivation. This is where Thesis makes its mark – by offering an experience tailored just for you.

Being a dietary supplement, Thesis is not approved by the FDA.

Customer Reviews & Feedback

The customer review landscape for Thesis Nootropics reveals a mix of experiences. While many users report significant cognitive benefits, others express dissatisfaction due to underwhelming results or logistical issues like shipping delays.

Notably, the personalized nature of the supplements garners appreciation, but the higher price point is a concern for some.

Overall, the satisfaction levels among users are generally positive, with a particular emphasis on the tailored approach to cognitive enhancement.

However, there is a segment of customers who believe there is room for improvement in terms of value and service efficiency.

Positive Reviews of Thesis Nootropics

Customers often share their experiences with products online. Thesis is no exception. We’ve noticed that many users are pleased with the results they’re getting. They report enhanced focus and improved cognitive function .

One aspect that frequently receives praise is how well Thesis nootropics meet expectations. Users appreciate the personalized approach to supplement formulation. It’s tailored to individual needs, which stands out in reviews.

Here’s what we found commendable based on customer feedback:

• Increased mental clarity
• Noticeable boost in concentration
• Supportive customer service

These points suggest a high level of overall satisfaction among users who have tried Thesis Nootropics.

Negative Reviews of Thesis Nootropics

However, not every review glows with positivity. Some customers feel let down by their experience with Thesis. The reasons, including motivation and research focus, vary but provide us with insight into areas for potential improvement and the effects of changes.

In some negative reviews, customers mentioned they did not see the expected benefits or had issues with shipping and handling . A few also pointed out higher costs compared to other nootropics as a downside.

Key concerns from less favorable reviews include:

• Lackluster results for some individuals
• Delivery delays or complications
• Cost effectiveness relative to alternatives

We understand that every product has room for growth based on user feedback, and it seems these are areas where Thesis could potentially refine its offerings or services.

Our Experience with Thesis Nootropics

When our package from Thesis arrived at the WholisticResearch office, we noted its prompt delivery. The supplement packs were well-secured within sleek, minimalist packaging.

Over a period of three weeks, team members Jason Williams, George Collins, and Yoko Hill embarked on a thorough performance testing journey. Between these three, all 6 of the Thesis blends were used and tested.

Jason found the memory-enhancing experience enlightening; he said, “ The clarity I felt was subtle but significant .” His words reflect an appreciation for the nuanced effects of these cognitive enhancers.

Meanwhile, George noticed improvements in his focus during long work sessions . He remarked enthusiastically, “ It’s like my brain has an extra gear now for a boost .”

Yoko provided a different perspective by highlighting how balanced she felt throughout her day-to-day tasks. Her quote encapsulates this sentiment: “ I’m usually scattered with my thoughts; with Thesis Nootropics, there’s a noticeable harmony in how I process information .”

Their individual experiences underline the versatility of Thesis Nootropics’ formulations.

Effectiveness & Results

Jason, George, and Yoko each embarked on a journey with Thesis Nootropics to enhance their cognitive performance and brain function.

Jason’s experience saw gradual improvements in his memory retention, which became more pronounced with long-term use. His conclusion pointed towards sustained benefits rather than quick fixes for cognitive enhancement .

George noticed an uptick and a boost in his focus during work hours after deciding to take breaks. He felt the effects were subtle, but consistently improved his concentration over weeks of use .

Yoko, however, experienced a more immediate boost in mental clarity that tapered off sooner than expected . This led her to cycle the supplements for optimal results.

The trio discovered that individual responses to nootropics can vary greatly. While some users may find immediate and profound improvements in effects, others might notice slower yet steady gains in brain function.

Through our collective observation, we learned that short-term effects are often more noticeable but may not last without proper cycling or continuous use. The long-term effects seemed subtler at first but proved to be longer-lasting once they took hold.

In examining clinical research and controlled trials related to nootropics, we understood these variations align with broader findings—effects can differ based on one’s biochemistry and lifestyle factors.

Thesis Nootropics Ingredients & Supplement Facts

Thesis offers 6 unique nootropic blends of natural ingredients that target different needs and areas of mental acuity.

The six blends are:

Each blend has 2 common ingredients; L-theanine and Caffeine . But you can opt these out if you are sensitive to these stimulants.

How great is that!

The Clarity formula is designed to enhance cognitive function, memory, mental alertness, and mood regulation by targeting neuronal growth and brain health.

• Alpha GPC — 500 mg: A choline compound that enhances cognitive function. It boosts memory and learning. Many users report improved focus.
• Lion’s Mane Mushroom — 500 mg: This medicinal mushroom supports mental health. It stimulates nerve growth factor production and may enhance concentration.
• Camellia Sinensis Tea Leaf — 278 mg: Commonly known as green tea, it provides a gentle boost in energy and mental alertness without jitters.
• Dihydroxyflavone — 30mg: It’s a flavonoid that mimics brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). It is linked to improved executive function, neuronal growth, and mood regulation. (1)

The Creativity formula includes components and ingredients designed to foster innovative thinking.

• Alpha GPC — 150 mg: Supports neurotransmitter production which can enhance creative thought processes. It also plays a role in treating symptoms of neurological disorders like ADHD.
• Agmatine Sulphate — 250 mg: This compound helps improve neural signaling, thus fostering creative problem-solving skills. (2)
• Panax Ginseng — 200 mg: An adaptogen that has been shown to combat fatigue, promotes energy, and vitality which is essential for creativity flow.
• Ashwagandha Root — 300 mg: Known to reduce stress levels, potentially clearing the mind for more imaginative ideas.
• Sceletium Tortuosum — 25 mg: It is a plant native to South Africa known for its mood-enhancing properties. It positively affects the brain’s ability to manage stress and anxiety. Additionally, its use can lead to an uplifted mood and increased focus, making it beneficial for mental well-being. (3)

These ingredients are aimed at enhancing logical reasoning and creativity.

• Ginkgo Biloba — 160 mg: This natural supplement is known for improving blood flow to the brain and enhancing cognitive function. It also reduces symptoms of anxiety.
• Theobromine — 100 mg: Found primarily in cocoa beans and chocolate, it acts as a mild stimulant and mood enhancer. Theobromine can improve concentration and decrease blood pressure.
• Phosphatidylserine — 400 mg: A fatty substance produced in the body, vital for cognitive function, it helps protect brain cells and carry messages between them. PS also improves memory and slows age-related cognitive decline.
• High DHA Algae — 200 mg: This is a vegetarian source of DHA, an essential omega-3 fatty acid. It supports brain health and cognitive functions and reduces inflammation and risk of chronic diseases.
• Triacetyluridine — 30 mg: A form of uridine that’s more bioavailable, it supports the health of brain cells and neurotransmitter synthesis. It can enhance mood and cognitive performance. (4)
• Bacopa Monnieri — 320 mg: Bacopa is a herb commonly used in Ayurvedic medicine. It enhances brain function and improves memory and learning rates. It also has stress-reducing effects.

This blend enhances your mental and physical energy levels, targeting those who need sustained focus and mental clarity throughout their day.

• Citicoline — 300 mg: Citicoline helps in the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine, a major component of brain tissue. Citicoline also increases levels of neurotransmitters, leading to improved focus and attention.
• Mango Leaf — 300 mg: Mango leaf extract is rich in vitamins and antioxidants. It supports healthy blood sugar levels, which is crucial for maintaining energy throughout the day. Additionally, mango leaf has anti-inflammatory properties that can help reduce stress and anxiety.
• Theacrine — 100 mg: Theacrine is a compound similar to caffeine but with a longer-lasting effect. It boosts energy without causing jitteriness or a crash. Theacrine also improves mood and motivation, making it easier to tackle challenging tasks. (5)
• N-Acetyl Cysteine — 500 mg: N-Acetyl Cysteine comes from the amino acid L-cysteine. It acts as a powerful antioxidant, protecting cells from damage and supporting overall health. NAC also helps replenish glutathione levels, one of the body’s most important antioxidants.
• Indian Trumpet Tree — 100 mg: Derived from a tree native to India, this herbal extract supports respiratory health. It can improve airflow to the lungs, enhancing oxygen uptake. This, in turn, can lead to better energy levels and stamina.
• N-Acetyl L-Tyrosine — 300 mg: N-Acetyl L-Tyrosine is an amino acid that serves as a building block for dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. By supporting these neurotransmitters, it helps improve cognitive performance under stress. It also aids in reducing the effects of stress and fatigue on the brain.

This blend is specifically designed for individuals seeking to enhance their cognitive function and boost energy levels.

• L-Phenylalanine — 500 mg: L-Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid that the body cannot produce on its own. It plays a crucial role in the production of neurotransmitters, improving mood and alertness. Additionally, it aids in memory retention and increases focus, making it beneficial for cognitive tasks.
• Methylliberine — 100 mg: Methylliberine, also known as Dynamine, is a purine alkaloid found in the Kucha tea leaf. It is known for its ability to increase energy levels without causing jitters or a crash. Its mood-enhancing properties can also lead to improved motivation. (6)
• Vitamin B12 — 1000 mcg: Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble vitamin essential for brain health and the maintenance of the nervous system. It supports the production of red blood cells and prevents brain fog. Furthermore, it plays a vital role in energy production, helping reduce fatigue.
• Forskolin — 250 mg: Forskolin is a compound derived from the root of the Coleus forskohlii plant. It is known for its ability to increase levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP) in the brain, which can enhance memory formation and retention. Additionally, forskolin has been shown to support weight loss efforts by increasing metabolism and promoting fat breakdown.
• Artichoke — 450 mg: Artichoke plant extract is rich in luteolin. It has been shown to enhance cognitive function by inhibiting the enzyme PDE4, which leads to increased levels of cAMP in the brain. This not only improves memory and learning but also provides neuroprotection, improving neuroplasticity and safeguarding the brain from damage and aging.

This blend of ingredients is for individuals seeking natural ways to boost their confidence and reduce anxiety.

• Saffron — 28 mg: Saffron is a precious spice derived from the Crocus sativus flower. It’s known to improve mood and enhance cognitive function.
• Magnesium Bisglycinate — 500 mg: This is a highly absorbable form of magnesium. It helps reduce stress and supports muscle and nerve function.
• Sage — 333 mg: Sage is a herb with a long history of medicinal use. It boosts memory and has anti-inflammatory properties.
• Seletium Tortuosum — 25 mg: Also known as Kanna, it’s a succulent herb and is used for its mood-enhancing properties. It also helps in managing anxiety. (3)
• Magnolia Bark — 10 mg: Derived from the Magnolia tree, this bark is used in traditional medicine. It helps reduce anxiety and aids in improving sleep quality.
• Ashwagandha Leaf & Root — 120 mg: It’s an ancient medicinal herb known for its stress-reducing effects. Ashwagandha also supports overall well-being of the nervous system.

Thesis Nootropics Side Effects & Safety

In our journey with Thesis, we’ve noted some side effects that align with user reports.

Jason experienced mild headaches initially, while George felt bouts of nausea . Yoko didn’t notice any adverse reactions, but this varies from person to person.

A comprehensive list based on ingredients suggests possible side effects might include:

• Stomach discomfort

It’s important to consider these when evaluating if Thesis blends are right for you.

Certain health conditions or medications could interact negatively with these nootropics. We advise caution especially if you have a history of heart health problems or are on prescription drugs that affect brain chemistry. There haven’t been severe adverse reactions widely reported among users, which is reassuring.

To minimize risk, start with the lowest dose possible and monitor your body’s response. Increase gradually as needed and tolerated.

Price & Value for Money

The price of Theis is steep even for a premium product, costing $119 for a month’s supply . Opting for a subscription slashes the price down to $79, but it still isn’t cheap.

For some, even though it offers significant improvements in focus, memory retention and brain health, it still may be a hard sell. For those on a tight budget, there are plenty of equally good nootropic supplements with a smaller cost.

But, if you need a custom nootropic stack that gets the results that you were looking for, and more, and a high cost is not an issue, then Thesis nootropics might just be for you.

Where to Buy Thesis Nootropics

Purchasing Thesis nootropics is straightforward. You can order online directly from the official website ( takethesis.com ). This ensures you get authentic products and access customer support easily.

Some third-party retailers may also carry them, but it’s best to check for legitimacy.

When buying online, shipping policies are clear. They offer delivery across various regions with estimated times provided at checkout.

Thesis Alternatives & Similar Supplements

There are some great alternatives to Thesis nootropics if you are looking for other options.

Mind Lab Pro and Nooceptin are among the best brain supplements you can find. They differ from Thesis in composition and efficacy.

Thesis vs Mind Lab Pro

Mind Lab Pro emerges as a standout alternative to Thesis Nootropics, offering impressive similarities and unique advantages that cater to a broad spectrum of cognitive needs.

Mind Lab Pro distinguishes itself through its universal nootropic strategy, aiming to support all aspects of cognitive health with a single, well-rounded stimulant-free formula .

It contains a blend of 11 research-backed ingredients, each selected for their efficacy in supporting various facets of brain health.

This includes enhancing neural regeneration , blood flow , and brainwave optimization , among other benefits. The product is designed to be inclusive, catering to users with dietary restrictions or allergies.

Choosing Mind Lab Pro means opting for a better cognitive enhancement solution at a lower cost.

Thesis vs Nooceptin

Nooceptin emerges as a standout choice in the realm of cognitive enhancers, with benefits that cater to those seeking an edge in mental performance.

It includes a blend of vitamins, minerals, and herbal extracts known for their cognitive-enhancing properties. Users often report improvements in memory recall , concentration , and mental clarity after regular use.

Additionally, Nooceptin is praised for its ability to support long-term brain health , thanks to antioxidants that combat oxidative stress and promote neuronal health .

Choosing Nooceptin over Thesis would be easy as it’s more cost-effective with similar benefits, if not more.

Our comprehensive analysis of Thesis Nootropics has revealed a sophisticated blend of ingredients aimed at enhancing cognitive functions.

Our collective experience echoes the positive outcomes reported by many users, with noticeable improvements in focus and mental clarity . The safety profile of Thesis nootropics is also reassuring, with minimal side effects observed across various studies.

While personal experiences with nootropics may vary, the evidence suggests that Thesis Nootropics stands as a viable option for those seeking to boost their cognitive performance.

We encourage you to consider the insights shared here and explore Thesis as a potential tool in your mental enhancement arsenal.

Is Thesis really worth it?

Thesis Nootropics may be worthwhile for those seeking personalized cognitive enhancement, but individual experiences and results can vary significantly.

Can Thesis nootropics improve long-term brain health?

There is limited evidence that any nootropic can guarantee long-term brain health improvements; consult a healthcare provider for personalized advice.

Are there any dietary restrictions associated with taking Thesis nootropics?

Thesis products are generally suitable for various diets, but check the ingredient list against specific dietary restrictions or allergies.

How do Thesis nootropics compare to prescription cognitive enhancers?

Thesis offers non-prescription, natural supplements, which typically have milder effects compared to prescription medication. Always consult a doctor before starting any new supplement regimen.

Is there an optimal time of day to take Thesis Nootropics for maximum effect?

The best time to take nootropics varies by individual and product formula. Refer to the specific usage instructions provided with your Thesis product.

• Tan, Yang, et al. “7, 8-dihydroxyflavone ameliorates cognitive impairment by inhibiting expression of tau pathology in ApoE-knockout mice.”  Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience  8 (2016): 287.  ↩
• Bergin, David H., et al. “Safety and neurochemical profiles of acute and sub-chronic oral treatment with agmatine sulfate.”  Scientific reports  9.1 (2019): 12669.  ↩
• Brendler, Thomas, et al. “Sceletium for managing anxiety, depression and cognitive impairment: a traditional herbal medicine in modern-day regulatory systems.”  Current Neuropharmacology  19.9 (2021): 1384.  ↩  ↩
• Frederick, Aliya, et al. “Triacetyluridine treats epileptic encephalopathy from CAD mutations: a case report and review.”  Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology  8.1 (2021): 284-287.  ↩
• Kuhman, Daniel J., Keanan J. Joyner, and Richard J. Bloomer. “Cognitive performance and mood following ingestion of a theacrine-containing dietary supplement, caffeine, or placebo by young men and women.”  Nutrients  7.11 (2015): 9618-9632.  ↩
• La Monica, Michael B., et al. “Methylliberine Ingestion Improves Various Indices of Affect but Not Cognitive Function in Healthy Men and Women.”  Nutrients  15.21 (2023): 4509.  ↩

Thesis Nootropics Review

Nootropics fan and expert James Dixon examines this personalized supplement in our Thesis Nootropics review. Find out how he rates it after testing it below…

Last Updated:

May 4, 2023

Written by James Dixon – fact checked by Jason M & the editorial team

James Dixon is one of the key players in the SOMA Analytics’ team. He is a personal trainer and is educated to Masters level in Philosophy. He is a published author and is a keen advocate of high quality nootropic supplements.

This article complies with the SOMA Analytics editorial policy. Full details of which can be found here

SOMA Analytics is supported by our readers. We may earn a commission when you purchase through links on this page. Our content is checked for factual accuracy by our editorial team and is written by expert nutritionalists.

Nootropic supplements – so called ‘smart drugs’ – are all the rage. They represent a rapidly expanding corner of the supplement market and have had genuinely life altering effects on many, many users – myself included.

They’re not actually ‘drugs’ as you would think of them. This isn’t medication we’re talking about, here. Rather, these supplements are compounds of natural ingredients designed to work together to boost your cognitive health and brain function.

A good nootropic should help you feel smarter… which is a bold claim. There is something to it, however. They should aid your focus, learning skills, memory, and creativity. They should reduce brain fog, anxiety, and lethargy, replacing them with clarity, calm, and plenty of low-key energy.

If you struggle with any of these symptoms, there is a good chance that you could do with a good nootropic, which is exactly what we’re looking at today. Though perhaps not the best of the best, Thesis Nootropics offer a range of products that are all intelligently crafted and, to a degree, fairly personalized.

And when I say they aren’t the best of the best, this doesn’t mean much. The nootropic market is crowded. There are a couple of standout items out there – NooCube springs to mind, here. Playing second fiddle to these is still a large accomplishment. Let’s dive in and take a full look as I dig in to this Thesis Nootropics review.

Quick Verdict: Thesis Nootropics

Can’t wait to read the whole article? Thesis Nootropics have a great range of different nootropics aimed at different needs. They also have an excellent nutritional coaching system to support you.

However, the reality is that most people won’t really gain from this additional 5% and products such as NooCube offer greater value for money with similar nootropic benefits.

Introducing Thesis Nootropics

As above, Thesis Nootropics are smart drugs. They offer high quality nootropics that are designed to help with various aspects of your cognitive health and function. Their products all contain top shelf ingredients all proven to help your brain to work optimally.

They also do something a bit different. Where most nootropics – and most other supplements, for that matter – offer you the same over the counter pills as they would offer anyone else, Thesis bring personalized supplements to bear. Through their online store, you can fully personalize your nootropic options to make the most of your own specific needs and circumstances.

It’s really quite clever.

They started out as FindMyFormula.com before rebranding a few years back. So, although ‘Thesis Nootropics’ may seem like a newcomer to the market, they have actually been around for a long time. They bring this pedigree to the fore with this product.

With a customer base of over half a million users, they have proven themselves and then some. The data they hold from their research into nootropics is peerless – I can’t think of anyone with better. And they use it well, crafting and re-crafting their formulae with proper, diligent science and data in mind.

The personalization process is actually quite straightforward too – at least, it is for the customer, which is always nice.

You start off by going to their website and taking their questionnaire. Don’t worry, it’s not all that comprehensive, asking for only basic information. There is no need to take any lab tests or divulge your medical history. However, it’s enough for them to make a match for the nootropic blends that will best suit your needs.

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There are two ways to read this, of course. Either, it’s a non-invasive way to tailor your supplements, or it’s not a deep enough dive, so how well tailored can they really be? I felt a little let down, here. When I came in being promised ‘personalized supplements’ I had higher hopes. Instead, it’s just sort of asking what you want and pointing you in the right direction.

It’s nice, it’s just not quite as revolutionary as the literature and branding suggest.

The next phase is good, though. They’ll send your shipment out to arrive with 1-3 business days. However, they ask you to treat this as a sample; they invite you to try out a few different blends of theirs before picking it. This data is fed back to their algorithm, further enhancing their future prescriptive capabilities.

Again, you can read this cynically or not. Either it’s a great way to search out what works best for you, or it’s doing their job for you and getting you to buy plenty of their products in the process… if their original diagnostics are that good, why do you then need to cycle through their catalogue?

Except that they allow you to try up to four before committing to a longer term formula. Pair this with that original questionnaire and, cynicism on hold, you have an excellent and innovative product. It helps you to refine your own choices without having to do the legwork, which can often take months, a lot of money, and a fair amount of trial and error.

The final part is my favorite part. This dispels much of my lingering cynicism. As a Thesis customer, you are assigned a nootropics expert, a sort of coach and pharmacist in one. You can consult with them virtually at any time. They can help you to further refine your nootropics regime, optimizing what can be optimized, tracking your progress and wellbeing, and generally educate you by ably answering any questions you might have.

I love this. It takes Thesis to the next level – it’s less a supplement and more a course focussed on wellbeing.

It’s not cheap, I’ll warn you now. A starter kit will go over a hundred dollars. A prescription will run to a monthly bill of around eighty. This is roughly twice what you would pay for something like NooCube or Mind Lab Pro , supplements I consider to be the best of the best. It’s around four times what you could pay for a lower end, yet workable, nootropic.

You’re presented with a choice, then: pay extra for the support and tailoring, or pay a far more reasonable amount for something that will still do the job incredibly well.

Why Choose Thesis Nootropics?

The benefits of Thesis Nootropics are fairly straightforward.

Firstly, Thesis shares the same benefits as any other good quality nootropic supplement. They offer several blends (more on this below), which between them can improve your cognitive function from pretty much every angle. You can boost your cognitive energy, improve your clarity, improve your memory and learning abilities, clear brain fog, improve your mood, reduce your stress levels, and boost your ability to focus, among other things.

This is all good. It’s what you’re looking for in a nootropic in the first place.

But, of course, the benefits go beyond this. The two main things you get from Thesis, that set it apart and above most of its competition, are really very special.

Firstly, of course, you get the personalization mentioned above. This can be fantastic. Or it can be a little superfluous. If you try something like NooCube, you will probably find it working for you. It may not be 100% scientifically optimal, but it will be 95% there for most of us.

However, if others haven’t worked for you, personalization may be a very good idea. You can really zero in on the aspects of your own cognitive health and function that you feel need improving. Also, if you want to get that final 5% (figures not accurate, of course) and don’t mind parting with a little extra cash, Thesis can be well worth it. You will be as cognitively optimal as modern nootropic research can make you, which is no small thing.

Then there is the access to their experts. Again, this can be superfluous. How much do most of us really need to know about nootropics above and beyond what you can read in any good review or rundown? Just learn the basics, throw back a couple of NooCube capsules, and get on with your life.

But, again, it can be wonderful. This is where the extra price begins to seem really quite minimal.

Our Preferred Alternative To Thesis

Although we found Thesis Nootropics to include high quality ingredients, the personalization for most people is not required and adds a lot of expense to an already pricey supplement.

We prefer NooCube, the nootropic taken by our tester and writer – thanks to its high quality formula, high impact results and value for money cost.

Thesis Nootropic Ingredients

Thesis Nootropics offer several different blends, relatively personalized towards the individual, focussed entirely on aiding different facets of cognition and brain health. Given these differences, it’s no surprise that each blend contains a different list of ingredients – though there are of course some commonalities between them.

The energy blend is one of their most popular. The formula is made to boost your energy levels whilst fighting fatigue and improving your mental stamina. It makes use of choline, which is known for aiding memory and learning. It also uses bot NAC and NALT, which aid detoxification and nerve cell communication, respectively.

It also includes some of their own ingredients, notably Sabroxy®, for increased dopamine output and a memory boost, TeaCrine®, for improved energy levels alongside motivation and cognitive function, and Zynamite®, purely for physical and mental energy.

It also includes some more standard energy inducing nootropic ingredients, notably caffeine, for energy, and l-theanine, to improve your stress response.

Next up, we have Thesis’ Clarity, which goes off book on the ingredients list. However, it still contains plenty of the ingredients I would expect to see in any good nootropic. You get 7,8-DHF and Alpha GPC, which both aid neural communication, neurogenesis, and neuro-protection. Epicatechin and Lion’s Mane also both provide neuro-protection, whilst also improving mood, memory, blood flow to the brain, and memory consolidation.

It also contains caffeine and l-theanine, making it good for stress response and energy levels.

Motivation is a bit of a funny one, as motivation is inherently a hard metric to either properly define or measure. However, in this context, motivation means a boost to willpower and productivity, and help in warding off procrastination.

It manages this with a good ingredients list. Artichoke extract kicks things off, improving circulation and helping with stress response (and management). Then there is Dynamine®, for a mood boost and plenty of long-lasting energy, without the kind of crash associated with caffeine.

Forskolin and l-phenylalanine work together to improve cognition function, mood, and attention. All of this should inspire greater motivation. It gives you a good dose of vitamin B12, too, for improved energy and to look after your nerve. It rounds out with caffeine and theanine.

Again, the Creativity formula is an odd one – can one scientifically boost creativity? Well, Thesis give it a good shot. It’s designed to improve verbal fluency and confidence, which should result in greater inspiration and the will to follow through with it.

The Creativity formula contains agmatine, ashwagandha and l-theanine, all of which help with managing stress levels and anxiety. It also contains Alpha GPC, which is great for memory, neuro-protection, and neurogenesis, and Zembrin®, which improves mood regulation and increase the flow of blood to the brain.

You also get a good caffeine hit with Thesis’ Creativity blend.

Finally, we have Thesis’ latest blend, Confidence. As you may well imagine, this leads to a boost in confidence!

Confidence’s ingredients all target stress, especially stress responses to insecurities, whilst promoting a feeling of self-assurance. These include magnesium, ashwagandha, saffron, sage, and DHH-B, all of which combine hopefully make you feel more confident in your own skin.

How to Use Thesis Nootropics

Nootropics are amongst the easier supplements to live with. There are no special timings or anything like that to hit, and the portions are all very manageable. Thesis Nootropics fit this pattern nicely. For all of their different lines, simply take them in the morning, ideally when you first get up, on an empty stomach with a decent glass of water.

If you need a bit of an extra boost during the day (particularly if you’re going for the energy blend), feel free to take a second dose at lunchtime to see you through until the evening. This will ensure clarity and energy all day long.

Using Thesis Nootropics

I was quite sceptical of nootropics when I first heard about them in the early 2010s. They sounded too good to be true – over the counter supplements made from all-natural ingredients that can boost your brain health and cognitive function? No way.

Many are too good to be true. Plenty of nootropics out there don’t do anything above and beyond giving you a brief energy kick, and this is usually down to their caffeine content. You’d be better off having a cup of coffee or cheap caffeine supplement.

Thesis Nootropics are not too good to be true. They are good – very good, in fact – and highly workable. I’m not entirely sold on them. I find them to be a bit gimmicky. They shouldn’t be gimmicky, of course – tailoring to your users and offering coaching is no gimmick. However, it’s just a little shallow to be truly tailored – they are simply giving you a selection of stacks, which many supplement stores offer (CrazyBulk, for instance).

And the coaching is perhaps a little superfluous for most people.

But the supplements themselves are good. They are well developed, well made, high quality, and will absolutely elicit the effects they claim in many, many people.

I got on well with them. I took their Energy blend first, which is always my priority (I’m always juggling seven or eight different projects at any time, so an energy boost will always be welcome!) It did what it said it would. I found my focus improving and my energy lasting me through the day. I usually drink a lot of coffee, which tends to give me spikes and crashes. The spike wasn’t as high with the Energy blend, but nor was there any kind of crash.

I also tried Clarity, as I take a couple of prescription medications that can lead to a touch of brain fog. It cut through my brain fog well, lending me a great deal of clear sighted cognitive energy. There was no coming round in the morning, no chugging espressos just to form a coherent sentence. Or, at least, I came round quicker and reduced my espresso intake.

I also wanted to know a bit about Thesis’ coaches, or whatever they call themselves. I got in touch and was chatting to a woman with a highly relevant, impressive array of academic credentials just a few days later. She explained how the components in the blends I was trying worked and interplayed, and pointed me in the direction of a couple more that I might to try.

The advice was kind of handy, though it wasn’t anything I would struggle to find out just from perusing their website. The information was interesting to a health and supplements nerd, but that was it. I can’t imagine it being in any way helpful. I can’t even imagine it being interesting to most people.

It’s not a good use of money (and you will be spending a lot of money on Thesis). The supplement is strong – the blends I tried were strong. But none of them gave me the kinds of results I have experienced whilst taking cheaper, better nootropics, namely NooCube – this is what I personally tend to take on an ongoing basis.

There is no harm in trying Thesis. They offer a one-month money-back guarantee, so you can get that hefty price tag (generally around $119) back again if you’re not satisfied. But I think you will be satisfied. Thesis is a satisfying product. It’s just not the best, and the best happens to be an awful lot cheaper.

Do also bear in mind that nootropics can cause side effects – Thesis’ blends are no exception. They can lead to blurred vision, high blood pressure, an accelerated pulse, circulation problems, and insomnia, though severe or long lasting cases are rare.

Pros and Cons

Thesis nootropics pros.

• Personalized for optimal benefits
• Comes with access to their experts
• High quality ingredients
• Highly reputable company
• Different blends for different uses/needs
• Ability to try out different blends before committing
• Easy to take

Thesis Nootropics Cons

• The personalization is a little shallow
• It’s very pricey (about twice as costly as other leading nootropics)

Our Thesis Video Review

Are Thesis Nootropics’ products vegan? 

All of Thesis Nootropics’ products are indeed suitable for vegans. All ingredients are free from animal products. However, they do note the possibility of cross contamination, so the product is not certified vegan.

Are Thesis Nootropics’ products gluten free?

Thesis Nootropics’ blends are all free from gluten, eggs, and nuts, as well as being dairy free. However, once more, they note the possibility of cross contamination. Their lines haven’t therefore been certified gluten free.

What is Thesis Nootropics’ shipping policy?

Thesis Nootropics have a fairly fast delivery service. They promise to dispatch all orders within one business day, with the packages being delivered between 1-3 business days after that. They do not offer international shipping, however, and they calculate costs at checkout, so do beware price hikes.

Thesis Nootropics are good. In fact, they are very good. The personalized aspect, whilst admittedly a little shallow, is still very welcome. I like it a lot. As a bit of a supplements nerd, I also love the idea of being able to chat to an expert at any time – this really is a nice touch.

However, I can’t help but feel that it’s all a little superfluous. Most people know their own needs. A quick Google search will show you what nootropics will be best for you. If in doubt, go for a cover-all nootropic. I keep mentioning NooCube with good reason – it should do pretty much everything that all of Thesis’ blends do.

Then there is the price. You’re paying a lot for a good product with plenty of customer care involved. However, as above, the customer care is largely excessive. If you really want it – and I can see plenty of people wanting it, with good reason – then by all means fork out extra. However, it’s just a little much for most people.

For a month’s supply (at non-subscription prices), you can buy around three months’ worth of NooCube. For this, you’ll be getting just about the best nootropic on the market with no extra legwork – just simply take it each morning, save some money, and get on with your life with your cognitive health in near perfect shape.

Verdict: Thesis Nootropics

Thesis Nootropics have a great range of different nootropics aimed at different needs. They also have an excellent nutritional coaching system to support you.

The reality is that most people won’t really gain from this additional 5% and alternative products such as NooCube offer far greater value for money with similar (if not better) nootropic benefits.

This article was written by: James Dixon – SOMA Analytics PT, Nutritionalist & Published Author

James Dixon is one of the key players in the SOMA Analytics’ team. He is a personal trainer and is educated to Masters level. He is a published author and is a keen advocate of high quality nootropic supplements. James enjoys helping others to reach their peak both physically and mentally and believes that expressing his knowledge through his writing is an effective way to positively impact the wellbeing of others on a larger scale.

RSC Advances

Industrial-scale feasibility for textile wastewater treatment via photocatalysis-adsorption technology using black sand and uv lamp †.

* Corresponding authors

a Environmental Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt E-mail: [email protected]

b Petroleum Applications Department, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute (EPRI), Nasr City, Cairo 11727, Egypt E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected]

c Refining Division, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, 1 Ahmed El-Zomor St., Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt E-mail: [email protected]

d Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Suez Canal University, Environmental Engineering, Ismailia, Egypt E-mail: [email protected]

Dye-contaminated wastewater is a major environmental problem that requires effective and affordable treatment methods. This study investigates an innovative approach using black sand filtration assisted by UV light to remove methylene blue (MB) dye from wastewater. The motivation is to develop a sustainable low-cost wastewater treatment technology. Black sand's composition of iron oxide and other metal oxides enables the adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of dyes. The effects of operating parameters, including pH, bed height, flow rate, and initial MB concentration, were examined using a fixed-bed column system. The maximum adsorption capacity was 562.43 mg g −1 at optimal pH 10, 15 cm bed height, 50 ppm MB, and 53.33 mL min −1 flow rate. Mathematical models effectively described the experimental breakthrough curves. For real textile wastewater, black sand with a UV lamp removed 50.40% COD, 73.68% TDS, 43.82% TSS, and 98.57% conductivity, significantly outperforming filtration without UV assistance. Characterization via XRD, XRF, FTIR, zeta potential, and SEM revealed black sand's photocatalytic properties and mechanism of MB adsorption. The findings demonstrate black sand filtration plus UV irradiation as a feasible, sustainable technology for removing dyes and organics from wastewater. This method has promise for the scale-up treatment of textiles and other industrial effluents.

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Industrial-scale feasibility for textile wastewater treatment via Photocatalysis-adsorption technology using black sand and UV lamp

R. Wagdy, M. F. Mubarak, R. S. Mohamed and A. El Shahawy, RSC Adv. , 2024,  14 , 10776 DOI: 10.1039/D4RA00421C

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"not a natural born killer": ripley's andrew scott explains his mysterious con man's motivations.

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• Scott's deep investment in the character shines through in his performance, earning him consistently positive reviews in the series.
• Ripley has received high praise overall, with an 88% critics' score on Rotten Tomatoes, surpassing the 1999 adaptation of The Talented Mr. Ripley .

Andrew Scott explains the dubious motivations of his lead character in Netflix’s Ripley . Scott plays the eponymous Tom Ripley in the miniseries based on the Patricia Highsmith novel The Talented Mr. Ripley . Ripley features a leading cast including Scott, Dakota Fanning, Johnny Flynn, Maurizio Lombardi, and Margherita Buy.

Speaking with Variety at the Ripley premiere, Scott details the motivations behind Tom Ripley. The actor assured the platform that Ripley “ is not a natural born killer ” nor is he “ bloodthirsty .” Instead, he is a man tempted and corrupted by the world of crime, deceit, and murders, which results in the revelation of “ the darkness within him .” Scott described Ripley as “ an outsider and...somebody who’s quite downtrodden ” who has experienced being “ lonely .” Check out the full quote from Scott below:

“He’s an outsider and he’s somebody who’s quite downtrodden and somebody who’s brilliantly talented who’s on the outskirts of society. He’s a lonely — or at least an isolated — figure. And he’s put into this world full of people who are very entitled and confident, and so there was plenty of him that I found easy to attach to.” “I always say he’s not a natural born killer. He’s not bloodthirsty. He’s invited into this world, he doesn’t seek it out. And then the darkness within him emerges. So I feel like there’s a lot of him that I can at least attempt to try and understand.”

How Netflix's Ripley Is Being Received Thus Far

& how it compares to other ripley adaptations.

Scott’s take on Tom Ripley gives a compassionate look at a character who, on the surface, one might think has been corrupted beyond repair. The star is right in that Tom Ripley did not directly seek out his blood-soaked lifestyle , but rather is convinced to join the dark side. This take on Tom Ripley shows Scott’s deep investment in the character, for he can look at the big picture of the protagonist’s dynamic personality and not merely view him as a one-dimensional killer.

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This profound reading of the character gives further context as to why Scott’s performance in the role is so powerful. While Ripley ’s reviews are overall bending positive so far, Scott is one of the most consistently well-reviewed aspects of the series . Screen Rant ’s Felipe Rangel pointed to the potency of what the actor can convey in Ripley , sometimes with very little dialogue. Rangel called “ Ripley a character to be watched at all times ,” for the amount that Scott was able to convey through facial expressions and physicality was remarkable.

*Updated as of 4/5/24

Scott’s well-rated performance is coupled with stellar reviews for Ripley so far. At the time of writing, Ripley holds an 88% on Rotten Tomatoes with 68 reviews . The audience score is also fairly high for Ripley , standing at 75%. Ripley ’s critics’ score situates it higher than the 1999 Matt Damon adaptation The Talented Mr. Ripley , which holds an 85%. With such rave reviews for Ripley , it is good to know that Scott’s striking performance comes from a genuine place of understanding of the lead character.

Source: Variety

Based on the novel by Patricia Highsmith, Ripley is a drama-thriller written and created by Steven Zaillian. Set in the 1960s, the series follows Tom Ripley, who is hired to attempt to coax a wealthy man's son to come home - but this job is just the first part of a lengthy and dangerous complex web of lies.