Population
3.1. study design and population.
A cross-sectional study was conducted between October 2020 and December 2021. It was held at all ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ in north-eastern Malaysia which also have two different clinic working systems. Two of the clinics adopt a shift system, namely Health Clinic A and Health Clinic B, and two adopt a non-shift system, namely Health Clinic C and Health Clinic D. These clinics were chosen as their catchment population was >50,000 and their daily average number of patients was between 500 and 800 [ 23 ]. Using a two-proportion formula, with a 95% confidence interval, 5% precision, and allowing a 10% non-response rate or data entry error, the required sample size was 335 ( p = 0.63) [ 24 ]. All available HCWs were included in the study as the required sample size exceeded the number of the workers in those clinics.
A proforma as attached in Appendix A was designed to gather sociodemographic data such as age, education level, and years of employment. The Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) was used to assess job satisfaction among the respondents. The JSS was developed by Paul E. Spector in 1985 and is commonly used in many fields, including healthcare services. It has nine facets and a 36-item scale to evaluate employee attitudes toward their job and its various aspects. The facets were pay, promotion, contingent rewards, operating procedures, supervision, nature of work, fringe benefits, communication, and co-workers. Each item had six options, varying from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” [ 25 ]. In this study, the JSS scored the Likert scale of minimum and maximum score as satisfied (144–216) and dissatisfied (36–143). Based on a systemic review conducted in 2003, it was found that the JSS has adequate validity and reliability. The discriminant validity was 0.19–0.59 and convergent validity was 0.61–0.80, whereas the internal consistency was 0.91 and test–retest was 0.71 [ 26 ]. The Malay language version was translated by Tan Soo Luan in 2010 with reported similar internal consistency of Cronbach’s α 0.84 when compared to its English version [ 27 ]. Permission to use the questionnaire was obtained before conducting the study.
In this study, a HCW was defined as a person whose work involves contact with a patient or with blood or other body fluids from a patient in a healthcare, laboratory, or public safety situation at a health clinic [ 28 ]. We included all ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ HCWs aged 18 and above who had worked for at least three months in the current clinic’s working system. Those who did not complete at least 80% of the questionnaire data were excluded.
The questionnaire was distributed to all HCWs working in all ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ in north-eastern Malaysia. Initially, the selected health clinics were informed through a letter that was sent through the ‘Kelantan State Health Department’ explaining the study that will be conducted to the clinic’s manager, who will convey the information to all HCWs at their clinic. The research team then scheduled a face-to-face session with the help of the clinic’s manager with their respective HCWs. The session explained the research objectives and procedures, voluntariness, and anonymity. They were then given enough time to consider their participation, signed the consent form, and answered the questionnaire given. Any questions that arose were entertained by the research team during the session.
For data entry and analysis, IBM SPSS version 26.0 was used. Data were checked and cleaned once they were entered. In descriptive analyses, data were analyzed and presented as frequency ( n ) and percentage (%). Simple and multiple logistic regression was used to find the predictor of job dissatisfaction as the outcome was categorical and binary of either job dissatisfaction or job satisfaction. Forward LR and Backward LR were used to compare and identify the final model of factors associated with job dissatisfaction. It was then checked for multicollinearity, interaction, and the model’s fitness. The final model was presented as a p -value and adjusted OR. A p -value of less than 0.05 was set as the level of significance.
Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Medical Research and Ethics Committee (MREC), Ministry of Health, Malaysia, with identification number NMRR-20-2574-57270 (IIR). Ethical approval was also obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee (JEPeM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), (USM/JEPeM/2 0110577). Written consent was obtained from participants prior to the study. Only the researcher can access the data and participant anonymity was applied to ensure the confidentiality of the data.
The respond rate was 84.9% (314/370). The mean (SD) age of the HCWs was 40.6 (7.81) years old, and duration of employment was 15.7 (7.58) years. A total of 219 (69.7%) of them completed tertiary education and 284 (90.4%) were satisfied with their yearly performance mark. Table 2 shows the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents.
Sociodemographic characteristics of the healthcare workers in ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ in north-eastern Malaysia ( n = 314).
Variables | (%) | Mean (SD) |
---|---|---|
Age (year) | 40.6 (7.81) | |
Gender | ||
Male | 82 (26.1) | |
Female | 232 (73.9) | |
Race | ||
Malay | 309 (98.4) | |
Non-Malay | 5 (1.6) | |
Marital status | ||
Single/divorced | 34 (10.8) | |
Married | 280 (89.2) | |
Education level | ||
Tertiary | 219 (69.7) | |
Secondary | 95 (30.3) | |
Health clinic’s working system | ||
Non-shift | 142 (45.2) | |
Shift | 172 (54.8) | |
Number of children | 2.6 (1.74) | |
Monthly income (RM) | 4213.7 (1891.95) | |
Employment (year) | 15.7 (7.58) | |
Yearly performance mark | ||
Satisfied | 284 (90.4) | |
Dissatisfied | 30 (9.6) |
A total of 69 (22.0%) of the HCWs in the shift clinics’ working system and 43 (13.7%) in the non-shift clinics’ working system in ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ in north-eastern Malaysia were dissatisfied with their job. Table 3 provides the details.
Proportion of job dissatisfaction among healthcare workers working in different health clinics’ working systems ( n = 314).
Variable | Proportion | |
---|---|---|
Job Satisfaction (%) | Job Dissatisfaction (%) | |
Health clinic’s working system | ||
Shift | 103 (32.8) | 69 (22.0) |
Non-shift | 99 (31.5) | 43 (13.7) |
The top two job dissatisfaction factors among HCWs in ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ in north-eastern Malaysia according to JSS facets were related to operating conditions (61.8%) and benefits (55.4%). Table 4 provides the details.
Proportion of various levels of satisfaction towards job-related factors among healthcare workers in ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ ( n = 314).
Job-Related Factors | No. of Dissatisfied (%) | No. of Satisfied (%) |
---|---|---|
Pay | 94 (29.9) | 220 (70.1) |
Promotion | 148 (47.1) | 166 (52.9) |
Supervision | 53 (16.9) | 261 (83.1) |
Benefits | 174 (55.4) | 140 (44.6) |
Rewards | 134 (42.7) | 180 (57.3) |
Operating conditions | 194 (61.8) | 120 (38.2) |
Co-workers | 48 (15.3) | 266 (84.7) |
Nature of work | 27 (8.6) | 287 (91.4) |
Communication | 110 (35.0) | 204 (65.0) |
The variables from simple logistic regression with a p -value less than 0.25, which were age, gender, race, monthly income, and yearly performance mark, were selected and further analyzed using multiple logistic regression to determine the associated factors. Multiple logistic regression shows that age in years (Adj. OR 0.91; 95% CI: 0.83,0.99, p = 0.037) and dissatisfaction with yearly performance mark (Adj. OR 14.80; 95% CI: 3.43,63.763, p < 0.001) predicts job dissatisfaction. It can be interpretated as the HCWs working in ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ in north-eastern Malaysia had 9.4% lower odds of job dissatisfaction as they got older, and those dissatisfied with their yearly performance mark were 14.8 times more likely to develop job dissatisfaction after being adjusted for age. Table 5 shows the details for both simple and multiple logistic regressions.
Simple and multiple logistic regression analysis for factors associated with job dissatisfaction among healthcare workers working in ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ in north-eastern Malaysia.
Variables | Crude OR (95% CI) | -Value | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | -Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (year) | 0.953 (0.882, 1.029) | 0.214 | 0.906 (0.826, 0.994) | 0.037 |
Gender | ||||
Male | 1 | |||
Female | 4.603 (0.585, 36.226) | 0.147 | ||
Race | ||||
Malay | 1 | |||
Non-Malay | 5.528 (0.534, 57.211) | 0.152 | ||
Marital status | ||||
Single/divorced | 1 | |||
Married | 1.392 (0.172, 11.250) | 0.756 | ||
Education level | ||||
Tertiary | 1 | |||
Secondary | 0.842 (0.249, 2.845) | 0.782 | ||
Health clinic’s working system | ||||
Non-shift | 1 | |||
Shift | 0.824 (0.268, 2.537) | 0.736 | ||
Number of children | 0.860 (0.612, 1.208) | 0.384 | ||
Monthly income (RM) | 1.000 (0.999, 1.000) | 0.139 | ||
Employment (year) | 0.963 (0.891, 1.040) | 0.337 | ||
Yearly performance mark | ||||
Satisfied | 1 | 1 | ||
Dissatisfied | 7.792 (2.266, 26.789) | 0.001 | 14.795 (3.433, 63.759) | <0.001 |
a Simple Logistic Regression; b Multiple Logistic Regression; Constant = 0.601; Forward LR and Backward LR method; No interaction and no multicollinearity; Hosmer–Lemeshow Test is not significant, p -value = 0.465; Classification Table 93.5%; Area Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) 76.4%.
Our study showed that 35.7% of HCWs in ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ in north-eastern Malaysia were dissatisfied. This finding, however, shows a lower prevalence as compared to the international and local studies where the prevalence of job dissatisfaction ranged from 46% to 48% [ 8 , 9 ]. The prevalence of dissatisfaction in this study may be contributed by the differences in the HCWs studied in terms of health system organization, geographical area, and socioeconomic population that the healthcare workers served. This could also be because a particular HCW was hired based on their qualifications for specific job tasks where the qualifications met the job requirements. According to another local study, management must ensure that their employees are placed based on their skills, qualifications, and abilities. If they are not, job dissatisfaction may arise, and stress and burnout may result [ 11 ].
Apart from that, looking specifically into the clinics’ working systems, it was found that only 22.0% of respondents were dissatisfied with the shift clinics’ working system and 13.7% with the non-shift system health clinics. Although the shift clinics’ working system was newly introduced in June 2020 amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, the HCWs already seem to be adapting themselves well, as showed by the lower proportion of job dissatisfaction comparing to those in the non-shift clinics’ working system [ 29 ]. A study discovered that, although there were varieties of factors that can influence the length of an employee’s adaptation process to a new working system, the process itself usually takes approximately one month to a year [ 30 ].
Age was one of the factors linked with job dissatisfaction among HCWs. Both being a young and an old professional (nearing retirement age) were linked to job dissatisfaction. Numerous types of research have been conducted on the topic of age and job dissatisfaction. These studies found that HCWs under 35 are more likely than those 35 and older to be dissatisfied with their jobs [ 11 , 14 ]. However, other studies showed that HCWs beyond the age of 40 are more likely to be dissatisfied with their jobs [ 10 , 31 ]. This study found that age is one of the factors that contributed to job dissatisfaction among HCWs in ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ in north-eastern Malaysia. It was found that the HCWs with older age were 9.4% less likely to develop job dissatisfaction than those with younger age by a year after being adjusted for the yearly performance mark. Similarly, a study conducted in Greece and Ireland discovered that as one gets older, satisfaction improves [ 21 , 32 ]. This finding may also have been influenced by the fact that as their age increases, the HCWs become more accustomed to the job and working conditions and have more authority over it. This finding was in line with a local study that discovered worker satisfaction was related to working conditions, career development, and freedom from supervision [ 33 ].
Laura L. Carstensen’s socioemotional selectivity theory stated that, following ageing, a shift in motivation influences cognitive processing more positively. Hence, older people are more likely to experience positive emotions. Ng and Feldman (2010) found that age is linked to job attitudes, and their meta-analysis found that age is positively related to job satisfaction [ 34 ]. Our finding could be attributed to Malaysia’s functioning healthcare system, which is built on time-based promotion, especially for doctors, dental officers, and pharmacists [ 5 ]. This method ensures that those who enter the workforce are given a job scope or description appropriate for their entry-level position, allowing them to adjust gradually to the job’s demand. The job scope would gradually increase with seniority and the potential to advance, thus decreasing job dissatisfaction.
This study also discovered that there was a link between job dissatisfaction and yearly performance marks. The yearly performance mark was a type of feedback from a supervisor to a supervisee about their work performance, which influenced promotions, additional training, and pay increase [ 17 ]. After being adjusted for age, it was discovered that HCWs in the surveyed health clinics who were unsatisfied with their yearly performance mark were 14.8 times more likely to develop job dissatisfaction than those who were satisfied. Several studies have found a strong correlation between supervisor support and job satisfaction. According to studies conducted in Greece and Ethiopia, healthcare workers who received enough support were more satisfied with their jobs than those who did not receive such support [ 4 , 21 ]. Winarto and Chalidyanto (2020) revealed a substantial link between the job satisfaction of employees with solid supervisory support compared to employees who lacked support. Furthermore, competent supervision assists employees by preventing employee burnout and confidently fulfilling work objectives [ 18 ].
Looking into job-related factors, working conditions and benefits were the top two factors from JSS facets that scored the highest proportion related to job dissatisfaction. These findings were in line with several job dissatisfaction studies that found most of the job dissatisfaction was related to working conditions and benefits [ 10 , 16 ]. In this essence, when implementing certain policies and procedures, they must be adaptable in accordance with the worker’s workload and working conditions, for example, by ensuring the physical environment and equipment are suitable for the new policy to be implemented. Aside from that, the HCWs in this study may have found that the benefits that they received from their job were insufficient compared to their workload or to those of a worker from another place. Hence, it was critical to assign appropriate personnel to specific jobs based on their qualifications and skills with comparable benefits as other places, for example by ensuring the benefit was comparable between the public and private healthcare system.
Data from the Human Resources for Health Country Profiles 2015 Malaysia showed that females dominate Malaysia’s healthcare system. They discovered that females make up 97% of nurses, 75% of pharmacists, and 60% of doctors [ 35 ]. This study found that 73.9% of our respondents were females and no significant association was found between gender and job dissatisfaction. Similarly, several local and overseas studies also found no significant association between gender and job satisfaction [ 15 , 36 , 37 ]. A workforce dominated by a certain gender seems to provide greater support and understanding of each other’s physiological and psychological requirements. However, looking at our and other findings, it appears that this does not affect satisfaction or dissatisfaction in the workplace.
Some studies discovered a link between minority races and job dissatisfaction. Hispanic and Black nurses were found to be more likely than White nurses to resign in a study of nurses in the United States. Black nurses were also more dissatisfied with their jobs than White nurses [ 38 ]. Female and non-Bumiputera doctors were three times more likely to leave the public health service in Malaysia. This was due to dissatisfaction with several factors including benefits, compensation, promotions, work operations, family obligations, and personal challenges [ 12 ]. However, this study found no association between race and job dissatisfaction. The respondents’ geography and religion could explain this. The majority race in Malaysia and most respondents in this study in the north-eastern region were Malay–Muslim Bumiputera. Hence, they share a standard belief system and practices, leading to increased understanding and tolerance in the workplace.
All in all, a well-defined job scope of a certain job category at the clinic must be established and maintained to improve present healthcare services and increase job satisfaction. Younger workers must be trained regularly to help them appreciate and understand their jobs better, increasing their level of satisfaction. Regular meetings between employees and bosses should be held to review and discuss issues as they arise. Furthermore, any adjustments or new implementations of specific programs must be thoroughly addressed so that all employees understand the objective and why the changes are necessary to gain their complete support and reduce dissatisfaction.
Job dissatisfaction among HCWs at ‘Type 2 Health Clinics’ in north-eastern Malaysia was moderately high. Actions taken to reduce job dissatisfaction must be targeted at young HCWs and those that are dissatisfied with their yearly performance mark to ensure that job satisfaction improves. It is important to ensure they can retain workers in the healthcare system amidst the shortage of HCWs in public primary healthcare in Malaysia.
There were a few limitations for this study. First, this study was conducted at a selected type of health clinic according to their catchment population and services provided in north-eastern Malaysia. This can limit the findings on the associated factors since the findings are specific to types of health clinic and location, which may influence the factors. Additionally, it employed primary data collection methods which were influenced by the honesty and accuracy of the respondents’ answers.
Future research can be conducted among healthcare workers at health clinics, particularly those with different working systems such as shift and non-shift working systems, to fully understand the level of dissatisfaction, associated factors, and how to improve it. This type of study can be conducted with a bigger sample size and population to fully comprehend the dissatisfaction among healthcare workers at health clinics. We also recommend future qualitative research to fully grasp why job dissatisfaction occurs and the healthcare workers’ opinions on improving the situation. This permits fresh insights for policymakers to improve job satisfaction.
The authors would like to take this opportunity to thank Universiti Sains Malaysia and Kelantan State Health Department for the ethical clearance and opportunity to conduct this study. We also would like to thank the Director General of Health, Malaysia, for his permission to publish this article.
ARAHAN: Sila jawab semua soalan dengan menandakan pilihan jawapan yang paling sesuai dengan pekerjaan anda. Jika anda merasakan tiada jawapan yang paling tepat, sila tandakan jawapan yang paling hampir. | |||||||
Umur:_______________ tahun | |||||||
Jantina: | |||||||
Bangsa: | |||||||
Status perkahwinan: | |||||||
Tahap pendidikan: | |||||||
Bilangan anak: _______________ orang | |||||||
Bilangan ahli keluarga yang tinggal serumah dengan anda: _______________ orang | |||||||
Apakah gelaran jawatan anda? (sila nyatakan dengan tepat) _________________________________________________ | |||||||
Berapa lamakah anda memegang jawatan ini? _______________ tahun | |||||||
Pendapatan bulanan (Gaji Hakiki): RM _______________ | |||||||
Nyatakan tempoh keseluruhan anda telah bekerja: _______________ tahun | |||||||
Adakah anda berpuas hati dengan markah LNPT anda? | |||||||
Paul E. Spector Department of Psychology University of South Florida Copyright Paul E. Spector 1994, All rights reserved. | | | | | | | |
J1 | Saya berasa dibayar adil dan bersesuaian dengan kerja yang saya lakukan. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J2 | Terdapat terlalu sedikit kesempatan untuk mendapat promosi dalam pekerjaan saya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J3 | Penyelia saya cukup berkebolehan dalam melaksanakan kerjanya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J4 | Saya tidak berpuas hati dengan faedah yang saya terima. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J5 | Ketika saya melakukan kerja dengan baik, saya menerima penghargaan yang berpatutan. . | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J6 | Banyak peraturan dan prosedur kerja menyusahkan saya untuk melakukan kerja dengan baik. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J7 | Saya suka orang yang saya berkerja bersama. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J8 | Kadang kala, saya berasa bahawa kerja saya tidak bermakna. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J9 | Komunikasi agak baik dalam organsasi ini. . | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J10 | Kenaikan gaji jarang berlaku. . | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J11 | Mereka yang bekerja dengan baik lebih berpeluang mendapat kenaikan pangkat. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J12 | Penyelia saya tidak adil terhadap saya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J13 | Faedah pekerjaan yang kami terima adalah sebaik yang ditawarkan oleh organisasi lain. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J14 | Saya berasa bahawa kerja saya tidak dihargai. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J15 | Usaha saya untuk bekerja dengan baik jarang dihalang oleh ‘pita merah’. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J16 | Saya mesti berkerja lebih keras kerana rakan sekerja saya yang tidak berkebolehan. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J17 | Saya suka perkara yang saya lakukan di tempat kerja. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J18 | Bagi saya, sasaran organisasi ini tidak jelas. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J19 | Saya berasa kurang dihargai apabila saya berfikir mengenai gaji yang dibayar kepada saya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J20 | Pekerja di sini melanjutkan karier mereka sama cepat seperti di organisasi lain. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J21 | Penyelia saya menunjuk terlalu sedikit minat dalam perasaan pekerja bawahannya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J22 | Pakej faedah pekerjaan kami sama seperti organsasi lain. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J23 | Terlalu sedikit ganjaran diberikan kepada mereka yang bekerja di sini. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J24 | Saya mempunyai terlalu banyak kerja. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J25 | Saya suka rakan sekerja saya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J26 | Saya sering berasa bahawa saya tidak tahu tentang apa yang sedang berlaku dalam organisasi ini. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J27 | Saya berasa bangga dengan kerja saya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J28 | Saya berasa puas dengan kenaikan gaji saya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J29 | Kami tidak mendapat faedah yang sepatutnya kami terima. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J30 | Saya suka penyelia saya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J31 | Saya mempunyai terlalu banyak kerja menulis. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J32 | Saya berasa usaha saya tidak diberi ganjaran yang sepatutnya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J33 | Saya berpuas hati dengan peluang promosi saya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J34 | Terlalu banyak pertengkaran dan perselisihan yang berlaku di tempat kerja saya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J35 | Saya suka melaksanakan kerja saya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
J36 | Tugas kerja yang diberikan tidak dijelaskan dengan sepenuhnya. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
This research received no external funding.
Conceptualization, M.I.A., A.D., M.N.S. and A.A.H.; Formal analysis, M.I.A. and A.D.; Investigation, M.I.A., A.D. and A.A.H.; Methodology, M.I.A., A.D., M.N.S. and A.A.H.; Supervision, A.D. and M.N.S.; Writing—original draft, M.I.A., A.D., M.N.S. and A.A.H.; Writing—review and editing, M.I.A., A.D., M.N.S. and A.A.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of the Medical Research and Ethics Committee (MREC), Ministry of Health, Malaysia, with identification number NMRR-20-2574-57270 (IIR) on 30 December 2020. Ethical approval was also obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee (JEPeM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), (USM/JEPeM/2 0110577) on 11 January 2021.
Informed consent and consent to published was obtained from all participants involved in the study.
Conflicts of interest.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
Determinants of Job Satisfaction: A Review of Empirical Literature
Prof. Thomas Katua Ngui United States International University – Africa, KENYA
The commonly held opinion is that “a satisfied worker is a productive worker”. There is a reciprocal relationship between satisfaction and performance; this means that satisfaction causes performance and performance causes satisfaction. When an employee is satisfied with their job they commit their energies and effort towards achievement of organizational goals sometimes at the expense of their personal goals. The purpose of this study is to find out the factors that influence the level of job satisfaction among the workforce. Increased job satisfaction will motivate employees to achieve the organizational goals. A satisfied work force will create a pleasant atmosphere within the organization to perform well (Pushpakumari, 2008). Low job satisfaction could cause employees to move away from their jobs, search for new jobs, or change their existing jobs and careers. The degree of organizational loyalty of employee is higher when employee job satisfaction increased (Javed, Balouch & Hassan, 2014). It is therefore, very critical for organizations to approach their performance improvement goal from the employee job satisfaction point. For this to happen effectively, it is necessary for the managers to understand the factors that determine job satisfaction among employees. Studies have shown that job satisfaction is influenced by a variety of factors- both internal and external to the organization. This study sought to review literature on the factors that determine or influence job satisfaction. From the study it was found that job satisfaction is an outcome of different factors like pay, the work itself, job security, supervision, leadership styles, relationships with co-workers and opportunities for promotions. The findings of this study will help managers at all levels to play a key role in improving the levels of job satisfaction among employees within their jurisdictions. This in turn will lead to higher performance both at the individual, team and organizational levels.
Key Words: Job security, Job satisfaction; Performance
With increased technological growth and globalization of markets the business environment has become very competitive and complex. This requires organizations to up their game in order to remain competitive and survive in the changed business environment. To succeed in this very turbulent market, most organizations have invested in acquisition of high quality resources that are valuable, unique, non- imitable and rare in order to sustain their competitiveness. Such resources include human, physical, technological and financial resources. Among the identified resources, the human resources have been found to be the best source of sustainable competitive advantage. The success of any organization depends on the satisfaction of its workforce (Mekonin & Teklu, 2021).
Every organization’s success indeed depends on employee satisfaction on job as their effort has been paid off ( Khaira, Afifah, Shariff & Sima, 2021) . Leaders today believe that impressive human resource is the power factor of an organization. This is because human resources are unique and cannot be copied. Human resource is an active resource which has emotions and can react differently to different situations. Human resource is considered as the most important asset which serves as the engine for providing a sustainable source of energy and service delivery in the organization (Muhammad & Wajidi, 2013). The importance of intellectual capital has increased to the point of being one of the most valuable assets that must be better understood in order to be developed (Ouedraogo & ALeclerc, 2013). This is largely because the human resource is an active resource that has the capability to activate other resources in pursuit of organizational goals/ objectives. It is also very unique and cannot be copied.
The millennium generation employees (millennials) have different expectations from the job environment compared to the expectations of the previous generation of workers. For this new generation of employees to be productive and to unleash their full potential, they should be satisfied with their job. This requires managers to be very cautious while dealing with the millennials and also to understand their needs/ expectations in order to fully benefit from their skills and knowledge. Job satisfaction is a result of employees’ perception of how well their job provides those things which are viewed as important (Ndulue & Ekechukwu, 2016). If the human resource or employees are happy and contended with the moves and actions of the employer, they do their best for the best of the organization (Khan, Nawaz, Aleem & Hamed, 2012). A satisfied work force will create a pleasant atmosphere within the organization to perform well (Pushpakumari, 2008).
There is a reciprocal relationship between satisfaction and performance; this means that satisfaction and performance influence each other. Increased job satisfaction will motivate employees to achieve the organizational goals. When employees perform well and achieve the organizational goals they are also likely to be motivated by the improved performance which in turn leads to higher job satisfaction. The factors that contribute to the positive morale and attitude also result in a higher degree of job satisfaction (Saranya, 2014). A highly satisfied work force is absolutely necessary for achieving a high level of performance in an organization. Satisfied workers tend to extend more effort to job performance, then work harder and better (Pushpakumari, 2008). Job satisfaction is an important factor for improving effectiveness and also a person’s satisfaction in a company. Job satisfaction is achieved from situations a person experience in his job, so factors such as management method, organization policy and structure, job conditions and type of relation with coworkers are important (Weiss, 2002).
Many studies have been done on the relationship between job satisfaction and performance, for example, Khan, Nawaz, Aleem and Hamed, (2012); Revenio Jr. (2016); Ndulue and Ekechukwu (2016) and Bakotic, (2016) have all done studies on this topic. However, due to the changing nature of the work environment as a result of advancement in technology and the changed expectation of the current millennial employee, this topic remains a topic of interest and requires continuous research in order to meet the psychological needs of the new category of employees whose expectations are quite different from those of the previous generation of workers. The purpose of this paper is to review literature on the factors that influence level of job satisfaction among the workforce and its effects on performance.
Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is an affective or emotional response towards various facets of one’s job (Ndulue & Ekechukwu, 2016). Cranny, Smith and Stone (2014) defined job satisfaction as employees’ emotional state regarding the job, considering what they expected and what they actually got out of it. According to Willem, (2007) job satisfaction shows the relation between human expectations and advantages taken from job. Vroom (1964) as cited in Revenio Jr. (2016) defines job satisfaction as an “effective orientations on the part of the individuals towards work roles which they are presently occupying”. Job satisfaction is a positive emotional state that arises from the employee’s work or practical experience, and results in job satisfaction from the realization of the extent to which the employees work provides the things that he or she considers important (Hareem, 2013). According to Spector (1997) job satisfaction shows peoples emotion about their job generally or about some parts of it (i.e. organization, job, supervisory, coworkers, salary and income and promotions). Job satisfaction describes the positive or negative attitude of a person regarding his employment and work environment (Weiss, 2002; Greenberg, 2008). This could be both psychological as well as physiological factors (Revenio Jr., 2016).
Satisfaction is a complex and multifaceted concept (Revenio Jr., 2016) that is influenced by both internal and external environmental factors. Work environment is an important determinant of job satisfaction of employees (Herzberg, 1968; Spector, 2008). Existing literature and research results show that job satisfaction is influenced by a variety of factors- both internal and external to the organization. The organizations have a level of control over the internal factors, however, they have very limited or no control of the external environmental factors that influence job satisfaction. Different factors within the working environment such as wages, working hours, autonomy given to employees, organizational structure and communication between employees and management may affect job satisfaction (Lane, Esser, Holte, & Anne, 2010). Therefore, the organization should strive to improve on the factors that they have control over in order to increase the level of job satisfaction. At the same time they should try as much as possible to support those responsible for the external environment to improve it. This may call for initiatives that are similar to the existing public-private partnerships.
The results of a study by Dawal and Taha, (2015) showed that job and environmental factors are significantly related to job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is an outcome of different factors like pay, promotion, the work itself, supervision, relationships with co-workers and opportunities for promotions (Opkara, 2002). Ndulue and Ekechukwu, (2016) have also identified pay, the work itself, promotions, supervision, workgroup, and working conditions as the factors that influence job satisfaction. The level of job satisfaction is affected by intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors, the quality of supervision, social relationships with work group and the degree to which individuals succeed or fail in their work (Armstrong, 2006).
Pay, the work itself, promotions, supervision, workgroup and working conditions have a great influence on the level of an employee’s satisfaction with the job (Luthans, 1985). According to Saranya, (2014) the important factors that contribute to the higher level of job satisfaction are challenging and responsible job, numerous promotional opportunities, impartial treatment by the management, creativity and innovative ideas of job security, attractive salary and perks, freedom in work situation, participative management and welfare facilities like medical, uniform, canteen etc. Smith, Kendall and Hullin (1969) expressed the five aspects that can be used to determine job satisfaction as; being satisfied from job (i.e. interesting tasks and opportunities for learning and training), being satisfied from supervisor (i.e. technical and managing abilities and their considerations about employees), being satisfied from coworkers (technical qualification and support they show), being satisfied from promotion (achieving real opportunity to advance), being satisfied from income (amount of income, its equality and way of paying to staff).
Other researchers who have investigated the factors that affect job satisfaction include Tabassum, Khan, Sherani, and Khan, (2016) who say that the major determinants of job satisfaction are basically nine facets which are pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating procedures, co-workers, nature of works and communication. Purcell, Kinnie, Hutchinson, Rayton, and Swart, (2003) also did a research and found that the key factors affecting job satisfaction were career opportunities, job influence, team work and job challenge. According to Revenio Jr. (2016) leadership style also has a great role in the employee’s level of job satisfaction. Brudney and Coundry (1993) have also explained different variables that influence performance of the employees in the organization. They included factors such as pay, organization commitment, relationship between pay and performance, etc. Working conditions have positive impact on job satisfaction (Guest, 2004; Silla, Gracia & Peiro, 2005). Job satisfaction is adversely affected by factors such as lack of promotion, working conditions, low job security and low level of autonomy (Guest, 2004; Silla et al., 2005).
It is essential for an organization to motivate their employees to work hard for achieving the organizational goals and objectives. According to Jerrell, Coggburn, Battaglio Jr., and Bradbury, (2014) how an organization manages conflict also has a bearing on employee job satisfaction.
Empirical Review
Various studies have been done on the factors affecting job satisfaction. Some of the factors researched about include job security, leadership/ supervision styles, salaries, promotion opportunities among others. Javed, Balouch and Hassan, (2014) did a study on the determinants of job satisfaction and its impact on employee performance and turnover intentions. The results of the study showed a significant positive association of employee empowerment, workplace environment, job loyalty and job performance with job satisfaction. The results show that employee empowerment has a significant positive relationship and it contributes more than 37% to job satisfaction. Therefore, when an employee is given autonomy in business decisions then his satisfaction level will rise. Furthermore, there was a significant negative relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intention. According to the result of the study, job satisfaction has a significant negative relationship with turnover intentions contributing more than 32% to turnover intentions. Whenever there is low level of employee satisfaction in any organization, the employees of that organization will intentionally leave that organization.
Cheginy, Isfahani, Mohseni, Khakian and Khosravizadeh (2014) did a study to investigate the factors influencing job satisfaction among hospital personnel. The results of the study showed that there is a significant relationship between job satisfaction and personnel’s perceptions about their work conditions, satisfaction with supervision, satisfaction with coworkers, satisfaction with work nature and satisfaction with salary and advantage. Rukh, Choundhary and Abbasi (2015) did a study on the analysis of factors affecting employee satisfaction in Pakistan. Research findings indicated the significant factors that affect the satisfaction level of employees as pay, promotion, relation with employees, relation with supervisor, work stress and job security. The results further showed that the median group differences existed between responses based on age, work experience, salary and designation (i.e. job position/rank) of employees. Job satisfaction was also positively and significantly associated with job related factors such as pay, promotion, relation with employees, relation with supervisor, work stress and job security. From the study they concluded that job satisfaction of employees was significantly affected by demographic, financial and non-financial factors. Employees who are older than 50 years, with greater experience, and in higher management positions were more satisfied with pay, promotion, work stress, work condition and working environment. The employees’ departments did not play any significant role in affecting satisfaction levels.
Viñas-Bardolet, Velazco and Torrent-Sellens (2013) did a study on the determinants of Job Satisfaction, the Role of Knowledge-based work: An illustration from Spain and found that job satisfaction, depends on worker attributes, financial and non-financial job characteristics. The results also show that net monthly income is a positive and highly significant variable in explaining job satisfaction. Evidence suggests that financial and non-financial (work organisation and work intensity) job dimensions are the most important determinants of knowledge-based workers satisfaction in Spain. Mosadegh Rad and De Moraes (2009) did a study to investigate the specific factors associated with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction in employees at the Isfahan University Hospitals (lUHs) in Isfahan, Iran. The study also focused on revealing homogeneous demographic characteristics that these employees exhibited, and which affect their satisfaction level. It was found that overall employees were moderately satisfied with their jobs, and more satisfied with the following aspects of their current work situation: supervision, job identity and co-workers. The lowest satisfaction scores were found for benefits, contingent rewards, communication, salaries, work conditions and promotion. Motivating factors included loyalty to employees, job security, good pay, good working conditions, tactful discipline, involvement, recognition and promotion.
Job security is a significant determinant of job satisfaction. Job security provides workers with a much-needed sense of structure (Woods, 2018). The effect of job security on worker job satisfaction is different depending on whether perceived job loss occurs (or not), whether job openings are scarce or whether job openings are plentiful (Artz & Kaya, 2014). In the results of their study Artz & Kaya (2014) showed that three measures of job security increase private sector worker job satisfaction, and reduce worker incentives to quit. Few workers quit when job openings are relatively scarce (during contractions) than when job openings are relatively plentiful (during expansions). People want to know their job is available for as long as they wish to hold it. When job security decreases, satisfaction and performance levels also take a hit. Results of a study by Reisel, Probst, Chia, Maloles and König, (2010) on the effects of job insecurity on job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, deviant behavior, and negative emotions of employees show that job insecurity is negatively related to satisfaction and that job insecurity has both direct and indirect effects on work behaviors and emotions.
The work environment has also been researched in relation to job satisfaction. Raziq and Maulabakhsh, (2015) did a study on the Impact of Working Environment on Job Satisfaction and found a positive relationship between working environment and employee job satisfaction. Their study concluded that the businesses need to realize the importance of good working environment for maximizing the level of job satisfaction. Other results have also shown that there is a positive link between work environment and intrinsic aspect of the job satisfaction. According to Javed, Balouch, and Hassan, (2014) work place environment has a positive relation with job satisfaction and it contributes 16% to job satisfaction. Since it has a positive impact on job satisfaction so it shows that when an employee is given favorable and clean environment then his/her satisfaction level rises. Bakotic and Babic (2013) found that the workers who work under difficult working conditions, are dissatisfied through this work environment.
Promotions are also an important aspect of a worker’s career and life, affecting other facets of the work experience. With regard to promotions some studies have also been done by various researchers. Malik, Danish and Munir, (2012) did a study to determine the impact of pay and promotion on job satisfaction in higher education institutes of Pakistan and found that pay has significant influence on job satisfaction but the promotion has less influence and partially significant to the job satisfaction. Kosteas (2007) did a study on job Satisfaction and Promotions and found that promotions have a lasting, but diminishing impact on job satisfaction. Kosteas (2007) also find a strong, negative correlation between quits and both job satisfaction and promotion expectations. Promotion has a positive impact on job satisfaction (Nguyen et al., 2003; Teseema & Soeters, 2006). Khan and Mishra, (2013) also did a research on promotion as job satisfaction, a study on Colleges of Muscat, Sultanate Of Oman and the research findings indicate that academic teaching employees where satisfied with the promotion. There was a significant difference in the level of satisfaction. Analysis showed that promotion has a modest and positive effect on job satisfaction.
Mabaso and Dlamini (2017) did a study on the impact of compensation and benefits on job satisfaction and found a positive and significant effect of compensation on job satisfaction (p = 0.263). Moreover, they found that there was no significant effect between benefits and job satisfaction. Therefore, only compensation significantly predicted job satisfaction among academic staff. A study by Usman, Akbar and Ramzan (2013) on the effect of salary and stress on job satisfaction of teachers in District Sialkot, Pakistan found that from the two independent variables (salary and stress) only salary of the teachers was significantly affecting the job satisfaction of teachers. Financial rewards (salary) were found to significantly affect job satisfaction of teachers. Based on the findings of the study by Usman, Akbar and Ramzan (2013) it means that if employees are not given proper salary in time, they would be highly dissatisfied with their jobs and may ultimately start thinking of leaving the profession. This is due to the fact that cost of living is highly increasing in Pakistan. Other results of a study by Muhammed zia Ur Rehman, (2010) found that job satisfaction was significantly related with extrinsic rewards (salary and other benefits). Arian, Soleimani and Oghazian (2018) did a study on job satisfaction and the factors affecting satisfaction in nurse educators and found that there is a positive correlation between job satisfaction and promotion opportunities and that those professors with a high level of job satisfaction had a higher pay and salary. Job satisfaction of bank officers is significantly dependent upon compensation, promotion opportunities, rewards, relation with boss and coworkers. The study found that compensation is the main factor affecting job satisfaction, and it also has significant relationships with job involvement and promotion. Some evidence that workers who are dissatisfied with their bosses are more sensitive to their compensation in deciding on whether they are satisfied with their job was also established from the study.
An affable relationship between supervisor and employee leads to job satisfaction. According to the Essays, UK (November 2013) an amiable supervisor-employee relationship builds the employee’s morale, which makes him to feel affective about his job, especially when his efforts are recognized and rewarded. This brings him satisfaction in his job. Thus, the employee strives to achieve both organizational and personal goals.
A study by Nidadhavolu, Akhila, (2018) on the impact of leadership styles on employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment in the construction sector in India proved that an organization’s leadership style strongly influences employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The application of transformational leadership style leads to stronger job satisfaction. This finding established that leadership has a major influence on work outcome and job satisfaction in the company. The employees are most satisfied when they see their leaders possess both relation-oriented and task-oriented behaviors. The study also highlighted a laissez-faire leadership style is a consequence of job satisfaction. The findings show that the laissez-faire leadership style could result in low interpersonal relationships, resulting in weak employee job satisfaction and productivity levels. The research findings found that out of the three construction companies chosen for the study, the laissez-faire leadership style had a negative influence on job satisfaction and organizational commitment on the employees of two companies. Whereas, the transformational leadership style had a positive impact on the employees of one company. The study also discovered the negative influence of upper-management leadership style on employees has a negative influence on organization performance.
Saleem, (2015) did a study on the impact of leadership styles on job satisfaction and mediating role of perceived organizational politics. Research findings revealed that transformational leadership has a positive impact on job satisfaction and transactional leadership has a negative impact on job satisfaction. The findings also suggest that, perceived organizational politics partially mediate the relationship between both leadership styles and job satisfaction.
Sarwar, Mumtaz, Batool and Ikram, (2015) also did a study on the impact of leadership styles on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. This study tested the effects of both transactional and transformational leadership styles of supervisors/ managers on job satisfaction and organizational commitment of employees. Data was collected from the managers and employees working in IT research and development department in Pakistan. The results of the study revealed a positive effect of both transformational and transactional leadership on job satisfaction and organizational commitment, but this effect is more in case of transactional leadership.
Chien- Wen Tsai (2008) did a study on leadership style and employee’s job satisfaction in international tourist hotels. Through correlation analysis, this research found that employees are more satisfied under consideration-style-leadership than construction-style-leadership. After controlling for differences in salary, employees appear to prefer consideration-style-leadership. No matter what the leadership style is, employees’ job satisfaction does not relate towards their coworkers. Besides, employees have different perceptions on work, salary, and overall satisfaction depending on their education level and seniority.
Bulitia, Godrick (2006) did a survey of supervision styles and employee job satisfaction in commercial banks in Kenya. The findings of this study showed a high correlation between supervision styles and job satisfaction. All the correlated statements between supervision styles and job satisfaction had +1 correlation coefficient. This gave a perfect positive correlation meaning the two variables supervision styles and job satisfaction move together in the completely linear manner. However, based on the study results by Bulitia, Godrick (2006) there is need for line managers to improve the use of supervision styles and relationship with employee job satisfaction in Commercial banks in Kenya. For them to improve and succeed in their supervision styles there should be changes at the individual and organizational levels. At individual level improving line managers’ supervision styles, would involve basic education and specific job related training. They should also be encouraged to enhance their skills through continuous self-learning. At organizational level top management should provide appropriate reinforcements for line managers in learning about and improving their supervision styles (Bulitia, Godrick, 2006).
Ayodele, Ekemode and Kajimo-Shakantu (2020) investigated the job satisfaction levels of real estate firms’ employees and the relationship between employees’ personal and demographic characteristics and their job satisfaction levels. Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. The result showed that financial consideration/personal accomplishment was the most important factor influencing employees’ level of satisfaction, followed by work environment skill variety/organizational culture, feedback/fairness, work passion and supervision/workload/work-life balance. The results of the analysis also showed that demographic factors such as age, marital status, academic qualification, management level, years spent under the current line manager, remuneration and number of firm branches had a significant relationship with job satisfaction.
Park (2020) did a study to investigate the direct effects of supervisor satisfaction, public service motivation, and job characteristics on job satisfaction and the indirect effects mediated by organizational commitment. The survey data used for the empirical analysis was collected from central government agencies in the Republic of Korea. The study found that all three factors indirectly affect job satisfaction through organizational commitment. Only job characteristics were found to directly affect job satisfaction (Park, 2020).
Another study done by Abdelmoula and Boudabbous (2021) with the aim of identifying the factors that affect the job satisfaction of professional accountants. The study examined the relative effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on job satisfaction among accounting professionals using the principal component analysis (PCA) and multiple regression methods of data analysis. The results of the study showed that three intrinsic factors, namely achievement, the work itself, recognition, along with four extrinsic ones, i.e., salary, relationship with supervisor and co-workers, working conditions, and the company policy, significantly affect the job satisfaction. However, promotion, growth and recognition do not have a significant effect on job satisfaction.
The study by Hussain and Diaz, (2021) identified factors affecting employee job satisfaction in the University of Karachi using a survey questionnaire data. The study found that a generous rewards and compensation packages lead to job satisfaction and are affected by promotion and job security. Good working relationship with co-workers also contributes to employee job satisfaction. The study also found that good working environment also contributes to employee motivation, and is influenced by better facilities, and training and development. Finally, good supervision provides motivation that enhances the quality of output and employee performance.
Jędrzejczak-Gas and Wyrwa (2020) conducted a study to analyze and evaluate environmental factors shaping job satisfaction in a company from the TSL industry. For the study the correlation between general job satisfaction and particular factors of job satisfaction was examined. The values of Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients and Kendall’s tau coefficients were also calculated. The results of the study show that the two most important factors necessary to achieve job satisfaction are access to information necessary for proper performance of work and independence in performing the entrusted tasks.
Okuwa (2019) examined the determinants of job satisfaction and job turnover intention of the workers of selected banks in Ibadan. Multiple sampling methods were used to select the sample (purposive sampling method was employed to select 12 banks that have the highest number of branches in Ibadan, while random sampling technique was used to select 20 respondents from each of the bank). The results showed that adequacy of salary, safety in work place, possibility of promotion, and interpersonal relations among the staff were the factors that enhanced job satisfaction. However, long working hours, job insecurity and conflicts between office and family schedules reduced the job satisfaction of the bankers.
Using an explanatory research design with a quantitative research approach Mekonin and Teklu (2021) did a study to investigate the determinants of employee job satisfaction in the case of kirkos sub-city of Addis Ababa city administration. The data for the study was collected using a structured close-ended questions from a sample of 310 randomly selected employees and was analyzed using inferential statistics with the aid of Statistical Packages for Social Scientists (SPSS) version 23.0. Multiple regression and ANOVA analysis techniques were also used to explain the nature and effects between employees’ job satisfaction and (Gender, Age, Academic level, Work experience, Work position, pay and benefit, working environment, promotion opportunity, relation with supervisors, trust in leadership). The study found that there is a significant effect with pay and benefit, working environment, Promotion opportunities, relation with supervisors, work experience, and trust in leadership to employees’ job satisfaction and regression analysis result indicated that 81.6% of the variation on the employees’ job satisfaction can be explained by the composite measure the independent variables.
Senek. et al. (2020) analyzed data from a cross-sectional mixed-methods survey to investigate the Determinants of nurse job dissatisfaction – findings from a cross-sectional survey analysis in the UK . Logistic regression analysis of the data was done in order to determine what impacts job dissatisfaction. The study found that nearly two-thirds of nurses were dissatisfied and demoralized.
Monica, Devi and Mohapatra (2020) did a study on Determinants of Job Satisfaction. Using a sample of 150 respondents and data collected using questionnaire method the study examined whether job characteristics (JC) and individual characteristics (IC) have an effect on worker’s job satisfaction (JS). The result suggest that job characteristics and self-efficacy are significant predictors of job satisfaction (JS).
Khaira, Afifah; Shariff, and Sima, (2021) did a study on the determinants of employee job satisfaction in Malaysia . This study aimed to determine demographic factors (gender and living areas), education and skills, work environment and compensation as the determinants of employee job satisfaction. Data collected from 132 employees from various sectors in Malaysia was analyzed using Pearson’s correlation and the Ordinal Logistic Regression. From the study it was concluded that living area, education qualification and skills and compensation are significant and considered important factors to meet their job satisfaction compared to gender and work environment.
Ranatunga, (2020) did a study to identify the relationship between pay, promotion, supervision, co-workers and work itself of job satisfaction and job performance among employees in classified hotels. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 150 non–executive employees selected using the convenience sampling method. Frequencies, univariate analysis, Pearson’s correlation, T-test and multiple regression analysis as well as multivariate analysis were used in the study. The study concluded that there is a significant positive relationship between selected factors of job satisfaction and job performance. The results of the correlation coefficient showed that pay, promotion, co-workers, supervision, work itself has a significant positive relationship with job performance and it emphasized that pay and co-workers have a strong relationship with job performance. According to the multiple regression analysis, the model was strongly fitted to the data and 40.6% variance of job performance was explained by pay, promotion, co-workers, supervision and work itself of job satisfaction.
Parveen, Maimani, and Kassim (2016) did a study to examine the effects of demographic characteristics on the QWL dimensions and satisfaction, and the relationships between the QWL dimensions and satisfaction, and between satisfaction and retention among nurses and other health care professionals Saudi Arabia. A sample of 360 nurses and other health care professionals was collected in Jeddah, in Saudi Arabia and the data collected was analysed using multivariate analysis of variance and structural equation modeling were used to test the hypotheses. The results of the study show that there is a significant difference between demographic and QWL dimensions and satisfaction. Satisfaction with personal growth and salary package were found to have significant positive impacts on overall retention.
Jigme, and Namgyal, (2021) did a study to determine the relationship between the determinants of job satisfaction such as work environment, pay and allowances, promotion, training and development, and job satisfaction in the Bhutanese context. Data from a sample of 76 civil servants were collected through a questionnaire survey and Google form and analyzed using SPSS 23. The Pearson correlation analysis was performed to find out the relationship between the independent variables (determinants of job satisfaction) and a dependent variable (job satisfaction). Linear regression and multiple regression analysis were also performed to understand the strength and types of relationship. The results of Pearson correlation and regression analysis indicate that the work environment (rp = 0.603, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.364, B = 0.460), and training and development (rp = 0.583, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.340, B = 0.383) have strong significant positive relationships with job satisfaction. However, other determinants such as pay and allowances (rp = 0.436, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.190, B = 0.283) and promotion (rp = 0.395, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.156, B = 0.288) have moderate relationships with job satisfaction. The result for multiple regression analysis shows that all the determinants have a strong correlation (R = 0.624, R 2 = 0.481, p < 0.01) with job satisfaction and these determinants determine 48.1 percent of the total satisfaction level perceived by the employee. The findings indicate that the work environment is the strongest predictor of job satisfaction as compared to other determinants.
Mensah, Amrago, Asare, Yeboah and Donkor (2020) did a study to investigate the factors affecting job satisfaction amongst workers of the poultry sub-sector: a test of equity theory in the Dormaa Municipality in the Bono Region of Ghana. The multistage sampling technique was employed in collecting data from 100 poultry workers with the aid of a structured questionnaire. The logit model was employed in modeling the factors affecting job satisfaction. The empirical findings reveal that occupational level, pay, and relationships with co-workers were the statistically significant determinants of job satisfaction.
Subarto, Solihin, and Qurbani, (2021) did a study on the determinants of job satisfaction and its implications for the lecturers performance. The purpose of the study was to examine the positive effects of leadership style, work environment, and organizational climate on lecturer performance through Pamulang University’s job satisfaction. The quantitative research method was used and data was collected using survey questionnaires distributed to a sample of 135 respondents selected using a proportional random sampling. Statistical analysis was done using the partial least squares (PLS). From the results of the analysis it was found that leadership style, work environment, and organizational climate have an impact on job satisfaction. Leadership style, work environment, and organizational atmosphere also affect the performance of lecturers. Job satisfaction affects the performance of lecturers and can mediate the influence of leadership style, work environment, and organizational climate on lecturer performance.
From this study it is concluded that the factors that contribute to the positive morale and attitude also result in a higher degree of job satisfaction (Saranya, 2014). The review has shown that the major determinants of job satisfaction are basically nine facets which are pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating procedures, co-workers, nature of works and communication. Job Satisfaction is thus derived from and is the result of many interrelated factors which cannot be completely isolated from one another for analytical purposes. Job Satisfaction is the essential component for employee motivation and encouragement towards better performance (Vroom, 1964). A highly satisfied work force is absolutely necessary for achieving a high level of performance in an organization. Satisfied employees are more likely to be friendly and responsive which attracts customers while dissatisfied employees can lead to customer dissatisfaction (Mahmud, Hasan, and Asif, 2014). It is therefore necessary for organizations to ensure that the above determinants are provided at the required levels to ensure optimum satisfaction of employees. Of all the major job satisfaction areas, satisfaction with the nature of the work itself—which includes job challenge, autonomy, variety, and scope—best predicts overall job satisfaction, as well as other important outcomes like employee retention (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Parisi & Weiner, 1999 as quoted in Ram, (2013).
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Employee dissatisfaction is when employees may feel dissatisfied, unhappy, unfulfilled, or undervalued in their roles.
This sense of job dissatisfaction affects or can arise from factors such as poor management practices, inadequate compensation, limited career growth opportunities, a toxic work environment , or an imbalance between work and personal life. It significantly impacts an employee's career trajectory, morale, productivity, and overall organizational performance.
Addressing employee dissatisfaction is crucial for maintaining a motivated and engaged workforce. Failure to tackle the root causes of dissatisfaction can lead to increased absenteeism, higher turnover rates, reduced productivity, poor leadership skills, and a negative workplace culture.
By recognizing and addressing these issues, organizations can overcome the signs of job dissatisfaction and foster a more positive and productive work environment for hourly workers, ultimately driving better business outcomes.
Employee dissatisfaction and employee disengagement are often used interchangeably, but they represent distinct concepts with different implications for organizational health and productivity. Understanding the nuances between them is crucial for leaders aiming to address workforce issues effectively.
Job dissatisfaction can significantly impact employee performance, morale, and retention rates. Understanding the root causes of combat signs of job dissatisfaction is essential for organizations to foster a positive work environment and make necessary changes to ensure employee satisfaction. Here are key factors that contribute to job dissatisfaction:
Ineffective leadership is a primary cause of employee job dissatisfaction. Managers who lack communication skills, fail to provide adequate support or exhibit favoritism can create a hostile work environment. Employees need guidance, recognition, and fair treatment to feel valued and motivated.
Feeling underpaid or undervalued is a common source of job dissatisfaction. Competitive salaries and comprehensive benefits packages are crucial. When employees believe their compensation does not match their efforts or industry standards, it leads to frustration and disengagement.
Employees seek more jobs and opportunities for professional development and career advancement . A lack of clear and limited career growth prospects and pathways, jobs, training programs, or promotional opportunities can make employees' jobs feel stagnant. Without growth prospects, they are likely to feel unmotivated and dissatisfied with their roles and jobs.
A toxic work environment characterized by poor relationships with colleagues, bullying, or lack of respect can significantly impact job satisfaction. Employees thrive in a supportive and collaborative atmosphere where they feel safe and respected.
Excessive work demands that affect personal time can lead to burnout and job dissatisfaction. Employees need a balance between work, job duties, and personal and healthy work-life balance to maintain their well-being. Organizations that fail to support work-life balance risk higher turnover and lower productivity.
Employees need to feel that their contributions are recognized and appreciated. A lack of motivation and recognition can lead to feelings of underappreciation and demotivation. Regular acknowledgment of achievements and efforts is essential to maintaining morale, motivation, and job satisfaction.
When employees are placed in roles or jobs by employers that do not align with their skills , interests, or values, job dissatisfaction is inevitable. Ensuring a good job fit through effective recruitment and job placement strategies by employers is crucial for employee job satisfaction.
Clear and transparent communication from management is vital. When employees are kept in the dark about organizational changes, goals, or expectations, it creates uncertainty and dissatisfaction. Open lines of communication foster trust and engagement ensuring everyone feels informed and valued.
Identifying the signs of employee dissatisfaction early is essential for addressing issues before they escalate and impact organizational performance. Here are the 7 key indicators of dissatisfaction among employees to combat job dissatisfaction:
One of the primary signs of employee dissatisfaction is a noticeable drop in productivity. Employees who are unhappy with their current job, are less likely to be motivated, resulting in lower output and efficiency. This decline in employee well-being can be observed through missed deadlines, incomplete tasks, and a general reduction in work quality.
A significant increase in employee turnover is a clear sign of widespread dissatisfaction in the workplace. When employees leave the organization at a higher rate than usual, it suggests that they are seeking better opportunities elsewhere due to dissatisfaction with their current role or workplace.
Employees displaying a consistently negative attitude , such as frequent complaints, resistance to change, or general irritability, may be dissatisfied with their jobs. This negativity can spread to other team members, affecting the overall workplace morale.
When employees are dissatisfied, the quality of their work can suffer. This might be evident through increased errors, lack of attention to detail, and a general decline in work standards. Consistently poor work performance can impact the organization’s reputation and client satisfaction.
A lack of initiative and creativity is another sign of employee dissatisfaction. Employees who are unhappy are less likely to propose new ideas, take risks, or go beyond their basic job duties and requirements. This can stifle innovation and growth within the organization.
Dissatisfied employees often withdraw from team activities and social interactions at work. They may isolate themselves, avoid team-building events, and limit their communication with colleagues. This withdrawal can weaken team cohesion and collaboration.
An increase in conflicts with colleagues or management can be a sign of underlying job dissatisfaction. Employees who are unhappy may be more prone to disagreements and less willing to compromise, leading to a more contentious work environment.
Dealing with employee dissatisfaction requires proactive leadership and effective strategies to address underlying issues. Here are eight strategies for leaders to mitigate and overcome job dissatisfaction and foster a positive work environment:
Schedule regular one-on-one meetings with employees to discuss their concerns, challenges, and feedback openly. Actively listen to their input, acknowledge their feelings, and work together to find constructive solutions using the Employee engagement survey tools . This demonstrates that their opinions are valued and helps in identifying dissatisfaction early on.
Offer opportunities for professional growth and skill development for managers . Establish clear career paths for managers, provide training programs, and support employees in achieving their career goals. Investing in their personal goals and development shows managers' commitment to their success increases job satisfaction and gives them a fulfilling job.
Create a culture of transparency and open communication where employees feel comfortable sharing their thoughts and concerns without fear of reprisal. Encourage feedback through anonymous surveys , suggestion boxes, or regular team meetings. Address issues promptly and communicate organizational changes clearly.
Acknowledge and celebrate employees' accomplishments and contributions to the organization. Recognition can be in the form of verbal praise, awards, bonuses, or career advancement opportunities. Recognized employees feel valued and motivated, contributing positively to their job satisfaction and motivation.
Support work-life balance initiatives by offering flexible work schedules, remote work options, paid time off, or wellness programs. Encourage employees to take breaks and vacations to recharge. Balancing work commitments with personal life reduces stress and improves overall well-being.
Regularly review payroll and compensation strategy to ensure that compensation packages are competitive and aligned with industry standards. Provide comprehensive benefits that meet employees' and employers' needs and expectations, such as healthcare, retirement plans, and employee assistance programs. Fair compensation enhances job satisfaction and reduces financial concerns for employers.
Create a supportive and inclusive workplace culture where respect, collaboration, and teamwork thrive. Promote diversity and equity, discourage workplace politics, and resolve conflicts promptly and fairly. A positive environment fosters loyalty and commitment among employees.
Demonstrate strong leadership qualities by being approachable, fair, and empathetic. Show genuine interest in your team's well-being and actively participate in team activities. Lead with integrity, inspire trust, and uphold organizational values. Your leadership sets the tone for employee satisfaction and organizational success.
Understanding the current landscape of employee dissatisfaction is crucial for organizations to implement effective strategies and improve workplace satisfaction. Here are four key statistics highlighting the prevalence and impact of dissatisfaction among employees in 2024:
Employee satisfaction surveys play a crucial role in understanding the sentiments and perceptions of employees within an organization. Here’s why these surveys and employee feedback tools are significant for measuring and improving employee satisfaction:
Employee satisfaction surveys provide valuable insights into how employees feel about various aspects of their job, workplace environment, and organizational culture. Through structured questions and feedback mechanisms, surveys capture diverse perspectives and identify areas of concern or satisfaction.
By analyzing survey results, organizations can pinpoint specific areas where employees are dissatisfied or perceive shortcomings. Whether it’s communication, leadership, work-life balance, or career development opportunities, these surveys highlight actionable areas for improvement.
Surveys allow organizations to benchmark their employee satisfaction levels against industry standards or previous survey results. This comparison helps gauge progress over time and identify trends or patterns that require attention.
Survey data provides quantitative and qualitative data that supports informed decision-making. Leaders can prioritize initiatives based on concrete feedback and prioritize resources effectively to address critical areas affecting employee satisfaction.
The act of soliciting feedback through surveys can itself boost the employee experience and morale for many workers. It shows that the organization cares about the employee experience and well-being and is committed to making positive changes based on their input, enhancing overall job satisfaction.
High levels of employee job satisfaction, as indicated by survey results, contribute to improved job retention rates and talent management. Satisfied employees are more likely to stay with the organization, reducing turnover costs and maintaining continuity in operations.
Employee satisfaction surveys foster a culture of continuous improvement where feedback loops are integral to organizational growth. It encourages ongoing dialogue between employees and management, leading to adaptive strategies that support long-term success.
As we navigate an increasingly complex and competitive business landscape, understanding and addressing employee dissatisfaction is more important than ever. Organizations that proactively tackle dissatisfaction can enhance employee engagement , boost productivity, and ensure long-term success.
By embracing tools like eNPS and pulse surveys , companies can gather essential feedback, identify pain points, and implement meaningful changes.
Let us seize the opportunity to use these insights to create a more engaged and satisfied workforce. Before you invest in any new initiatives, it's crucial to check your employee pulse with CultureMonkey's engagement tools. Understand what works and what needs improvement, then take informed steps forward to maximize your return on investment.
Provide your employees with surveys using CultureMonkey’s feedback tool . Click here to book a free demo today and start building a happier, more engaged workforce.
Abhinaya is a Content Marketing Intern with a passion for creative writing and literature. She immerses herself in books and enjoys binge-watching her favourite sitcoms.
45+ work life balance survey questions: measure workplace engagement.
Work-life balance is a crucial driver of employee engagement, yet it is being overlooked by organizations in the hopes of driving more productivity. In that sense, measuring work-life balance is not only necessary for driving engagement but also to ensure employee wellbeing & boost retention.
Think of employee voice as a place where employees are not just passive recipients of information but active contributors to every process. It goes beyond the traditional top-down approach where only senior levels make decisions encouraging a culture of openness and collaboration.
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The employee behavior literature is very much dominated by studies on "good" or "positive" behaviors, but relatively little has been researched on the negative attitudes and behaviors of people within the workplace, in particular, job dissatisfaction and counterproductive work behavior (CWB).
Abstract and Figures. Job satisfaction is the main variable that must be considered in managing human resource practices. Job satisfaction discusses the extent to which employees are satisfied or ...
JOB SATISFACTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW MANAGEMENT RESEARCH AND PRACTICE VOL. 3 ISSUE 4 (2011) PP: 77-86 77 Management Research and Practice Volume 3, Issue 4 / December 2011 ... satisfaction (motivators) and factors that cause job dissatisfaction (hygiene factors), Table 1. FIGURE 4 D ETERMINANTS OF SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION (R UE AND ...
A literature review on work environment and job satisfaction conducted pre-COVID for a dissertation project revealed several factors that support healthy work environments. This article defines and describes the qualities of both unhealthy and healthy work environments, discusses the impact they have on employees, and offers suggestions for ...
Overall job dissatisfaction: 138: ... Groenier KH, et al. Job satisfaction among general practitioners: a systematic literature review. Eur J Gen Pract. 2006; 12 (4):174-80. [Google Scholar] 29. Adams A, Bond S. Hospital nurses' job satisfaction, individual and organizational characteristics.
In their review of literature, Hossinger et al. suggested that academics choose entrepreneurial activities in order to pursue an intrinsic source of rewards, such as ... (H3b): Job dissatisfaction has a moderating effect on the relationship between outcome expectations and entrepreneurial intention, such that when job dissatisfaction is high ...
Background: A vast number of published studies have suggested a link between job satisfaction levels and health. The sizes of the relationships reported vary widely. Narrative overviews of this relationship have been published, but no systematic meta-analysis review has been conducted. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 485 studies with a combined sample size of 267 995 ...
Job satisfaction is the main variable that must be considered in managing human resource practices. Job satisfaction discusses the extent to which employees are satisfied or dissatisfied with their jobs are caused by several factors that motivate them. This study aims to dig deeper into job satisfaction variable. In achieving this goal, the researchers used a systematic review using PRISMA ...
The current state of research on job satisfaction is discussed in the paper, which includes a systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis of articles published from 2017 to 2022. The study identified four categories related to job satisfaction: leadership, salary, organizational commitment, and job stress.
These plans and proposals are welcome but may not address some of the causes of job shortages, particularly widespread job dissatisfaction, 'burnout' and estrangement from healthcare provision. ... review of the literature from the period 2010-2017. Psychiatr Psychol Klin 2018; 18: 194-199. Crossref. Google Scholar. 43.
their literature review, reported that many researches empha- ... Job dissatisfaction, in turn, was found to mediate the effect of citizenship pressure and all destructive leadership behaviors ...
of work motivation, job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Literature review Teacher motivation is complex and multilayered as Shoaib (2004) demonstrates. Vallerand and Ratelle (2002) advocate that ...
ture on job stressors, job dissatisfaction, and CWB. Literature Review Conceptual Definition of Variables CWB encompasses any form of intentional behavior by an individual employee which may have a destructive effect on the well-being of an organization or its members (Aftab & Javeed, 2012; Gruys & Sackett, 2003). CWB can also be
A lack of interest in the work is another reason why employees are unhappy. Most employees want to. perform job duties that are engaging and challenging. Y et, only 30 percent of workers in the U ...
This paper reviews the concept of job dissatisfaction, and argues that no particular consequence of job dissatisfaction is inevitable or necessary. The various psychological and behavioral consequences of job dissatisfaction are considered, and a heuristic guide for further research is suggested.
A lower recruitment and high turnover rate of registered nurses have resulted in a global shortage of nurses. In the UK, prior to the COVID-19 epidemic, nurses' intention to leave rates were between 30 and 50% suggesting a high level of job dissatisfaction. In this study, we analysed data from a cross-sectional mixed-methods survey developed by the Royal College of Nursing and administered ...
Smith et al. (1969) defined job satisfaction as the feeling an individual has about his or her job. To him, job satisfaction could be measured in terms of pay, work itself, promotions, supervision, and coworkers. Locke (1976) defined job satisfaction as an emotional-affective response to a job or specific aspects of the job. Locke
Literature Review. 2.1. Job Dissatisfaction and Healthcare Workers ... Job dissatisfaction was found to be associated with age when being both a young ... (144-216) and dissatisfied (36-143). Based on a systemic review conducted in 2003, it was found that the JSS has adequate validity and reliability. The discriminant validity was 0.19-0. ...
The purpose of this paper is to review literature on the factors that influence level of job satisfaction among the workforce and its effects on performance. Job satisfaction Cranny, Smith and Stone (2014) defined job satisfaction as employees' emotional state regarding the job, considering what they expected and what they actually got out of it.
Job satisfaction denotes to the workers' perception of their workplace settings, relationships amid. fellows, salary as well as endorsement opportunities. In healthcare services environment with ...
The study aimed to explore factors contributing to job dissatisfaction among frontend retail employees in India. It broadly contributes to the problem of talent retention and employee turnover which is one of the biggest challenges of the Indian retail industry. ... Hence, the interview questions were an outcome of the literature review and ...
Summary. Growing employee dissatisfaction in the workplace can be explained by the likelihood that "psychological contracts" between employees and organizations — the implicit mutual ...
Conversely, job dissatisfaction, which is obviously the opposite of job satisfa c- tion is defined by Nwobia and Aljohani (2017: p. 137) as "an unpleasa nt or nega-
This sense of job dissatisfaction affects or can arise from factors such as poor management practices, inadequate compensation, limited career growth opportunities, a toxic work environment, or an imbalance between work and personal life. It significantly impacts an employee's career trajectory, morale, productivity, and overall organizational ...
problem of job dissatisfaction among healthcare organizations. ... Different working organizations, Employees, literature review Introduction Job satisfaction is an optimistic feeling for one's ...