who wrote the biography of albert einstein

Biography Online

Albert Einstein Biography

Einstein is also well known as an original free-thinker, speaking on a range of humanitarian and global issues. After contributing to the theoretical development of nuclear physics and encouraging F.D. Roosevelt to start the Manhattan Project, he later spoke out against the use of nuclear weapons.

Born in Germany to Jewish parents, Einstein settled in Switzerland and then, after Hitler’s rise to power, the United States. Einstein was a truly global man and one of the undisputed genius’ of the Twentieth Century.

Early life Albert Einstein

Einstein was born 14 March 1879, in Ulm the German Empire. His parents were working-class (salesman/engineer) and non-observant Jews. Aged 15, the family moved to Milan, Italy, where his father hoped Albert would become a mechanical engineer. However, despite Einstein’s intellect and thirst for knowledge, his early academic reports suggested anything but a glittering career in academia. His teachers found him dim and slow to learn. Part of the problem was that Albert expressed no interest in learning languages and the learning by rote that was popular at the time.

“School failed me, and I failed the school. It bored me. The teachers behaved like Feldwebel (sergeants). I wanted to learn what I wanted to know, but they wanted me to learn for the exam.” Einstein and the Poet (1983)

At the age of 12, Einstein picked up a book on geometry and read it cover to cover. – He would later refer to it as his ‘holy booklet’. He became fascinated by maths and taught himself – becoming acquainted with the great scientific discoveries of the age.

Albert Einstein with wife Elsa

Despite Albert’s independent learning, he languished at school. Eventually, he was asked to leave by the authorities because his indifference was setting a bad example to other students.

He applied for admission to the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. His first attempt was a failure because he failed exams in botany, zoology and languages. However, he passed the next year and in 1900 became a Swiss citizen.

At college, he met a fellow student Mileva Maric, and after a long friendship, they married in 1903; they had two sons before divorcing several years later.

In 1896 Einstein renounced his German citizenship to avoid military conscription. For five years he was stateless, before successfully applying for Swiss citizenship in 1901. After graduating from Zurich college, he attempted to gain a teaching post but none was forthcoming; instead, he gained a job in the Swiss Patent Office.

While working at the Patent Office, Einstein continued his own scientific discoveries and began radical experiments to consider the nature of light and space.

Einstein in 1921

He published his first scientific paper in 1900, and by 1905 had completed his PhD entitled “ A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions . In addition to working on his PhD, Einstein also worked feverishly on other papers. In 1905, he published four pivotal scientific works, which would revolutionise modern physics. 1905 would later be referred to as his ‘ annus mirabilis .’

Einstein’s work started to gain recognition, and he was given a post at the University of Zurich (1909) and, in 1911, was offered the post of full-professor at the Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague (which was then part of Austria-Hungary Empire). He took Austrian-Hungary citizenship to accept the job. In 1914, he returned to Germany and was appointed a director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. (1914–1932)

Albert Einstein’s Scientific Contributions

Quantum Theory

Einstein suggested that light doesn’t just travel as waves but as electric currents. This photoelectric effect could force metals to release a tiny stream of particles known as ‘quanta’. From this Quantum Theory, other inventors were able to develop devices such as television and movies. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.

Special Theory of Relativity

This theory was written in a simple style with no footnotes or academic references. The core of his theory of relativity is that:

“Movement can only be detected and measured as relative movement; the change of position of one body in respect to another.”

Thus there is no fixed absolute standard of comparison for judging the motion of the earth or plants. It was revolutionary because previously people had thought time and distance are absolutes. But, Einstein proved this not to be true.

He also said that if electrons travelled at close to the speed of light, their weight would increase.

This lead to Einstein’s famous equation:

Where E = energy m = mass and c = speed of light.

General Theory of Relativity 1916

Working from a basis of special relativity. Einstein sought to express all physical laws using equations based on mathematical equations.

He devoted the last period of his life trying to formulate a final unified field theory which included a rational explanation for electromagnetism. However, he was to be frustrated in searching for this final breakthrough theory.

Solar eclipse of 1919

In 1911, Einstein predicted the sun’s gravity would bend the light of another star. He based this on his new general theory of relativity. On 29 May 1919, during a solar eclipse, British astronomer and physicist Sir Arthur Eddington was able to confirm Einstein’s prediction. The news was published in newspapers around the world, and it made Einstein internationally known as a leading physicist. It was also symbolic of international co-operation between British and German scientists after the horrors of the First World War.

In the 1920s, Einstein travelled around the world – including the UK, US, Japan, Palestine and other countries. Einstein gave lectures to packed audiences and became an internationally recognised figure for his work on physics, but also his wider observations on world affairs.

Bohr-Einstein debates

During the 1920s, other scientists started developing the work of Einstein and coming to different conclusions on Quantum Physics. In 1925 and 1926, Einstein took part in debates with Max Born about the nature of relativity and quantum physics. Although the two disagreed on physics, they shared a mutual admiration.

As a German Jew, Einstein was threatened by the rise of the Nazi party. In 1933, when the Nazi’s seized power, they confiscated Einstein’s property, and later started burning his books. Einstein, then in England, took an offer to go to Princeton University in the US. He later wrote that he never had strong opinions about race and nationality but saw himself as a citizen of the world.

“I do not believe in race as such. Race is a fraud. All modern people are the conglomeration of so many ethnic mixtures that no pure race remains.”

Once in the US, Einstein dedicated himself to a strict discipline of academic study. He would spend no time on maintaining his dress and image. He considered these things ‘inessential’ and meant less time for his research. Einstein was notoriously absent-minded. In his youth, he once left his suitcase at a friends house. His friend’s parents told Einstein’s parents: “ That young man will never amount to anything, because he can’t remember anything.”

Although a bit of a loner, and happy in his own company, he had a good sense of humour. On January 3, 1943, Einstein received a letter from a girl who was having difficulties with mathematics in her studies. Einstein consoled her when he wrote in reply to her letter

“Do not worry about your difficulties in mathematics. I can assure you that mine are still greater.”

Einstein professed belief in a God “Who reveals himself in the harmony of all being”. But, he followed no established religion. His view of God sought to establish a harmony between science and religion.

“Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind.”

– Einstein, Science and Religion (1941)

Politics of Einstein

Einstein described himself as a Zionist Socialist. He did support the state of Israel but became concerned about the narrow nationalism of the new state. In 1952, he was offered the position as President of Israel, but he declined saying he had:

“neither the natural ability nor the experience to deal with human beings.” … “I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it.”

Einstein receiving US citizenship.

Albert Einstein was involved in many civil rights movements such as the American campaign to end lynching. He joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and considered racism, America’s worst disease. But he also spoke highly of the meritocracy in American society and the value of being able to speak freely.

On the outbreak of war in 1939, Einstein wrote to President Roosevelt about the prospect of Germany developing an atomic bomb. He warned Roosevelt that the Germans were working on a bomb with a devastating potential. Roosevelt headed his advice and started the Manhattan project to develop the US atom bomb. But, after the war ended, Einstein reverted to his pacifist views. Einstein said after the war.

“Had I known that the Germans would not succeed in producing an atomic bomb, I would not have lifted a finger.” (Newsweek, 10 March 1947)

In the post-war McCarthyite era, Einstein was scrutinised closely for potential Communist links. He wrote an article in favour of socialism, “Why Socialism” (1949) He criticised Capitalism and suggested a democratic socialist alternative. He was also a strong critic of the arms race. Einstein remarked:

“I do not know how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth—rocks!”

Rabindranath Tagore and Einstein

Einstein was feted as a scientist, but he was a polymath with interests in many fields. In particular, he loved music. He wrote that if he had not been a scientist, he would have been a musician. Einstein played the violin to a high standard.

“I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music… I get most joy in life out of music.”

Einstein died in 1955, at his request his brain and vital organs were removed for scientific study.

Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan . “ Biography of Albert Einstein ”, Oxford, www.biographyonline.net 23 Feb. 2008. Updated 2nd March 2017.

Albert Einstein – His Life and Universe

Albert Einstein – His Life at Amazon

53 Interesting and unusual facts about Albert Einstein.

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Albert Einstein: Biography, facts and impact on science

A brief biography of Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 - April 18, 1955), the scientist whose theories changed the way we think about the universe.

A black and white photograph of Albert Einstein wearing a suit and sitting at his desk

Einstein's birthday and education

Einstein's wives and children

How einstein changed physics.

Later years and death

Gravitational waves and relativity

Additional resources.

Albert Einstein was a German-American physicist and probably the most well-known scientist of the 20th century. He is famous for his theory of relativity , a pillar of modern physics that describes the dynamics of light and extremely massive entities, as well as his work in quantum mechanics , which focuses on the subatomic realm.

Albert Einstein's birthday and education

Einstein was born in Ulm, in the German state of Württemberg, on March 14, 1879, according to a biography from the Nobel Prize organization . His family moved to Munich six weeks later, and in 1885, when he was 6 years old, he began attending Petersschule, a Catholic elementary school.

Contrary to popular belief, Einstein was a good student. "Yesterday Albert received his grades, he was again number one, and his report card was brilliant," his mother once wrote to her sister, according to a German website dedicated to Einstein's legacy. But when he later switched to the Luitpold grammar school, young Einstein chafed under the school's authoritarian attitude, and his teacher once said of him, "never will he get anywhere."

In 1896, at age 17, Einstein entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. A few years later, he gained his diploma and acquired Swiss citizenship but was unable to find a teaching post. So he accepted a position as a technical assistant in the Swiss patent office.

Related: 10 discoveries that prove Einstein was right about the universe — and 1 that proves him wrong

Einstein married Mileva Maric, his longtime love and former student, in 1903. A year prior, they had a child out of wedlock, who was discovered by scholars only in the 1980s, when private letters revealed her existence. The daughter, called Lieserl in the letters, may have been mentally challenged and either died young or was adopted when she was a year old. Einstein had two other children with Maric, Hans Albert and Eduard, born in 1904 and 1910, respectively.

Einstein divorced Maric in 1919 and soon married his cousin Elsa Löwenthal, with whom he had been in a relationship since 1912.

Einstein obtained his doctorate in physics in 1905 — a year that's often known as his annus mirabilis ("year of miracles" in Latin), according to the Library of Congress . That year, he published four groundbreaking papers of significant importance in physics.

The first incorporated the idea that light could come in discrete particles called photons. This theory describes the photoelectric effect , the concept that underpins modern solar power. The second explained Brownian motion, or the random motion of particles or molecules. Einstein looked at the case of a dust mote moving randomly on the surface of water and suggested that water is made up of tiny, vibrating molecules that kick the dust back and forth.

The final two papers outlined his theory of special relativity, which showed how observers moving at different speeds would agree about the speed of light, which was a constant. These papers also introduced the equation E = mc^2, showing the equivalence between mass and energy. That finding is perhaps the most widely known aspect of Einstein's work. (In this infamous equation, E stands for energy, m represents mass and c is the constant speed of light).

In 1915, Einstein published four papers outlining his theory of general relativity, which updated Isaac Newton's laws of gravity by explaining that the force of gravity arose because massive objects warp the fabric of space-time. The theory was validated in 1919, when British astronomer Arthur Eddington observed stars at the edge of the sun during a solar eclipse and was able to show that their light was bent by the sun's gravitational well, causing shifts in their perceived positions.

Related: 8 Ways you can see Einstein's theory of relativity in real life

In 1921, he won the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the photoelectric effect, though the committee members also mentioned his "services to Theoretical Physics" when presenting their award. The decision to give Einstein the award was controversial because the brilliant physicist was a Jew and a pacifist. Anti-Semitism was on the rise and relativity was not yet seen as a proven theory, according to an article from The Guardian .

Einstein was a professor at the University of Berlin for a time but fled Germany with Löwenthal in 1933, during the rise of Adolf Hitler. He renounced his German citizenship and moved to the United States to become a professor of theoretical physics at Princeton, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1940.

During this era, other researchers were creating a revolution by reformulating the rules of the smallest known entities in existence. The laws of quantum mechanics had been worked out by a group led by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr , and Einstein was intimately involved with their efforts.

Bohr and Einstein famously clashed over quantum mechanics. Bohr and his cohorts proposed that quantum particles behaved according to probabilistic laws, which Einstein found unacceptable, quipping that " God does not play dice with the universe ." Bohr's views eventually came to dominate much of contemporary thinking about quantum mechanics.

This autographed photo of Albert Einstein with his tongue out was sold at auction for $125,000.

Einstein's later years and death

After he retired in 1945, Einstein spent most of his later years trying to unify gravity with electromagnetism in what's known as a unified field theory . Einstein died of a burst blood vessel near his heart on April 18, 1955, never unifying these forces.

Einstein's body was cremated and his ashes were spread in an undisclosed location, according to the American Museum of Natural History . But a doctor performed an unauthorized craniotomy before this and removed and saved Einstein's brain.

The brain has been the subject of many tests over the decades, which suggested that it had extra folding in the gray matter, the site of conscious thinking. In particular, there were more folds in the frontal lobes, which have been tied to abstract thought and planning. However, drawing any conclusions about intelligence based on a single specimen is problematic.

Related: Where is Einstein's brain?

In addition to his incredible legacy regarding relativity and quantum mechanics, Einstein conducted lesser-known research into a refrigeration method that required no motors, moving parts or coolant. He was also a tireless anti-war advocate, helping found the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , an organization dedicated to warning the public about the dangers of nuclear weapons .

Einstein's theories concerning relativity have so far held up spectacularly as a predictive models. Astronomers have found that, as the legendary physicist anticipated, the light of distant objects is lensed by massive, closer entities, a phenomenon known as gravitational lensing, which has helped our understanding of the universe's evolution. The James Webb Space Telescope , launched in Dec. 2021, has utilized gravitational lensing on numerous occasions to detect light emitted near the dawn of time , dating to just a few hundred million years after the Big Bang.

In 2016, the Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory also announced the first-ever direct detection of gravitational waves , created when massive neutron stars and black holes merge and generate ripples in the fabric of space-time. Further research published in 2023 found that the entire universe may be rippling with a faint "gravitational wave background," emitted by ancient, colliding black holes.

Find answers to frequently asked questions about Albert Einstein on the Nobel Prize website. Flip through digitized versions of Einstein's published and unpublished manuscripts at Einstein Archives Online. Learn about The Einstein Memorial at the National Academy of Sciences building in Washington, D.C.

This article was last updated on March 11, 2024 by Live Science editor Brandon Specktor to include new information about how Einstein's theories have been validated by modern experiments.

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Adam Mann is a freelance journalist with over a decade of experience, specializing in astronomy and physics stories. He has a bachelor's degree in astrophysics from UC Berkeley. His work has appeared in the New Yorker, New York Times, National Geographic, Wall Street Journal, Wired, Nature, Science, and many other places. He lives in Oakland, California, where he enjoys riding his bike.

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Problematic Thinker His brain was eclpsed by other body parts concerning women. His wife worked to support him through school, forfeiting her own education until later, then he repaid her by having an affair with his much younger cousin and divorcing the wife. Quite an honorable little guy. Reply

Problematic Thinker said: His brain was eclpsed by other body parts concerning women. His wife worked to support him through school, forfeiting her own education until later, then he repaid her by having an affair with his much younger cousin and divorcing the wife. Quite an honorable little guy.

admin said: So much more than funny hair. Albert Einstein: The Life of a Brilliant Physicist : Read more

William Madden Albert Einstein was never, ever a "professor of physics" at Princeton University. At the time, Princeton, like most Ivy League universities, was highly anti-Semitic and either forbad the hiring of Jewish faculty or enforced a quota on their number. Einstein accepted a position at the newly established Institute For Advanced Study, headquartered in the the town of Princeton but legally and operationally distinct from the university. At the time, this was not known to be a particularly elite appointment, the Institute having no track record whatsoever. Its ability to attract many of the finest minds in their fields quickly changed that perception. (Nevertheless, Richard Feynman, years later, was highly critical of its cloistered atmosphere and, in science at least, its disconnection with the experimental side of the constituent disciplines. ) The Institute is a purely postdoctoral entity, granting no degrees and offering no classes (apart from ad hoc seminars). In the ensuing years, some faculty at the Institute have established collaborative relationships with faculty and postdoctoral fellows at Princeton University, including Einstein with Nathan Rosen (who later moved from the university to the Institute). However, the Institute remains to this day entirely independent of Princeton University. Reply

William Madden said: Albert Einstein was never, ever a "professor of physics" at Princeton University. At the time, Princeton, like most Ivy League universities, was highly anti-Semitic and either forbad the hiring of Jewish faculty or enforced a quota on their number. Einstein accepted a position at the newly established Institute For Advanced Study, headquartered in the the town of Princeton but legally and operationally distinct from the university. At the time, this was not known to be a particularly elite appointment, the Institute having no track record whatsoever. Its ability to attract many of the finest minds in their fields quickly changed that perception. (Nevertheless, Richard Feynman, years later, was highly critical of its cloistered atmosphere and, in science at least, its disconnection with the experimental side of the constituent disciplines. ) The Institute is a purely postdoctoral entity, granting no degrees and offering no classes (apart from ad hoc seminars). In the ensuing years, some faculty at the Institute have established collaborative relationships with faculty and postdoctoral fellows at Princeton University, including Einstein with Nathan Rosen (who later moved from the university to the Institute). However, the Institute remains to this day entirely independent of Princeton University.

James DeMeo Einstein's theory of relativity was negated by the positive ether-drift experiments that both preceded and followed his earliest works. Michelson-Morely got a 5 to 7.5 kps ether-drift, Dayton Miller got 11.2 kps, and in more recent years Munera got an 18 kps ether wind detection. Each progressively higher value was at higher altitudes, indicating an altitude-velocity dependency, which affirmed a material, entrainable and dynamic ether. Einstein knew these experimental detections would destroy both his general and special relativity theories, and wrote in June 1921, to Robert Millikan: "I believe that I have really found the relationship between gravitation and electricity, assuming that the Miller experiments are based on a fundamental error. Otherwise, the whole relativity theory collapses like a house of cards" In July 1925, Einstein wrote to Edwin Slosson: "My opinion about Miller's experiments is the following ... Should the positive result be confirmed, then the special theory of relativity and with it the general theory of relativity, in its current form, would be invalid. Experimentum summus judex." Miller's ether-drift work was carried out over many years, using a far more sensitive apparatus than M-M, including high atop Mount Wilson. The Mt.Wilson experiments ran over four seasonal epochs, detecting variations in net ether-wind velocity, and overall proving that space is not empty, and light-speed is variable according to direction, and in accordance with the velocity of the emitter and receiver. Experimentum summus judex? In spite of a slap-jack amateurish effort to "prove" Miller's work was due to thermal artifacts -- an unethical effort supported by Einstein in the year before he died -- Miller's findings, and those of other ether-drift experimenters (there are many) who got positive results stand unchallenged. By ignoring such empirical results, the discipline of astrophysics has run itself into a metaphysical cul-de-sac, and today uses brute force firings of professors, dismissals of students and censorship to maintain its assertions of an increasingly complicated and bizarre universe. A prime example is how Halton Arp's findings challenging redshifts as distance indicators was systematically ignored, censored, and he then being forbidden additional telescope time. He was forced to move to Germany to sustain an academic post. There are other examples, many, who didn't have Arp's good reputation prior to making his heresy, and who suffered far worse. Einstein's "space time gravity warps", the "big bang", "black holes", and other bizarre metaphysical fantasies of modern astrophysics will eventually go the way of the Ptolemaic astrologer's epicycles. A good introduction to these facts of science history is found in the book "The Dynamic Ether of Cosmic Space: Correcting a Major Error in Modern Science". https://www.amazon.com/Dynamic-Ether-Cosmic-Space-Correcting/dp/0997405716 Reply

James DeMeo said: Einstein's theory of relativity was negated by the positive ether-drift experiments that both preceded and followed his earliest works. Michelson-Morely got a 5 to 7.5 kps ether-drift, Dayton Miller got 11.2 kps, and in more recent years Munera got an 18 kps ether wind detection. Each progressively higher value was at higher altitudes, indicating an altitude-velocity dependency, which affirmed a material, entrainable and dynamic ether. Einstein knew these experimental detections would destroy both his general and special relativity theories, and wrote in June 1921, to Robert Millikan: "I believe that I have really found the relationship between gravitation and electricity, assuming that the Miller experiments are based on a fundamental error. Otherwise, the whole relativity theory collapses like a house of cards" In July 1925, Einstein wrote to Edwin Slosson: "My opinion about Miller's experiments is the following ... Should the positive result be confirmed, then the special theory of relativity and with it the general theory of relativity, in its current form, would be invalid. Experimentum summus judex." Miller's ether-drift work was carried out over many years, using a far more sensitive apparatus than M-M, including high atop Mount Wilson. The Mt.Wilson experiments ran over four seasonal epochs, detecting variations in net ether-wind velocity, and overall proving that space is not empty, and light-speed is variable according to direction, and in accordance with the velocity of the emitter and receiver. Experimentum summus judex? In spite of a slap-jack amateurish effort to "prove" Miller's work was due to thermal artifacts -- an unethical effort supported by Einstein in the year before he died -- Miller's findings, and those of other ether-drift experimenters (there are many) who got positive results stand unchallenged. By ignoring such empirical results, the discipline of astrophysics has run itself into a metaphysical cul-de-sac, and today uses brute force firings of professors, dismissals of students and censorship to maintain its assertions of an increasingly complicated and bizarre universe. A prime example is how Halton Arp's findings challenging redshifts as distance indicators was systematically ignored, censored, and he then being forbidden additional telescope time. He was forced to move to Germany to sustain an academic post. There are other examples, many, who didn't have Arp's good reputation prior to making his heresy, and who suffered far worse. Einstein's "space time gravity warps", the "big bang", "black holes", and other bizarre metaphysical fantasies of modern astrophysics will eventually go the way of the Ptolemaic astrologer's epicycles. A good introduction to these facts of science history is found in the book "The Dynamic Ether of Cosmic Space: Correcting a Major Error in Modern Science". https://www.amazon.com/Dynamic-Ether-Cosmic-Space-Correcting/dp/0997405716

Mario Sanchez said: Thanks, for these irrelevant informations that are nothing important to understand the matter.

Pifou said: Feminist zealots in despair fellows. They think that there is always someone smarter that is being exploited while the other one steals all the glory. Do not worry about them here they are just dumb as bricks. They have been trying to push this story about Einstein for the last 40 years while themselves cant even make a good sandwich

Mario Sanchez Who is really this participant adopting these names? (Shwinger_Feinmann) Reply
View All 16 Comments

Science » Lives of Scientists » Albert Einstein

The best books on albert einstein, recommended by andrew robinson.

Einstein: A Hundred Years of Relativity by Andrew Robinson

Andrew Robinson , author of a biography of Albert Einstein, picks and talks through the five best Albert Einstein books and discusses the life and times of the 'unique genius.'

Interview by Jo Marchant

Albert Einstein: A Biography by Albrecht Folsing

Einstein 1905: The Standard of Greatness by John S. Rigden

The Born-Einstein Letters,1916-1955 by Albert Einstein and Max Born

The Einstein File by Fred Jerome

Einstein on Politics by David Rowe and Robert Schulmann

The best books on Albert Einstein - Albert Einstein: A Biography by Albrecht Folsing

1 Albert Einstein: A Biography by Albrecht Folsing

2 einstein 1905: the standard of greatness by john s. rigden, 3 the born-einstein letters,1916-1955 by albert einstein and max born, 4 the einstein file by fred jerome, 5 einstein on politics by david rowe and robert schulmann.

B efore we start talking generally about Albert Einstein books , can you give us a brief outline of the significance of Einstein and his work? You’re the author of a biography of Albert Einstein called Einstein: A Hundred Years of Relativity that was republished this year to coincide with the centenary of the theory of general relativity.

There must be literally hundreds of Albert Einstein books. Was it daunting for you to tackle someone of so much significance and interest?

And out of those 1700 Albert Einstein books, we’ve asked you to pick just five! Your first choice is Albert Einstein: A Biography by Albrecht Fölsing published in 1997. What makes this biography so good?

It’s comprehensive, for a start. It is a very big book — one of the biggest on Einstein’s life. Fölsing is a physicist by training so he is able to bring clear explanations of the physics into the life. He’s extremely good at quoting Einstein’s writings and comments in an illuminating way. What makes the book unique is that the author is German, when most biographers come from the English-speaking world. He is able to present Einstein’s ambivalence towards Germany both in physics and in politics and bring that to life in quite a subtle way. To have a German writing on Einstein is particularly interesting.

Just to illuminate that, could you briefly sketch the arc of Einstein’s life for us?

He was born in Germany in 1879 and grew up there until he was 16 when he went to join his parents in Italy. He was unhappy with the German educational system: He was not a very willing student in an authoritarian education system. In fact, his whole life was a battle against authority in different forms. Later in life he said—and it’s one of my favourite quotes from him —“To punish me for my contempt for authority, fate has made me an authority myself.” Finally, he was educated in Switzerland and that’s where he really belongs. He kept Swiss nationality throughout his life, until he went to the United States and became an American citizen when he was quite old, in 1940. So, he is not German by nationality, though he was born there.

“He was not very successful in his relationships with his university lecturers.”

The Swiss atmosphere was very productive for his physics, which started in about 1905 with special relativity and some other key work. He stayed in Germany until 1933, when the Nazis came to power, and he had to get out. He spent a little time in Europe, including in Britain in the early 1930s. Finally, he left Europe forever—never to return—in 1933. He lived in Princeton, New Jersey, at the Institute for Advanced Study, a sort of ivory tower. That suited him very well. He could just think and didn’t have to do any teaching. He lived in Princeton right up to his death in 1955. In that period he wasn’t so successful as a physicist — but became much more involved in political causes like the atomic bomb, the hydrogen bomb, pacifism, and Zionism. As a Jew, he was very interested in the founding of Israel and took an active role in that.

One of the most intriguing things about his life story is the fact that when he did his first really significant revolutionary work in physics, he wasn’t working as a physicist was he? He was working in a patent office and didn’t really have contact with other top physicists at the time.

That’s right. That’s always going to be one of the most intriguing aspects of Einstein and his life. He was a patent clerk in Bern and worked in the patent office for a number of years from 1902. After 1909/1910, he finally takes a position as a professional, academic physicist and moves to various institutions around Europe. Probably his most productive years are those years when he was a patent clerk. Having said that, he came up with general relativity when he was a professor of physics in Berlin. Also, at the patent office, although he was not known in the academic world, he had some contact with academic physicists like Max Planck who was a key supporter of relativity. But we should remember that he was always involved with those two worlds.

Are there any clues as to where his revelations came from? Did his unconventional background play a part in that?

Yes. It’s difficult to pin that down but from an early age—from his teens onwards—he was a great believer in self-education. Like many geniuses, he was not particularly successful in his university training. He attended a famous institution—in Zurich—but was always rebelling against his academic education, constantly reading the latest research on his own. He was not working with other people at all. He was not very successful in his relationships with his university lecturers. He was a rebel and, because he was so passionate about physics, his best ideas really came from his own reading and thinking. From his earliest days as a teenager he was a believer in what he called ‘thought experiments.’ He wasn’t involved with laboratories at all, these experiments were all in his head. One of the most famous ones concerns chasing a light ray. When he was 16 or 17, he imagined whether you could catch up with a light ray and what that would mean.

Did that help him to see things that other physicists didn’t, because he was free to think in his own way?

Let’s dig a little bit more into the science with your next choice which is Einstein 1905: The Standard of Greatness by John Rigden from 2005. This Albert Einstein book is about the so-called ‘miraculous’ year. Can you tell us a bit about that?

Einstein published five papers that year. All of them are considered of great value. The paper that Einstein regarded as the most revolutionary of his work in 1905 was actually about quantum theory. There was another paper about Brownian motion. He showed that the phenomenon of Brownian motion—which had been known for almost 100 years—was actually due to atoms bombarding particles. This was considered proof of the atomic theory of matter by his fellow physicists — the first time that atoms had really been proved to exist. Then, the last of the five papers concerned probably the most famous equation in science: E=mc2. This came out of his first paper on relativity and was published at the end of 1905. As everyone knows, E=mc2 is the basis for what happens with nuclear energy and the atomic bomb later in the century.

This is the principle that energy and mass are two aspects of the same thing. So, if you split apart mass, you’re going to release huge amounts of energy which is what drives nuclear energy and the atomic bomb.

Yes, and c is the speed of light. So, with E=mc2, you can immediately see that the amount of energy is enormous from a small amount of matter because c is such a large number. So, E=mc2 implies a very large amount of energy from a small amount of matter through the process of atomic fission and fusion which Einstein didn’t know about in 1905. Fission was not discovered until later — just before the Second World War , in fact.

Let’s talk about the theory of special relativity, then, which was one of the papers in this miraculous year. Can you talk us through that theory?

It’s a response to Newton’s idea of absolute time and absolute space which Einstein rejected after thinking about it deeply. John Rigden puts it quite well in his book. He says, “A world with absolute space existing apart from absolute time would turn into a world where space and time are joined”. This theory of relativity led to the concept of space-time which is a key thought in general relativity. It’s not easy to explain relativity in a few words, but it rejects absolute time and space, leading to the idea that all motion had to be defined relative to a coordinate system — and that different coordinate systems had to be compared. General relativity was much more comprehensive, it included gravitation and acceleration. In fact, Einstein’s great idea about general relativity was that gravitation and acceleration were equivalent and that we must build our idea of the universe on that thought, rather than regarding them as independent, as Newton did.

General relativity is what we often see illustrated with a rubber sheet with marbles on it distorting the sheet. Is that right?

Yes, the curvature of the rubber sheet is a way of expressing—not literally, it’s a symbol—the curvature of space-time. The experimental proof of general relativity came only later. Probably the most famous aspect of the experimental proof is the bending of a light-ray by the gravitational field of the sun. The light emitted by distant stars was observed to be bent by the gravitational field of the sun in 1919 during an astronomical expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington, a British astronomer. After that expedition, physicists started to take general relativity much more seriously. There were other experimental proofs as well, but that was the beginning of the idea that general relativity was correct. Before that, it was unproven and Einstein asked astronomers to go looking for it. That’s what happened in 1919. Astronomers were able to back up his theory with observations.

So, after we had the proof of general relativity, how was science different? How did the universe look different? What are the implications of that for the way we see the world now?

The whole idea of the Big Bang has been explained, to a great extent, in terms of general relativity. This came much later than Einstein of course — he was dead by then. General relativity also explains the existence of black holes. Einstein didn’t think they existed, but, since the 1960s, experimental proofs have been found that they do. The whole structure of space and time which Newton imagined, an absolute coordinate system, has been abandoned in favour of a curved space-time formulation. That’s really the result of Einstein’s work.

Going back to the miraculous year of 1905, which is the focus of Rigden’s book. His achievements in so many papers in such a short period of time seems almost superhuman. But he was just human, right? Do we risk exaggerating his genius sometimes?

He was certainly very human and had many failings as well as an extraordinary scientific imagination. Scholars have looked closely at what Einstein was doing in the years up to 1905, there’s not enough evidence to be sure. There were a few letters to his wife, and he published a little bit. There is this feeling that it came out of the blue. It obviously didn’t. No genius works from a sudden eureka moment and it’s not like that, even with Einstein. The problem is that we don’t really know exactly what he was reading and how his thought process worked. What we do know is what he published in 1905 and that he was fascinated by contradictions in physics. He imagined chasing a light-ray in his mind and asked what a light-ray would look like if you caught up with it and came to the conclusion that it’s an impossible physical situation. That, according to Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism, there was no such thing as catching a light-ray. From that, he concluded that light always moves at a constant speed — independent of the coordinate system you were using to measure it with. It didn’t matter how fast an observer moved, light would always move at a constant speed faster than the observer.

“Einstein’s great idea about general relativity was that gravitation and acceleration were equivalent and that we must build our idea of the universe on that thought.”

Another contradiction that fascinated him was to do with magnetism and electric charge. He imagined that if you had a stationary charge observed by a stationary observer, there would be no magnetic field which could be observed with a compass. But, if you kept the stationary charge and then the observer started to move, by Maxwell’s definition of electromagnetism, he/she would observe a magnetic field with a compass. So which was true? Was there a magnetic field or wasn’t there? He said that’s a contradiction, we have to resolve it. And he did resolve it, with his theory of relativity.

There’s often a temptation to move away from contradiction but it sounds like he just confronted it head-on.

Let’s talk about your next choice of Albert Einstein books which is the Born-Einstein Letters, 1916-1955 , which was republished in 2005. This is a collection of correspondence between Einstein and his friend, the German physicist, Max Born. What do they talk about in the letters?

It was a long friendship. It began with physics but developed into a relationship with many other overtones to do with politics, ethics, and the state of Germany during those years. Both of them won Nobel Prizes, so when we read them we’re exposed to a couple of very intelligent people writing about science. Throughout the letters, you get these human asides: It’s a very unique mixture of science and humanities. They disagreed frequently and they disagreed most famously about quantum theory. In one letter from Einstein to Born he says, ‘The old one does not play dice. I can’t accept the possibility of chance ruling the universe.’ And Born never agreed with that. Right to the end of the correspondence, they’re arguing about the role of probability in physics.

They’re also talking about the First World War and how they react to that and about Jewishness. They’re both Jewish but they have different attitudes to Jewishness. And they’re talking about the Nazi period, of course. During that time, Born escaped from Germany and went to Edinburgh and became a professor. Einstein had gone to the United States — so they didn’t meet. After 1933, they corresponded but they didn’t have any personal contact — which is good, as it means that their ideas are on paper rather than just spoken to each other. We learn a lot. Born edits the letters and has a lot of commentary where he responds after Einstein’s death. Einstein’s step-daughter wrote to him about his last few days in hospital and she said, ‘He left this world without sentimentality or regret.’ Born says, ‘we lost our dearest friend when he died.’ But ‘without sentimentality or regret’ is the keynote of the letters. Einstein can be quite inhuman. He doesn’t have normal human reactions to some things including, for instance, the death of his second wife. His family life was not particularly happy. He divorced his first wife and had a rather difficult relationship with his children. This comes into the book quite a lot because Born is a warmer personality than Einstein. The contrast is interesting.

You say he didn’t have normal human reactions to things. What kind of personality does come across then?

Let’s move on to your next choice of Albert Einstein book: The Einstein File by Fred Jerome, published in 2002. This is a book on an investigation of how the FBI, led by J. Edgar Hoover, spied on Einstein for 23 years. What happened exactly?

It started in the 1930s when Einstein moved to the United States. He had extremely mixed feelings about Russia and about communism . He had some sympathies for socialism but he wasn’t a communist. But the FBI and many right-wing Americans thought that he was. So, even after he became an American citizen in 1940, he was regarded with suspicion by them. He wrote a letter to President Roosevelt in 1939 advocating the building of an atomic bomb, along with some other physicists, which was taken seriously by the American government and Roosevelt. Eventually, the Manhattan Project got going, partly out of Einstein’s interest in the subject. Obviously other factors were involved as well, Einstein was not the only influence, but he was quite important. But even though he was involved in supporting this project, he was not allowed to have access to any secret documents. The army, who ran the Manhattan Project, did not give him security clearance. But it seems the FBI didn’t know that and when they started compiling their file in the 1940s, they assumed that Einstein could be a spy with access to secret information about the atomic bomb project and they acted accordingly.

“Long before many people had realised what a risk to world peace Nazi Germany posed, Einstein recognised it.”

J. Edgar Hoover was convinced he was a security risk and might be leaking information to the Russians. When the Klaus Fuchs spy case happened—around 1950—Hoover became even more convinced that Einstein was a risk. But what finally tipped the balance for Hoover was that Einstein gave a broadcast on television in 1950 where he openly told the whole of the United States that the hydrogen bomb, which President Truman had just announced as a project, could cause a poisoning of the atmosphere and would be a total disaster, that it shouldn’t be followed up. Hoover then became passionately convinced that Einstein’s every move should be tracked and that all political associations that he had should be put into this file. He was hoping to prove that Einstein was a communist and that he might be deported from the United States. That was a serious project of the FBI and the immigration service for five years between 1950 and his death in 1955.

And this didn’t come out until reasonably recently then, with freedom of information requests?

It didn’t come out until the 1990s. It’s quite disturbing, really, to think the FBI could have kept the secret for so long. In fact, some FBI agents—even though they were in the employment of the agency—were not aware about this secret file. Hoover knew that if it got out it would cause tremendous embarrassment to the United States government — this world famous scientist being pursued as a potential spy. He managed to keep the secret but how it was kept in the decades after the 1950s and 1960s is extraordinary and quite alarming, I think.

Was this campaign a complete failure? Or is there evidence that it was able to damage Einstein’s reputation or legacy in any way?

Ironically, I think it probably persuaded Einstein—because he was aware he was under surveillance, he didn’t know the details but he knew he was being watched—to come out and make a very public statement in the press in 1953 in support of intellectuals who were standing up against Joseph McCarthy’s campaign. McCarthy reacted very strongly to this and said Einstein was an ‘enemy of America.’ He later changed that to ‘a disloyal American,’ but he never went back on that statement. Einstein thought he might have to go to jail because he was recommending to people that they should not testify to congressional committees about their political views. He said that courage was needed by American intellectuals otherwise they would become slaves. That is what he felt the American government was trying to do during the Red Scare of the 1950s.

It was a very courageous thing to come out and say in that climate.

It was. It is quite moving to read his own private views and worries but he was quite old by then. He was prepared to stand up because he felt the situation had become so like Nazi Germany in the 1930s. He really felt that having lived through the rise of Nazi Germany, he had a duty to warn Americans that the same thing might happen with McCarthyism. I think you can say he was a real factor in the fall of McCarthy. Only one factor, but he was important. After the fall of McCarthy, Hoover realized there was no point in pursuing Einstein anymore. The whole file was wound down by the FBI just before Einstein’s death — but it does run to 1800 pages. One irony is that much of the file consists of associations to which Einstein had lent his name but very little of it consists of his views.

Let’s move on to Einstein’s political writings, that Hoover failed to read, in Einstein on Politics edited by David Rowe and Robert Schulmann from 2007. What picture do we get from this Albert Einstein book, then, of his political views?

This is the first book which really collects everything together which is why it’s valuable. There were a couple of books before that but this is the first collection in which everything is there that matters: letters, public statements, all of course in English (many of them were originally in German.) The general attitude has always been that Einstein was politically naïve. I don’t think that’s true. When you see what he did and what he stood for, you can’t call him naïve. He was a committed pacifist until 1933 and made a number of provocative speeches about pacifism. After he recognised what the Nazis stood for, he immediately changed his mind and said that there was no possibility of resisting Nazism without military force. He was prescient. Long before many people had realised what a risk to world peace Nazi Germany posed, Einstein recognised it and argued that the countries of the West would have to arm themselves and fight, eventually.

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He was not naïve about Israel . He supported the founding of Israel but persistently said to Israelis that they would have to find an ethical solution to their relationship with the Arabs. Otherwise, the whole state would fail and they had a duty to do so. He never changed his mind and when he was invited to be President of Israel in 1952—not long before his death—he refused saying ‘I have no talent for politics and I would have to say things to my fellow Jews in Israel that they would probably not want to hear about their relationship with the Arabs.’ Again, he was probably right. Whether he could have influenced events more than he did by becoming president, we’ll never know. But he was certainly regarded seriously by the Israelis as a thinker and as an activist. Then, on the matter on world-government, in 1945, it made sense. The United Nations had just started but they were already quarrelling in the Security Council. Einstein said the only way of controlling nationalism was by having a central, military authority. He tried to get both America and the Soviet Union and the British and some other nations involved in that, on the model of the Austro-Hungarian Empire which he had grown up under. He gave a speech at a Nobel Prize winning anniversary dinner in New York, saying, ‘The war is won but the peace is not.’ There was about two or three years of campaigning for world government with other physicists and thinkers. Of course it failed — but that was, I suppose, inevitable in the Cold War.

Is this book just of historical interest, to know what he thought, or do Einstein’s thoughts resonate for us today?

When you read his collected writings, you can’t help but see that there was a connection between his personal integrity and his political views which we all struggle with: how we behave as individuals and how we behave as a collective. His honesty and his courage do make me think. And he wrote well. He had a pungent style, his writing is not woolly, and he had a sense of history too. He also had a wonderful sense of humour. That comes through in virtually everything he writes about politics and human behaviour. Sometimes he was pretty caustic but he was often just gently ironic. I’m sure you’ve seen a photograph at the end of his life of him sticking his tongue out at the photographers. I think impudence and defiance of authority are the defining features of his political statements. I find that, on the whole, admirable.

That is something that seems to run through his scientific thinking and his political views.

He was a rebel, against orthodoxy of all kinds. We haven’t touched on his last 30 years as a physicist which are a bit notorious. He was trying to unify electromagnetism and gravitation — in other words, to extend general relativity to an even more universal understanding of the universe. He didn’t succeed, but in my book I’ve got a piece contributed by Steven Weinberg, the particle physicist, who says that even though Einstein failed we have to admire his determination to carry on and not accept quantum theory as the final theory. He said, ‘I can’t accept that as the final theory of physics, there must be something beyond it.’ He again showed his defiance of orthodoxy because almost every physicist thought he had lost his way. And some of them said so — Bohr, in particular. Niels Bohr came to Princeton in 1939 and Einstein had plenty of opportunity to meet him and talk to his old friend. But he didn’t want to because they disagreed so radically about physics. They spent quite a lot of time ignoring each other. Bohr was very upset about it but Einstein was determined not to reopen this old debate so kept his distance.

How should we remember Einstein?

As a unique genius. I’ve written two books on genius and I can’t think of anybody else who managed to combine science and decent human behaviour in the way that he did. And also as a humorous man. I really admire his jokes…

November 20, 2015

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Andrew Robinson

Andrew Robinson is a London-based writer and author of some twenty-five books on science; history of science; archaeology and scripts; and Indian history and culture. His recent books include a biography of Jean-François Champollion, Cracking the Egyptian Code and India: A Short History . He is author of Einstein: A Hundred Years of Relativity , republished in 2015 to celebrate the centenary of Einstein’s general theory of relativity and described by astronomer Patrick Moore as “by far the best book about Einstein that I have ever come across”.

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Biography: Albert Einstein

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Legendary scientist Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) first gained worldwide prominence in 1919 after British astronomers verified predictions of Einstein's general theory of relativity through measurements taken during a total eclipse. Einstein's theories expanded upon universal laws formulated by physicist Isaac Newton in the late seventeenth century.

Before E=MC2

Einstein was born in Germany in 1879. Growing up, he enjoyed classical music and played the violin. One story Einstein liked to tell about his childhood was when he came across a magnetic compass. The needle's invariable northward swing, guided by an invisible force, profoundly impressed him as a child. The compass convinced him that there had to be "something behind things, something deeply hidden."

Even as a small boy Einstein was self-sufficient and thoughtful. According to one account, he was a slow talker, often pausing to consider what he would say next. His sister would recount the concentration and perseverance with which he would build houses of cards.

Einstein's first job was that of patent clerk. In 1933, he joined the staff of the newly created Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. He accepted this position for life, and lived there until his death. Einstein is probably familiar to most people for his mathematical equation about the nature of energy, E = MC2.

E = MC2, Light and Heat

The formula E=MC2 is probably the most famous calculation from Einstein's special theory of relativity . The formula basically states that energy (E) equals mass (m) times the speed of light (c) squared (2). In essence, it means mass is just one form of energy. Since the speed of light squared is an enormous number, a small amount of mass can be converted to a phenomenal amount of energy. Or if there's a lot of energy available, some energy can be converted to mass and a new particle can be created. Nuclear reactors, for instance, work because nuclear reactions convert small amounts of mass into large amounts of energy.

Einstein wrote a paper based on the new understanding of the structure of light. He argued that light can act as though it consists of discrete, independent particles of energy similar to particles of a gas. A few years before, Max Planck's work had contained the first suggestion of discrete particles in energy. Einstein went far beyond this though and his revolutionary proposal seemed to contradict the universally accepted theory that light consists of smoothly oscillating electromagnetic waves. Einstein showed that light quanta, as he called the particles of energy, could help to explain phenomena being studied by experimental physicists. For example, he explained how light ejects electrons from metals.

While there was a well-known kinetic energy theory that explained heat as an effect of the ceaseless motion of atoms, it was Einstein who proposed a way to put the theory to a new and crucial experimental test. If tiny but visible particles were suspended in a liquid, he argued, the irregular bombardment by the liquid's invisible atoms should cause the suspended particles to move in a random jittering pattern. This should be observable through a microscope. If the predicted motion is not seen, the whole kinetic theory would be in grave danger. But such a random dance of microscopic particles had long since been observed. With the motion demonstrated in detail, Einstein had reinforced the kinetic theory and created a powerful new tool for studying the movement of atoms.

The Life and Work of Albert Einstein
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
Einstein's Theory of Relativity
What Is a Photon in Physics?
Introduction to the Major Laws of Physics
Fundamental Physical Constants
Quantum Physics Overview
Top 10 Weird but Cool Physics Ideas
10 Things You Don't Know About Albert Einstein
Wave Particle Duality and How It Works
Topics Typically Covered in Grade 11 Chemistry
The Physics of a Car Collision
An Introduction to Black Holes
An Introduction to Brownian Motion
Albert Einstein Printables
Newton's Law of Gravity

Culture History

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a renowned theoretical physicist, best known for developing the theory of relativity, which revolutionized our understanding of space, time, and gravity. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. Einstein’s work laid the foundation for many advancements in modern physics.

Early Life and Education

Albert Einstein’s early life and education laid the foundation for a revolutionary career in physics. Born on March 14, 1879, in the city of Ulm in the Kingdom of Württemberg, which was part of the German Empire, Einstein was the first child of Hermann and Pauline Einstein. His father, a salesman and engineer, and his mother, a homemaker, provided a modest yet supportive environment for their son’s intellectual development.

Einstein’s early years were marked by curiosity and a fascination with the mysteries of the natural world. He showed an early interest in mathematics and began to explore the subject on his own. The family’s move to Munich in 1880 coincided with the start of Einstein’s formal education. At the age of six, he entered the Luitpold Gymnasium, a Catholic elementary school, where his unconventional behavior and independent thinking sometimes clashed with the traditional educational methods.

Einstein’s teachers noted his exceptional mathematical abilities, but his rebellious spirit and refusal to conform to authority created a challenging academic environment. Frustrated by the rigid structure of the school, Einstein often clashed with his teachers, earning a reputation as a nonconformist. His dissatisfaction with the educational system ultimately led his parents to consider removing him from the Gymnasium.

In 1889, Einstein’s family faced a significant change with the relocation to Italy due to financial challenges. While his parents and sister settled in Pavia, Albert remained in Munich to complete his education. At the age of 15, Einstein applied to the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich, seeking admission to the prestigious institution. Despite excelling in mathematics and physics, he failed the entrance exam, and his application was rejected.

Undeterred, Einstein enrolled in the Swiss Cantonal School in Aarau, Switzerland, to complete his secondary education. Under the guidance of Jost Winteler, a supportive and understanding teacher, Einstein thrived in this new environment. He immersed himself in his studies, delving into advanced topics in mathematics and physics. It was during this period that Einstein developed a deep appreciation for the works of classical physicists, including Isaac Newton and James Clerk Maxwell .

In 1896, Einstein graduated from the Swiss Cantonal School with excellent grades, earning his diploma. His success paved the way for his acceptance into the ETH Zurich, where he pursued his passion for physics. Einstein’s time at the ETH marked a crucial phase in his intellectual development. He studied under renowned physicists such as Heinrich Friedrich Weber and Hermann Minkowski, delving into the latest advancements in theoretical physics.

While at the ETH, Einstein faced financial challenges, often struggling to make ends meet. He earned money by tutoring classmates and discovered a passion for teaching. Despite the financial hardships, his dedication to his studies remained unwavering. In 1900, Einstein graduated from the ETH with a teaching diploma in physics and mathematics.

After completing his formal education, Einstein faced the challenge of entering the professional world. His initial attempts to secure a university position were unsuccessful, leading him to accept a position as a technical assistant at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern in 1902. The patent office provided a stable income for Einstein, allowing him to marry Mileva Maric, a fellow student from the ETH, in 1903. The couple had two sons, Hans Albert and Eduard.

While working at the patent office, Einstein continued to explore his scientific interests during his free time. He published several scientific papers, including his groundbreaking work on the photoelectric effect in 1905, which laid the foundation for the concept of photons and earned him a Ph.D. from the University of Zurich. This period, often referred to as Einstein’s “miracle year,” saw the publication of four influential papers that had a profound impact on various branches of physics.

Einstein’s success in 1905 marked a turning point in his career. Recognizing his contributions, the scientific community began to take notice of the young physicist. In 1908, he was appointed as a lecturer at the University of Bern. This marked the beginning of his transition from the patent office to an academic career.

As Einstein’s reputation grew, so did his opportunities. In 1911, he accepted a position as a professor at the German University in Prague. His time in Prague was productive, leading to further advancements in his theoretical work. However, in 1912, he returned to Switzerland, accepting a position at the ETH Zurich, where he had once been a student.

Einstein’s journey from a rebellious schoolboy in Munich to a renowned physicist at the ETH Zurich showcased not only his intellectual prowess but also his resilience in the face of challenges. His early life and education set the stage for the remarkable scientific contributions that would follow, forever changing our understanding of the universe.

Special Theory of Relativity

Albert Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity, published in 1905, stands as one of the most revolutionary achievements in the history of physics . Building on the foundation laid by Isaac Newton’s classical mechanics, Einstein’s theory introduced profound changes to our understanding of space, time, and the nature of the universe.

At the heart of the Special Theory of Relativity is the principle of relativity itself. Einstein proposed that the laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniform motion, regardless of their relative velocities. This concept challenged the classical notion of absolute space and time, as described by Newtonian physics. Instead, Einstein proposed a new framework in which the laws of physics are consistent for all observers, regardless of their state of motion.

One of the most iconic consequences of the theory is the equivalence of mass and energy, expressed by the famous equation E=mc². This equation states that energy (E) is proportional to mass (m) and is equivalent to the speed of light (c) squared. The realization that mass could be converted into energy and vice versa had profound implications for our understanding of the physical world. It laid the groundwork for advancements in nuclear physics and played a crucial role in the development of nuclear energy.

The theory also introduced a novel perspective on space and time, merging them into a single entity known as spacetime. According to Special Relativity, space and time are interconnected, and the fabric of spacetime can be curved by the presence of mass and energy. This concept set the stage for Einstein’s later development of the General Theory of Relativity, which extended the principles of Special Relativity to include gravity.

One of the key postulates of Special Relativity is the constancy of the speed of light in a vacuum. Einstein proposed that the speed of light is the same for all observers, regardless of their relative motion. This departure from classical physics was experimentally confirmed by the famous Michelson-Morley experiment, which aimed to detect variations in the speed of light due to the Earth’s motion through space. The experiment’s results supported Einstein’s theory and led to a fundamental shift in our understanding of the nature of light and motion.

Special Relativity also introduced the concept of time dilation, a phenomenon in which time appears to pass more slowly for an observer in motion relative to a stationary observer. This effect becomes significant at speeds approaching the speed of light and has been experimentally verified through measurements of particles moving at high velocities.

Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity not only reshaped the foundations of physics but also had broader implications for philosophy and our conception of reality. It challenged classical notions of absolute space and time, paving the way for a more nuanced understanding of the dynamic relationship between matter, energy, space, and time.

The profound impact of Special Relativity continues to be felt today. Its principles are integrated into the framework of modern physics, influencing a wide range of scientific disciplines, from particle physics to cosmology. Einstein’s ability to question fundamental assumptions and propose groundbreaking ideas in 1905 has left an enduring legacy, shaping the trajectory of scientific inquiry and expanding our comprehension of the universe.

Nobel Prize in Physics (1921)

Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921, marking a significant recognition of his groundbreaking contributions to theoretical physics. However, the circumstances surrounding the prize and its specific focus highlight the complex relationship between Einstein and the scientific establishment of the time.

The Nobel Prize in Physics for 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” The photoelectric effect, a phenomenon where light falling on a material surface ejects electrons from it, had been a subject of scientific inquiry for many years. Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect, published in 1905, provided a theoretical framework that not only explained the experimental observations but also laid the foundation for the concept of photons—particles of light.

Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect departed from classical wave theory, proposing that light is quantized and composed of discrete packets of energy, or quanta. Each quantum of light (later termed a photon) carries energy proportional to its frequency. This groundbreaking idea, combined with his equation E=hf (where E is energy, h is Planck’s constant, and f is frequency), revolutionized the understanding of light and paved the way for the development of quantum theory.

The choice of the photoelectric effect for the Nobel Prize was not without controversy. At the time, Einstein’s theories were still gaining acceptance within the scientific community. Some physicists, notably Max Planck , had embraced the quantum nature of light, but others were hesitant to fully embrace these revolutionary ideas. The Nobel Committee’s decision to recognize Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect rather than his more famous theories of special and general relativity reflected a certain caution within the scientific establishment.

Einstein himself had reservations about the Nobel Committee’s choice. In his acceptance speech, he acknowledged the award but expressed his hope that future Nobel Prizes would be awarded for achievements in relativity theory. The decision to focus on the photoelectric effect instead of relativity may have been influenced by a desire to avoid controversies surrounding the acceptance of the more radical aspects of Einstein’s work at that time.

The recognition of the photoelectric effect in 1921 marked a turning point in Einstein’s relationship with the scientific community. While he had faced skepticism and resistance to his ideas, the Nobel Prize provided a measure of validation for his contributions to theoretical physics. It also brought him greater visibility on the international stage.

The impact of Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect extended far beyond the Nobel Prize. The development of quantum theory, influenced by his ideas, became a cornerstone of modern physics. The photoelectric effect played a crucial role in the experimental verification of quantum principles, providing empirical support for the concept of quantized energy levels.

Emigration to the United States

Albert Einstein’s emigration to the United States in 1933 marked a significant chapter in his life, shaped by a combination of personal and political factors. Fleeing the rising Nazi regime in Germany, Einstein sought refuge in America, where he would continue his scientific work, contribute to academia, and become an influential public figure.

As Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist Party gained power in Germany, Einstein, who was of Jewish heritage and known for his outspoken views, became a target of increasing persecution. The Nazi regime’s anti-Semitic policies and restrictions on intellectuals compelled Einstein to reassess his situation. His opposition to authoritarianism, coupled with concerns for his safety, prompted him to make the difficult decision to leave his homeland.

In March 1933, Einstein and his wife, Elsa, left Germany for Belgium, where they briefly resided before continuing to the United States. At the time, Einstein was a professor at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin. The decision to abandon his position and the academic environment he had contributed to for many years underscored the urgency and gravity of the situation.

Einstein’s emigration to the United States was facilitated by the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) in Princeton, New Jersey. In 1932, he had accepted an offer to join the IAS as a resident professor, which provided him with an academic home and a haven from the political turmoil in Europe. The IAS, founded by philanthropists Louis Bamberger and Caroline Bamberger Fuld, became a refuge for scholars fleeing persecution.

Upon arriving in the United States, Einstein settled into his new role at the IAS and began an era of scientific productivity. He continued his theoretical work, collaborating with other prominent physicists at the institute. Princeton offered him not only a sanctuary from political unrest but also a vibrant intellectual community that fueled his scientific endeavors.

Einstein’s presence in the United States also had a profound impact on the American scientific landscape. He became a sought-after figure in both academic and public circles, lending his support to various causes. His emigration coincided with the increasing awareness of the threat posed by fascist ideologies, and Einstein’s advocacy for democracy, pacifism, and civil rights resonated with many.

In addition to his scientific pursuits, Einstein embraced a more public role in American society. He became involved in political and social issues, speaking out against racism and discrimination. Einstein’s commitment to civil rights was reflected in his association with the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), where he collaborated with activists such as W.E.B. Du Bois. His support for Zionism and the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine also became part of his public discourse.

Einstein’s emigration to the United States not only allowed him to escape the immediate dangers of Nazi persecution but also provided him with a platform to influence the course of history. His contributions extended beyond the realm of theoretical physics to encompass broader issues of social justice, human rights, and global peace.

The United States, in turn, benefited greatly from Einstein’s presence. His work at the IAS and his engagement with American society left an indelible mark, contributing to the country’s scientific and cultural landscape. Einstein’s emigration underscored the complex interplay between personal circumstances, political upheaval, and the enduring impact of a brilliant mind on the world stage.

World War II and Manhattan Project

World War II and the Manhattan Project represent a crucial period in the life of Albert Einstein and his indirect involvement in the development of nuclear weapons. While Einstein did not directly participate in the Manhattan Project, his contributions to the field of theoretical physics laid the groundwork for the scientific understanding that made the project possible.

As World War II unfolded, the scientific community became increasingly aware of the potential for harnessing atomic energy for destructive purposes. In 1939, physicists Leo Szilard and Eugene Wigner, both refugees from Europe, approached Einstein with concerns about the possibility of Nazi Germany developing atomic weapons. Recognizing the grave implications, they urged Einstein to write a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, urging the United States to initiate its own atomic research.

Einstein, along with physicist Leó Szilárd, drafted a letter to President Roosevelt in August 1939. This letter emphasized the theoretical possibility of atomic bombs and the urgency of American efforts to develop this technology. Einstein’s prestige and global reputation lent significant weight to the appeal. This letter, often referred to as the Einstein-Szilárd letter, played a pivotal role in the establishment of the Manhattan Project.

The Manhattan Project, officially initiated in 1942, was a top-secret research and development project aimed at producing nuclear weapons. The project brought together some of the world’s leading physicists, including J. Robert Oppenheimer, Enrico Fermi, and Richard Feynman, to work on the complexities of nuclear fission and the construction of atomic bombs.

Despite his initial advocacy for nuclear research in the face of Nazi threats, Einstein did not play a direct role in the Manhattan Project. The U.S. government, considering him a security risk due to his outspoken political views and associations with leftist causes, did not involve him in the classified research efforts. Instead, Einstein continued his academic work at Princeton and remained on the periphery of the project.

Einstein’s indirect involvement in the Manhattan Project became a source of internal conflict for him. While he initially supported the idea of nuclear research as a deterrent against Nazi aggression, he later became increasingly uneasy about the destructive potential of atomic weapons. Einstein’s commitment to pacifism and his desire for global disarmament clashed with the realization that the very scientific principles he had helped establish were being used to create immensely powerful and destructive weapons.

Following the successful test of the first atomic bomb in July 1945, Einstein’s concerns deepened. The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, which played a decisive role in ending World War II, further fueled his unease. Einstein, grappling with the ethical implications of his earlier involvement, became an advocate for peace and disarmament in the post-war era.

Einstein’s reflections on the consequences of atomic weapons were encapsulated in his famous remark: “The release of atomic energy has not created a new problem. It has merely made more urgent the necessity of solving an existing one.” In the aftermath of World War II, Einstein devoted considerable effort to promoting nuclear disarmament and advocating for peaceful coexistence.

The juxtaposition of Einstein’s early support for atomic research, driven by fears of Nazi Germany, and his later advocacy for disarmament underscored the moral dilemmas associated with scientific advancements during times of war. While Einstein’s scientific contributions were instrumental in shaping the theoretical foundations of the atomic bomb, his later reflections reflected a deep concern for the ethical implications of the use of nuclear weapons and the imperative of preventing their catastrophic consequences.

Civil Rights Advocacy

Albert Einstein’s advocacy for civil rights in the United States was a defining aspect of his public persona during the mid-20th century. Emigrating to the U.S. in 1933 to escape Nazi persecution, Einstein, who was of Jewish heritage, became increasingly aware of racial injustice and discrimination prevalent in his new homeland. Throughout his life, he used his platform and influence to champion civil rights, leaving a lasting impact on the struggle for racial equality.

Einstein’s engagement with civil rights issues can be traced back to the 1930s when he became increasingly disturbed by the racial segregation and discrimination faced by African Americans. His experiences with racism in the United States, combined with his commitment to principles of justice and equality, prompted him to take a stand against racial injustice.

In 1937, Einstein accepted an invitation to join the American Crusade to End Lynching, a campaign aimed at raising awareness and mobilizing public opinion against the horrific practice of racial violence in the form of lynchings. Einstein’s involvement brought attention to the cause and underscored the need for collective action to combat racial hatred.

As the civil rights movement gained momentum in the 1950s and 1960s, Einstein’s commitment to the cause deepened. He developed a friendship and collaboration with prominent African American civil rights leader W.E.B. Du Bois, supporting the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) and contributing financially to the organization’s efforts to fight racial discrimination.

Einstein’s association with the NAACP included serving on the board of directors and using his influential voice to advocate for equal rights. He spoke out against segregation and racial discrimination, emphasizing the importance of addressing systemic inequalities. Einstein believed that racism was not only a moral injustice but also an impediment to the progress and unity of the nation.

One of Einstein’s notable contributions to the civil rights movement was his critique of segregation in the southern United States. In 1946, he delivered a commencement address at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, becoming the first white person to receive an honorary degree from the historically Black university. In his speech, Einstein condemned racial segregation, calling it a “disease of white people,” and expressed his hope for a future of racial harmony.

Einstein’s commitment to civil rights extended beyond public statements. He corresponded with political leaders and engaged in dialogue with fellow intellectuals on the need for social change. In 1948, he wrote a letter to the then-President of the United States, Harry S. Truman, urging him to take a stand against racism and lynching.

While Einstein’s involvement in civil rights advocacy was primarily focused on racial issues, he also expressed concern for broader social justice causes. He was an advocate for pacifism, disarmament, and international cooperation, reflecting his deep commitment to building a more just and peaceful world.

Albert Einstein’s legacy as a civil rights advocate transcends his contributions to science. His willingness to use his platform to challenge racial injustice demonstrated the power of prominent figures to influence societal attitudes and policies. Einstein’s commitment to civil rights continues to inspire those who recognize the importance of using one’s influence to combat discrimination and promote equality in all its forms.

Personal Life and Family

Albert Einstein’s personal life and family played a significant role in shaping the experiences and perspectives of one of the most iconic figures in the history of science. Beyond his groundbreaking work in theoretical physics, Einstein’s relationships, marriages, and family dynamics offer glimpses into the private life of a complex and multifaceted individual.

Einstein’s first marriage was to Mileva Maric, a fellow student at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. The couple married in 1903 and had two sons, Hans Albert and Eduard. Mileva, herself a physicist, collaborated with Einstein on scientific work during the early years of their marriage. However, the relationship faced challenges, both personal and professional. The demands of Einstein’s career and the strain of a troubled marriage eventually led to their separation in 1914 and divorce in 1919.

Einstein’s relationship with his two sons was marked by the complexities of his professional commitments and the upheavals of the time. Hans Albert, the elder son, pursued a career in hydraulic engineering. Eduard, the younger son, faced mental health challenges, and his struggles had a profound impact on the family. Einstein, despite his global fame and intellectual pursuits, navigated the intricate balance between his public life and personal responsibilities.

In 1919, the same year as his divorce from Mileva, Einstein remarried. His second wife was Elsa Löwenthal, a cousin on his maternal side. Elsa, a widow with two daughters, brought her own family into the union. This second marriage provided Einstein with a supportive companion who understood the challenges and demands of his life. Elsa, instrumental in managing Einstein’s affairs and social engagements, provided stability and support throughout their marriage.

The Einstein-Löwenthal household became a blended family, with Albert and Elsa navigating the complexities of raising a stepdaughter, Ilse, and a stepson, Margot. The dynamics of this extended family reflected Einstein’s ability to adapt to evolving personal circumstances. Elsa, often described as Einstein’s anchor, played a vital role in maintaining a harmonious domestic environment.

While Einstein’s professional life soared to new heights, his personal life faced additional challenges. Eduard, his younger son, struggled with mental health issues, eventually leading to his institutionalization. This period marked a difficult chapter for the family, and Einstein, despite his brilliance in physics, grappled with the complexities of mental health within his own household.

The family faced further trials with the rise of the Nazi regime in Germany. Einstein’s Jewish heritage and outspoken views made him a target for persecution. Fearing for their safety, the Einstein family emigrated to the United States in 1933. This move marked a significant transition in their lives, as they sought refuge from the political turmoil in Europe.

In the United States, Einstein’s family life continued to evolve. Elsa passed away in 1936, leaving Einstein to navigate the challenges of his personal and professional life as a widower. Despite personal losses and the global upheaval of World War II, Einstein’s commitment to scientific inquiry and advocacy for peace remained steadfast.

Albert Einstein’s personal life, marked by the complexities of family dynamics, relationships, and personal challenges, adds depth to our understanding of this towering figure in the world of science. His ability to balance the demands of a tumultuous personal life with his groundbreaking scientific contributions reflects the intricate interplay between the private and public dimensions of his extraordinary existence.

Unified Field Theory

Albert Einstein’s pursuit of a Unified Field Theory (UFT) was a lifelong scientific endeavor aimed at unifying the fundamental forces of nature into a single, comprehensive framework. This ambitious quest consumed much of Einstein’s later career, as he sought to reconcile the principles of general relativity and electromagnetism, ultimately aiming for a unified description of the gravitational and electromagnetic forces.

Einstein’s interest in unifying the forces of nature was sparked by the success of his earlier theories. In 1915, he had formulated the General Theory of Relativity, which provided a groundbreaking understanding of gravity as the curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy. This theory successfully explained gravitational phenomena on large scales, such as the motion of planets and the bending of light around massive objects.

However, as quantum mechanics emerged in the early 20th century, describing the behavior of particles on very small scales, a tension arose between Einstein’s theory of gravity and the quantum framework. Quantum mechanics, which successfully explained the behavior of subatomic particles, relied on probabilistic principles and seemed incompatible with the determinism inherent in Einstein’s general relativity.

Einstein’s initial attempts at unification focused on incorporating electromagnetism into his gravitational framework. In the 1920s, he collaborated with mathematician Theodor Kaluza, who proposed a five-dimensional extension of general relativity that included electromagnetism. This Kaluza-Klein theory, while elegant in its mathematical formulation, did not gain widespread acceptance during Einstein’s lifetime.

Einstein’s pursuit of a unified theory gained momentum in the 1930s and 1940s, particularly after the discovery of nuclear forces. His vision extended beyond gravity and electromagnetism to include the strong and weak nuclear forces, seeking a theory that could encompass all fundamental interactions in a single, elegant framework.

One of Einstein’s notable attempts was the Einstein-Cartan theory, developed in collaboration with mathematician Élie Cartan. This theory incorporated torsion—a measure of twisting or distortion in spacetime—into the gravitational field equations. While intriguing, this theory did not achieve the desired unification and faced challenges in reconciling with experimental observations.

Einstein’s last major attempt at a unified theory was the development of the “unified field theory of gravitation and electricity” in the 1950s. Collaborating with physicist Walther Mayer, Einstein sought a theory that could describe both gravitational and electromagnetic phenomena. However, the challenges of combining quantum principles with general relativity persisted, and the theory remained incomplete.

Despite the lack of success in formulating a complete Unified Field Theory, Einstein’s contributions to the pursuit of unification had a lasting impact. His efforts inspired subsequent generations of physicists to explore new avenues for understanding the fundamental forces of nature. The quest for a unified theory continues today, with ongoing research in areas such as string theory and quantum gravity.

Einstein’s vision for a unified theory reflected his deep conviction in the elegance and simplicity of the laws governing the universe. While he did not achieve the ultimate goal of unification during his lifetime, his legacy as a pioneer in the quest for a unified understanding of nature endures, challenging scientists to explore the frontiers of theoretical physics in pursuit of a comprehensive theory that encompasses all fundamental forces.

Political Activism

Albert Einstein’s political activism was a prominent and impactful facet of his public life, reflecting his commitment to social justice, pacifism, and human rights. Throughout the turbulent events of the 20th century, Einstein used his fame and influence to address pressing political and moral issues, leaving a lasting legacy as a global advocate for peace and equality.

Einstein’s political engagement was sparked by the rise of fascism in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s. As Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party gained power in Germany, Einstein, who was of Jewish heritage and known for his progressive views, became a target for persecution. Faced with the threat of anti-Semitic oppression, Einstein emigrated to the United States in 1933, seeking refuge from the political turmoil in Europe.

In his new homeland, Einstein embraced his role as a public intellectual and began to speak out on a range of political issues. He became an outspoken critic of fascism, totalitarianism, and militarism. Einstein’s early anti-war stance was evident in his involvement with the anti-war movement during World War I, but it gained renewed urgency as the world descended into the chaos of World War II.

Einstein’s commitment to pacifism, however, faced a complex dilemma with the outbreak of World War II and the rise of the Nazi regime. While he advocated for peaceful solutions to conflicts, he recognized the threat posed by Hitler and the necessity of confronting fascist aggression. Einstein supported the Allied war effort against Nazi Germany and actively collaborated with other scientists on projects related to military defense, such as the development of radar technology.

Following World War II, Einstein’s focus shifted toward broader issues of peace, disarmament, and international cooperation. He played a central role in the formation of the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, an organization that sought to promote nuclear disarmament and prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Einstein’s concerns about the devastating consequences of atomic warfare led him to become a prominent advocate for global peace.

In 1946, Einstein delivered a powerful commencement address at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, addressing the moral implications of science and technology. He emphasized the responsibility of scientists to use their knowledge for the benefit of humanity, stressing the importance of ethics and social responsibility in scientific pursuits.

Einstein’s involvement with political causes extended beyond the realm of science. He became an active supporter of civil rights in the United States, using his influence to speak out against racial segregation and discrimination. Einstein joined the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) and collaborated with civil rights leaders such as W.E.B. Du Bois. His commitment to civil rights was reflected in his advocacy for racial equality and his critique of racism as a disease that afflicted white society.

In the realm of international affairs, Einstein supported the establishment of the United Nations and became an advocate for global governance and diplomacy. He recognized the need for collective efforts to address global challenges and prevent future conflicts. Einstein’s engagement with political issues underscored his belief in the interconnectedness of humanity and the importance of fostering a just and harmonious world.

Albert Einstein’s political activism, marked by his courageous stand against fascism, commitment to pacifism, and advocacy for civil rights, demonstrated the power of intellectual influence in shaping public discourse and promoting social change. His legacy as a principled advocate for peace and justice continues to inspire those who recognize the moral responsibility of individuals, particularly those with influence, to contribute to the betterment of society.

Legacy and Impact

Albert Einstein’s legacy and impact extend far beyond the realm of theoretical physics, leaving an indelible mark on science, philosophy, and culture. His groundbreaking theories revolutionized our understanding of the universe, and his intellectual influence resonates across diverse fields. Einstein’s legacy encompasses scientific achievements, cultural contributions, and a lasting imprint on the collective imagination.

At the heart of Einstein’s legacy are his revolutionary theories of relativity. The Special Theory of Relativity, published in 1905, transformed our understanding of space and time, challenging long-standing notions of absolute measurements and introducing the concept of spacetime. This theory laid the groundwork for subsequent developments in physics and had profound implications for our understanding of the cosmos.

Einstein’s crowning achievement, the General Theory of Relativity, published in 1915, provided a new understanding of gravity as the curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy. This theory not only explained gravitational phenomena with unprecedented precision but also predicted phenomena such as gravitational waves, later confirmed by experimental observations. General relativity has become a cornerstone of modern physics, influencing fields as diverse as astrophysics, cosmology, and the study of black holes.

The iconic equation E=mc², arising from Einstein’s work on the equivalence of mass and energy, became a symbol of the profound interconnections between matter and energy. This equation laid the foundation for advancements in nuclear physics and led to the development of nuclear energy. Einstein’s contributions to the understanding of quantum mechanics, despite his initial reservations about its probabilistic nature, also left a lasting impact on the field.

Beyond his scientific achievements, Einstein’s cultural and philosophical contributions shaped the intellectual landscape of the 20th century. His reflections on the nature of reality, the limitations of human knowledge, and the quest for a unified theory captivated the public imagination. Einstein’s philosophical musings, often expressed in his writings and public pronouncements, influenced debates on determinism, free will, and the nature of scientific inquiry.

Einstein’s fame transcended the scientific community, turning him into a global symbol of intellect, curiosity, and moral integrity. His public persona, marked by his iconic image with disheveled hair and thoughtful gaze, became synonymous with genius. Einstein’s popularity reached unprecedented heights, making him a cultural icon whose influence extended beyond the scientific realm.

Einstein’s advocacy for social justice and political causes further enhanced his legacy. His outspoken stance against fascism, commitment to pacifism, and advocacy for civil rights demonstrated a moral responsibility that went beyond the laboratory. Einstein’s involvement in political and social issues showcased the potential for individuals with intellectual influence to shape public discourse and contribute to the betterment of society.

Einstein’s legacy also manifests in the enduring pursuit of a unified theory, a quest that continues to captivate physicists today. While Einstein did not achieve this goal during his lifetime, his exploration of the connections between fundamental forces laid the groundwork for subsequent generations of researchers, inspiring ongoing efforts to unravel the mysteries of the universe.

In popular culture, Einstein’s name has become synonymous with genius, and his image is often used as a symbol of intellectual prowess. The “Einstein effect” has permeated literature, art, and entertainment, reflecting the fascination with the brilliant mind behind the theories of relativity.

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Albert Einstein: The Biography of a Genius Who Changed Science and World History

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Albert Einstein: The Biography of a Genius Who Changed Science and World History Paperback – April 28, 2018

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Print length 302 pages
Language English
Publication date April 28, 2018
Dimensions 5.25 x 0.69 x 8 inches
ISBN-10 1718671199
ISBN-13 978-1718671195
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Publisher ‏ : ‎ CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (April 28, 2018)
Language ‏ : ‎ English
Paperback ‏ : ‎ 302 pages
ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 1718671199
ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1718671195
Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 12.9 ounces
Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 5.25 x 0.69 x 8 inches
#6,345 in Scientist Biographies
#60,248 in Historical Biographies (Books)

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Adam Brown has published several history books.

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History of China

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Two Books on Einstein and the World He Made

A lbert Einstein is one of the most written-about figures of the 20th century, and for good reason. His theories upended the system that physicists had used to describe the world since Newton. Along the way, he became a figure of public fascination—a true celebrity. Now two books further scrutinize different aspects of the man.

Samuel Graydon’s “Einstein in Time and Space” is not an exhaustive biography. Instead it presents 99 vignettes, most of them one to three pages long, that highlight key qualities of this complex person: the curious child, the rebellious student, the serial adulterer, the wily prankster, the loyal friend, the civil-rights defender, the intellect unsurpassed in his time. Mr. Graydon, the science editor at the Times Literary Supplement, has chosen his number of chapters in a playful homage to the atomic number of the element einsteinium.

Even if readers are familiar with these stories, Mr. Graydon’s approach often delivers a fresh take on episodes not strongly emphasized in other biographies. Here is Einstein the engineer patenting a unique refrigerator design and a hearing aid. There he is building a miniature cable car out of matchboxes for his young son Hans. “That was one of the nicest toys I had,” Hans later recalled.

As a correspondent, Einstein could be quite impish: “So, what are you up to, you frozen whale, you smoked, dried, canned piece of soul, or whatever else I would like to hurl at your head?” he once wrote to a friend. While starting his career in Bern, Switzerland, the young physicist formed a little club called the Olympia Academy with two friends to discuss science and philosophy. “Einstein, despite being the youngest,” writes Mr. Graydon, “was elected president, earning him the title ‘Albert Ritter von Steissbein’ (roughly, ‘Sir Albert, Knight of Backside’). A certificate was made up, featuring a drawing of a bust of Einstein beneath a string of sausages.”

Mr. Graydon’s stated goal is to point out “the inconsistencies inherent in a life, the inexplicable, incompatible, insane motivations that punctuate days and years.” The author notes how Einstein, a devoted pacifist, maintained a close friendship with the German chemist Fritz Haber, who pioneered the use of both chlorine and mustard gas during World War I. He observes that the deep thinker didn’t pass up the chance to party with the movie stars Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks when out in California.

The book also includes moments of quiet dignity, such as the story of the black contralto Marian Anderson, who had been invited in 1937 to give a concert at Princeton University but was denied a room at the local hotel due to her race. Einstein simply prepared a room for her at his home, an invitation that was extended from that day forward whenever she visited the town.

Mr. Graydon has woven from these separate strands a compelling and beautifully written narrative, though I have one caveat. In his acknowledgments, the author admits that he “lightly fictionalized” a few chapters about representative days at Einstein’s office. Given the wealth of material on hand, a summary of Einstein’s life hardly needs any false embellishments.

While “Einstein in Time and Space” primarily concentrates on Einstein’s personal experiences, Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn’s “The Einsteinian Revolution” delves deeply into his science. Mr. Gutfreund, the academic director of the Albert Einstein Archives at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and Mr. Renn, the director of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin, have written extensively on Einstein and with this book take on a particular challenge: “to dispel the popular myth that Albert Einstein, the unconventional scientific genius, instigated an overwhelming scientific revolution through pure thought alone.” They succeed in that goal, along the way providing an excellent overview of Einstein’s major discoveries, from his early work on quantum theory to general relativity, the new law of gravity that overturned Newton. It is a welcome addition to any collection of books on modern physics.

A true understanding of Einstein’s accomplishments, they write, demands a revision of the legendary concept of the “paradigm shift.” The notion was introduced in 1962 by the historian of science Thomas Kuhn, who argued that a scientific revolution suddenly replaces a previous system of knowledge with a new one unconnected to the past. But Messrs. Gutfreund and Renn prefer to view Einstein’s work as an evolutionary process, where the new system is built upon the scientific scaffolding already in place.

In the late 19th century, that scaffolding was constructed around three dominant areas of physics: mechanics, thermodynamics and electromagnetism. Troubling puzzles were beginning to arise at the intersections between these fields, and many scientists attempted to find solutions within their own isolated specialties. But Einstein—with his deep reading of the scientific literature and the philosophy of science, his constant dialogues with scientific friends, and his careful attention to new experimental discoveries—stood above those boundaries, enabling him to perceive an entirely new vista.

The authors provide a detailed examination of Einstein’s annus mirabilis in 1905, when he recognized that light can act like a particle as well as a wave; proved that atoms exist; linked matter with energy in that celebrated equation E=mc2; and, with the special theory of relativity, swept away the idea that we live in a fixed space governed by a universal clock.

Before these discoveries, the authors note, the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz had developed a mathematical scheme to explain the behavior of charged particles moving through the ether—the medium that supposedly permeates physical space to allow light to travel. Lorentz’s equations foresaw many of the phenomena later explained by special relativity. But his physical interpretation, complicated and full of assumptions, was still rooted in classical physics. Einstein jettisoned this kludge by doing away with the ether, recognizing that space and time are not absolute and declaring that the speed of light is a constant whether a body is stationary or in motion.

Einstein didn’t arrive at this solution in a single eureka moment. It was the result of deep reflection over the years, influenced by such philosophers as David Hume, who questioned the causal relations between events; Ernst Mach, who objected to Newton’s idea of absolute space; and Henri Poincaré, who early on noted the possible relativity of time. Einstein stood upon the shoulders of giants to gain his new perspective.

While “The Einsteinian Revolution” is written for a general audience, a background in physics helps make certain sections more accessible. Yet the authors’ overall thesis is clear and convincing. “The substance of Einstein’s work was not new,” they stress, “but rather was the result of an accumulation of knowledge over centuries; it was his conceptual organization that was new.” Their book, along with Mr. Graydon’s “Einstein in Time and Space,” enhances our understanding of both a great scientist and an exemplary humanist.

Ms. Bartusiak is a professor emeritus at MIT and the author of “Einstein’s Unfinished Symphony.”

Albert Einstein at the Bern Patent Office, ca. 1905.

Albert Einstein’s Role in the Atomic Bomb Was the “One Great Mistake in My Life”

Einstein and his colleague Leo Szilard played a crucial role in encouraging the United States to create an atomic bomb.

preview for Einstein's Real Role in the Manhattan Project

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Although acquainted with physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer , Einstein never worked on the Manhattan Project that led to the development of nuclear weapons, nor was he aware of plans to drop the bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. But Einstein and his colleague Leo Szilard played a crucial role in encouraging President Franklin D. Roosevelt to pursue the bomb in the first place.

A Startling Visit from a Friend

leo szilard wearing a suit and tie, sitting at a table, and speaking to someone off camera

It all started with a visit by Szilard, a Hungarian-German physicist who previously studied with Einstein in the 1920s. Their research led to the creation of a refrigerator pump that required no moving parts, resulting in what is most commonly called the Einstein refrigerator, according to Genius in the Shadows , a Szilard biography by William Lanouette.

After their collaboration, Szilard conceived the idea of a nuclear “chain reaction” while working in London in 1933. The next year, he convinced the British government to make his chain reaction patent a military secret, according to Lanouette, successfully forestalling a nuclear arms race with Adolf Hitler , who by then was the Chancellor of Germany.

However, after scientists in Germany experimentally split the uranium atom in 1938, Szilard became deeply concerned about idea of Hitler obtaining an atomic bomb first and began raising alarm bells among his personal connections. In Lanouette’s words, he “worked frantically to start the very arms race he had feared.”

In 1939, Szilard visited his old friend Einstein, stunning the fellow physicist by describing the nuclear chain reaction concept. “I haven’t thought of that at all,” Einstein admitted, according to Lanouette. Einstein immediately agreed to warn his friends in the Belgian Royal Family that Nazi Germany might have eyes on the Belgian Congo, which contained the world’s largest uranium supply.

But after that initial meeting, Szilard became convinced that U.S. officials should be warned about Germany’s intentions as well. Szilard and Einstein met for a second time three weeks later, discussing how to get word to President Roosevelt and starting work on one of the most impactful and historic letters in the 20 th century.

The Einstein-Szilard Letter

Through friends, Szilard met with Alexander Sachs, a Wall Street banker with access to the White House. Sachs said he had already spoken with Roosevelt about uranium but that the government decided not to pursue uranium research because Columbia University physicists had told them the prospects of an atomic bomb were minimal, according to The New World 1939/1946: A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission .

albert einstein and leo szilard sitting at a table, looking over a letter

Sachs felt Roosevelt might be persuaded by someone of Einstein’s reputation, according to the book. Einstein—who was also encouraged by Hungarian physicists, including refugees Eugene Wigner and Edward Teller— sent a letter dated August 2, 1939, urging Roosevelt about the possibility that Nazi Germany could develop an atomic bomb.

“In the course of the last four months it has been made probable… that it may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium by which vast amounts of power and large quantities of new radium-like elements would be generated,” the letter read . “Now it appears almost certain that this could be achieved in the immediate future.”

Warning that this phenomenon could also lead to the construction of particularly devastating bombs, Einstein encouraged Roosevelt to consider a similar program in the United States and urged him to make contact with physicists working on chain reactions in the United States, according to the letter.

Preoccupied with events in Europe, Roosevelt didn’t respond for nearly two months, making the physicists fear he wasn’t taking the threat of nuclear warfare seriously, according to the U.S. Department of Energy . On the contrary, however, Roosevelt felt Hitler achieving unilateral possession of such powerful bombs would pose a grave risk to the nation.

The Letter Spurs Action

franklin roosevelt wearing a suit and tie, sitting at a table, signing a piece of paper with a pen

Roosevelt wrote back to Einstein on October 19, 1939, informing him about the establishment of a committee of civilian and military representatives to study uranium, according to the Energy Department. Although this was only the first of many such steps and decisions along the way, this committee was ultimately the catalyst for the Manhattan Project.

In 1940, Einstein sent Roosevelt two more letters on March 7 and April 25, recommending additional work on nuclear research, according to An Einstein Encyclopedia by Alice Calaprice and others. He wrote again on March 25, 1945, expressing his growing fears about the possible misuse of uranium, but it wasn’t delivered before Roosevelt’s death a little more than two weeks later.

The more famous 1939 letter, however, came to be known as the Einstein-Szilard letter and is widely considered to be the key stimulus for the United States developing the atomic bomb, according to Lanouette.

Einstein never worked on the Manhattan Project and had no prior knowledge of plans to use the atomic bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. A pacifist who despised war, Einstein came to deeply regret his role in the development of the bomb, later saying : “Had I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing.”

Einstein harbored these regrets for this rest of his life. In 1954, one year before his death, Einstein discussed the matter in a letter to his friend, chemist Linus Pauling. Although he cited the fear of Germany developing a bomb as a partial justification, he nevertheless described his letter to Roosevelt as the “one great mistake in my life.”

Einstein Appears in the 2023 Oppenheimer Movie

Oppenheimer , now available for rent or purchase on Prime Video and Apple TV+ , is directed and written by Christopher Nolan . Cillian Murphy stars as J. Robert Oppenheimer , and Tom Conti portrays Albert Einstein . Other cast members include Emily Blunt , Matt Damon , Robert Downey Jr. , Florence Pugh , Rami Malek , Josh Hartnett, Casey Affleck, and Kenneth Branagh.

Colin McEvoy joined the Biography.com staff in 2023, and before that had spent 16 years as a journalist, writer, and communications professional. He is the author of two true crime books: Love Me or Else and Fatal Jealousy . He is also an avid film buff, reader, and lover of great stories.

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Proving Einstein: Vancouver physics professor and his students will use the eclipse to confirm theory of relativity Subscriber Exclusive

Improved technology will allow observance of 'forbidden zone' of stars closest to sun.

In “The Principle of Relativity,” published in 1923, Albert Einstein called out to the scientists of the future for help proving his theories. Vancouver resident Toby Dittrich, who teaches physics at Portland Community College, is looking forward to doing just that in April.

In a 1923 book called “The Principle of Relativity,” Albert Einstein seemed to call out to better-equipped scientists of the future to establish the truth of his mind-bending theoretical work.

“Apart from any theory, there is the question whether it is possible with the equipment at present available to detect an influence of gravitational fields on the propagation of light,” Einstein wrote (originally in German). “It would be a most desirable thing if astronomers would take up the question.”

Just over a century later, Toby Dittrich of Vancouver is heeding Einstein’s call. Dittrich, a physics instructor at Portland Community College, will travel into the zone of totality for Monday’s solar eclipse with a couple of his undergraduate students and a load of super-sophisticated equipment that wasn’t available even as recently as 2017.

That was the last time Dittrich and his students studied a total solar eclipse. They observed from various spots in Central Oregon with motorized telescopes and cameras trained on the sky as the Earth’s moon covered the sun for 21/2 minutes.

Total solar eclipse? Not here

The “zone of totality” for Monday’s eclipse is a narrow band that will slice northeast across the United States, from Texas through Maine.

Here in the Pacific Northwest, the April eclipse will be partial, not total. From our vantage point, the moon will only cover about one-quarter of the sun’s whole disk.

If you are watching from Clark County, the partial eclipse will begin at 10:34 a.m. and end at 12:19 p.m.

To protect your eyes while eclipse viewing, wear special eclipse glasses that have been approved by the American Astronomical Society . Never look directly at the sun.

While spectacular, the 2017 eclipse itself was not Dittrich’s target. His real interest was the field of stars passing behind the spectacle. That’s because Einstein’s general theory of relativity posits that huge gravitational fields actually bend starlight. There would be no better way to prove it than by observing stars that appear close to the sun during a total eclipse. If Einstein was correct, those stars’ position would appear off center as their light was bent by the sun’s immense gravity.

Nothing’s new about that test of gravity and starlight. The so-called Eddington Experiment (named after the English scientist who first attempted it) has been duplicated many times, under many total solar eclipses, since it was first tried in 1919 in Goldendale.

The results of those many experiments have been no better than OK, Dittrich said. While they did bolster Einstein, the data wasn’t deep. The stars closest to the sun, which should show the biggest bend, still couldn’t be seen because they were washed out by the sun’s dazzlingly bright, undulating corona.

“I call that the forbidden zone. Cameras have never been able to measure stars in that area. There are no data points near the surface of the sun,” Dittrich said.

Which means that, at least as far as Dittrich is concerned, Einstein’s general theory of relativity “still hasn’t adequately been proven,” he said.

Million points

That looks likely to change Monday, as technical advances in telescopes, space satellites and digital photography are expected to help Dittrich and his team track and study the starlight around a total solar eclipse as never before.

Throughout the 20th century, Eddington experiments were hobbled by uncertainty about the stars’ actual positions in the sky. In addition to snapping photos while an eclipse was underway, scientists also had to photograph the stars months before and months after, and then carry out complex calculations about their changing positions.

“It was extremely cumbersome,” Dittrich said.

By 2017, scientists like Dittrich and his students were assisted by an orbiting satellite called Gaia, which has cataloged the stars’ positions with incredible accuracy, he said. Plus, earthbound observers had state-of-the-art digital cameras.

But downloading those digital photos still took forever — that is, about nine seconds each. During 2.5 minutes of actual eclipse time in 2017, Dittrich and his team were only able to snap and process 23 pictures. The data they collected wasn’t all that valuable, he said.

But today, Dittrich said, anybody can purchase an ideal eclipse-viewing telescope for about $5,000. (A good eclipse-viewing telescope should be very clear and have a wide field of vision, he said, but needn’t be all that powerful because the sun is so big and so close to us.) Digital cameras have continued to improve too, and their processing time is 100 times faster, he said.

“I call this a revolution, and the camera is the key,” he said.

Also, the upcoming total solar eclipse will be visible for almost twice as long as the 2017 one: 4½ minutes. That means today’s observers will enjoy a lavish 270 seconds of viewing time, Dittrich said, rather than 2017’s meager 150 seconds.

“In 2017 we had 23 pictures with 40 stars, which was about 800 data points,” Dittrich said. “This time we know we can take 1,000 (pictures). We may have a million data points to work with. The 2024 project will far surpass what we did in 2017.”

Elevations, expectations

Dittrich is excited to play a role in proving Einstein. He’s the lead author of a paper that was just published by the American Astronomical Society called “Modern Eddington Experiment (2024),” which outlines the history, techniques, improved technology and his current plan to study starlight on Monday.

But he’s even more excited to involve two of his own undergraduate students from Portland Community College, he said.

Erika Weber and Chris Matin are among a group of about 50 students, professors and amateur astronomers who will travel to the zone of totality in Texas and Mexico to set up 14 different observing stations there, Dittrich said. The bulk of these participants are from community colleges. While some of their equipment and travel was paid for by grants, Dittrich said, much of it had to be covered by the participants themselves.

The Mexico site, in the state of Durango, has the advantage of 8,000-feet elevation, Dittrich said. That will help avoid atmospheric turbulence, which can be a big problem for eclipse observation on the ground.

Another big problem is cloudy skies. In 2020, Dittrich traveled all the way to an eclipse zone of totality in the South American nation of Chile and set up two observation stations there. And then the clouds rolled in, he said.

“That’s the beauty of science — you never know what’s going to happen,” he chuckled. “What I tell people is, you’re not an official eclipse chaser until you’ve been clouded out at least once.”

There’s a 30 percent chance of cloud cover Monday for the Texas eclipse observers but less than 5 percent for the Durango observers. Dittrich’s expectations for great observations — and a genuine proof of Einstein, a whole century later — are high, he said.

“In 100 years, nobody has been able to penetrate the forbidden zone,” he said. “We have amassed a team to do that. The most incredible part is, it’s undergraduates from community colleges who will finally verify Einstein’s work.”

6 Eclipses That Influenced History

By: History.com Staff

Updated: April 8, 2024 | Original: April 4, 2024

Witnessing a lunar or solar eclipse can be an awe-inspiring experience. The astronomical events occur when the Earth and sun, or the Earth and moon become aligned and the sun or moon is temporarily obscured from humans' terrestrial perspective. So it's perhaps not surprising that these rare celestial events have influenced human behavior—particularly before they were widely understood.

From triggering fear to favoring armies, to proving revolutionary theories, the following eclipses have played a part in history.

October 22, 2134 B.C.: Solar eclipse spells doom for Hsi and Ho .

One of the earliest records of an eclipse appears in the ancient Chinese document Shu Ching (Book of History), which describes a day on which “the Sun and Moon did not meet harmoniously.” Historians believe this is a reference to the solar eclipse of October 22, 2134 B.C. The legend tells of two royal astronomers named Hsi and Ho who had shirked their duties and gotten drunk on the job. As a result, they failed to predict the event and were beheaded by the emperor.

May 28, 585 B.C.: Solar eclipse inspires truce between the Lydians and the Medes .

According to the ancient Greek historian Herodotus , a total solar eclipse brought about an unexpected ceasefire between two warring nations as they were fighting near the River Halys in what is now central Turkey. For five years, the Lydians and the Medes were battling for control of Anatolia. During the Battle of Halys, also known as the Battle of the Eclipse , the sky suddenly turned dark as the sun disappeared behind the moon. Interpreting the phenomenon as a sign that the gods wanted the conflict to end, the soldiers put down their weapons and negotiated a truce.

August 27, 413 B.C.: Lunar eclipse plus superstition prove deadly for Athens .

At the height of the Peloponnesian War , a decades-long struggle between Athens and Sparta , Athenian soldiers found themselves locked in a losing battle against the Sicilian city-state of Syracuse (who were allied with Sparta). The Athenian commander, Nicias, ordered a temporary retreat. According to an account by the Greek writer and philosopher Plutarch , as the troops prepared to sail home, a lunar eclipse took place, prompting the highly superstitious Nicias to postpone the departure. The Syracusians took advantage of the delay to stage another attack, overcoming the Athenians and weakening their stronghold on the Mediterranean. The defeat in Sicily marked the beginning of the end of Athenian dominance.

February 29, 1504: Lunar eclipse saves Christopher Columbus from starvation ?

Twelve years after his landing at San Salvador, Christopher Columbus was exploring the Central American coast when woodworms attacked his ship, causing leaks and forcing him to make an emergency stop in Jamaica. He and his crew spent more than a year there awaiting relief. The Indigenous people of the island initially welcomed the men, offering them food and shelter, but cut off their supplies when the Spaniards failed to offer trade in return and some of Columbus' crew members began stealing from them.

According to an account by his son, Ferdinand, Columbus consulted the almanac he had brought with him and read about an upcoming total lunar eclipse . Ferdinand writes that Columbus told the Jamaicans that the gods were unhappy with them for failing to provide assistance and that they would show their disapproval by turning the moon a bloody red color. The eclipse occurred on schedule, and Ferdinand claims the Jamaicans reacted in fear and then promised to resume feeding Columbus and his crew.

It makes a good story, anyway. Many historians, however, are skeptical of the account, particularly since the Indigenous people of the region would have witnessed a lunar eclipse just six years earlier. Nonetheless, research confirms a lunar eclipse did occur at that time. As John McCall, an anthropology professor at Southern Illinois University, notes , "While such stories must be regarded skeptically, the path of the 1504 eclipse is known, and Columbus’ account appears to be consistent with the darker side of his reputation."

August 7, 1869: Solar eclipse makes peace between scientists and native Alaskans .

George Davidson, a prominent astronomer and explorer, had already made surveys of several regions in Alaska—then a relatively uncharted territory—when he set out on a scientific expedition to Chilkat Valley in 1869. He was warned, however, that the local Chilkat Indians had been angered by some American provocation and might welcome him with guns and spears rather than open arms.

During a tense initial meeting on August 6, Davidson explained that he had come for purely scientific reasons, telling the Chilkat that he was especially anxious to observe a total eclipse of the sun the following day. It's not known what the Chilkat thought of the eclipse or Davidson’s prediction, but after the event, Davidson and his party report that they were able to continue their explorations .

May 29, 1919: Solar Eclipse Confirms Einstein's Big Theory

In an effort to test Albert Einstein 's then-four-year-old theory of general relativity , English scientists, led by physicist Sir Arthur Eddington, took advantage of a total solar eclipse. During the eclipse, as the moon blocked sunlight, more stars were visible near the sun. The team's measurements taken during the eclipse confirmed that starlight bent around the sun. It was an early confirmation of Einstein's theory that massive objects warp the fabric of space-time and that distortion manifests as gravity.

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Who Were Albert Einstein's Children? Know About All The Descendants!

Facts about the children of Albert Einstein.

Albert Einstein's Children's Names

What happened to einstein's daughter, lieserl, albert einstein’s children, son hans albert wrote many books.

Albert Einstein, one of the greatest physicists of all time, has had one of the most interesting lives in history.

His scientific achievements stand among the pantheon of the greatest scientists and their accomplishments; but not as much is known about the descendants of Albert Einstein.

If you’re wondering about the living descendants of Albert Einstein then you’ll be glad to know that Einstein has grandchildren who are still alive! Although their ancestor came from a relatively wealthy family, the Einstein family members haven’t received their share of inheritance.

Einstein's parents were Pauline Einstein (1858-1920) and Hermann Einstein (1847-1902); Albert Einstein also had an uncle, Jakob Einstein, who was a business partner to Hermann.

Albert Einstein married Mileva Maric in 1903. Einstein’s second wife, Elsa, was also his cousin. They married in 1919.

Did you know that Albert Einstein is listed as one of the founders of the Hebrew University in Israel?

Albert Einstein also had a connection to Princeton, as he lectured there the year before he was awarded the Nobel Prize For Physics, in 1921, and later accepted a position at Princeton in 1932.

Albert Einstein had three children with his first wife, Mileva Maric, who was a Serbian physicist; Hans Albert, Eduard, and Lieserl Einstein.

Mileva Maric (daughter of Milos Maric and Marija Ruzic-Maric) was born on December 19, 1875, in Austria-Hungary (today Serbia).

She belonged to a wealthy family and prioritized her studies for her future. There is a lot of debate as to whether Mileva had some contribution to the research that was carried out by Albert Einstein.

One of the most common theories is that Mileva told a Serbian friend in 1905 that she accomplished some important work with Albert that would make him world-famous!

His second wife, Elsa Einstein, was born on 18 January, 1876, in Hechingen, the daughter of Rudolf Einstein and Fanny Einstein.

Elsa already had two children before she began dating Albert, Margot and Ilse, with her first husband. Elsa’s daughters were raised by Albert as his own.

Elsa and Albert’s family was very close-knit and they migrated to Princeton together.

During the final days of Elsa's life, Albert tried to focus on his work to distract himself from the harsh reality that Elsa was dying.

Elsa Einstein died in Albert Einstein's Princeton home due to heart and liver problems. Not much is known about Albert’s stepdaughters.

Albert Einstein was known to be a loving father to the two stepdaughters that he had with his second wife. It is said that they were very close. But, the relationship between Albert and his first-born daughter is shrouded in mystery.

Little is known about Albert Einstein’s daughter, Lieserl Einstein, that he had with his first wife, Mileva Maric.

One thing that is certain is that Lieserl was born in January of 1902 with some disabilities. Sadly, she passed away in September of 1903 due to scarlet fever.

In her book, 'Einstein's Daughter: The Search for Lieserl', author Michele Zikhaeim theorized that Einstein sent Lieserl to stay with Mileva Maric’s relatives before they were married.

Even after they tied the knot, Einstein refused to accept his daughter and refused to acknowledge her existence in his life!

There was a letter from September 19, 1903, that was delivered from Einstein to Maric that mentioned Lieserl for the last time.

Albert Einstein has a special connection to Berlin, Germany, as he was offered a top academic position at the Prussian Academy of Sciences along with a Professorship at Berlin's Humboldt University.

His two sons, Hans Albert and Eduard Einstein, came to Berlin to join their father.

It is interesting to study the dynamics that the sons shared with their father. Being the children of a world-famous scientist must have been hard to negotiate for them and they subsequently found ways to deal with the effects of their father's fame.

Hans Albert Einstein was an engineer by profession who was born on May 14, 1904. He was also a long-time professor at the University of California, Berkeley.

Hans Albert’s first marriage was with Frieda Knecht, whom Albert strongly disapproved of. They were together until her death in 1958.

They had four children together: Bernhard Caesar, Klaus Martin, David, and daughter Evelyn Einstein, who was adopted.

Evelyn pursued a Master’s degree from the same college in which her father was a professor, at the University of California.

After the death of his first wife, Hans Albert Einstein married Elizabeth Roboz.

His friends remember Hans Albert Einstein as an avid sailor, and a keen musician, who played the flute and the piano.

Albert’s second son, Eduard Einstein, had a strained relationship with his father.

Eduard was a schizophrenic who was considered to be an unsolvable problem by Einstein. Eduard spent nearly three decades in an asylum trying to get better.

Eduard tried to cope with the fame that his father had garnered but he found it difficult, commenting that he felt unimportant.

During the time the Nazis took power in Germany, Albert Einstein had to flee the country without his younger son, leaving him confined to an asylum as he was too feeble to accompany his family.

New York is home to the prestigious Albert Einstein College of Medicine, in the Bronx area. It is considered to be one of the best medical schools in the country.

In 1933, when Einstein fled Germany, he came to Princeton, New Jersey, where he joined the Institute for Advanced Study. He lived there for 22 years until his death.

There have been tons of books that have been written about Albert Einstein and his works that revolutionized society.

Hans Albert, who was very well known for his work on sediment transport, wrote a few research books that can be read today as well.

The famous books of Hans Albert include 'Bed-Load Transportation in Mountain Creek' (1944), 'Determination of Rates of Bed-Load Movement' (1948), 'Analysis of Factors Influencing Cotton Yields and Their Variability: With Special Reference to Upper Piedmont and West Texas Rolling Plains' (1950), 'The Bed-Load Function for Sediment Transportation in Open Channel Flows' (1951), 'Second Approximation to the Solution of the Suspended Load Theory' (1952) and 'Transport of Sediment Mixtures with Large Ranges of Grain Sizes' (1953).

These are very in-depth in their analysis of sediment transport which is why Hans Albert became famous in his own right.

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Bachelor of Science specializing in Human Anatomy

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With 3+ years of research and content writing experience across several niches, especially on education, technology, and business topics. Joan holds a Bachelor’s degree in Human Anatomy from the Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria, and has worked as a researcher and writer for organizations across Nigeria, the US, the UK, and Germany. Joan enjoys meditation, watching movies, and learning new languages in her free time.

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Are math and standardized tests the measure of all things?

As reliably as Persephone returns from Hades every Spring to spread light and rebirth, standardized tests emerge from another Netherworld to spread stress and fear.

Since business CEOs, politicians and the media have for years bemoaned Washington’s low math and language test score, Olympia passed in 1993 the Washington Legislature’s Reform Act, and WASL in 1997, to improve learning outcomes. WASL changed to HSPE exams, then SBAC, and now to SBA. In 2014, Senate Bill 5246 even required schools to make test scores a component of teacher evaluation.

But neither reforms nor standardized tests resulted in higher academic performances. Math SAT scores remained unchanged, hovered around 502 to 508 out of 800, from 1963 to 2023.

In 2015, “about half of Washington’s 11th graders refused to take the federally mandated SBAC tests” and, between 2011 and 2023, many students in various states refused to take standardized tests.

An unhappy Seattle Times columnist, Danny Westneat, wrote an open letter to the Secretary of Education about the “mostly pointless federally mandated” tests and suggested to “take your No Child Left Behind law and shove it”. Ouch! A guest columnist of the Kitsap Sun referred to standardized tests as “stress and torture”.

Are standardized tests really the measure of a student’s progress, knowledge, and potential? Of course not. Unfortunately, as a teacher, I too had to teach-to-the-test. AP classes are the ultimate high stakes test classes and I “trained” my AP students with monthly trial tests for the national finals. We all were a wreck at test day, because the May exam determines whether or not the students get college credits. “Standardized tests take up weeks of instruction time” complained a fellow teacher in a Kitsap Sun opinion column published in 2021, and test anxiety can skew a test.

In 2024 the Oregon School Board of Education removed proof of mastery in math, reading and writing to graduate from high schools, because not all kids start school at he same academic level.

Former Seattle school board member Donald Nielsen wrote in his book "Every School , " that “all children are different, and all children have different learning needs and interests . . . but we expect the same learning outcome . . . this rigid approach has never worked. It’s insane”.

I can relate. During my very first year of teaching, I had, in one class, 11 out of 30 sophomores testing below 8th grade in reading and writing.

Albert Einstein reminisced: “School failed me and I failed the school . . . I wanted to learn what I wanted to know, but the teachers wanted me to learn for the exam.” Steven Jobs complained that schools “came really close to beating any curiosity out of me”. And Ian Engelbeck, an high school student, suggested in a Seattle Times guest column that “students should craft their own education.”

I felt like Ian, Einstein and Steven when I was a student. I too “wanted to learn what I wanted to know” and “craft my own education”, or, as Voltaire described it, “cultivate my own garden”, nurturing imagination, creativity and curiosity. But rigid curriculum requirements, and frequent tests ruled my student life and math ruined it — so I thought.

Math, of course, is important, but should every single student be required to take the same math, and pass the same high stakes standardized math test? A 2024 Washington Post editorial even argued that math taught at school is “useless for most people”.

The D in math I earned in high school followed me to the UW. And when I applied to the College of Education to become a history teacher, I failed the math test, but barely passed, on my second try, after studying all Summer a math I never once used before or after my test.

In spite of my math deficiencies I built three houses, started and operated a printing business for 15 years, invested wisely, became a high school teacher, and led a happy, comfortable life. Being a math failure was never an obstacle.

How about allowing kids to “craft their own education”? North Kitsap High School’s popular “Independent Studies” program did just that, and HB 1308, passed in 2024, allows graduation credits for “performance based learning”. But, what exactly should students learn?

Good question, because about 2,500 years ago Socrates and the city fathers of Athens disagreed already on education.

Jim Behrend is a retired North Kitsap High School teacher. As a student, art, literature, history and woodworking were his favorite classes.

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Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein (born March 14, 1879, Ulm, Württemberg, Germany—died April 18, 1955, Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.) German-born physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect.Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century.
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879. His parents, secular Ashkenazi Jews, were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880 ... In letters that Einstein wrote to Marie Winteler in the months before Eduard's arrival, he described his love for his wife as ...
Albert Einstein: Biography, Physicist, Nobel Prize Winner
Early Life, Family, and Education. Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany. ... Einstein and fellow physicist Leo Szilard wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt ...
Albert Einstein
Einstein's Early Life (1879-1904) Born on March 14, 1879, in the southern German city of Ulm, Albert Einstein grew up in a middle-class Jewish family in Munich.
Albert Einstein Biography
Early life Albert Einstein. Einstein was born 14 March 1879, in Ulm the German Empire. His parents were working-class (salesman/engineer) and non-observant Jews. ... Einstein wrote to President Roosevelt about the prospect of Germany developing an atomic bomb. He warned Roosevelt that the Germans were working on a bomb with a devastating ...
Biography of Albert Einstein, Theoretical Physicist
In 1905, while working at the patent office, Einstein wrote five scientific papers, which were all published in the Annalen der Physik (Annals of Physics, a major physics journal). Three of these were published together in September 1905. ... Rosenberg, Jennifer. "Biography of Albert Einstein, Theoretical Physicist." ThoughtCo, Jul. 31, 2021 ...
Einstein: His Life and Universe by Walter Isaacson
Einstein's influence was and is not felt in scientific communities alone. He was a music lover who played a mean fiddle; he influenced philosophy, politics, and education systems. Einstein was nationally unbound - a dove in flight over the vast cosmic ocean, making indelible impacts wherever he landed on the shore. Beyond Einstein's ...
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be ...
Einstein: His Life and Universe
Einstein: His Life and Universe. Einstein. : Walter Isaacson. Simon and Schuster, Apr 10, 2007 - Biography & Autobiography - 624 pages. By the author of the acclaimed bestsellers Benjamin Franklin and Steve Jobs, this is the definitive biography of Albert Einstein. How did his mind work?
Albert Einstein: Biography, facts and impact on science
A brief biography of Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 - April 18, 1955), the scientist whose theories changed the way we think about the universe. Albert Einstein was a German-American physicist ...
Albert Einstein: A Biography
Albert Einstein: A Biography, by Albrecht Folsing, is a comprehensive and very readable biography of the 20th century's greatest scientist. A reader's lack of a college-level scientific background will not diminish the appeal and understanding of this book. Einstein's insights on the relativity and quantum theories are presented with minimum ...
The best books on Albert Einstein
Interview by Jo Marchant. Einstein: A Hundred Years of Relativity. by Andrew Robinson. Read. 1 Albert Einstein: A Biography by Albrecht Folsing. 2 Einstein 1905: The Standard of Greatness by John S. Rigden. 3 The Born-Einstein Letters,1916-1955 by Albert Einstein and Max Born. 4 The Einstein File by Fred Jerome.
Einstein, Albert (1879-1955) -- from Eric Weisstein's World of
In a recommendation for Einstein's membership in the Prussian Academy of Science, the sponsors wrote "In sum, one can say that there is hardly one among the great problems in which modern physics is so rich to which Einstein has not made a remarkable contribution. ... Fölsing, A. Albert Einstein: A Biography. New York: Viking, 1997. Goldsmith ...
The Life and Achievements of Albert Einstein
Before E=MC2. Einstein was born in Germany in 1879. Growing up, he enjoyed classical music and played the violin. One story Einstein liked to tell about his childhood was when he came across a magnetic compass. The needle's invariable northward swing, guided by an invisible force, profoundly impressed him as a child.
Biographies of Albert Einstein Mastermind of Theoretical Physics
Einstein wrote on February 22, 1949 to the writer Max Brod, "There have already ... Fölsing's Albert Einstein, A Biography, 1997.5 This is an abridged translation of Albrecht Fölsing, Albert Einstein, Eine Biographie, 1993.6 However, Fölsing based himself on non-documentary biographies too, such as Max
PDF 1879—1955
ALBERT EINSTEIN March 14, 1879—April 18, 1955 BY JOHN ARCHIBALD WHEELER* ALBERT EINSTEIN was born in Ulm, Germany on March ... Einstein wrote, "I can understand your aversion to the use of the term 'religion' to describe an emotional and psy-chological attitude which shows itself most clearly in Spinoza.
Albert Einstein: Biography, Scientist, & Legacy
Albert Einstein's early life and education laid the foundation for a revolutionary career in physics. Born on March 14, 1879, in the city of Ulm in the Kingdom of Württemberg, which was part of the German Empire, Einstein was the first child of Hermann and Pauline Einstein. ... In 1948, he wrote a letter to the then-President of the United ...
Albert Einstein : A Biography
Albert Einstein: A Biography will cover the entire history of this brilliant physicist's life and career, including: his early education, during which he was an excellent student, contrary to what is commonly believed; Einstein's struggles to find an academic position, which led him to work as a clerk at the Swiss patent office during the same ...
Albert Einstein: The Biography of a Genius Who Changed Science and
To truly appreciate this brilliant scientist, who, at the age of 26, wrote the scholarly articles that fundamentally altered the foundation of physics, it is first important to look at his background and the environment in which he grew up in. Interestingly, while Einstein's performance in math and physics was outstanding, he was not the only ...
Two Books on Einstein and the World He Made
Their book, along with Mr. Graydon's "Einstein in Time and Space," enhances our understanding of both a great scientist and an exemplary humanist. Ms. Bartusiak is a professor emeritus at ...
Albert Einstein, General Relativity, and the 1919 Solar Eclipse
Read His Biography. Albert Einstein; Einstein's theory of general relativity dates back to 1905. ... who wrote the book No Shadow of a Doubt about the 1919 eclipse and its findings, said this ...
Albert Einstein Regretted His Role in the Atomic Bomb's ...
Albert Einstein's Role in the Atomic Bomb Was the "One Great Mistake in My Life" ... Roosevelt wrote back to Einstein on October 19, 1939, informing him about the establishment of a ...
Proving Einstein: Vancouver physics professor and his students will use
In a 1923 book called "The Principle of Relativity," Albert Einstein seemed to call out to better-equipped scientists of the future to establish the truth of his mind-bending theoretical work.
6 Eclipses That Influenced History
May 29, 1919: Solar Eclipse Confirms Einstein's Big Theory. In an effort to test Albert Einstein 's then-four-year-old theory of general relativity, English scientists, led by physicist Sir Arthur ...
Who Were Albert Einstein's Children? Know About All The ...
His second wife, Elsa Einstein, was born on 18 January, 1876, in Hechingen, the daughter of Rudolf Einstein and Fanny Einstein. Elsa already had two children before she began dating Albert, Margot and Ilse, with her first husband. Elsa's daughters were raised by Albert as his own. Elsa and Albert's family was very close-knit and they ...
Are math and standardized tests the measure of all things?
Former Seattle school board member Donald Nielsen wrote in his book "Every School," that "all children are different, and all children have different learning needs and interests . . . but we ...

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Einstein: A Hundred Years of Relativity by Andrew Robinson

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