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How to Write a Research Paper Introduction (with Examples)

The research paper introduction section, along with the Title and Abstract, can be considered the face of any research paper. The following article is intended to guide you in organizing and writing the research paper introduction for a quality academic article or dissertation.

The research paper introduction aims to present the topic to the reader. A study will only be accepted for publishing if you can ascertain that the available literature cannot answer your research question. So it is important to ensure that you have read important studies on that particular topic, especially those within the last five to ten years, and that they are properly referenced in this section. 1 What should be included in the research paper introduction is decided by what you want to tell readers about the reason behind the research and how you plan to fill the knowledge gap. The best research paper introduction provides a systemic review of existing work and demonstrates additional work that needs to be done. It needs to be brief, captivating, and well-referenced; a well-drafted research paper introduction will help the researcher win half the battle.

The introduction for a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your research topic
• Capture reader interest
• Summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Define your specific research problem and problem statement
• Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper. Some research paper introduction examples are only half a page while others are a few pages long. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper; its length depends on the size of your paper as a whole.

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Table of Contents

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The introduction in a research paper is placed at the beginning to guide the reader from a broad subject area to the specific topic that your research addresses. They present the following information to the reader

• Scope: The topic covered in the research paper
• Context: Background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in that particular area of research and the industry problem that can be targeted

The research paper introduction conveys a lot of information and can be considered an essential roadmap for the rest of your paper. A good introduction for a research paper is important for the following reasons:

• It stimulates your reader’s interest: A good introduction section can make your readers want to read your paper by capturing their interest. It informs the reader what they are going to learn and helps determine if the topic is of interest to them.
• It helps the reader understand the research background: Without a clear introduction, your readers may feel confused and even struggle when reading your paper. A good research paper introduction will prepare them for the in-depth research to come. It provides you the opportunity to engage with the readers and demonstrate your knowledge and authority on the specific topic.
• It explains why your research paper is worth reading: Your introduction can convey a lot of information to your readers. It introduces the topic, why the topic is important, and how you plan to proceed with your research.
• It helps guide the reader through the rest of the paper: The research paper introduction gives the reader a sense of the nature of the information that will support your arguments and the general organization of the paragraphs that will follow. It offers an overview of what to expect when reading the main body of your paper.

What are the parts of introduction in the research?

A good research paper introduction section should comprise three main elements: 2

• What is known: This sets the stage for your research. It informs the readers of what is known on the subject.
• What is lacking: This is aimed at justifying the reason for carrying out your research. This could involve investigating a new concept or method or building upon previous research.
• What you aim to do: This part briefly states the objectives of your research and its major contributions. Your detailed hypothesis will also form a part of this section.

How to write a research paper introduction?

The first step in writing the research paper introduction is to inform the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening statement. The second step involves establishing the kinds of research that have been done and ending with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to address. Finally, the research paper introduction clarifies how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses. If your research involved testing hypotheses, these should be stated along with your research question. The hypothesis should be presented in the past tense since it will have been tested by the time you are writing the research paper introduction.

The following key points, with examples, can guide you when writing the research paper introduction section:

• Highlight the importance of the research field or topic
• Describe the background of the topic
• Present an overview of current research on the topic

Example: The inclusion of experiential and competency-based learning has benefitted electronics engineering education. Industry partnerships provide an excellent alternative for students wanting to engage in solving real-world challenges. Industry-academia participation has grown in recent years due to the need for skilled engineers with practical training and specialized expertise. However, from the educational perspective, many activities are needed to incorporate sustainable development goals into the university curricula and consolidate learning innovation in universities.

• Reveal a gap in existing research or oppose an existing assumption
• Formulate the research question

Example: There have been plausible efforts to integrate educational activities in higher education electronics engineering programs. However, very few studies have considered using educational research methods for performance evaluation of competency-based higher engineering education, with a focus on technical and or transversal skills. To remedy the current need for evaluating competencies in STEM fields and providing sustainable development goals in engineering education, in this study, a comparison was drawn between study groups without and with industry partners.

• State the purpose of your study
• Highlight the key characteristics of your study
• Describe important results
• Highlight the novelty of the study.
• Offer a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

Example: The study evaluates the main competency needed in the applied electronics course, which is a fundamental core subject for many electronics engineering undergraduate programs. We compared two groups, without and with an industrial partner, that offered real-world projects to solve during the semester. This comparison can help determine significant differences in both groups in terms of developing subject competency and achieving sustainable development goals.

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The purpose of the research paper introduction is to introduce the reader to the problem definition, justify the need for the study, and describe the main theme of the study. The aim is to gain the reader’s attention by providing them with necessary background information and establishing the main purpose and direction of the research.

The length of the research paper introduction can vary across journals and disciplines. While there are no strict word limits for writing the research paper introduction, an ideal length would be one page, with a maximum of 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs. Generally, it is one of the shorter sections of the paper as the reader is assumed to have at least a reasonable knowledge about the topic. 2 For example, for a study evaluating the role of building design in ensuring fire safety, there is no need to discuss definitions and nature of fire in the introduction; you could start by commenting upon the existing practices for fire safety and how your study will add to the existing knowledge and practice.

When deciding what to include in the research paper introduction, the rest of the paper should also be considered. The aim is to introduce the reader smoothly to the topic and facilitate an easy read without much dependency on external sources. 3 Below is a list of elements you can include to prepare a research paper introduction outline and follow it when you are writing the research paper introduction. Topic introduction: This can include key definitions and a brief history of the topic. Research context and background: Offer the readers some general information and then narrow it down to specific aspects. Details of the research you conducted: A brief literature review can be included to support your arguments or line of thought. Rationale for the study: This establishes the relevance of your study and establishes its importance. Importance of your research: The main contributions are highlighted to help establish the novelty of your study Research hypothesis: Introduce your research question and propose an expected outcome. Organization of the paper: Include a short paragraph of 3-4 sentences that highlights your plan for the entire paper

Cite only works that are most relevant to your topic; as a general rule, you can include one to three. Note that readers want to see evidence of original thinking. So it is better to avoid using too many references as it does not leave much room for your personal standpoint to shine through. Citations in your research paper introduction support the key points, and the number of citations depend on the subject matter and the point discussed. If the research paper introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, it is better to cite a few review articles rather than the individual articles summarized in the review. A good point to remember when citing research papers in the introduction section is to include at least one-third of the references in the introduction.

The literature review plays a significant role in the research paper introduction section. A good literature review accomplishes the following: Introduces the topic – Establishes the study’s significance – Provides an overview of the relevant literature – Provides context for the study using literature – Identifies knowledge gaps However, remember to avoid making the following mistakes when writing a research paper introduction: Do not use studies from the literature review to aggressively support your research Avoid direct quoting Do not allow literature review to be the focus of this section. Instead, the literature review should only aid in setting a foundation for the manuscript.

Remember the following key points for writing a good research paper introduction: 4

• Avoid stuffing too much general information: Avoid including what an average reader would know and include only that information related to the problem being addressed in the research paper introduction. For example, when describing a comparative study of non-traditional methods for mechanical design optimization, information related to the traditional methods and differences between traditional and non-traditional methods would not be relevant. In this case, the introduction for the research paper should begin with the state-of-the-art non-traditional methods and methods to evaluate the efficiency of newly developed algorithms.
• Avoid packing too many references: Cite only the required works in your research paper introduction. The other works can be included in the discussion section to strengthen your findings.
• Avoid extensive criticism of previous studies: Avoid being overly critical of earlier studies while setting the rationale for your study. A better place for this would be the Discussion section, where you can highlight the advantages of your method.
• Avoid describing conclusions of the study: When writing a research paper introduction remember not to include the findings of your study. The aim is to let the readers know what question is being answered. The actual answer should only be given in the Results and Discussion section.

To summarize, the research paper introduction section should be brief yet informative. It should convince the reader the need to conduct the study and motivate him to read further. If you’re feeling stuck or unsure, choose trusted AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal to effortlessly craft your research paper introduction and other sections of your research article.

1. Jawaid, S. A., & Jawaid, M. (2019). How to write introduction and discussion. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 13(Suppl 1), S18.

2. Dewan, P., & Gupta, P. (2016). Writing the title, abstract and introduction: Looks matter!. Indian pediatrics, 53, 235-241.

3. Cetin, S., & Hackam, D. J. (2005). An approach to the writing of a scientific Manuscript1. Journal of Surgical Research, 128(2), 165-167.

4. Bavdekar, S. B. (2015). Writing introduction: Laying the foundations of a research paper. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 63(7), 44-6.

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Research Paper Introduction – Writing Guide and Examples

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Research Paper Introduction

Research paper introduction is the first section of a research paper that provides an overview of the study, its purpose, and the research question (s) or hypothesis (es) being investigated. It typically includes background information about the topic, a review of previous research in the field, and a statement of the research objectives. The introduction is intended to provide the reader with a clear understanding of the research problem, why it is important, and how the study will contribute to existing knowledge in the field. It also sets the tone for the rest of the paper and helps to establish the author’s credibility and expertise on the subject.

How to Write Research Paper Introduction

Writing an introduction for a research paper can be challenging because it sets the tone for the entire paper. Here are some steps to follow to help you write an effective research paper introduction:

• Start with a hook : Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing statement, a question, or a surprising fact that will make the reader interested in reading further.
• Provide background information: After the hook, provide background information on the topic. This information should give the reader a general idea of what the topic is about and why it is important.
• State the research problem: Clearly state the research problem or question that the paper addresses. This should be done in a concise and straightforward manner.
• State the research objectives: After stating the research problem, clearly state the research objectives. This will give the reader an idea of what the paper aims to achieve.
• Provide a brief overview of the paper: At the end of the introduction, provide a brief overview of the paper. This should include a summary of the main points that will be discussed in the paper.
• Revise and refine: Finally, revise and refine your introduction to ensure that it is clear, concise, and engaging.

Structure of Research Paper Introduction

The following is a typical structure for a research paper introduction:

• Background Information: This section provides an overview of the topic of the research paper, including relevant background information and any previous research that has been done on the topic. It helps to give the reader a sense of the context for the study.
• Problem Statement: This section identifies the specific problem or issue that the research paper is addressing. It should be clear and concise, and it should articulate the gap in knowledge that the study aims to fill.
• Research Question/Hypothesis : This section states the research question or hypothesis that the study aims to answer. It should be specific and focused, and it should clearly connect to the problem statement.
• Significance of the Study: This section explains why the research is important and what the potential implications of the study are. It should highlight the contribution that the research makes to the field.
• Methodology: This section describes the research methods that were used to conduct the study. It should be detailed enough to allow the reader to understand how the study was conducted and to evaluate the validity of the results.
• Organization of the Paper : This section provides a brief overview of the structure of the research paper. It should give the reader a sense of what to expect in each section of the paper.

Research Paper Introduction Examples

Research Paper Introduction Examples could be:

Example 1: In recent years, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) has become increasingly prevalent in various industries, including healthcare. AI algorithms are being developed to assist with medical diagnoses, treatment recommendations, and patient monitoring. However, as the use of AI in healthcare grows, ethical concerns regarding privacy, bias, and accountability have emerged. This paper aims to explore the ethical implications of AI in healthcare and propose recommendations for addressing these concerns.

Example 2: Climate change is one of the most pressing issues facing our planet today. The increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has resulted in rising temperatures, changing weather patterns, and other environmental impacts. In this paper, we will review the scientific evidence on climate change, discuss the potential consequences of inaction, and propose solutions for mitigating its effects.

Example 3: The rise of social media has transformed the way we communicate and interact with each other. While social media platforms offer many benefits, including increased connectivity and access to information, they also present numerous challenges. In this paper, we will examine the impact of social media on mental health, privacy, and democracy, and propose solutions for addressing these issues.

Example 4: The use of renewable energy sources has become increasingly important in the face of climate change and environmental degradation. While renewable energy technologies offer many benefits, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions and energy independence, they also present numerous challenges. In this paper, we will assess the current state of renewable energy technology, discuss the economic and political barriers to its adoption, and propose solutions for promoting the widespread use of renewable energy.

Purpose of Research Paper Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper serves several important purposes, including:

• Providing context: The introduction should give readers a general understanding of the topic, including its background, significance, and relevance to the field.
• Presenting the research question or problem: The introduction should clearly state the research question or problem that the paper aims to address. This helps readers understand the purpose of the study and what the author hopes to accomplish.
• Reviewing the literature: The introduction should summarize the current state of knowledge on the topic, highlighting the gaps and limitations in existing research. This shows readers why the study is important and necessary.
• Outlining the scope and objectives of the study: The introduction should describe the scope and objectives of the study, including what aspects of the topic will be covered, what data will be collected, and what methods will be used.
• Previewing the main findings and conclusions : The introduction should provide a brief overview of the main findings and conclusions that the study will present. This helps readers anticipate what they can expect to learn from the paper.

When to Write Research Paper Introduction

The introduction of a research paper is typically written after the research has been conducted and the data has been analyzed. This is because the introduction should provide an overview of the research problem, the purpose of the study, and the research questions or hypotheses that will be investigated.

Once you have a clear understanding of the research problem and the questions that you want to explore, you can begin to write the introduction. It’s important to keep in mind that the introduction should be written in a way that engages the reader and provides a clear rationale for the study. It should also provide context for the research by reviewing relevant literature and explaining how the study fits into the larger field of research.

Advantages of Research Paper Introduction

The introduction of a research paper has several advantages, including:

• Establishing the purpose of the research: The introduction provides an overview of the research problem, question, or hypothesis, and the objectives of the study. This helps to clarify the purpose of the research and provide a roadmap for the reader to follow.
• Providing background information: The introduction also provides background information on the topic, including a review of relevant literature and research. This helps the reader understand the context of the study and how it fits into the broader field of research.
• Demonstrating the significance of the research: The introduction also explains why the research is important and relevant. This helps the reader understand the value of the study and why it is worth reading.
• Setting expectations: The introduction sets the tone for the rest of the paper and prepares the reader for what is to come. This helps the reader understand what to expect and how to approach the paper.
• Grabbing the reader’s attention: A well-written introduction can grab the reader’s attention and make them interested in reading further. This is important because it can help to keep the reader engaged and motivated to read the rest of the paper.
• Creating a strong first impression: The introduction is the first part of the research paper that the reader will see, and it can create a strong first impression. A well-written introduction can make the reader more likely to take the research seriously and view it as credible.
• Establishing the author’s credibility: The introduction can also establish the author’s credibility as a researcher. By providing a clear and thorough overview of the research problem and relevant literature, the author can demonstrate their expertise and knowledge in the field.
• Providing a structure for the paper: The introduction can also provide a structure for the rest of the paper. By outlining the main sections and sub-sections of the paper, the introduction can help the reader navigate the paper and find the information they are looking for.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

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The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper.

Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Importance of a Good Introduction

Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:

• What was I studying?
• Why was this topic important to investigate?
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study?
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

According to Reyes, there are three overarching goals of a good introduction: 1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem; 2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and, 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of your research.

A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach. All introductions should conclude with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper.

Hirano, Eliana. “Research Article Introductions in English for Specific Purposes: A Comparison between Brazilian, Portuguese, and English.” English for Specific Purposes 28 (October 2009): 240-250; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide. Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Structure and Approach

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:

• What is this?
• Why should I read it?
• What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow your analysis to more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your research problem and the rationale for studying it [often written as a series of key questions to be addressed or framed as a hypothesis or set of assumptions to be tested] and, whenever possible, a description of the potential outcomes your study can reveal.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction: 1.  Establish an area to research by:

• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.

2.  Identify a research niche by:

• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.

3.  Place your research within the research niche by:

• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

NOTE:   It is often useful to review the introduction late in the writing process. This is appropriate because outcomes are unknown until you've completed the study. After you complete writing the body of the paper, go back and review introductory descriptions of the structure of the paper, the method of data gathering, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion. Reviewing and, if necessary, rewriting the introduction ensures that it correctly matches the overall structure of your final paper.

II.  Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your research . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the topic.

Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction. For example, a delimitating statement could read, "Although many factors can be understood to impact the likelihood young people will vote, this study will focus on socioeconomic factors related to the need to work full-time while in school." The point is not to document every possible delimiting factor, but to highlight why previously researched issues related to the topic were not addressed.

Examples of delimitating choices would be:

• The key aims and objectives of your study,
• The research questions that you address,
• The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon being studied],
• The method(s) of investigation,
• The time period your study covers, and
• Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.

Review each of these decisions. Not only do you clearly establish what you intend to accomplish in your research, but you should also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria understood as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!

NOTE:   Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.

ANOTHER NOTE : Do not view delimitating statements as admitting to an inherent failing or shortcoming in your research. They are an accepted element of academic writing intended to keep the reader focused on the research problem by explicitly defining the conceptual boundaries and scope of your study. It addresses any critical questions in the reader's mind of, "Why the hell didn't the author examine this?"

III.  The Narrative Flow

Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :

• Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest . A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.
• Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review--that comes next. It consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature [with citations] that establishes a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem. See the drop-down menu under this tab for " Background Information " regarding types of contexts.
• Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated . When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the...."
• Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.

IV.  Engaging the Reader

A research problem in the social sciences can come across as dry and uninteresting to anyone unfamiliar with the topic . Therefore, one of the goals of your introduction is to make readers want to read your paper. Here are several strategies you can use to grab the reader's attention:

• Open with a compelling story . Almost all research problems in the social sciences, no matter how obscure or esoteric , are really about the lives of people. Telling a story that humanizes an issue can help illuminate the significance of the problem and help the reader empathize with those affected by the condition being studied.
• Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected, anecdote . During your review of the literature, make note of any quotes or anecdotes that grab your attention because they can used in your introduction to highlight the research problem in a captivating way.
• Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question . Your research problem should be framed by a set of questions to be addressed or hypotheses to be tested. However, a provocative question can be presented in the beginning of your introduction that challenges an existing assumption or compels the reader to consider an alternative viewpoint that helps establish the significance of your study. 
• Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity . This involves highlighting an interesting quandary concerning the research problem or describing contradictory findings from prior studies about a topic. Posing what is essentially an unresolved intellectual riddle about the problem can engage the reader's interest in the study.
• Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important . Draw upon the findings of others to demonstrate the significance of the problem and to describe how your study builds upon or offers alternatives ways of investigating this prior research.

NOTE:   It is important that you choose only one of the suggested strategies for engaging your readers. This avoids giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance and does not distract from the substance of your study.

Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies. Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction. Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.

Writing Tip

Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction

Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific terminology that readers may be unfamiliar with. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source because it doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term or concept may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, use a subject specific dictionary or encyclopedia [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology]. A good database for obtaining definitive definitions of concepts or terms is Credo Reference .

Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper. Florida International University; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Another Writing Tip

When Do I Begin?

A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "Where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from history. Therefore, it is important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that illustrates the study's overall importance. For example, a study that investigates coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exports in Africa. If a research problem requires a substantial exploration of the historical context, do this in the literature review section. In your introduction, make note of this as part of the "roadmap" [see below] that you use to describe the organization of your paper.

Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Always End with a Roadmap

The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a brief description of the rest of the paper [the "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect. A roadmap is important because it helps the reader place the research problem within the context of their own perspectives about the topic. In addition, concluding your introduction with an explicit roadmap tells the reader that you have a clear understanding of the structural purpose of your paper. In this way, the roadmap acts as a type of promise to yourself and to your readers that you will follow a consistent and coherent approach to addressing the topic of inquiry. Refer to it often to help keep your writing focused and organized.

Cassuto, Leonard. “On the Dissertation: How to Write the Introduction.” The Chronicle of Higher Education , May 28, 2018; Radich, Michael. A Student's Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies . (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Writing n. d.), pp. 35-37.

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How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper

Table of Contents

Writing an introduction for a research paper is a critical element of your paper, but it can seem challenging to encapsulate enormous amount of information into a concise form. The introduction of your research paper sets the tone for your research and provides the context for your study. In this article, we will guide you through the process of writing an effective introduction that grabs the reader's attention and captures the essence of your research paper.

Understanding the Purpose of a Research Paper Introduction

The introduction acts as a road map for your research paper, guiding the reader through the main ideas and arguments. The purpose of the introduction is to present your research topic to the readers and provide a rationale for why your study is relevant. It helps the reader locate your research and its relevance in the broader field of related scientific explorations. Additionally, the introduction should inform the reader about the objectives and scope of your study, giving them an overview of what to expect in the paper. By including a comprehensive introduction, you establish your credibility as an author and convince the reader that your research is worth their time and attention.

Key Elements to Include in Your Introduction

When writing your research paper introduction, there are several key elements you should include to ensure it is comprehensive and informative.

• A hook or attention-grabbing statement to capture the reader's interest.  It can be a thought-provoking question, a surprising statistic, or a compelling anecdote that relates to your research topic.
• A brief overview of the research topic and its significance. By highlighting the gap in existing knowledge or the problem your research aims to address, you create a compelling case for the relevance of your study.
• A clear research question or problem statement. This serves as the foundation of your research and guides the reader in understanding the unique focus of your study. It should be concise, specific, and clearly articulated.
• An outline of the paper's structure and main arguments, to help the readers navigate through the paper with ease.

Preparing to Write Your Introduction

Before diving into writing your introduction, it is essential to prepare adequately. This involves 3 important steps:

• Conducting Preliminary Research: Immerse yourself in the existing literature to develop a clear research question and position your study within the academic discourse.
• Identifying Your Thesis Statement: Define a specific, focused, and debatable thesis statement, serving as a roadmap for your paper.
• Considering Broader Context: Reflect on the significance of your research within your field, understanding its potential impact and contribution.

By engaging in these preparatory steps, you can ensure that your introduction is well-informed, focused, and sets the stage for a compelling research paper.

Structuring Your Introduction

Now that you have prepared yourself to tackle the introduction, it's time to structure it effectively. A well-structured introduction will engage the reader from the beginning and provide a logical flow to your research paper.

Starting with a Hook

Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing hook that captivates the reader's interest. This hook serves as a way to make your introduction more engaging and compelling. For example, if you are writing a research paper on the impact of climate change on biodiversity, you could start your introduction with a statistic about the number of species that have gone extinct due to climate change. This will immediately grab the reader's attention and make them realize the urgency and importance of the topic.

Introducing Your Topic

Provide a brief overview, which should give the reader a general understanding of the subject matter and its significance. Explain the importance of the topic and its relevance to the field. This will help the reader understand why your research is significant and why they should continue reading. Continuing with the example of climate change and biodiversity, you could explain how climate change is one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity, how it affects ecosystems, and the potential consequences for both wildlife and human populations. By providing this context, you are setting the stage for the rest of your research paper and helping the reader understand the importance of your study.

Presenting Your Thesis Statement

The thesis statement should directly address your research question and provide a preview of the main arguments or findings discussed in your paper. Make sure your thesis statement is clear, concise, and well-supported by the evidence you will present in your research paper. By presenting a strong and focused thesis statement, you are providing the reader with the information they could anticipate in your research paper. This will help them understand the purpose and scope of your study and will make them more inclined to continue reading.

Writing Techniques for an Effective Introduction

When crafting an introduction, it is crucial to pay attention to the finer details that can elevate your writing to the next level. By utilizing specific writing techniques, you can captivate your readers and draw them into your research journey.

Using Clear and Concise Language

One of the most important writing techniques to employ in your introduction is the use of clear and concise language. By choosing your words carefully, you can effectively convey your ideas to the reader. It is essential to avoid using jargon or complex terminology that may confuse or alienate your audience. Instead, focus on communicating your research in a straightforward manner to ensure that your introduction is accessible to both experts in your field and those who may be new to the topic. This approach allows you to engage a broader audience and make your research more inclusive.

Establishing the Relevance of Your Research

One way to establish the relevance of your research is by highlighting how it fills a gap in the existing literature. Explain how your study addresses a significant research question that has not been adequately explored. By doing this, you demonstrate that your research is not only unique but also contributes to the broader knowledge in your field. Furthermore, it is important to emphasize the potential impact of your research. Whether it is advancing scientific understanding, informing policy decisions, or improving practical applications, make it clear to the reader how your study can make a difference.

By employing these two writing techniques in your introduction, you can effectively engage your readers. Take your time to craft an introduction that is both informative and captivating, leaving your readers eager to delve deeper into your research.

Revising and Polishing Your Introduction

Once you have written your introduction, it is crucial to revise and polish it to ensure that it effectively sets the stage for your research paper.

Self-Editing Techniques

Review your introduction for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Ensure each paragraph introduces a new idea or argument with smooth transitions.

Check for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and awkward sentence structures.

Ensure that your introduction aligns with the overall tone and style of your research paper.

Seeking Feedback for Improvement

Consider seeking feedback from peers, colleagues, or your instructor. They can provide valuable insights and suggestions for improving your introduction. Be open to constructive criticism and use it to refine your introduction and make it more compelling for the reader.

Writing an introduction for a research paper requires careful thought and planning. By understanding the purpose of the introduction, preparing adequately, structuring effectively, and employing writing techniques, you can create an engaging and informative introduction for your research. Remember to revise and polish your introduction to ensure that it accurately represents the main ideas and arguments in your research paper. With a well-crafted introduction, you will capture the reader's attention and keep them inclined to your paper.

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How to write an effective introduction for your research paper

Last updated

20 January 2024

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However, the introduction is a vital element of your research paper. It helps the reader decide whether your paper is worth their time. As such, it's worth taking your time to get it right.

In this article, we'll tell you everything you need to know about writing an effective introduction for your research paper.

• The importance of an introduction in research papers

The primary purpose of an introduction is to provide an overview of your paper. This lets readers gauge whether they want to continue reading or not. The introduction should provide a meaningful roadmap of your research to help them make this decision. It should let readers know whether the information they're interested in is likely to be found in the pages that follow.

Aside from providing readers with information about the content of your paper, the introduction also sets the tone. It shows readers the style of language they can expect, which can further help them to decide how far to read.

When you take into account both of these roles that an introduction plays, it becomes clear that crafting an engaging introduction is the best way to get your paper read more widely. First impressions count, and the introduction provides that impression to readers.

• The optimum length for a research paper introduction

While there's no magic formula to determine exactly how long a research paper introduction should be, there are a few guidelines. Some variables that impact the ideal introduction length include:

Field of study

Complexity of the topic

Specific requirements of the course or publication

A commonly recommended length of a research paper introduction is around 10% of the total paper’s length. So, a ten-page paper has a one-page introduction. If the topic is complex, it may require more background to craft a compelling intro. Humanities papers tend to have longer introductions than those of the hard sciences.

The best way to craft an introduction of the right length is to focus on clarity and conciseness. Tell the reader only what is necessary to set up your research. An introduction edited down with this goal in mind should end up at an acceptable length.

• Evaluating successful research paper introductions

A good way to gauge how to create a great introduction is by looking at examples from across your field. The most influential and well-regarded papers should provide some insights into what makes a good introduction.

Dissecting examples: what works and why

We can make some general assumptions by looking at common elements of a good introduction, regardless of the field of research.

A common structure is to start with a broad context, and then narrow that down to specific research questions or hypotheses. This creates a funnel that establishes the scope and relevance.

The most effective introductions are careful about the assumptions they make regarding reader knowledge. By clearly defining key terms and concepts instead of assuming the reader is familiar with them, these introductions set a more solid foundation for understanding.

To pull in the reader and make that all-important good first impression, excellent research paper introductions will often incorporate a compelling narrative or some striking fact that grabs the reader's attention.

Finally, good introductions provide clear citations from past research to back up the claims they're making. In the case of argumentative papers or essays (those that take a stance on a topic or issue), a strong thesis statement compels the reader to continue reading.

Common pitfalls to avoid in research paper introductions

You can also learn what not to do by looking at other research papers. Many authors have made mistakes you can learn from.

We've talked about the need to be clear and concise. Many introductions fail at this; they're verbose, vague, or otherwise fail to convey the research problem or hypothesis efficiently. This often comes in the form of an overemphasis on background information, which obscures the main research focus.

Ensure your introduction provides the proper emphasis and excitement around your research and its significance. Otherwise, fewer people will want to read more about it.

• Crafting a compelling introduction for a research paper

Let’s take a look at the steps required to craft an introduction that pulls readers in and compels them to learn more about your research.

Step 1: Capturing interest and setting the scene

To capture the reader's interest immediately, begin your introduction with a compelling question, a surprising fact, a provocative quote, or some other mechanism that will hook readers and pull them further into the paper.

As they continue reading, the introduction should contextualize your research within the current field, showing readers its relevance and importance. Clarify any essential terms that will help them better understand what you're saying. This keeps the fundamentals of your research accessible to all readers from all backgrounds.

Step 2: Building a solid foundation with background information

Including background information in your introduction serves two major purposes:

It helps to clarify the topic for the reader

It establishes the depth of your research

The approach you take when conveying this information depends on the type of paper.

For argumentative papers, you'll want to develop engaging background narratives. These should provide context for the argument you'll be presenting.

For empirical papers, highlighting past research is the key. Often, there will be some questions that weren't answered in those past papers. If your paper is focused on those areas, those papers make ideal candidates for you to discuss and critique in your introduction.

Step 3: Pinpointing the research challenge

To capture the attention of the reader, you need to explain what research challenges you'll be discussing.

For argumentative papers, this involves articulating why the argument you'll be making is important. What is its relevance to current discussions or problems? What is the potential impact of people accepting or rejecting your argument?

For empirical papers, explain how your research is addressing a gap in existing knowledge. What new insights or contributions will your research bring to your field?

Step 4: Clarifying your research aims and objectives

We mentioned earlier that the introduction to a research paper can serve as a roadmap for what's within. We've also frequently discussed the need for clarity. This step addresses both of these.

When writing an argumentative paper, craft a thesis statement with impact. Clearly articulate what your position is and the main points you intend to present. This will map out for the reader exactly what they'll get from reading the rest.

For empirical papers, focus on formulating precise research questions and hypotheses. Directly link them to the gaps or issues you've identified in existing research to show the reader the precise direction your research paper will take.

Step 5: Sketching the blueprint of your study

Continue building a roadmap for your readers by designing a structured outline for the paper. Guide the reader through your research journey, explaining what the different sections will contain and their relationship to one another.

This outline should flow seamlessly as you move from section to section. Creating this outline early can also help guide the creation of the paper itself, resulting in a final product that's better organized. In doing so, you'll craft a paper where each section flows intuitively from the next.

Step 6: Integrating your research question

To avoid letting your research question get lost in background information or clarifications, craft your introduction in such a way that the research question resonates throughout. The research question should clearly address a gap in existing knowledge or offer a new perspective on an existing problem.

Tell users your research question explicitly but also remember to frequently come back to it. When providing context or clarification, point out how it relates to the research question. This keeps your focus where it needs to be and prevents the topic of the paper from becoming under-emphasized.

Step 7: Establishing the scope and limitations

So far, we've talked mostly about what's in the paper and how to convey that information to readers. The opposite is also important. Information that's outside the scope of your paper should be made clear to the reader in the introduction so their expectations for what is to follow are set appropriately.

Similarly, be honest and upfront about the limitations of the study. Any constraints in methodology, data, or how far your findings can be generalized should be fully communicated in the introduction.

Step 8: Concluding the introduction with a promise

The final few lines of the introduction are your last chance to convince people to continue reading the rest of the paper. Here is where you should make it very clear what benefit they'll get from doing so. What topics will be covered? What questions will be answered? Make it clear what they will get for continuing.

By providing a quick recap of the key points contained in the introduction in its final lines and properly setting the stage for what follows in the rest of the paper, you refocus the reader's attention on the topic of your research and guide them to read more.

• Research paper introduction best practices

Following the steps above will give you a compelling introduction that hits on all the key points an introduction should have. Some more tips and tricks can make an introduction even more polished.

As you follow the steps above, keep the following tips in mind.

Set the right tone and style

Like every piece of writing, a research paper should be written for the audience. That is to say, it should match the tone and style that your academic discipline and target audience expect. This is typically a formal and academic tone, though the degree of formality varies by field.

Kno w the audience

The perfect introduction balances clarity with conciseness. The amount of clarification required for a given topic depends greatly on the target audience. Knowing who will be reading your paper will guide you in determining how much background information is required.

Adopt the CARS (create a research space) model

The CARS model is a helpful tool for structuring introductions. This structure has three parts. The beginning of the introduction establishes the general research area. Next, relevant literature is reviewed and critiqued. The final section outlines the purpose of your study as it relates to the previous parts.

Master the art of funneling

The CARS method is one example of a well-funneled introduction. These start broadly and then slowly narrow down to your specific research problem. It provides a nice narrative flow that provides the right information at the right time. If you stray from the CARS model, try to retain this same type of funneling.

Incorporate narrative element

People read research papers largely to be informed. But to inform the reader, you have to hold their attention. A narrative style, particularly in the introduction, is a great way to do that. This can be a compelling story, an intriguing question, or a description of a real-world problem.

Write the introduction last

By writing the introduction after the rest of the paper, you'll have a better idea of what your research entails and how the paper is structured. This prevents the common problem of writing something in the introduction and then forgetting to include it in the paper. It also means anything particularly exciting in the paper isn’t neglected in the intro.

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How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper

How to write an introduction for a research paper? Eventually (and with practice) all writers will develop their own strategy for writing the perfect introduction for a research paper. Once you are comfortable with writing, you will probably find your own, but coming up with a good strategy can be tough for beginning writers.

The Purpose of an Introduction

Your opening paragraphs, phrases for introducing thesis statements, research paper introduction examples, using the introduction to map out your research paper.

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• First write your thesis.Your thesis should state the main idea in specific terms.
• After you have a working thesis, tackle the body of your paper before you write the rest of the introduction. Each paragraph in the body should explore one specific topic that proves, or summarizes your thesis. Writing is a thinking process. Once you have worked your way through that process by writing the body of the paper, you will have an intimate understanding of how you are supporting your thesis. After you have written the body paragraphs, go back and rewrite your thesis to make it more specific and to connect it to the topics you addressed in the body paragraph.
• Revise your introduction several times, saving each revision. Be sure your introduction previews the topics you are presenting in your paper. One way of doing this is to use keywords from the topic sentences in each paragraph to introduce, or preview, the topics in your introduction.This “preview” will give your reader a context for understanding how you will make your case.
• Experiment by taking different approaches to your thesis with every revision you make. Play with the language in the introduction. Strike a new tone. Go back and compare versions. Then pick the one that works most effectively with the body of your research paper.
• Do not try to pack everything you want to say into your introduction. Just as your introduction should not be too short, it should also not be too long. Your introduction should be about the same length as any other paragraph in your research paper. Let the content—what you have to say—dictate the length.

The first page of your research paper should draw the reader into the text. It is the paper’s most important page and, alas, often the worst written. There are two culprits here and effective ways to cope with both of them.

First, the writer is usually straining too hard to say something terribly BIG and IMPORTANT about the thesis topic. The goal is worthy, but the aim is unrealistically high. The result is often a muddle of vague platitudes rather than a crisp, compelling introduction to the thesis. Want a familiar example? Listen to most graduation speakers. Their goal couldn’t be loftier: to say what education means and to tell an entire football stadium how to live the rest of their lives. The results are usually an avalanche of clichés and sodden prose.

The second culprit is bad timing. The opening and concluding paragraphs are usually written late in the game, after the rest of the thesis is finished and polished. There’s nothing wrong with writing these sections last. It’s usually the right approach since you need to know exactly what you are saying in the substantive middle sections of the thesis before you can introduce them effectively or draw together your findings. But having waited to write the opening and closing sections, you need to review and edit them several times to catch up. Otherwise, you’ll putting the most jagged prose in the most tender spots. Edit and polish your opening paragraphs with extra care. They should draw readers into the paper.

After you’ve done some extra polishing, I suggest a simple test for the introductory section. As an experiment, chop off the first few paragraphs. Let the paper begin on, say, paragraph 2 or even page 2. If you don’t lose much, or actually gain in clarity and pace, then you’ve got a problem.

There are two solutions. One is to start at this new spot, further into the text. After all, that’s where you finally gain traction on your subject. That works best in some cases, and we occasionally suggest it. The alternative, of course, is to write a new opening that doesn’t flop around, saying nothing.

What makes a good opening? Actually, they come in several flavors. One is an intriguing story about your topic. Another is a brief, compelling quote. When you run across them during your reading, set them aside for later use. Don’t be deterred from using them because they “don’t seem academic enough.” They’re fine as long as the rest of the paper doesn’t sound like you did your research in People magazine. The third, and most common, way to begin is by stating your main questions, followed by a brief comment about why they matter.

Whichever opening you choose, it should engage your readers and coax them to continue. Having done that, you should give them a general overview of the project—the main issues you will cover, the material you will use, and your thesis statement (that is, your basic approach to the topic). Finally, at the end of the introductory section, give your readers a brief road map, showing how the paper will unfold. How you do that depends on your topic but here are some general suggestions for phrase choice that may help:

• This analysis will provide …
• This paper analyzes the relationship between …
• This paper presents an analysis of …
• This paper will argue that …
• This topic supports the argument that…
• Research supports the opinion that …
• This paper supports the opinion that …
• An interpretation of the facts indicates …
• The results of this experiment show …
• The results of this research show …

Comparisons/Contrasts

• A comparison will show that …
• By contrasting the results,we see that …
• This paper examines the advantages and disadvantages of …

Definitions/Classifications

• This paper will provide a guide for categorizing the following:…
• This paper provides a definition of …
• This paper explores the meaning of …
• This paper will discuss the implications of …
• A discussion of this topic reveals …
• The following discussion will focus on …

Description

• This report describes…
• This report will illustrate…
• This paper provides an illustration of …

Process/Experimentation

• This paper will identify the reasons behind…
• The results of the experiment show …
• The process revealed that …
• This paper theorizes…
• This paper presents the theory that …
• In theory, this indicates that …

Quotes, anecdotes, questions, examples, and broad statements—all of them can used successfully to write an introduction for a research paper. It’s instructive to see them in action, in the hands of skilled academic writers.

Let’s begin with David M. Kennedy’s superb history, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . Kennedy begins each chapter with a quote, followed by his text. The quote above chapter 1 shows President Hoover speaking in 1928 about America’s golden future. The text below it begins with the stock market collapse of 1929. It is a riveting account of just how wrong Hoover was. The text about the Depression is stronger because it contrasts so starkly with the optimistic quotation.

“We in America today are nearer the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land.”—Herbert Hoover, August 11, 1928 Like an earthquake, the stock market crash of October 1929 cracked startlingly across the United States, the herald of a crisis that was to shake the American way of life to its foundations. The events of the ensuing decade opened a fissure across the landscape of American history no less gaping than that opened by the volley on Lexington Common in April 1775 or by the bombardment of Sumter on another April four score and six years later. The ratcheting ticker machines in the autumn of 1929 did not merely record avalanching stock prices. In time they came also to symbolize the end of an era. (David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 10)

Kennedy has exciting, wrenching material to work with. John Mueller faces the exact opposite problem. In Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War , he is trying to explain why Great Powers have suddenly stopped fighting each other. For centuries they made war on each other with devastating regularity, killing millions in the process. But now, Mueller thinks, they have not just paused; they have stopped permanently. He is literally trying to explain why “nothing is happening now.” That may be an exciting topic intellectually, it may have great practical significance, but “nothing happened” is not a very promising subject for an exciting opening paragraph. Mueller manages to make it exciting and, at the same time, shows why it matters so much. Here’s his opening, aptly entitled “History’s Greatest Nonevent”:

On May 15, 1984, the major countries of the developed world had managed to remain at peace with each other for the longest continuous stretch of time since the days of the Roman Empire. If a significant battle in a war had been fought on that day, the press would have bristled with it. As usual, however, a landmark crossing in the history of peace caused no stir: the most prominent story in the New York Times that day concerned the saga of a manicurist, a machinist, and a cleaning woman who had just won a big Lotto contest. This book seeks to develop an explanation for what is probably the greatest nonevent in human history. (John Mueller, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War . New York: Basic Books, 1989, p. 3)

In the space of a few sentences, Mueller sets up his puzzle and reveals its profound human significance. At the same time, he shows just how easy it is to miss this milestone in the buzz of daily events. Notice how concretely he does that. He doesn’t just say that the New York Times ignored this record setting peace. He offers telling details about what they covered instead: “a manicurist, a machinist, and a cleaning woman who had just won a big Lotto contest.” Likewise, David Kennedy immediately entangles us in concrete events: the stunning stock market crash of 1929. These are powerful openings that capture readers’ interests, establish puzzles, and launch narratives.

Sociologist James Coleman begins in a completely different way, by posing the basic questions he will study. His ambitious book, Foundations of Social Theory , develops a comprehensive theory of social life, so it is entirely appropriate for him to begin with some major questions. But he could just as easily have begun with a compelling story or anecdote. He includes many of them elsewhere in his book. His choice for the opening, though, is to state his major themes plainly and frame them as a paradox. Sociologists, he says, are interested in aggregate behavior—how people act in groups, organizations, or large numbers—yet they mostly examine individuals:

A central problem in social science is that of accounting for the function of some kind of social system. Yet in most social research, observations are not made on the system as a whole, but on some part of it. In fact, the natural unit of observation is the individual person…  This has led to a widening gap between theory and research… (James S. Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990, pp. 1–2)

After expanding on this point, Coleman explains that he will not try to remedy the problem by looking solely at groups or aggregate-level data. That’s a false solution, he says, because aggregates don’t act; individuals do. So the real problem is to show the links between individual actions and aggregate outcomes, between the micro and the macro.

The major problem for explanations of system behavior based on actions and orientations at a level below that of the system [in this case, on individual-level actions] is that of moving from the lower level to the system level. This has been called the micro-to-macro problem, and it is pervasive throughout the social sciences. (Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory , p. 6)

Explaining how to deal with this “micro-to-macro problem” is the central issue of Coleman’s book, and he announces it at the beginning.

Coleman’s theory-driven opening stands at the opposite end of the spectrum from engaging stories or anecdotes, which are designed to lure the reader into the narrative and ease the path to a more analytic treatment later in the text. Take, for example, the opening sentences of Robert L. Herbert’s sweeping study Impressionism: Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society : “When Henry Tuckerman came to Paris in 1867, one of the thousands of Americans attracted there by the huge international exposition, he was bowled over by the extraordinary changes since his previous visit twenty years before.” (Robert L. Herbert, Impressionism: Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988, p. 1.) Herbert fills in the evocative details to set the stage for his analysis of the emerging Impressionist art movement and its connection to Parisian society and leisure in this period.

David Bromwich writes about Wordsworth, a poet so familiar to students of English literature that it is hard to see him afresh, before his great achievements, when he was just a young outsider starting to write. To draw us into Wordsworth’s early work, Bromwich wants us to set aside our entrenched images of the famous mature poet and see him as he was in the 1790s, as a beginning writer on the margins of society. He accomplishes this ambitious task in the opening sentences of Disowned by Memory: Wordsworth’s Poetry of the 1790s :

Wordsworth turned to poetry after the revolution to remind himself that he was still a human being. It was a curious solution, to a difficulty many would not have felt. The whole interest of his predicament is that he did feel it. Yet Wordsworth is now so established an eminence—his name so firmly fixed with readers as a moralist of self-trust emanating from complete self-security—that it may seem perverse to imagine him as a criminal seeking expiation. Still, that is a picture we get from The Borderers and, at a longer distance, from “Tintern Abbey.” (David Bromwich, Disowned by Memory: Wordsworth’s Poetry of the 1790s . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998, p. 1)

That’s a wonderful opening! Look at how much Bromwich accomplishes in just a few words. He not only prepares the way for analyzing Wordsworth’s early poetry; he juxtaposes the anguished young man who wrote it to the self-confident, distinguished figure he became—the eminent man we can’t help remembering as we read his early poetry.

Let us highlight a couple of other points in this passage because they illustrate some intelligent writing choices. First, look at the odd comma in this sentence: “It was a curious solution, to a difficulty many would not have felt.” Any standard grammar book would say that comma is wrong and should be omitted. Why did Bromwich insert it? Because he’s a fine writer, thinking of his sentence rhythm and the point he wants to make. The comma does exactly what it should. It makes us pause, breaking the sentence into two parts, each with an interesting point. One is that Wordsworth felt a difficulty others would not have; the other is that he solved it in a distinctive way. It would be easy for readers to glide over this double message, so Bromwich has inserted a speed bump to slow us down. Most of the time, you should follow grammatical rules, like those about commas, but you should bend them when it serves a good purpose. That’s what the writer does here.

The second small point is the phrase “after the revolution” in the first sentence: “Wordsworth turned to poetry after the revolution to remind himself that he was still a human being.” Why doesn’t Bromwich say “after the French Revolution”? Because he has judged his book’s audience. He is writing for specialists who already know which revolution is reverberating through English life in the 1790s. It is the French Revolution, not the earlier loss of the American colonies. If Bromwich were writing for a much broader audience—say, the New York Times Book Review—he would probably insert the extra word to avoid confusion.

The message “Know your audience” applies to all writers. Don’t talk down to them by assuming they can’t get dressed in the morning. Don’t strut around showing off your book learnin’ by tossing in arcane facts and esoteric language for its own sake. Neither will win over readers.

Bromwich, Herbert, and Coleman open their works in different ways, but their choices work well for their different texts. Your task is to decide what kind of opening will work best for yours. Don’t let that happen by default, by grabbing the first idea you happen upon. Consider a couple of different ways of opening your thesis and then choose the one you prefer. Give yourself some options, think them over, then make an informed choice.

Whether you begin with a story, puzzle, or broad statement, the next part of the introduction should pose your main questions and establish your argument. This is your thesis statement—your viewpoint along with the supporting reasons and evidence. It should be articulated plainly so readers understand full well what your paper is about and what it will argue.

After that, give your readers a road map of what’s to come. That’s normally done at the end of the introductory section (or, in a book, at the end of the introductory chapter). Here’s John J. Mearsheimer presenting such a road map in The Tragedy of Great Power Politics . He not only tells us the order of upcoming chapters, he explains why he’s chosen that order and which chapters are most important:

The Plan of the Book The rest of the chapters in this book are concerned mainly with answering the six big questions about power which I identified earlier. Chapter 2, which is probably the most important chapter in the book, lays out my theory of why states compete for power and why they pursue hegemony. In Chapters 3 and 4, I define power and explain how to measure it. I do this in order to lay the groundwork for testing my theory… (John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics . New York: W. W. Norton, 2001, p. 27)

As this excerpt makes clear, Mearsheimer has already laid out his “six big questions” in the introduction. Now he’s showing us the path ahead, the path to answering those questions.

At the end of the introduction, give your readers a road map of what’s to come. Tell them what the upcoming sections will be and why they are arranged in this particular order.

After having written your introduction it’s time to move to the biggest part: body of a research paper.

Back to How To Write A Research Paper .

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How to write an introduction for a research paper

Learn how to write a strong and efficient research paper introduction by following the suitable structure and avoiding typical errors.

An introduction to any type of paper is sometimes misunderstood as the beginning; yet, an introduction is actually intended to present your chosen subject to the audience in a way that makes it more appealing and leaves your readers thirsty for more information. After the title and abstract, your audience will read the introduction, thus it’s critical to get off to a solid start.  

This article includes instructions on how to write an introduction for a research paper that engages the reader in your research. You can produce a strong opening for your research paper if you stick to the format and a few basic principles.

What is an introduction to a research paper?

An introduction is the opening section of a research paper and the section that a reader is likely to read first, in which the objective and goals of the subsequent writing are stated. 

The introduction serves numerous purposes. It provides context for your research, explains your topic and objectives, and provides an outline of the work. A solid introduction will establish the tone for the remainder of your paper, enticing readers to continue reading through the methodology, findings, and discussion. 

Even though introductions are generally presented at the beginning of a document, we must distinguish an introduction from the beginning of your research. An introduction, as the name implies, is supposed to introduce your subject without extending it. All relevant information and facts should be placed in the body and conclusion, not the introduction.

Structure of an introduction

Before explaining how to write an introduction for a research paper , it’s necessary to comprehend a structure that will make your introduction stronger and more straightforward.

A good hook

A hook is one of the most effective research introduction openers. A hook’s objective is to stimulate the reader’s interest to read the research paper.  There are various approaches you may take to generate a strong hook:  startling facts, a question, a brief overview, or even a quotation. 

Broad overview

Following an excellent hook, you should present a wide overview of your major issue and some background information on your research. If you’re unsure about how to begin an essay introduction, the best approach is to offer a basic explanation of your topic before delving into specific issues. Simply said, you should begin with general information and then narrow it down to your relevant topics.

After offering some background information regarding your research’s main topic, go on to give readers a better understanding of what you’ll be covering throughout your research. In this section of your introduction, you should swiftly clarify your important topics in the sequence in which they will be addressed later, gradually introducing your thesis statement. You can use some  The following are some critical questions to address in this section of your introduction: Who? What? Where? When? How? And why is that?

Thesis statement

The thesis statement, which must be stated in the beginning clause of your research since your entire research revolves around it, is the most important component of your research.

A thesis statement presents your audience with a quick overview of the research’s main assertion. In the body section of your work, your key argument is what you will expose or debate about it. An excellent thesis statement is usually very succinct, accurate, explicit, clear, and focused. Typically, your thesis should be at the conclusion of your introductory paragraph/section.

Tips for writing a strong introduction

Aside from the good structure, here are a few tips to make your introduction strong and accurate:

• Keep in mind the aim of your research and make sure your introduction supports it.
• Use an appealing and relevant hook that catches the reader’s attention right away.
• Make it obvious to your readers what your stance is.
• Demonstrate your knowledge of your subject.
• Provide your reader with a road map to help them understand what you will address throughout the research.
• Be succinct – it is advised that your opening introduction consists of around 8-9 percent of the overall amount of words in your article (for example, 160 words for a 2000 words essay). 
• Make a strong and unambiguous thesis statement.
• Explain why the article is significant in 1-2 sentences.
• Remember to keep it interesting.

Mistakes to avoid in your introduction

Check out what not to do and what to avoid now that you know the structure and how to write an introduction for a research paper .

• Lacking a feeling of direction or purpose.
• Giving out too much.
• Creating lengthy paragraphs.
• Excessive or insufficient background, literature, and theory.
• Including material that should be placed in the body and conclusion.
• Not writing enough or writing excessively.
• Using too many quotes.

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How to write an introduction for a research paper

Writing an introduction for a research paper can be one of the hardest parts of the writing process. How do you get started? In this post, we discuss the components of an introduction and explore strategies for writing one successfully.

What is an introduction?

The introduction to a research paper provides background information or context on the topic. It also includes the thesis statement and signposts that let the reader know what you will cover in the rest of the paper.

Depending on the type of research paper that you’re writing, you may also include a brief state of the field in your introduction. You might also put that in a separate section, called a literature review. Before you tackle writing your introduction, be sure to consult the assignment guidelines for your paper.

How to write an introduction

An introduction provides an overview of your topic and any background information that your readers need to know in order to understand the context. It generally concludes with an explicit statement of your position on the topic, which is known as your thesis statement.

The opening section

Many papers begin with a hook: a short anecdote or scenario that draws the reader in and gives a hint of what the paper will cover. A hook allows you to capture your reader’s attention and provides an anchor for the context that you will provide in the bulk of the introduction.

Most of your introduction should be taken up with background information, but this doesn’t mean that you should fill your opening section with overly general statements. Instead, provide key pieces of information (like statistics) that a reader would need to know in order to understand your main argument.

The thesis statement

Towards the end of the introduction, you should state your thesis, preferably in the form of "I argue that..." or "This paper argues that..." or a similar phrase. Although it’s called a “thesis statement,” your thesis can be more than one sentence.

Finally, an introduction contains a brief outline or "signposts" of what the rest of the article will cover (also known as forecasting statements). You can use language like, “in what follows,” or “in the rest of the paper,” to signal that you are describing what you’ll do in the remainder of the paper.

Tips for writing an introduction

1. don’t rely on generalizations.

An introduction is not simply filler. It has a very specific function in a research paper: to provide context that leads up to a thesis statement.

You may be tempted to start your paper with generalizations like, “many people believe that...” or, “in our society...,” or a general dictionary definition, because you’re not sure what kind of context to provide. Instead, use specific facts like statistics or historical anecdotes to open your paper.

2. State your thesis directly

Once you’ve provided the appropriate, and specific, background information on your topic, you can move on to stating your thesis. As a rule of thumb, state your thesis as directly as possible. Use phrases like “I argue that..” to indicate that you are laying out your main argument.

3. Include signposts

A strong introduction includes clear signposts that outline what you will cover in the rest of the paper. You can signal this by using words like, “in what follows,” and by describing the steps that you will take to build your argument.

4. Situate your argument within the scholarly conversation

Some types of research papers require a separate literature review in which you explore what others have written about your topic.

Even if you’re not required to have a formal literature review, you should still include at least a paragraph in which you engage with the scholarly debate on your chosen subject. Be sure to include direct quotes from your sources . You can use BibGuru’s citation generator to create accurate in-text citations for your quotes.

This section can come directly before your thesis statement or directly after it. In the former case, your state of the field will function as additional context for your thesis.

Frequently Asked Questions about how to write an introduction for a research paper

A good introduction provides specific background information on your topic, sets up your thesis statement, and includes signposts for what you’ll cover in the rest of the paper.

An introduction should include context, a thesis statement, and signposts.

Do not include generalizations, apologies for not being an expert, or dictionary definitions in your introduction.

The length of your introduction depends on the overall length of your paper. For instance, an introduction for an 8-10 page paper will likely be anywhere from 1-3 pages.

You can choose to start an introduction with a hook, an important statistic, an historical anecdote, or another specific piece of background information.

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How to write an introduction for a research paper

Beginnings are hard. Beginning a research paper is no exception. Many students—and pros—struggle with how to write an introduction for a research paper.

This short guide will describe the purpose of a research paper introduction and how to create a good one.

What is an introduction for a research paper?

Introductions to research papers do a lot of work.

It may seem obvious, but introductions are always placed at the beginning of a paper. They guide your reader from a general subject area to the narrow topic that your paper covers. They also explain your paper’s:

• Scope: The topic you’ll be covering
• Context: The background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in the context of an industry or the world

Your introduction will cover a lot of ground. However, it will only be half of a page to a few pages long. The length depends on the size of your paper as a whole. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper.

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Why is an introduction vital to a research paper?

The introduction to your research paper isn’t just important. It’s critical.

Your readers don’t know what your research paper is about from the title. That’s where your introduction comes in. A good introduction will:

• Help your reader understand your topic’s background
• Explain why your research paper is worth reading
• Offer a guide for navigating the rest of the piece
• Pique your reader’s interest

Without a clear introduction, your readers will struggle. They may feel confused when they start reading your paper. They might even give up entirely. Your introduction will ground them and prepare them for the in-depth research to come.

What should you include in an introduction for a research paper?

Research paper introductions are always unique. After all, research is original by definition. However, they often contain six essential items. These are:

• An overview of the topic. Start with a general overview of your topic. Narrow the overview until you address your paper’s specific subject. Then, mention questions or concerns you had about the case. Note that you will address them in the publication.
• Prior research. Your introduction is the place to review other conclusions on your topic. Include both older scholars and modern scholars. This background information shows that you are aware of prior research. It also introduces past findings to those who might not have that expertise.
• A rationale for your paper. Explain why your topic needs to be addressed right now. If applicable, connect it to current issues. Additionally, you can show a problem with former theories or reveal a gap in current research. No matter how you do it, a good rationale will interest your readers and demonstrate why they must read the rest of your paper.
• Describe the methodology you used. Recount your processes to make your paper more credible. Lay out your goal and the questions you will address. Reveal how you conducted research and describe how you measured results. Moreover, explain why you made key choices.
• A thesis statement. Your main introduction should end with a thesis statement. This statement summarizes the ideas that will run through your entire research article. It should be straightforward and clear.
• An outline. Introductions often conclude with an outline. Your layout should quickly review what you intend to cover in the following sections. Think of it as a roadmap, guiding your reader to the end of your paper.

These six items are emphasized more or less, depending on your field. For example, a physics research paper might emphasize methodology. An English journal article might highlight the overview.

Three tips for writing your introduction

We don’t just want you to learn how to write an introduction for a research paper. We want you to learn how to make it shine.

There are three things you can do that will make it easier to write a great introduction. You can:

• Write your introduction last. An introduction summarizes all of the things you’ve learned from your research. While it can feel good to get your preface done quickly, you should write the rest of your paper first. Then, you’ll find it easy to create a clear overview.
• Include a strong quotation or story upfront. You want your paper to be full of substance. But that doesn’t mean it should feel boring or flat. Add a relevant quotation or surprising anecdote to the beginning of your introduction. This technique will pique the interest of your reader and leave them wanting more.
• Be concise. Research papers cover complex topics. To help your readers, try to write as clearly as possible. Use concise sentences. Check for confusing grammar or syntax . Read your introduction out loud to catch awkward phrases. Before you finish your paper, be sure to proofread, too. Mistakes can seem unprofessional.

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How to Write a Research Introduction

Last Updated: December 6, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,651,712 times.

The introduction to a research paper can be the most challenging part of the paper to write. The length of the introduction will vary depending on the type of research paper you are writing. An introduction should announce your topic, provide context and a rationale for your work, before stating your research questions and hypothesis. Well-written introductions set the tone for the paper, catch the reader's interest, and communicate the hypothesis or thesis statement.

Introducing the Topic of the Paper

• In scientific papers this is sometimes known as an "inverted triangle", where you start with the broadest material at the start, before zooming in on the specifics. [2] X Research source
• The sentence "Throughout the 20th century, our views of life on other planets have drastically changed" introduces a topic, but does so in broad terms.
• It provides the reader with an indication of the content of the essay and encourages them to read on.

• For example, if you were writing a paper about the behaviour of mice when exposed to a particular substance, you would include the word "mice", and the scientific name of the relevant compound in the first sentences.
• If you were writing a history paper about the impact of the First World War on gender relations in Britain, you should mention those key words in your first few lines.

• This is especially important if you are attempting to develop a new conceptualization that uses language and terminology your readers may be unfamiliar with.

• If you use an anecdote ensure that is short and highly relevant for your research. It has to function in the same way as an alternative opening, namely to announce the topic of your research paper to your reader.
• For example, if you were writing a sociology paper about re-offending rates among young offenders, you could include a brief story of one person whose story reflects and introduces your topic.
• This kind of approach is generally not appropriate for the introduction to a natural or physical sciences research paper where the writing conventions are different.

Establishing the Context for Your Paper

• It is important to be concise in the introduction, so provide an overview on recent developments in the primary research rather than a lengthy discussion.
• You can follow the "inverted triangle" principle to focus in from the broader themes to those to which you are making a direct contribution with your paper.
• A strong literature review presents important background information to your own research and indicates the importance of the field.

• By making clear reference to existing work you can demonstrate explicitly the specific contribution you are making to move the field forward.
• You can identify a gap in the existing scholarship and explain how you are addressing it and moving understanding forward.

• For example, if you are writing a scientific paper you could stress the merits of the experimental approach or models you have used.
• Stress what is novel in your research and the significance of your new approach, but don't give too much detail in the introduction.
• A stated rationale could be something like: "the study evaluates the previously unknown anti-inflammatory effects of a topical compound in order to evaluate its potential clinical uses".

Specifying Your Research Questions and Hypothesis

• The research question or questions generally come towards the end of the introduction, and should be concise and closely focused.
• The research question might recall some of the key words established in the first few sentences and the title of your paper.
• An example of a research question could be "what were the consequences of the North American Free Trade Agreement on the Mexican export economy?"
• This could be honed further to be specific by referring to a particular element of the Free Trade Agreement and the impact on a particular industry in Mexico, such as clothing manufacture.
• A good research question should shape a problem into a testable hypothesis.

• If possible try to avoid using the word "hypothesis" and rather make this implicit in your writing. This can make your writing appear less formulaic.
• In a scientific paper, giving a clear one-sentence overview of your results and their relation to your hypothesis makes the information clear and accessible. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• An example of a hypothesis could be "mice deprived of food for the duration of the study were expected to become more lethargic than those fed normally".

• This is not always necessary and you should pay attention to the writing conventions in your discipline.
• In a natural sciences paper, for example, there is a fairly rigid structure which you will be following.
• A humanities or social science paper will most likely present more opportunities to deviate in how you structure your paper.

Research Introduction Help

Community Q&A

• Use your research papers' outline to help you decide what information to include when writing an introduction. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 1
• Consider drafting your introduction after you have already completed the rest of your research paper. Writing introductions last can help ensure that you don't leave out any major points. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• Avoid emotional or sensational introductions; these can create distrust in the reader. Thanks Helpful 50 Not Helpful 12
• Generally avoid using personal pronouns in your introduction, such as "I," "me," "we," "us," "my," "mine," or "our." Thanks Helpful 31 Not Helpful 7
• Don't overwhelm the reader with an over-abundance of information. Keep the introduction as concise as possible by saving specific details for the body of your paper. Thanks Helpful 24 Not Helpful 14

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185916
• ↑ https://www.aresearchguide.com/inverted-pyramid-structure-in-writing.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/introduction
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html
• ↑ https://dept.writing.wisc.edu/wac/writing-an-introduction-for-a-scientific-paper/
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178846/

About This Article

To introduce your research paper, use the first 1-2 sentences to describe your general topic, such as “women in World War I.” Include and define keywords, such as “gender relations,” to show your reader where you’re going. Mention previous research into the topic with a phrase like, “Others have studied…”, then transition into what your contribution will be and why it’s necessary. Finally, state the questions that your paper will address and propose your “answer” to them as your thesis statement. For more information from our English Ph.D. co-author about how to craft a strong hypothesis and thesis, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries? pp 193–199 Cite as

How to Write the Introduction to a Scientific Paper?

• Samiran Nundy 4 ,
• Atul Kakar 5 &
• Zulfiqar A. Bhutta 6  
• Open Access
• First Online: 24 October 2021

62k Accesses

144 Altmetric

An Introduction to a scientific paper familiarizes the reader with the background of the issue at hand. It must reflect why the issue is topical and its current importance in the vast sea of research being done globally. It lays the foundation of biomedical writing and is the first portion of an article according to the IMRAD pattern ( I ntroduction, M ethodology, R esults, a nd D iscussion) [1].

I once had a professor tell a class that he sifted through our pile of essays, glancing at the titles and introductions, looking for something that grabbed his attention. Everything else went to the bottom of the pile to be read last, when he was tired and probably grumpy from all the marking. Don’t get put at the bottom of the pile, he said. Anonymous

You have full access to this open access chapter,  Download chapter PDF

1 What is the Importance of an Introduction?

An Introduction to a scientific paper familiarizes the reader with the background of the issue at hand. It must reflect why the issue is topical and its current importance in the vast sea of research being done globally. It lays the foundation of biomedical writing and is the first portion of an article according to the IMRAD pattern ( I ntroduction, M ethodology, R esults, a nd D iscussion) [ 1 ].

It provides the flavour of the article and many authors have used phrases to describe it for example—'like a gate of the city’ [ 2 ], ‘the beginning is half of the whole’ [ 3 ], ‘an introduction is not just wrestling with words to fit the facts, but it also strongly modulated by perception of the anticipated reactions of peer colleagues’, [ 4 ] and ‘an introduction is like the trailer to a movie’. A good introduction helps captivate the reader early.

2 What Are the Principles of Writing a Good Introduction?

A good introduction will ‘sell’ an article to a journal editor, reviewer, and finally to a reader [ 3 ]. It should contain the following information [ 5 , 6 ]:

The known—The background scientific data

The unknown—Gaps in the current knowledge

Research hypothesis or question

Methodologies used for the study

The known consist of citations from a review of the literature whereas the unknown is the new work to be undertaken. This part should address how your work is the required missing piece of the puzzle.

3 What Are the Models of Writing an Introduction?

The Problem-solving model

First described by Swales et al. in 1979, in this model the writer should identify the ‘problem’ in the research, address the ‘solution’ and also write about ‘the criteria for evaluating the problem’ [ 7 , 8 ].

The CARS model that stands for C reating A R esearch S pace [ 9 , 10 ].

The two important components of this model are:

Establishing a territory (situation)

Establishing a niche (problem)

Occupying a niche (the solution)

In this popular model, one can add a fourth point, i.e., a conclusion [ 10 ].

4 What Is Establishing a Territory?

This includes: [ 9 ]

Stating the general topic and providing some background about it.

Providing a brief and relevant review of the literature related to the topic.

Adding a paragraph on the scope of the topic including the need for your study.

5 What Is Establishing a Niche?

Establishing a niche includes:

Stating the importance of the problem.

Outlining the current situation regarding the problem citing both global and national data.

Evaluating the current situation (advantages/ disadvantages).

Identifying the gaps.

Emphasizing the importance of the proposed research and how the gaps will be addressed.

Stating the research problem/ questions.

Stating the hypotheses briefly.

Figure 17.1 depicts how the introduction needs to be written. A scientific paper should have an introduction in the form of an inverted pyramid. The writer should start with the general information about the topic and subsequently narrow it down to the specific topic-related introduction.

Flow of ideas from the general to the specific

6 What Does Occupying a Niche Mean?

This is the third portion of the introduction and defines the rationale of the research and states the research question. If this is missing the reviewers will not understand the logic for publication and is a common reason for rejection [ 11 , 12 ]. An example of this is given below:

Till date, no study has been done to see the effectiveness of a mesh alone or the effectiveness of double suturing along with a mesh in the closure of an umbilical hernia regarding the incidence of failure. So, the present study is aimed at comparing the effectiveness of a mesh alone versus the double suturing technique along with a mesh.

7 How Long Should the Introduction Be?

For a project protocol, the introduction should be about 1–2 pages long and for a thesis it should be 3–5 pages in a double-spaced typed setting. For a scientific paper it should be less than 10–15% of the total length of the manuscript [ 13 , 14 ].

8 How Many References Should an Introduction Have?

All sections in a scientific manuscript except the conclusion should contain references. It has been suggested that an introduction should have four or five or at the most one-third of the references in the whole paper [ 15 ].

9 What Are the Important Points Which Should be not Missed in an Introduction?

An introduction paves the way forward for the subsequent sections of the article. Frequently well-planned studies are rejected by journals during review because of the simple reason that the authors failed to clarify the data in this section to justify the study [ 16 , 17 ]. Thus, the existing gap in knowledge should be clearly brought out in this section (Fig. 17.2 ).

How should the abstract, introduction, and discussion look

The following points are important to consider:

The introduction should be written in simple sentences and in the present tense.

Many of the terms will be introduced in this section for the first time and these will require abbreviations to be used later.

The references in this section should be to papers published in quality journals (e.g., having a high impact factor).

The aims, problems, and hypotheses should be clearly mentioned.

Start with a generalization on the topic and go on to specific information relevant to your research.

10 Example of an Introduction

11 Conclusions

An Introduction is a brief account of what the study is about. It should be short, crisp, and complete.

It has to move from a general to a specific research topic and must include the need for the present study.

The Introduction should include data from a literature search, i.e., what is already known about this subject and progress to what we hope to add to this knowledge.

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How To Write A Research Paper

Research Paper Introduction

How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper - A Step-by-Step Guide

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Published on: Jan 5, 2024

Last updated on: Jan 30, 2024

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The introduction to your research paper sets the stage for what lies ahead. Just like a first impression, it's crucial to get it right. 

Drafting an impactful introduction involves answering early questions, making a personal connection, and setting the tone for your entire paper. 

In this guide, we will explore the intricacies of writing research paper introductions. We will offer insights to ensure your research paper introduction not only meets but exceeds expectations. 

Let's transform the challenge into a skill, making your introductions as compelling as your research.

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What is a Research Paper Introduction?

A research paper introduction serves as the gateway to your study, encapsulating its essence in a concise preview. This section strategically engages readers, offering a roadmap while highlighting the significance of the study. 

A well-crafted introduction captivates attention, sets the tone, and entices readers to delve deeper into the research. 

How Long Should a Research Paper Introduction Be?

The optimal length for a research paper introduction is typically 5-10% of the total paper length. For instance, in a 10-page paper, aim for an introduction spanning approximately half a page to a full page. 

Conciseness is key—provide enough information to establish the context, research problem, and objectives, but avoid unnecessary details. 

Must-Have Elements in Your Research Paper Introduction

Here are the essential parts of the introduction in a research paper:

• Background Context: Introduce your topic and provide the necessary context.
• Research Gap: Identify the gap or problem in existing literature.
• Rationale and Motivation: Explain the reasons behind your research and its significance.
• Thesis Statement : Clearly state the main point or argument of your research.
• Relevance: Explain how your paper addresses the identified gap or problem.

5 Steps To Write an Introduction for Research Paper

The importance of introduction in research paper writing can not be ignored. In this section, we will discuss the steps to write a perfect introduction: 

Step 1: Start with Introducing your Topic

The opening lines of your research paper introduction are highly important. To make a powerful entrance, begin with a clear introduction to your topic. This initial step is about capturing your readers' attention and making them eager to explore further. 

Consider employing a fact, an intriguing question, or a relevant quote to start your introduction. The key is to create an immediate connection between your audience and the subject area.

Difference between Argumentative and Empirical Research:

There are two primary approaches in research—argumentative and empirical. The choice of hook often aligns with the nature of the research being undertaken. 

In an argumentative paper, the hook serves to pose a provocative question or statement that aligns with the argument to come. 

An empirical paper utilizes the hook to present a broad observation, often backed by existing research, that sets the stage for the specific investigation to follow.

Step 2: Provide the Background Information

Once your audience is intrigued by the topic, the next logical step is to provide background information. This contextualizes your research and helps readers understand the broader concept in which your study exists. 

Mention the historical, social, or scientific details that set the stage for your research. The goal is to ensure that readers have the necessary foundation to comprehend the significance of your study.

Background Information in Argumentative Research: 

In an argumentative paper, it is essential to offer specific background details that set the stage for your research . For instance, if your study explores the environmental impact of a particular industry, dive into relevant statistics and findings. 

Background Information in Empirical Research:

For an empirical paper, focus on summarizing existing research relevant to your study. This mini-literature review should inform readers about the current state of research in your field. 

Step 3: Establish your Research Problem

With the backdrop set, it's time to describe the focal point of your research article—the research problem. Clearly articulate the problem or question your study aims to address. 

This step is critical for laying the groundwork and helping your audience understand the purpose and significance of your study.

In an argumentative paper , the research problem can be straightforwardly stated, emphasizing its importance and what makes your argument unique. 

In an empirical paper , the establishment of the specific research problem is linked to the existing literature. It involves:

• Identifying the research gap your work aims to fill
• Addressing limitations in previous research studies
• Outline the contribution your research makes to the existing body of knowledge.

Step 4: Outline your Research Objectives

Having established the problem, it's time to outline your research objectives. Clearly define the goals your study aims to achieve, offering a roadmap for the reader. These objectives provide direction to your research and shape the narrative of your paper. 

Clarity in stating your objectives ensures that readers understand the purpose and focus of your study.

In an argumentative paper , the focus lies on presenting a thesis statement that embodies the position the paper will advocate for, supported by evidence and arguments.

An empirical paper typically frames a research question (and sometimes a hypothesis ) that guides the investigation.

Step 5: Outline the Paper's Structure 

The final step in crafting a good introduction is to outline the structure of your research paper. Provide a brief overview of the main sections, signaling to your readers how the paper will unfold. 

This roadmap ensures that your audience knows what to expect, enhancing the overall readability and comprehension of your research.

In an argumentative paper, the structure often follows a logical progression. It follows an order, such as introducing the thesis statement, presenting supporting arguments, and concluding with a compelling summary. 

An empirical paper adheres to a more structured scientific format, commonly following the "introduction, methods, results, discussion" framework.

Research Paper Introduction Examples

Let’s take a look at a research paper introduction: 

Below are full examples of research paper introductions in PDF documents:

Introduction for a Research Paper Sample

Introduction for a Research Paper APA

Introduction for a Research Paper Middle School

Introduction for a Research Paper MLA

Introduction for a Research Paper Psychology

Quantitative Research Introduction Example

To Sum it Up!

Drafting an effective introduction for your research paper is a vital step that sets the tone for your entire work. By following this step-by-step guide, you can structure your introduction to engage your readers and provide a clear roadmap for your research. 

Remember to transition from the general to the specific, maintain the appropriate tense, and consider your audience's background knowledge.

If you find yourself struggling with the complexities of your research paper, remember that help is just a click away. Consult CollegeEssay.org for expert assistance. 

Our research paper writing service is ready to support you on your academic journey.

Ready to ace your research paper introduction? Get in touch with our expert writing service now!

Frequently Asked Questions

How do i express the importance of my research if i lack confidence.

Don't hesitate to explain why your field of study is valuable.

What tense should I use in the introduction?

Use the present simple tense for statements like "Much study in recent years has focused on..." or opt for the present tense for general statements.

What kind of facts should I start with?

Consider your audience's level of background knowledge; if it's specific, begin with detailed information, and if it's broad, start with more general facts.

What if I have multiple background facts to start with?

Begin with the most general fact that many readers will know, creating a common starting point before delving into specific details.

I'm unsure where to start. Any suggestions?

Look at your research paper title for inspiration; define key terms or start with a fact related to the title.

Can I begin by describing the problem I aim to solve?

While possible, it's often challenging to define the problem without providing enough background information for the reader to understand.

Are research references considered part of the literature review?

No, references in the introduction contribute to the background of general research in the area; the literature review , found later, delves into individual studies and their details.

Why include references if it's only background information?

References are included to avoid plagiarism, give credit to others' work, and enable readers to locate and review the mentioned studies.

Nova A. (Literature, Marketing)

As a Digital Content Strategist, Nova Allison has eight years of experience in writing both technical and scientific content. With a focus on developing online content plans that engage audiences, Nova strives to write pieces that are not only informative but captivating as well.

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It’s the roadmap to your essay, it’s the forecast for your argument, it’s...your introduction paragraph, and writing one can feel pretty intimidating. The introduction paragraph is a part of just about every kind of academic writing , from persuasive essays to research papers. But that doesn’t mean writing one is easy!

If trying to write an intro paragraph makes you feel like a Muggle trying to do magic, trust us: you aren’t alone. But there are some tips and tricks that can make the process easier—and that’s where we come in.

In this article, we’re going to explain how to write a captivating intro paragraph by covering the following info:  

• A discussion of what an introduction paragraph is and its purpose in an essay
• An overview of the most effective introduction paragraph format, with explanations of the three main parts of an intro paragraph
• An analysis of real intro paragraph examples, with a discussion of what works and what doesn’t
• A list of four top tips on how to write an introduction paragraph

Are you ready? Let’s begin!

What Is an Introduction Paragraph? 

An introduction paragraph is the first paragraph of an essay , paper, or other type of academic writing. Argumentative essays , book reports, research papers, and even personal  essays are common types of writing that require an introduction paragraph. Whether you’re writing a research paper for a science course or an argumentative essay for English class , you’re going to have to write an intro paragraph. 

So what’s the purpose of an intro paragraph? As a reader’s first impression of your essay, the intro paragraph should introduce the topic of your paper. 

Your introduction will also state any claims, questions, or issues that your paper will focus on. This is commonly known as your paper’s thesis . This condenses the overall point of your paper into one or two short sentences that your reader can come back and reference later.

But intro paragraphs need to do a bit more than just introduce your topic. An intro paragraph is also supposed to grab your reader’s attention. The intro paragraph is your chance to provide just enough info and intrigue to make your reader say, “Hey, this topic sounds interesting. I think I’ll keep reading this essay!” That can help your essay stand out from the crowd.

In most cases, an intro paragraph will be relatively short. A good intro will be clear, brief, purposeful, and focused. While there are some exceptions to this rule, it’s common for intro paragraphs to consist of three to five sentences . 

Effectively introducing your essay’s topic, purpose, and getting your reader invested in your essay sounds like a lot to ask from one little paragraph, huh? In the next section, we’ll demystify the intro paragraph format by breaking it down into its core parts . When you learn how to approach each part of an intro, writing one won’t seem so scary!

Once you figure out the three parts of an intro paragraph, writing one will be a piece of cake!

The 3 Main Parts of an Intro Paragraph

In general, an intro paragraph is going to have three main parts: a hook, context, and a thesis statement . Each of these pieces of the intro plays a key role in acquainting the reader with the topic and purpose of your essay. 

Below, we’ll explain how to start an introduction paragraph by writing an effective hook, providing context, and crafting a thesis statement. When you put these elements together, you’ll have an intro paragraph that does a great job of making a great first impression on your audience!

Intro Paragraph Part 1: The Hook

When it comes to how to start an introduction paragraph, o ne of the most common approaches is to start with something called a hook. 

What does hook mean here, though? Think of it this way: it’s like when you start a new Netflix series: you look up a few hours (and a few episodes) later and you say, “Whoa. I guess I must be hooked on this show!” 

That’s how the hook is supposed to work in an intro paragrap h: it should get your reader interested enough that they don’t want to press the proverbial “pause” button while they’re reading it . In other words, a hook is designed to grab your reader’s attention and keep them reading your essay! 

This means that the hook comes first in the intro paragraph format—it’ll be the opening sentence of your intro. 

It’s important to realize  that there are many different ways to write a good hook. But generally speaking, hooks must include these two things: what your topic is, and the angle you’re taking on that topic in your essay. 

One approach to writing a hook that works is starting with a general, but interesting, statement on your topic. In this type of hook, you’re trying to provide a broad introduction to your topic and your angle on the topic in an engaging way . 

For example, if you’re writing an essay about the role of the government in the American healthcare system, your hook might look something like this: 

There's a growing movement to require that the federal government provide affordable, effective healthcare for all Americans. 

This hook introduces the essay topic in a broad way (government and healthcare) by presenting a general statement on the topic. But the assumption presented in the hook can also be seen as controversial, which gets readers interested in learning more about what the writer—and the essay—has to say.

In other words, the statement above fulfills the goals of a good hook: it’s intriguing and provides a general introduction to the essay topic.

Intro Paragraph Part 2: Context

Once you’ve provided an attention-grabbing hook, you’ll want to give more context about your essay topic. Context refers to additional details that reveal the specific focus of your paper. So, whereas the hook provides a general introduction to your topic, context starts helping readers understand what exactly you’re going to be writing about

You can include anywhere from one to several sentences of context in your intro, depending on your teacher’s expectations, the length of your paper, and complexity of your topic. In these context-providing sentences, you want to begin narrowing the focus of your intro. You can do this by describing a specific issue or question about your topic that you’ll address in your essay. It also helps readers start to understand why the topic you’re writing about matters and why they should read about it. 

So, what counts as context for an intro paragraph? Context can be any important details or descriptions that provide background on existing perspectives, common cultural attitudes, or a specific situation or controversy relating to your essay topic. The context you include should acquaint your reader with the issues, questions, or events that motivated you to write an essay on your topic...and that your reader should know in order to understand your thesis. 

For instance, if you’re writing an essay analyzing the consequences of sexism in Hollywood, the context you include after your hook might make reference to the #metoo and #timesup movements that have generated public support for victims of sexual harassment. 

The key takeaway here is that context establishes why you’re addressing your topic and what makes it important. It also sets you up for success on the final piece of an intro paragraph: the thesis statement.

Elle Woods' statement offers a specific point of view on the topic of murder...which means it could serve as a pretty decent thesis statement!

Intro Paragraph Part 3: The Thesis

The final key part of how to write an intro paragraph is the thesis statement. The thesis statement is the backbone of your introduction: it conveys your argument or point of view on your topic in a clear, concise, and compelling way . The thesis is usually the last sentence of your intro paragraph. 

Whether it’s making a claim, outlining key points, or stating a hypothesis, your thesis statement will tell your reader exactly what idea(s) are going to be addressed in your essay. A good thesis statement will be clear, straightforward, and highlight the overall point you’re trying to make.

Some instructors also ask students to include an essay map as part of their thesis. An essay map is a section that outlines the major topics a paper will address. So for instance, say you’re writing a paper that argues for the importance of public transport in rural communities. Your thesis and essay map might look like this: 

Having public transport in rural communities helps people improve their economic situation by giving them reliable transportation to their job, reducing the amount of money they spend on gas, and providing new and unionized work .

The underlined section is the essay map because it touches on the three big things the writer will talk about later. It literally maps out the rest of the essay!

So let’s review: Your thesis takes the idea you’ve introduced in your hook and context and wraps it up. Think of it like a television episode: the hook sets the scene by presenting a general statement and/or interesting idea that sucks you in. The context advances the plot by describing the topic in more detail and helping readers understand why the topic is important. And finally, the thesis statement provides the climax by telling the reader what you have to say about the topic. 

The thesis statement is the most important part of the intro. Without it, your reader won’t know what the purpose of your essay is! And for a piece of writing to be effective, it needs to have a clear purpose. Your thesis statement conveys that purpose , so it’s important to put careful thought into writing a clear and compelling thesis statement. 

How To Write an Introduction Paragraph: Example and Analysis

Now that we’ve provided an intro paragraph outline and have explained the three key parts of an intro paragraph, let’s take a look at an intro paragraph in action.

To show you how an intro paragraph works, we’ve included a sample introduction paragraph below, followed by an analysis of its strengths and weaknesses.

Example of Introduction Paragraph

While college students in the U.S. are struggling with how to pay for college, there is another surprising demographic that’s affected by the pressure to pay for college: families and parents. In the face of tuition price tags that total more than $100,000 (as a low estimate), families must make difficult decisions about how to save for their children’s college education. Charting a feasible path to saving for college is further complicated by the FAFSA’s estimates for an “Expected Family Contribution”—an amount of money that is rarely feasible for most American families. Due to these challenging financial circumstances and cultural pressure to give one’s children the best possible chance of success in adulthood, many families are going into serious debt to pay for their children’s college education. The U.S. government should move toward bearing more of the financial burden of college education. 

Example of Introduction Paragraph: Analysis

Before we dive into analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of this example intro paragraph, let’s establish the essay topic. The sample intro indicates that t he essay topic will focus on one specific issue: who should cover the cost of college education in the U.S., and why. Both the hook and the context help us identify the topic, while the thesis in the last sentence tells us why this topic matters to the writer—they think the U.S. Government needs to help finance college education. This is also the writer’s argument, which they’ll cover in the body of their essay. 

Now that we’ve identified the essay topic presented in the sample intro, let’s dig into some analysis. To pin down its strengths and weaknesses, we’re going to use the following three questions to guide our example of introduction paragraph analysis: 

• Does this intro provide an attention-grabbing opening sentence that conveys the essay topic? 
• Does this intro provide relevant, engaging context about the essay topic? 
• Does this intro provide a thesis statement that establishes the writer’s point of view on the topic and what specific aspects of the issue the essay will address? 

Now, let’s use the questions above to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of this sample intro paragraph. 

Does the Intro Have a Good Hook? 

First, the intro starts out with an attention-grabbing hook . The writer starts by presenting  an assumption (that the U.S. federal government bears most of the financial burden of college education), which makes the topic relatable to a wide audience of readers. Also note that the hook relates to the general topic of the essay, which is the high cost of college education. 

The hook then takes a surprising turn by presenting a counterclaim : that American families, rather than students, feel the true burden of paying for college. Some readers will have a strong emotional reaction to this provocative counterclaim, which will make them want to keep reading! As such, this intro provides an effective opening sentence that conveys the essay topic. 

Does the Intro Give Context?

T he second, third, and fourth sentences of the intro provide contextual details that reveal the specific focus of the writer’s paper . Remember: the context helps readers start to zoom in on what the paper will focus on, and what aspect of the general topic (college costs) will be discussed later on. 

The context in this intro reveals the intent and direction of the paper by explaining why the issue of families financing college is important. In other words, the context helps readers understand why this issue matters , and what aspects of this issue will be addressed in the paper.  

To provide effective context, the writer refers to issues (the exorbitant cost of college and high levels of family debt) that have received a lot of recent scholarly and media attention. These sentences of context also elaborate on the interesting perspective included in the hook: that American families are most affected by college costs.

Does the Intro Have a Thesis? 

Finally, this intro provides a thesis statement that conveys the writer’s point of view on the issue of financing college education. This writer believes that the U.S. government should do more to pay for students’ college educations. 

However, the thesis statement doesn’t give us any details about why the writer has made this claim or why this will help American families . There isn’t an essay map that helps readers understand what points the writer will make in the essay.

To revise this thesis statement so that it establishes the specific aspects of the topic that the essay will address, the writer could add the following to the beginning of the thesis statement:

The U.S. government should take on more of the financial burden of college education because other countries have shown this can improve education rates while reducing levels of familial poverty.

Check out the new section in bold. Not only does it clarify that the writer is talking about the pressure put on families, it touches on the big topics the writer will address in the paper: improving education rates and reduction of poverty. So not only do we have a clearer argumentative statement in this thesis, we also have an essay map!  

So, let’s recap our analysis. This sample intro paragraph does an effective job of providing an engaging hook and relatable, interesting context, but the thesis statement needs some work ! As you write your own intro paragraphs, you might consider using the questions above to evaluate and revise your work. Doing this will help ensure you’ve covered all of your bases and written an intro that your readers will find interesting!

4 Tips for How To Write an Introduction Paragraph

Now that we’ve gone over an example of introduction paragraph analysis, let’s talk about how to write an introduction paragraph of your own. Keep reading for four tips for writing a successful intro paragraph for any essay. 

Tip 1: Analyze Your Essay Prompt

If you’re having trouble with how to start an introduction paragraph, analyze your essay prompt! Most teachers give you some kind of assignment sheet, formal instructions, or prompt to set the expectations for an essay they’ve assigned, right? Those instructions can help guide you as you write your intro paragraph!

Because they’ll be reading and responding to your essay, you want to make sure you meet your teacher’s expectations for an intro paragraph . For instance, if they’ve provided specific instructions about how long the intro should be or where the thesis statement should be located, be sure to follow them!

The type of paper you’re writing can give you clues as to how to approach your intro as well. If you’re writing a research paper, your professor might expect you to provide a research question or state a hypothesis in your intro. If you’re writing an argumentative essay, you’ll need to make sure your intro overviews the context surrounding your argument and your thesis statement includes a clear, defensible claim. 

Using the parameters set out by your instructor and assignment sheet can put some easy-to-follow boundaries in place for things like your intro’s length, structure, and content. Following these guidelines can free you up to focus on other aspects of your intro... like coming up with an exciting hook and conveying your point of view on your topic!

Tip 2: Narrow Your Topic

You can’t write an intro paragraph without first identifying your topic. To make your intro as effective as possible, you need to define the parameters of your topic clearly—and you need to be specific. 

For example, let’s say you want to write about college football. “NCAA football” is too broad of a topic for a paper. There is a lot to talk about in terms of college football! It would be tough to write an intro paragraph that’s focused, purposeful, and engaging on this topic. In fact, if you did try to address this whole topic, you’d probably end up writing a book!

Instead, you should narrow broad topics to  identify a specific question, claim, or issue pertaining to some aspect of NCAA football for your intro to be effective. So, for instance, you could frame your topic as, “How can college professors better support NCAA football players in academics?” This focused topic pertaining to NCAA football would give you a more manageable angle to discuss in your paper.

So before you think about writing your intro, ask yourself: Is my essay topic specific, focused, and logical? Does it convey an issue or question that I can explore over the course of several pages? Once you’ve established a good topic, you’ll have the foundation you need to write an effective intro paragraph . 

Once you've figured out your topic, it's time to hit the books!

Tip 3: Do Your Research

This tip is tightly intertwined with the one above, and it’s crucial to writing a good intro: do your research! And, guess what? This tip applies to all papers—even ones that aren’t technically research papers. 

Here’s why you need to do some research: getting the lay of the land on what others have said about your topic—whether that’s scholars and researchers or the mass media— will help you narrow your topic, write an engaging hook, and provide relatable context. 

You don't want to sit down to write your intro without a solid understanding of the different perspectives on your topic. Whether those are the perspectives of experts or the general public, these points of view will help you write your intro in a way that is intriguing and compelling for your audience of readers. 

Tip 4: Write Multiple Drafts

Some say to write your intro first; others say write it last. The truth is, there isn’t a right or wrong time to write your intro—but you do need to have enough time to write multiple drafts . 

Oftentimes, your professor will ask you to write multiple drafts of your paper, which gives you a built-in way to make sure you revise your intro. Another approach you could take is to write out a rough draft of your intro before you begin writing your essay, then revise it multiple times as you draft out your paper. 

Here’s why this approach can work: as you write your paper, you’ll probably come up with new insights on your topic that you didn’t have right from the start. You can use these “light bulb” moments to reevaluate your intro and make revisions that keep it in line with your developing essay draft. 

Once you’ve written your entire essay, consider going back and revising your intro again . You can ask yourself these questions as you evaluate your intro: 

• Is my hook still relevant to the way I’ve approached the topic in my essay?
• Do I provide enough appropriate context to introduce my essay? 
• Now that my essay is written, does my thesis statement still accurately reflect the point of view that I present in my essay?

Using these questions as a guide and putting your intro through multiple revisions will help ensure that you’ve written the best intro for the final draft of your essay. Also, revising your writing is always a good thing to do—and this applies to your intro, too!

What's Next?

Your college essays also need great intro paragraphs. Here’s a guide that focuses on how to write the perfect intro for your admissions essays. 

Of course, the intro is just one part of your college essay . This article will teach you how to write a college essay that makes admissions counselors sit up and take notice.

Are you trying to write an analytical essay? Our step-by-step guide can help you knock it out of the park.

Ashley Sufflé Robinson has a Ph.D. in 19th Century English Literature. As a content writer for PrepScholar, Ashley is passionate about giving college-bound students the in-depth information they need to get into the school of their dreams.

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Ten simple rules for leading a successful undergraduate-intensive research lab

Roles Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation MIT-WHOI Joint Program in Oceanography/Applied Ocean Science & Engineering, Cambridge and Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Biology Department, Utah Valley University, Orem, Utah, United States of America

• KJE Hickman, 
• Geoffrey Zahn

Published: April 11, 2024

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011994
• Reader Comments

Participating in mentored research is an enormous benefit to undergraduate students. These immersive experiences can dramatically improve retention and completion rates, especially for students from traditionally underserved populations in STEM disciplines. Scientists typically do not receive any formal training in management or group dynamics before taking on the role of a lab head. Thus, peer forums and shared wisdom are crucial for developing the vision and skills involved with mentorship and leading a successful research lab. Faculty at any institution can help improve student outcomes and the success of their labs by thoughtfully including undergraduates in their research programs. Moreover, faculty at primarily undergraduate institutions have special challenges that are not often acknowledged or addressed in public discussions about best practices for running a lab. Here, we present 10 simple rules for fostering a successful undergraduate research lab. While much of the advice herein is applicable to mentoring undergraduates in any setting, it is especially tailored to the special circumstances found at primarily undergraduate institutions.

Citation: Hickman K, Zahn G (2024) Ten simple rules for leading a successful undergraduate-intensive research lab. PLoS Comput Biol 20(4): e1011994. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011994

Editor: Russell Schwartz, Carnegie Mellon University, UNITED STATES

Copyright: © 2024 Hickman, Zahn. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

This is a PLOS Computational Biology Benchmarking paper.

Introduction

Undergraduate research (UR) is a high-impact practice that has been demonstrated to benefit student learning, persistence, and career preparation [ 1 , 2 ]. Undergraduate research serves as a robust intervention for students from underrepresented groups who are at risk of dropping out of college [ 3 , 4 ]. By engaging students during their early years of study, they develop a sense of community and gain access to faculty mentors. A preliminary introduction to the research environment gives students time to develop their science identity and makes them more resilient to difficulties encountered during their educational careers [ 5 ]. The literature on positive outcomes associated with participation in UR is broad [ 6 ], encompassing large public research institutions, private institutions, and liberal arts colleges.

Faculty at Primarily Undergraduate Institutions (PUIs) face a unique set of challenges to maintain scholarly productivity and “successful” research programs. They often have fewer external funding opportunities [ 7 ] and far higher teaching loads than faculty at research-intensive (R1) universities. Many R1 institutions provide research opportunities for undergraduates by incorporating them into ongoing projects led by graduate students and/or postdocs, via short-term programs or with course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs, see Rule 10), which can be successful at any type of institution. However, the luxury of graduate student and postdoc labor is not available to most faculty at a PUI—instead, they must rely on the involvement of undergraduate researchers.

Working with undergraduate students themselves presents some unique challenges. Typically, graduate students have a more refined set of skills and direction when they begin mentored research. They also have more financial support and time dedicated to research. Conversely, undergraduate students generally require a high investment toward training before they can be independent researchers. This is because undergraduates are enrolled in full-time coursework and are only with the lab for a short time before they graduate and move on to careers or graduate programs.

While there is considerable overlap in practices that lead to successful labs in both R1 and PUI settings, the unique challenges of running a lab at a PUI require specialized approaches for recruiting lab members and fostering lab success. There has been rich discourse on methods to increase the health and productivity of research labs [ 8 – 11 ]. However, we note that much of the advice (even when about undergraduate students) has been geared toward R1 labs with postdocs, graduate students, and reduced teaching expectations for faculty. Here, we discuss some “rules” tailored to the specific challenges facing the principal investigators of research labs at PUIs, particularly at public universities that serve a diverse student body.

Rule 1: Determine what “success” means in your lab

The crucial first step is to decide what “success” means for your PUI research lab. Setting this down in writing and communicating it to lab members will help to set the tone and focus of the lab. While external funding and publication quantity/quality are important metrics for lab “success” in some settings, we would argue that lab success at a PUI is most usefully defined as student success ( Fig 1 ).

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

Defining lab success as student success is foundational to the 9 other rules for running a successful undergraduate-intensive research lab. This definition is informed by lab standards, training methodologies, and recruitment strategies. Cultivating the principles endemic to each rule promotes student success which, in turn, provides further opportunities to strengthen the lab’s success. These mutually reinforcing processes build lab community and facilitate successful undergraduate research labs.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011994.g001

Student success can be measured in many ways, from retention and graduation in STEM, to increased science identity and critical thinking skills, to poster presentations, internal grant awards, and placement in graduate/professional programs. Selecting and tracking these metrics of importance will help you define your lab’s role in student success and prioritize your lab’s activities and engagement. Students who join your lab will have diverse educational and career goals, so it is imperative to have a plan in place for incorporating them into your lab’s pursuits. For example, a student planning on medical school might want to attend a different conference than one planning on graduate school, or a student considering other callings (communication, law, science policy, etc.) might benefit from altogether different career-development experiences. At all points, maintain an open dialogue with lab members about how their activities will lead to their own success in the context of the lab, and solicit feedback from each of them (individually) about what they view as “success” on short-term (approximately 3 to 6 months), medium-term (approximately 1 to 2 years), and long-term (>3 to 5 years) timescales.

The diversity of skill levels and interests you encounter with undergraduate lab members may shape your lab’s research goals in ways you did not anticipate. Some students may want to simply assist on someone else’s project, while others will be eager to start their own line of original research. Keeping a flexible research agenda to accommodate student interests and skills is fine, but undergraduates may want to push the boundaries of your lab’s unique focus beyond what you are capable of effectively supporting. Having a clear statement of “lab success” and putting lab goals in writing in a formal document will help you to guide students toward activities that support both them and your lab. An example undergraduate lab handbook has been archived online via Zenodo [ 12 ].

Rule 2: Approach students early

Science is a multifaceted and often slow process. With the high training investment and heavy course loads characteristic of undergraduate students, the research process is slowed even further. Be prepared for things to take much longer than you expect. Actively recruiting early-stage students, even local high-school students, is a winning strategy to overcome this challenge. This will provide you with ample time to test mentoring strategies, train the students in relevant methodologies, and benefit from their application of this training. Moreover, allotting sufficient time for the students’ training will facilitate their development into independent scientists with the ability to generate and investigate their own questions and ideas.

Freshmen and sophomores in your courses may not be aware that undergraduate research is even an option. PIs at teaching-focused institutions usually have consistent access to early students through the courses they teach. Spend a bit of time in class discussing research opportunities and benefits at your institution, and use examples of student research to highlight course content. Invite your current research students to present their projects in class to help you recruit, and invite interested students to shadow in the lab for a day. Highlighting the availability and inclusivity of undergraduate research and its importance to student success can help raise awareness in student populations who otherwise may have never been told that they could be a scientist.

Rule 3: Structure projects for peer collaboration

As a faculty member at a PUI, teaching is typically your first priority. With such restrictions on research time, a peer-mentor model can be a useful asset in your lab. This is analogous to the peer-mentor models employed by PIs at R1 institutions, with postdocs helping mentor PhD students [ 13 ]. In an undergraduate-only setting, the time and effort spent training students to serve as peer-mentors is significantly greater. After they are trained, peer-mentoring roles can be negotiated that lead to beneficial experiences for both mentor and mentee students [ 14 ]. This model can be an especially empowering role for the student mentor, developing their self-perception as a scientist. Moreover, this model develops teamwork skills and adds an element of peer-accountability which has been shown to improve retention and enjoyment of the scientific process [ 15 ].

In a PUI research setting, most students generally benefit from rotating through projects and/or duties. This variety exposes them to ideas and processes that may eventually shape their career path. Incorporating new students into senior students’ preexisting projects facilitates a flexible lab environment, which cultivates skill exploration, preparing them for independent research [ 16 , 17 ]. Good communication between the PI and the student research teams is also important for clearly defining roles, authorship credit, and project development. A collaborative lab environment will always be more successful than a competitive one, and you should take care to model and reinforce good collaborative practices.

Rule 4: Get students’ hands dirty

Undergraduate students typically seek out research labs because they have a vision of what research looks like and a perception of themselves as part of this process. For example, students may visualize researchers in a white coat at the lab bench, knee-deep in a bog, or logging onto a supercomputer. There are many ways to conduct research and these variations may not be equally recognized among undergraduates. Consequently, students should be engaged throughout various steps in the research process in order to enrich their contextual understanding and experience. There is no substitute for hands-on experience. Engaging students in active research protocols early on increases retention and improves chances of attaining high-skill positions in STEM [ 18 ].

A few roles on research projects in which new students can easily participate range, for example, from data collection and entry, to student–student peer review, to computational analyses, depending on student background. As students progress, this list can expand to include more intensive responsibilities. Allowing students to participate in a broad range of scientific tasks will equip them with an applied understanding of the hidden processes in science and build early intuition for this work [ 19 ].

Rule 5: Encourage a well-rounded education

Science is a highly creative pursuit and meaningful STEM careers can follow myriad paths. For example, a student may take interest in science communication, policy, or advocacy. Encourage your students’ diverse interests and allow them to follow their passion. This applies to the lab, their research questions, and their academic and personal life. They may want to take a ceramics class, learn to scuba dive, or spend time volunteering with campus organizations. Extracurricular activities and experiences build well-rounded individuals and more creative scientists, as well as making them more competitive applicants for jobs and postsecondary educational programs [ 20 ].

Talking to your students about their non-research passions may inspire new research paradigms or even inform how you communicate science from your lab. Promoting a healthy work/life balance and embracing the diversity of personal interests in your lab will make you more approachable and help foster an environment where lab members feel respected and fulfilled. Happy students do better science and have a positive effect on lab success.

Rule 6: Tailor your lab to your mentorship style

Different personalities and skill sets lead to different mentorship styles. When organizing your lab, it is helpful to do some self-reflection about what sort of mentor you want to be. Developing a formal mentoring philosophy can be facilitated through mentorship training from your institution, professional societies, and government agencies. These are excellent methods to spark introspection and define your strengths, weaknesses, and goals as a mentor.

How many students can you effectively supervise? How many different ongoing projects are feasible? The right answers to these and other questions will vary for every PI. Some may be comfortable establishing a large research group with formalized peer-mentoring and defined projects. Others may do better with a small group and closer interactions with each student. It takes time to develop trust and rapport with students, and without it, they may not feel comfortable failing or asking for help. It is important to be intentional and aware of your limitations. It is also important that each student in your lab gets the individual attention that they need.

Rule 7: Collaborate early and often

Science is inherently collaborative, and collaboration is a skill [ 21 ]. This is particularly important when running an undergraduate research lab where student training and graduation timelines do not leave much room for extensive data collection. Multiyear projects that students contribute to during their short tenure can leave most participants without tangible products to show as they apply for the next steps in their career pathway. To get things done on an undergraduate timeline, collaborations with external partners can be key.

Your lab will likely have some methodological focus that could be invaluable to other research teams. For example, if your undergraduate lab focuses on computational training, you will probably have external research labs eager for you to analyze data. Colleagues at R1 institutions often see PUI partners as a benefit for funding opportunities as well (e.g., NSF Broader Impacts). Use your professional network to advertise what your students can do and actively seek out collaborative opportunities with your academic, industry, and governmental contacts. This creates opportunities for your students to participate in projects they could not do alone, builds their professional networks, and teaches them how to be good collaborators.

Rule 8: Practice radical inclusivity

Building an inclusive lab takes effort and commitment. Most of the excellent advice for establishing an inclusive and antiracist lab [ 8 , 11 , 22 ] is directly applicable to undergraduate research settings as well, so we will not repeat it here. However, special considerations should be noted for PUIs. For example, you will likely encounter a greater proportion of first-generation/low-income and underrepresented students at a public PUI, as each stage of the educational pipeline successively excludes more students from those populations.

Students who are the first generation in their family to attend college, who come from low-income backgrounds, and/or who identify with underrepresented groups in STEM are far less likely to approach and interact with faculty either formally or informally [ 23 ]. This makes it crucial for faculty to proactively initiate discussions and actively recruit undergraduate lab members rather than wait for students to approach them. Underrepresented students benefit more from faculty-mentored research than any other group [ 24 ] and inclusion in undergraduate research has been shown to improve these students’ persistence in STEM [ 25 ]. Find the time to meet with students from these groups, whether in your classroom or by attending extracurricular events geared toward these student groups. Invest in creating a lab environment that will support a diverse group of students and then actively recruit them early in their educational journey.

Rule 9: Compensate students for their contributions

One of the most impactful differences between graduate and undergraduate researchers is that the latter are primarily full-time students, typically with no expectations or compensation for research activities. Finding ways to compensate undergraduates for research equalizes who can afford to participate. Your university may have internal grant mechanisms that pay or subsidize wages for undergraduate student research labor. Be proactive in finding these and other funding sources and, if paying your students is not an option, you may be able to compensate with course credit. Aside from equalizing access, compensating your students fosters mutual respect for their work/life balance which sets a precedent for students to respect their own time, manage expectations, and not overcommit.

Rule 10: Incorporate research into your teaching

While one-on-one mentoring has the highest impact on students [ 19 ], the time investment required for this practice is not always scalable. Course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs) offer a way to reach more students [ 6 ]. CUREs can make research participation more inclusive and available to students who may not be aware that mentored research is an option, and they reach a “captive audience” of students who may never have considered engaging in research. It also allows a wide range of students to add meaningful research experience to their professional portfolio while earning credits toward their degree. Teaching a CURE is separate from running a research lab, but it invariably extends and informs your mentoring. The pedagogical literature has many good examples of how to design and effectively manage a CURE in your classroom [ 26 – 30 ].

Conclusions

While the habits and attitudes that lead to successful research labs overlap considerably between an R1 and a PUI, there are unique features and special challenges in an undergraduate-only lab group that deserve special consideration. Here, we have tried to highlight some of the important practices that can transform those challenges into opportunities. Faculty at public PUIs play a critical role in preparing underserved students for careers in science, and often influence the types of scientists that these students will become. By teaching them how to be good scientists and collaborative community members, and how to cultivate a deep well of patience and compassion, you’re enabling their success. Framing “lab success” in terms of “student success” as a guiding principle will lead to positive outcomes for students and your lab.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Michael Rotter for constructive feedback on the original manuscript. Thanks to the bouncer at The Muddy Charles for providing invaluable feedback on the layout of Fig 1 . Finally, thanks to undergraduate researchers everywhere. This manuscript is the result of a collaboration between a PUI faculty member and a former undergraduate student.

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Overview of tls presence and composition in lung cancer, appropriate mouse models to study tumor-associated tls, current understanding on tls role in mediating antitumor immune responses, potential strategies to exploit tls formation and function for improving ici response and clinical outcomes, conclusions, authors' disclosures, exploiting tertiary lymphoid structures to stimulate antitumor immunity and improve immunotherapy efficacy.

Cancer Res 2024;84:1199–209

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Giulia Petroni , Serena Pillozzi , Lorenzo Antonuzzo; Exploiting Tertiary Lymphoid Structures to Stimulate Antitumor Immunity and Improve Immunotherapy Efficacy. Cancer Res 15 April 2024; 84 (8): 1199–1209. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-23-3325

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Tumor-associated tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS) have been associated with favorable clinical outcomes and response to immune checkpoint inhibitors in many cancer types, including non–small cell lung cancer. Although the detailed cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying these clinical associations have not been fully elucidated, growing preclinical and clinical studies are helping to elucidate the mechanisms at the basis of TLS formation, composition, and regulation of immune responses. However, a major challenge remains how to exploit TLS to enhance naïve and treatment-mediated antitumor immune responses. Here, we discuss the current understanding of tumor-associated TLS, preclinical models that can be used to study them, and potential therapeutic interventions to boost TLS formation, with a particular focus on lung cancer research.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have significantly revolutionized the clinical management of many human malignancies, including non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Despite these advantages, most patients with NSCLC normally fail to respond to treatment with ICIs irrespectively of PD-L1 expression or tumor mutational burden (TMB; refs. 1–3 ). Although several efforts have been made in this field, the identification of reliable predictors of response to ICIs, as well as of approaches to improve clinical outcomes, is still a major challenge ( 4 ). In this context, although most of the studies have been focused on T-cell populations as mainly mediators of treatment-naïve and ICI-mediated antitumor immune responses, mounting evidence reported a favorable impact of tumor-infiltrating B cells and plasma cells (which can be collectively referred as TIL-B) on prognosis and response to ICIs across many cancers ( 5–9 ), including NSCLC ( 10 ).

TIL-Bs normally reside in the tumor microenvironment (TME) in organized structures, known as tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS; refs. 11, 12 ). TLS can be generally defined as lymphoid aggregates surrounded by a stromal network and located in close proximity to specialized blood vessels [called high endothelial venules (HEV)] involved in lymphocyte trafficking and whose alteration in density or morphology can result in immune activation ( 13 ). In TLS, the coordinated presentation of neighboring tumor antigens by dendritic cells (DC), activation of T cells with cytotoxic function, and maturation of B cells toward antibody-secreting plasma cells, can generate both local and systemic antitumor immune responses, thus resulting in the clearance of adjacent tumor cells or distant metastases ( 12, 14 ).

Noteworthy, although TLS are mostly composed of T cells, B cells and DCs, other immune populations, such as regulatory T cells (Treg) and macrophages, have been found in tumor-associated TLS in some settings ( 15–17 ), and impact of TLS on survival and response to ICIs reportedly depends on both their cellular components and maturation stage, which can differ among cancer types ( 6, 17–19 ). Complicating this scenario, other factors seem to affect the impact of TLS on tumor progression ( 12 ), including (but not limited to) the local environment or TLS location, throughout mechanisms that are still poorly understood.

In the setting of treatment-naïve human NSCLC, high density of TLS characterized by the presence of lysosome-associated membrane protein 3 (LAMP3) + antigen-presenting mature DCs, together with T cells skewed toward a T helper 1 (Th1) and CD8 + cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) phenotype ( 20 ), or follicular B cells ( 21 ), has been correlated to prolonged survival.

So far, some factors have been proposed to influence TLS development in lung cancers. In particular, IHC analysis of NSCLC specimens showed a predominant accumulation of PD-1 + CD8 + exhausted T cells in TLS near to T follicular helper (Tfh) cell and B-cell areas, proposing them as potential active players in the recruitment of immune cells by secreting C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 13 (CXCL13; ref. 22 ). In addition, data obtained by the TME characterization of untreated human lung squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) tissues suggested that the lung parenchyma may provide a favorable environment for TLS development and germinal center (GC) B-cell maturation, involving CXCL13 + perivascular and TLS-associated stromal cells, C-C motif chemokine ligand 21 (CCL21) + TLS-associated HEVs, and CXCL12 + hyperplastic alveolar epithelial cells ( 23 ). However, direct experimental evidence is needed to verify these assumptions.

Conversely, the presence of Tregs in tumor-associated TLS (but also in non-TLS areas) has been associated to reduced survival in patients with NSCLC ( 16 ), and to suppression of TLS-mediated antitumor immunosurveillance in a preclinical model of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD; ref. 15 ). Interestingly, TLS formation and maturation can also be impaired by therapies with immunosuppressive properties, such as corticosteroids ( 23 ), which are administered to manage comorbidities or side effects of coadministered neoadjuvant chemotherapy. On the other hand, higher abundance of mature TLS have been observed in NSCLC tissues from patients treated with neoadjuvant chemoimmunotherapy, compared with both untreated patients or patients treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy only ( 17 ), thus suggesting that ICIs may foster TLS formation. Supporting these clinical findings, treatment with a PD-1 blocker increased TLS abundance and Tfh-mediated B-cell activation in a subcutaneous mouse model of LSCC ( 24 ).

Finally, fascinating preclinical findings unraveling mechanisms by which TLS-associated B cells mediate naïve and ICI-mediated antitumor immunity in LUAD have been recently published by Ng and collaborators ( 25 ). In particular, by harnessing a novel mouse model of immunogenic LUAD the authors demonstrated that lung resident B cells associated to TLS contribute to response to immunotherapy through the production of antibodies targeting tumor antigens derived from endogenous retroviruses (ERV), and that ICI efficacy can be augmented by inducing TLS formation in a CXCL13-dependent manner ( 25 ).

Overall, these findings suggest that antitumor immunity mediated by TLS relies on CTL-mediated responses, as well as on GC B-cell maturation and production of tumor antigen–specific antibodies, at least in the setting of lung cancer. However, mechanisms by which TLS promote ICI efficacy still need to be fully elucidated. In this review, we discuss the latest interesting preclinical and clinical findings that have been made in the attempt to address these knowledge gaps and all the exciting potential developments for the management of cancer (in particular of NSCLC).

Immunocompetent mouse models are crucial for the investigation of anticancer immune responses, the preclinical development of immunotherapies, as well as the identification of mechanisms by which TLS mediate antitumor immunity. However, few studies reported the spontaneous development of tumor-associated TLS so far ( Table 1 ), thus making it difficult to dissect TLS role in antitumor immunity and to identify effective therapeutic interventions able to foster their formation, maturity, and function, that could be successfully translated to the clinic. This is probably due to the intrinsic limitations of the vast majority of the available mouse models naturally hampering the study of both TLS development and immunotherapy efficacy ( 26 ).

Summary of preclinical models investigated for the spontaneous formation of tumor-associated TLS.

Abbreviations: AOM, azoxymethane; CRC, colorectal cancer; Dox/Tam, doxycycline/tamoxifen; DSS, dextran sodium sulfate; FDCs, follicular dendritic cells; IF, immunofluorescence; i.c., intracranially; i.p., intraperitoneally; i.t., intratracheal; i.v., intravenously; GC, germinal center; LSCC, lung squamous cell carcinoma; NINJA, inversion inducible joined neoantigen; PNA, peanut agglutinin; PNAd, peripheral node addressin; s.c., subcutaneous; WT, wild-type.

a KPAR cells were obtained from a tumor driven by the expression of oncogenic KRAS G12D , deletion of Trp53 , and the expression of a human APOBEC3B minigene (A3Bi) in the Rosa26 locus in lung epithelial cells in immunodeficient mice [i.e. , Kras LSL-G12D/+ ;Trp53 flox/flox ;Rosa26 A3Bi ;Rag1 −/− (KPAR) mice].

b KPC cells were obtained from a tumor established in KPC ( Kras LSL-G12D/+ ;Trp53 R172H/+ ;Pdx-1-Cre) mice.

Models based on the subcutaneous, orthotopic (to mimic the anatomic location of the disease), or systemic (intraperitoneally or intravenously—to monitor their metastatic spread) injection of murine-derived cancer cell lines in syngeneic immunocompetent mice, for example, are normally characterized by a rapid growth (faster than in cancer patients) that might not allow the time window necessary for the organization of lymphocytes in tumor-associated TLS. In addition, syngeneic tumor models do not allow the follow-up of the spontaneous course of the disease in the context of a proficient native immune microenvironment, as cell lines have already evaded immunosurveillance in their original host ( 26, 27 ).

So far, the development of spontaneous tumor-associated TLS in transplanted tumors has been reported in models of subcutaneously injected LSCC cells ( 24 ), or of intraperitoneally implanted murine melanoma, colon adenocarcinoma, and Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cells overexpressing ovalbumin (OVA; ref. 28 ), a tumor-specific antigen well known for its ability to enhance tumor immunogenicity. Interestingly, TLS were also observed in melanoma tumors established into the lung of syngeneic immunocompetent mice, but not subcutaneously, thus suggesting that TLS development might depend on the local environment rather than on the growth rate of transplanted cells, at least in this setting ( 28 ). The spontaneous assembly of well-organized TLS in peritoneal tumors has also been described for a model of metastatic ovarian cancer obtained by the intraperitoneal injection of Kras/Trp53 -mutant UPK10 cells, only when Satb1 [encoding special AT-rich sequence binding protein 1, a genomic organizer implicated in regulating the phenotype and differentiation of different immune cells, including T-cell activation ( 29 )], was knocked-out in CD4 + T cells ( CD4 Cre Satb1 flox/flox mice; ref. 30 ). Among orthotopic models, TLS occurrence has been reported in models of glioma obtained by the intracranial injection of Kras/Trp53 -mutant GL261 cells or Pten -deficient CT2A cells ( 31, 32 ). Intriguingly, similarly to data obtained in human glioma and glioblastoma tissues, TLS were found in close proximity to the meningeal tissue in these models, rather than in the tumor mass or in the brain of tumor-free mice ( 31, 32 ).

The spontaneous development of tumor-associated TLS has also been described in some genetically engineered mouse models (GEMM), such as models of (i) LUAD and (ii) pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) driven by the tissue-specific expression of Kras G12D mutation in combination with Trp53 deletion or mutations ( 15, 33, 34 ), as well as (iii) a mouse model of gastric cancer driven by a germline knock-in mutation in Il6st (also known as Gp130 ; gp130 757flox/flox mice), encoding a mutated form of the IL6 receptor subunit and resulting in the hyperactivation of STAT3 ( 35 ).

Compared with transplanted models, GEMMs better recapitulate tumor development and progression as they develop spontaneous autochthonous tumors in a natural immune microenvironment ( 26, 27 ). However, transgene-driven tumors are mostly resistant to natural immunosurveillance and immunotherapy, due to their low TMB as compared with their human counterpart ( 36, 37 ). These limitations could be addressed by using carcinogen-induced tumor models, as they provide a higher level of genomic instability, resulting in the spontaneous development of more clinically relevant and heterogeneous tumors characterized by a high mutational load ( 27, 37 ). However, to the best of our knowledge, the occurrence of tumor-associated TLS has been only described in a model of colitis-associated colorectal cancer induced by azoxymethane and dextran sodium sulfate ( 38, 39 ). Notably, in this model, TLS form in normal tissue adjacent to the tumor and not within the tumor bed ( 38, 39 ).

In the context of lung cancer research, Kras LSL-G12D/+ ;Trp53 flox/flox mice (hereafter referred to as KP mice) have been widely used as GEMMs that recapitulate key features of human LUAD. However, although the spontaneous formation of tumor-associated TLS has been described in KP mice bearing lung tumors ( 15 ), the intrinsic resistance to ICIs of this model ( 40 ) did not allow to study TLS involvement in mediating ICI efficacy. To address these issues, Ng and collaborators recently set out to study TLS formation and humoral responses by harnessing a novel immunogenic model of LUAD established by the orthotopic transplantation of LUAD (KPAR) cells into the lung of immunocompetent syngeneic wild-type mice ( 25 ). This model was previously generated and characterized by the same group by deriving KPAR cells from a single-cell clone of a lung tumor driven by the expression of the oncogene Kras G12D and Trp53 deletion, expressing the apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing catalytic subunit 3B (APOBEC3B) enzyme [a DNA cytosine deaminase responsible for inducing high mutational burden in human lung cancers ( 41 )], and developed in an immune-deficient background [i.e., Kras LSL-G12D/+ ;Trp53 flox/flox ;Rosa26 A3Bi ;Rag1 −/− (KPAR) mice] to avoid immunoediting ( 42 ). Differently to the widely used KP cells (i.e., KPB6 cells, derived from lung tumors established in KP mice), which differ from human LUADs for the low number of clonal somatic single-nucleotide variants, their knowingly resistance to treatment with ICIs and their nonimmunogenic phenotype ( 40 ), KPAR cells have higher TMB, increased immunogenicity, and are sensitive to therapy with PD-1, PD-L1, and CTLA4 blockers ( 25, 42 ). By harnessing this novel immunogenic LUAD model, Ng and collaborators were able to demonstrate the formation of perivascular mature TLS in proximity of KPAR tumors by immunofluorescence, while TLS were not detectable in commonly used KP (KPB6) tumors ( 25 ). Consistent with these findings, the presence of peritumoral TLS, linked to improved sensitivity to dual CTLA4 and PD-1 blockade, has also been described in mice bearing KP tumors made more immunogenic by inducing neoantigen expression in malignant cells (i.e., KP-NINJA mice; ref. 33 ).

Thus, the selection of an adequate mouse model that recapitulates key aspects of human immunogenic cancers (such as NSCLC) is fundamental to better understand (i) the cross-talk between tumor and immune cells, (ii) to investigate cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying TLS formation, composition, and their involvement in naïve and immunotherapy-driven antitumor immune responses, as well as (iii) to assess the antitumor efficacy of novel combinatorial immunologic interventions.

Antigen-driven differentiation of GC B cells and B-T-cell collaboration

The presence of TLS-associated TIL-Bs has been associated with extended overall survival in patients with melanoma, soft-tissue sarcomas, renal cell carcinoma, and NSCLC, treated with ICIs ( 5, 6, 8–10 ), thus suggesting a role for TLS and humoral immunity in mediating ICI responses in these settings. Generally, TIL-Bs have been proposed to mediate antitumor immunity in both antibody- and cell-dependent ways, by producing antibodies that recognize tumor antigens and redirect cytotoxic cells [such as natural killer (NK) cells and macrophages] against tumor cells, or cross-presenting antigens to T cells and activating them ( 43 ). Ex vivo production of IgG and IgA antibodies against tumor antigens has been demonstrated for B cells isolated from human NSCLC and breast cancer biopsies ( 21, 44 ). Of note, B cells have been associated with the presence of TLS and improved disease outcomes in these settings ( 21, 44 ), and recent evidence suggested that TLS could be the drivers for the in situ generation of B cell–mediated responses ( 45 ). In particular, spatial transcriptomics of human clear-cell renal cell carcinomas showed all B-cell maturation stages (including the differentiation in IgG- and IgA-producing plasma cells) in tumor-associated TLS, and that plasma cells can disseminate into the tumor bed along fibers formed of CXCL12 + fibroblasts ( 6 ). TLS + tumors also showed a higher infiltration of IgG-producing plasma cells linked to a higher number of IgG-labeled and apoptotic cancer cells, as well as macrophages, thus suggesting an antitumor effector activity for these antibodies ( 6 ).

In line with these findings, GC B-cell maturation is paralleled by increased levels of IgG and IgA antibodies specific for tumor antigens (specifically ERV envelope glycoproteins) in the serum of mice bearing immunogenic LUADs obtained by the orthotopic injection of KPAR cells, and transferred serum from donor KPAR-bearing mice to recipient KPAR-bearing mice significantly extended the overall survival of recipient mice ( 25 ). Interestingly, prolonged survival of recipient mice is linked to increased tumor infiltration by NK cells and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC)-mediated by NK cells, an effect that is abrogated by NK cell (but not CD8 + T cell) depletion, thus confirming the effector activity of tumor-specific antibodies and suggesting an independency on CD8 + T cell–mediated responses in this model ( 25 ). An absent cross-talk between B and CD8 + T cells has also been suggested by clinical findings obtained from the profiling of pretreatment tumors of patients with NSCLC progressed following platinum-based chemotherapy from randomized phase II (NCT01903993) and III (NCT02008227) trials evaluating the efficacy of the PD-L1 blocker atezolizumab versus docetaxel in NSCLC ( 10 ). Although B cells have been found in close proximity to CD8 + T cells organized in TLS in NSCLC specimens, Patil and colleagues ( 10 ) found that increased plasma cell signatures are predictive of extended overall survival for patients treated with PD-L1 blockade (but not with chemotherapy), independently of the presence of CD8 + T cells. Similarly, improved objective response (OR) rate to ICIs has been correlated to the presence of mature TLS (as defined by the presence of CD23 + follicular DCs) in several human cancers, including NSCLC, independently of CD8 + T-cell density and PD-L1 expression ( 18 ).

The contribution of B-cell responses to the efficacy of ICIs against NSCLC has also been investigated in the immunogenic mouse model of LUAD by Ng and collaborators. In particular, the authors showed that the antitumor activity of PD-L1 inhibition is linked to augmented avidity of serum IgG and IgA binding to lung cancer cells, as well as to increased levels of GC B cells in the lungs of mice bearing LUAD tumors ( 25 ). Interestingly, the expansion of GC B cells is always linked to enhanced CD4 + Tfh cell responses in this model, thus suggesting a potential B-Tfh-cell collaboration in mediating both naïve and ICI-mediated antitumor immune responses ( 25 ). However, the eventual collaboration between B and Tfh cells (as well as the impact of other cellular components) on TLS formation and ICI efficacy has not been investigated in this model ( 25 ). These questions have been partially answered by previous findings obtained in another mouse model of LUAD obtained by the subcutaneous injection of engineered KP cells expressing a fusion protein that can be recognized by both B and T cells (KP-HELLO cells; ref. 46 ). The introduction of tumor neoantigens in KP tumors led to the stimulation of specific B cells necessary for the differentiation of CD4 + Tfh cells, which in turn promoted antitumor CD8 + T-cell responses via IL21 secretion, thus providing the necessary stimuli to further support B-cell differentiation in plasma cells ( 46 ). However, these interactions occurred in tumor draining lymph nodes of mice bearing KP-HELLO tumors ( 46 ), thus B-T-cell interactions in LUAD-associated TLS, as well as whether T cell–mediated responses in KPAR tumors are elicited by the cross-presentation of tumor antigens by B cells or independently of B cells, still need to be elucidated. Along similar lines, Tfh cell–mediated B-cell activation, with consequent production of antitumor antibodies and enhanced T-cell priming, has also been described in a subcutaneous mouse model of LSCC and in a GEMM of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) characterized by a high TMB, after treatment with ICIs ( 24, 47 ). Noteworthy, while PD-1 blockade also increased TLS formation in LSCC tumors ( 24 ), the occurrence of TLS has not been investigated in the TNBC model ( 47 ).

Despite some mechanisms at the basis of TLS function in LUAD tumors still need additional investigations, the preclinical findings we discussed above nicely demonstrate potential mechanisms by which TLS are drivers of the in situ activation and maturation of T cells, B cells, and antibody-producing plasma cells, and how TLS may mediate tumor control by favoring T-B cell collaboration ( Fig. 1A ), thus significantly improving our understanding on LUAD immunology.

A, Summary of mechanisms by which TLS mediate antitumor immunity. On the one hand, GC B cells recognize tumor antigens (potentially presented by follicular DCs) and differentiate to plasma cells producing tumor-specific antibodies, that in turn propagate in the tumor bed and mediate CDC or NK cell–mediated ADCC of cancer cells. On the other hand, mature DCs present antigenic peptides to Tfh cells, activating them, and in turn stimulating CD8 + CTLs against tumor cells. Subsequent interaction of activated Tfh cells with B cells in TLS provide additional activating signals for Tfh cells by B cells (such us, antigen peptides presented on MHC class II molecules and ICOSL signals), and vice versa for B cells by Tfh cells (i.e., CD40–CD40 L interactions and IL21 production). B, Potential strategies to boost TLS formation and function. TLS neogenesis can be induced by the administration of chemoattractant chemokines (e.g., CXCL13), or cytokines (e.g., LIGHT) able to induce HEVs, thus boosting the influx of endogenous B and T cells. Immunostimulatory adjuvants (e.g., TLR9 or STING agonists) can promote TLS functions by mediating APC maturation, such as B-cell differentiation in antibody-producing plasma cells or maturation of DCs and subsequent cross-priming of CD8 + CTLs. Finally, KRAS G12C inhibitors have demonstrated ability to promote tumor-associated TLS formation by potentially derepressing tumor-intrinsic IFN-mediated effects upon MYC inhibition, and subsequently upregulating MHC class II molecules on DCs and promoting the infiltration of activated CD8 + CTLs, B cells, and NK cells into the tumor. APC, antigen-presenting cells; BCR, B-cell receptor; CDC, complement-dependent cytotoxicity; FRC, fibroblastic reticular cells; TCR, T-cell receptor.

CXCL13 as the main driver of TLS formation

Accumulating evidence proposed CXCL13 as one of the main initiators of TLS formation ( 12, 14 ). In addition, transcriptional upregulation of CXCL13 has been associated with improved survival for patients treated with immunotherapy in different cancer settings ( 48–50 ), including LUAD ( 22, 50–52 ), thus suggesting a role for CXCL13 in mediating ICI efficacy by promoting the recruitment of CXC chemokine receptor 5 (CXCR5) + lymphocytes and their organization in tumor-associated TLS. In line with these findings, recombinant CXCL13 improved PD-1 blockade efficacy in subcutaneous murine models of ovarian cancer, colorectal carcinoma, and NSCLC, an effect linked to increased levels of tumor-infiltrating CD8 + T cells ( 48, 52 ). In addition to CD8 + T cells, CXCL13 reportedly improved ICI efficacy against mouse LUADs by recruiting B cells ( 25 ). Indeed, the survival benefit offered by PD-L1 blockade was further improved by intranasal treatment with an expression vector encoding Cxcl13 (resulting in increased CXCL13 expression in LUAD tumors) in mice bearing immunogenic LUAD tumors, and conversely abrogated by CXCL13 neutralization or B-cell depletion ( 25 ). These results are in line with data obtained in a preclinical model of PDAC where the coinjection of CXCL13 with CCL21 into orthotopic tumors promoted the recruitment of both B and T cells and their organization in tumor-associated TLS, as well as the ability of the chemotherapeutic gemcitabine in delaying PDAC growth ( 34 ). Accordingly, the delivery of the cytokine LIGHT (also known as TNF superfamily member 14, TNFSF14) specifically to tumor vessels promoted the de novo TLS assembly in PDAC tumors, by inducing the production of CCL21 in tumor endothelial cells, and ultimately sensitized resistant PDAC tumors to treatment with PD-1 and CTLA4 blockers ( 53 ).

Of note, CXCL13 can be secreted by multiple cellular sources depending on the type of cancer, including stromal cells, follicular DCs, and Tfh cells ( 12, 14 ) . In this context, Thommen and colleagues ( 22 ) suggested tumor-infiltrating PD1 + T cells as cellular source for CXCL13-mediated B-cell recruitment in NSCLC-associated TLS. However, although they demonstrated a proximity between PD1 + CD8 + T cells and B cells in intratumoral and peritumoral TLS in human NSCLC specimens ( 22 ), functional experiments confirming this hypothesis are missing. Along similar lines, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of human nasopharyngeal carcinomas identified PD1 + CD4 + T cells as potential drivers of B-cell recruitment in tumor-associated TLS and differentiation in plasma cells, via CXCL13 and IL21 secretion ( 54 ). Consistent with these data, findings obtained by harnessing a mouse model of metastatic ovarian cancer ( 30 ) and scRNA-seq of treatment-naïve human PDAC specimens ( 55 ) showed that TGFβ impairs Treg formation in favor of CXCL13 + Tfh cell differentiation, in turn promoting B-cell recruitment and activation in a CXCL13-dependent manner, and ultimately resulting in the assembly of intratumoral TLS. Intriguingly, activated Tfh cells also secreted high levels of LIGHT, which in turn, by triggering the secretion of CCL21 by endothelial cells ( 53 ), may contribute to the initial recruitment of lymphocytes into the tumor bed ( 30 ). Finally, evidence obtained in a murine model of B16-OVA melanoma suggested CD8 + T cells as the initiators of tumor-associated TLS aggregation through the promotion of a reticular network of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF), which in turn foster B-cell recruitment by CXCL13 secretion, and subsequently B cells drive CAFs proliferation and TLS expansion via lymphotoxin β receptor (LTβR) signaling, thus pointing to CAFs as important players in TLS formation ( 28 ). Interestingly, treatment with ICIs induced the formation of larger and well-organized TLS in this model, an effect also linked to improved disease control by ICIs ( 28 ).

Of note, CAFs are a group of heterogeneous cell subtypes, with different phenotypes and functions depending on the cancer type. Although CAFs are being generally considered “oncogenic” players, accumulating evidence ascribes them also antitumor and drug sensitizing abilities ( 56 ). In the context of lung cancer, CAFs are the major components of the TME and their characterization by scRNA-seq identified five subtypes with different functions (including tumor progression and both immunosuppressive and immunostimulatory functions), with differences in term of frequency among lung cancer histologic subtypes and tumor stages, and different impact on survival ( 57–60 ). In vitro experiments suggested that CAFs are implicated both in resistance and response to tyrosine kinase inhibitors in a context-dependent manner ( 61 ), and secretion of TGFβ by CAFs has been reported to limit T-cell infiltration by promoting the expression of laminin γ2 by cancer cells, as well as the efficacy of PD-1 blockers, in mouse models of lung cancer ( 54 ). So far, the incomplete understanding of CAFs heterogeneity has hampered the development of strategies that (by targeting CAFs or promoting their immunostimulatory effects) efficiently improve clinical outcomes of a variety of malignant diseases, including NSCLC ( 56 ).

Overall, although recent preclinical findings point to CXCL13 as a key player in TLS formation in lung cancers, further experiments are needed to better understand mechanisms at the basis of CXCL13-dependent recruitment and organization of immune cells in NSCLC-associated TLS, as well as to define the potential role of CAFs in promoting B-cell activation in NSCLC, to efficiently translate these preclinical findings to the clinic.

Despite significant advancements in targeted anticancer treatments and immunotherapies, NSCLC remains a leading global cause of cancer-related deaths. Responses to ICIs vary among patients with NSCLC, with only a limited subset of patients exhibiting sustained responses, while most patients develop intrinsic or acquired resistance to currently used immunotherapies ( 1–4 ). Currently, PD-L1 overexpression and high TMB are the most extensively studied predictive markers for ICI response. However, they cannot be considered clear-cut biomarkers, as the intertumor and intratumor heterogeneity, coupled with diverse methods applied for their identification, and often challenging reproducibility in clinical practice, renders their predictive value variable and not always reliable across different studies ( 4 ). For these reasons, several efforts are being made to understand the mechanisms underlying intrinsic and acquired resistance to currently used cancer therapies, as well as for the identification of biomarkers to accurately predict response to anticancer treatments and of novel druggable targets or combinatorial treatments to efficiently improve survival rates among patients with cancer. In this context, TLS are emerging as reliable biomarkers of response to ICIs (as extensively reviewed in refs. 12, 45 ) independently of commonly known markers of response to ICIs, such as CD8 + T-cell density and PD-L1 expression ( 18 ). In addition, accumulating preclinical evidence suggests that the therapeutic modulation of TLS development, composition, and function ( Fig. 1B ) could represent a potential strategy to enhance antitumor immune responses and thus to improve clinical outcomes of patients with NSCLC refractory to available FDA-approved treatments.

Induction of TLS by chemokines, cytokines, or immunostimulatory adjuvants

Preclinical findings recently published by Ng and colleagues ( 25 ) suggested a potential combinatorial approach with a PD-L1 blocker and an intranasal vector encoding Cxcl13 to enhance TLS formation in mouse LUADs and to further delay tumor growth. However, the translational potential of these findings has not been discussed by the authors, a thing that need to be taken in consideration because both antitumor and protumor activities have been associated to the CXCL13/CXCR5 axis in different cancer settings, including NSCLC ( 62, 63 ). In addition, the authors did not investigate why LUAD-bearing mice eventually relapse to treatment with ICIs and to combination therapy after an initial response ( 25 ). Thus, the investigation of immunosuppressive cellular and molecular mechanisms potentially hampering antitumor immune responses in this setting is missing. Previous findings by other groups described the presence of immunosuppressive cells in TLS associated to mouse and human lung tumors ( 15, 16 ). For instance, TLS-associated Tregs have been correlated to poor clinical outcome in patients with NSCLC ( 16 ), and Tregs reportedly suppressed DC-mediated activation and T-cell expansion in TLS (and thus TLS-mediated antitumor immune responses) in LUADs established in KP mice ( 15 ). Of note, in the latter model although Treg depletion led to increased TLS area and percentage of proliferating T cells in TLS, it did not affect B-cell infiltration in LUAD-associated TLS ( 15 ). Conversely, a negative correlation between B cells (high) and Tregs (low) infiltrating TLS has been reported in NSCLC specimens from patients with better clinical outcomes ( 21 ). Thus, the cross-talk between Tregs and B cells associated to TLS in NSCLC, and the potential depletion/target of Tregs to potentiate TLS-driven humoral responses to ICIs, needs further investigations.

Contextually, reduced activation of Tregs, paralleled by (i) increased expression of activation markers on B cells and DCs, (ii) enhanced effector functions of CD4 + and CD8 + T cells, and (iii) de novo formation of tumor-associated TLS, has been observed in lung metastases established in mice by the subcutaneous injection of TNBC 4T1 cells, and treated with intranasal injection of SD-101, a Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) agonist ( 64 ). In addition, combination of SD-101 with PD-1 blockade further increased tumor-infiltrating levels of CD8 + CTLs, ultimately resulting in durable rejection of lung tumors in this model ( 64 ). Interestingly, combination of intratumor injection of SD-101 with pembrolizumab in a phase II trial (NCT02521870) induced OR (OR rate was 24%, including two complete and 10 partial responses) and led to increased levels of CD8 + CTLs and B cells in biopsies obtained from responder patients with recurrent/metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma ( 65 ). On the basis of these findings, combination of TLR9 agonists and ICIs for the treatment of human NSCLC warrants investigation.

Finally, another issue that needs to be addressed is to investigate whether TLS generation in NSCLC could be enhanced by boosting lymphocyte infiltration into tumors throughout the therapeutic induction of intratumoral HEVs, as demonstrated in other preclinical settings. Indeed, TLS neogenesis has been observed after tumor vessel remodeling and HEV induction upon the administration of a stimulator of interferon genes (STING) agonist or of the cytokine LIGHT, respectively in mouse models of melanoma ( 66 ), or model of PDAC ( 53 ) and glioma ( 31 ). Interestingly, both STING agonist and LIGHT reportedly synergized with PD-1 blockade in delaying the growth of melanoma lung metastases, by respectively remodeling lung metastases' TME via the promotion of type I IFN signaling ( 67 ), or the induction of metastatic HEVs ( 68 ). Notably, whereas STING agonists entered clinical evaluation ( 69 ), LIGHT-based therapies are still under preclinical development ( 70 ).

Induction of TLS by KRAS G12C inhibitors

An important finding recently emerged by harnessing a novel immunogenic model of LUAD is the impact of the highly selective KRAS G12C inhibitor adagrasib [which has been granted FDA approval only in 2022 for locally advanced or metastatic NSCLC harboring KRAS G12C mutation and who have received at least one prior systemic therapy ( 71 )] on LUAD-associated TLS ( 25 ). In particular, the authors showed increased TLS formation in mice bearing Kras G12C -mutant LUADs upon treatment with adagrasib, thus highlighting a novel immunomodulatory effect for KRAS G12C inhibitors in LUAD ( 25 ). Interestingly, the same effects were not observed in mice treated with the MAPK (also known as MEK) inhibitor trametinib ( 25 ), thus suggesting that antitumor B cell–mediated responses in this model may be hampered by the ubiquitous inhibition of MEK, which is highly upregulated in KRAS G12C - mutant cancer cells, but also in B cells as it plays a key role in B-cell differentiation ( 72 ). The mechanisms by which TLS contribute to the response to KRAS G12C inhibitors, however, remain to be clarified, as well as whether the presence of tumor-associated TLS could represent a potential indicator of response to KRAS G12C inhibitors for patients with NSCLC.

These preclinical findings open to the possibility of combining FDA-approved KRAS G12C inhibitors with ICIs for the treatment of NSCLC to promote TLS formation and improve therapy-mediated antitumor immune responses. Supporting this hypothesis and partially filling in the missing gaps regarding the mechanisms underlying KRAS G12C inhibitor-mediated TLS formation in LUADs ( 25 ), a study published in 2022 by the same group tested the synergy between a KRAS G12C inhibitor analog for adagrasib (i.e., MRTX1257) and an anti-PD-1 antibody in mice bearing Kras G12C -mutant lung tumors ( 73 ). In particular, MRTX1257 has been shown to promote antitumor immunity and to potentiate the therapeutic efficacy of PD-1 inhibition in immunogenic Kras G12C -mutant (KPAR) LUADs ( 73 ). The same synergy, however, has not been replicated in mice bearing nonimmunogenic (3LL) tumors knockout for Nras or Kras G12C -mutant conventional KP (KPB6) LUADs, which are highly sensitive to KRAS G12C inhibitors, but intrinsically resistant to therapy with PD-1 blockers ( 42 ), even if MRTX1257 was able to induce a profound remodeling of the TME in all these models, turning them from “cold” to “hot” tumors ( 73 ). A potential limiting factor in the latter models (i.e., 3LL and KPB6 tumors) could be the paralleled increase in Treg infiltration observed following KRAS G12C inhibition, that might (i) inhibit the activity of CTLs, thus hampering the synergy between PD-1 blockers and KRAS G12C inhibitor ( 73 ), but also (ii) impair the development of tumor-associated TLS, as TLS formation has not been observed in KPB6 tumors ( 25 ) and Treg depletion have been shown to increase TLS formation in lung tumors established in KP mice ( 15 ). Mechanistically, the KRAS G12C inhibitor has been proposed to remodel lung TME through the upregulation of IFN pathways in cancer cells via MYC inhibition, in turn leading to enhanced antigen presentation and intratumoral recruitment of cytotoxic NK cells, CD8 + CTLs ( 73 ), and potentially B cells [as described in a preclinical model of PDAC upon derepression of IFN signaling by MYC inhibition ( 74 )].

Overall, extrapolating from the preclinical studies discussed above, patients with TLS + NSCLC are more likely to benefit from combinations of KRAS G12C inhibitors with immunotherapies. Of note, the efficacy of KRAS G12C inhibitors in combination with ICIs in NSCLC is under clinical investigation in phase I–III trials (NCT04613596, NCT03785249, NCT05609578, NCT05472623, NCT05920356, NCT05848843; classic.clinicaltrials.gov), and it will be very interesting the retrospective evaluation of the impact of TLS in response to combinatorial treatment for patients enrolled in those studies.

Of note, supporting the clinical combination of KRAS G12C inhibitors with ICIs, similarly to data discussed above, the synergy between KRAS G12C inhibitors and PD-1 blockers has also been reported in other preclinical cancer models, such as mice subcutaneously injected with syngeneic Kras G12C -mutant colon carcinoma CT26 cells and in a models of Kras G12C -driven LUAD, by three independent studies ( 75–77 ). The ability of KRAS G12C inhibitors to enhance the therapeutic activity of PD-1 blockade has been correlated to increased tumor-infiltrating levels of proinflammatory M1-like macrophages, DCs, CD4 + and CD8 + T cells, paralleled by reduced levels of immunosuppressive cells, such as anti-inflammatory M2-like macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells ( 75 ). Interestingly, the TME of CT26 tumors treated with adagrasib used as single agent or combined with an anti-PD-1 antibody (but not with anti-PD-1 alone) showed also increased levels of B cells, thus suggesting a potential involvement of humoral immunity also in this model ( 75 ). Whereas the immunomodulatory effects for ASP2453 (a novel selective KRAS G12C inhibitor still under preclinical investigation) have not been investigated yet ( 77 ), sotorasib reportedly remodels the TME of Kras G12C -mutant colon carcinomas established in mice by promoting the upregulation of MHC class I molecules, as well as by inducing immunogenic cell death (ICD) in cancer cells, an effect consequently reflected by the upregulation of IFN signaling ( 76 ).

Similarly to KRAS G12C inhibitors, radiotherapy and chemotherapy have the ability to exert immunostimulatory effects mostly by inducing ICD in cancer cells ( 78 ). Of note, only few reports have studied the correlation between the use of these conventional cancer treatments with lung cancer–associated TLS so far, and their impact on TLS formation and function is still not clear. In particular, by harnessing KP mice bearing LUADs, hypofractionated radiotherapy has been shown to temporally decrease the size of tumor-associated TLS, and that TLS size reincreased 14 days after irradiation, accompanied by a higher number of infiltrating Tregs compared with baseline ( 79 ). The impact of chemotherapy on TLS formation is controversial. Indeed, chemotherapy alone seems to impair TLS maturation in human NSCLC ( 17 ) and LSCC ( 23 ), whereas mature TLS have been observed in a higher number of specimens of human NSCLC treated with neoadjuvant platinum-based chemotherapy in combination with PD-1 blockers ( 17 ).

Noteworthy, one of the advantages in the use of KRAS G12C inhibitors is that they exert a tumor cell–restricted activity, thus allowing the investigation of combinations of therapies without resulting in excessive toxicities. However, despite the demonstrated benefit of KRAS G12C inhibitors in the management of KRAS G12C -mutant NSCLC relapsing to platinum-based chemotherapy or PD-1/PD-L1 blockers, the overall survival of patients treated with KRAS G12C inhibitors appears disappointingly similar when compared with the standard-of-care treatment (i.e., docetaxel) used for over 20 years in this setting ( 80 ), potentially due to poorly investigated mechanisms of intrinsic and acquired resistance, but also to the lack of predictive biomarkers of response ( 81 ). A way to improve therapy responses to KRAS G12C inhibitors could be represented by the combination (other than with ICIs, as discussed above) with targeted agents with demonstrated immunostimulatory effects ( 82 ), and that could have a positive impact on TLS formation and function. As an example, a potential approach warrants preclinical and clinical investigation is the combination of KRAS G12C inhibitors with agents targeting cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6 (CDK4/6). Indeed, CDK4/6 inhibitors could (i) limit the immunosuppressive effects that have been observed in a preclinical model of LUAD following KRAS G12C inhibition ( 73 ), as well as (ii) increase NSCLC immunogenicity by augmenting tumor antigen expression (and thus improving antibody-dependent B-cell responses against NSCLC), thanks respectively to their demonstrated ability in repressing Treg proliferation and inducing ERV expression in cancer cells ( 83, 84 ).

Further investigations in combinatorial treatments able to augment response to currently used anticancer therapies (such as ICIs and KRAS G12C inhibitors) by promoting immunostimulatory effects (including the enhancement of TLS formation and function), will potentially unveil new promising opportunities for developing more effective cancer therapies for patients with cancer.

Growing evidence is rapidly corroborating TIL-Bs and TLS as prognostic and predictive factors of response to ICIs in multiple human malignancies ( 5, 6, 8, 9 ), including NSCLC ( 10 ). However, the investigation of cellular and molecular mechanisms governing the development of TLS and their involvement in mediating ICI responses has been limited so far, due to intrinsic limitation of most of the available preclinical mouse models for immuno-oncology–related studies ( 26, 27 ). In this context, the recent development of more advanced preclinical models of lung cancer, resembling key features of human LUAD (i.e., high TMB, increased immunogenicity, and sensitivity to ICIs; refs. 25, 46 ) (i) significantly improved our understanding on mechanisms at the basis of TLS formation and on their involvement in mediating naïve and treatment-mediated antitumor responses ( Fig. 1A ), and ( ii ) suggested potential interesting approaches to exploit TLS genesis and function ( Fig. 1B ), to ultimately improve response to ICIs and clinical outcomes of patients with NSCLC. Among these, the enhancement of TLS formation by KRAS G12C inhibitors comes up as the most interesting translational finding emerging from recent preclinical studies, with exciting implications for the clinical practice. In the future, more preclinical and clinical studies are necessary to fully understand (i) the mechanisms underlying TLS generation, composition, and function, as well as (ii) the therapeutic opportunities these mechanisms will provide to foster immune-mediated tumor control and maximize (immuno)therapy efficacy in a higher percentage of patients with cancer.

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6 Common Leadership Styles — and How to Decide Which to Use When

• Rebecca Knight

Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances call for different approaches.

Research suggests that the most effective leaders adapt their style to different circumstances — be it a change in setting, a shift in organizational dynamics, or a turn in the business cycle. But what if you feel like you’re not equipped to take on a new and different leadership style — let alone more than one? In this article, the author outlines the six leadership styles Daniel Goleman first introduced in his 2000 HBR article, “Leadership That Gets Results,” and explains when to use each one. The good news is that personality is not destiny. Even if you’re naturally introverted or you tend to be driven by data and analysis rather than emotion, you can still learn how to adapt different leadership styles to organize, motivate, and direct your team.

Much has been written about common leadership styles and how to identify the right style for you, whether it’s transactional or transformational, bureaucratic or laissez-faire. But according to Daniel Goleman, a psychologist best known for his work on emotional intelligence, “Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances may call for different approaches.”

• RK Rebecca Knight is a journalist who writes about all things related to the changing nature of careers and the workplace. Her essays and reported stories have been featured in The Boston Globe, Business Insider, The New York Times, BBC, and The Christian Science Monitor. She was shortlisted as a Reuters Institute Fellow at Oxford University in 2023. Earlier in her career, she spent a decade as an editor and reporter at the Financial Times in New York, London, and Boston.

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Frequently asked questions

What should i include in a research paper introduction.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Frequently asked questions: Writing a research paper

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them.

In general, they should be:

• Focused and researchable
• Answerable using credible sources
• Complex and arguable
• Feasible and specific
• Relevant and original

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in Chicago style are to:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Use 1 inch margins or larger
• Apply double line spacing
• Indent every new paragraph ½ inch
• Include a title page
• Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center
• Cite your sources with author-date citations or Chicago footnotes
• Include a bibliography or reference list

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style are as follows:

• Use an easily readable font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Set 1 inch page margins
• Include a four-line MLA heading on the first page
• Center the paper’s title
• Use title case capitalization for headings
• Cite your sources with MLA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a Works Cited page at the end

To format a paper in APA Style , follow these guidelines:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial
• If submitting for publication, insert a running head on every page
• Apply APA heading styles
• Cite your sources with APA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a reference page at the end

No, it’s not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:

• A restatement of the research problem
• A summary of your key arguments and/or findings
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

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The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

Wealth of Geeks

13 Must-Have Features for Your Next New Car

Posted: March 8, 2024 | Last updated: March 8, 2024

Most modern cars come relatively well-equipped straight out of the box. Still, you’ll soon notice that manufacturers tend to leave some of the most desirable extras on the options list. While nothing beyond a seat, steering wheel, and possibly doors is strictly essential equipment, you may still want to customize your vehicle to suit your needs.

Depending on the brand, you can specify items individually. Still, extras are sometimes bundled into packages with features you might not want or need. Then, there are various transmission and engine options to pick from as well. To help simplify this process and ensure that you get the car you want, we have delved into the automotive options list and selected just what you need to know.

Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS)

Autonomous driving is a big deal these days. And that’s even though no cars can drive themselves yet. They can take some of the strain out of the daily commute by automating part of the driving duties. So, instead of just ticking every box, make sure you only choose the options you’ll use.

Adaptive Cruise Control

This is a great feature both on the highway and in traffic. Not all ACC systems will operate in stop/start driving conditions, so make sure yours does before ticking the box. The technology has been around for years and tends to work as advertised – not always a given with ADAS systems.

Leather Seats

Depending on the vehicle class you’re looking at, you may get fabric seats or leather seats as standard. You can sometimes upgrade to even plusher seat coverings like Merino or Aniline leather. In most cases, fabric seat covers are cooler and less likely to make you sweat in hot weather. However, they don’t look as premium as leather seats. Avoid Alcantara-covered steering wheels, as they get grubby and wear out quickly.

Memory Seats

If you plan to share your car with a friend or family member, memory seats are a good idea. If not, you should save your money as you’ll set them once and never use the memory function again.

Electric Seats

Car seat adjustment can be either manual, partially electric, or fully electric. The electric adjustment allows for finer seat control. It can work in conjunction with preset memory settings. Still, a manually adjusted seat is just fine, especially if you aren’t planning to swap drivers very often.

Heated, Ventilated, and Massaging Seats

Heated seats are essential if you live in the colder parts of the US; the same goes for ventilated seats in the hot states. Some luxurious vehicles can be specified with a massaging function. Unless you drive hundreds of miles a day, you won’t even think of it after the first week of ownership.

Upgraded Audio Systems

There was a time when an audio system was no more than a basic head unit and a pair of small speakers. Aside from the most budget offerings, most new cars come with decent standard audio systems.

If you see an option to upgrade your car’s basic audio setup to a 23-speaker hi-fi system costing hundreds of dollars, then first take a listen to the base system before spending the money. You may be surprised by just how good the standard system is.

Paint color is a very personal and subjective thing. But it is common knowledge that colors like white, black, or silver are the most popular and will do well come resale time. That doesn’t mean you shouldn’t pick the color you want, but if you only intend to keep your car for a short while, then having it painted lime green might be the wrong move.

In general, lighter colors reflect heat, while darker hues absorb it. This is worth remembering if you live in areas that experience extreme hot or cold temperatures. 

Smartphone Integration

Just about everyone has a smartphone these days, and being able to connect it to your car’s infotainment system is key. While Android Auto or Apple CarPlay are really useful, if you aren’t a techie or don’t mind using the onboard navigation setup, then you might be happy with a simple Bluetooth connection that will allow you to play your music and answer phone calls while on the move.

Keyless Entry

Keyless entry is a great feature that saves you from having to search for your key fob whenever you want to enter your vehicle. Hands-free activation of the tailgate is also a useful optional extra if you are regularly caught trying to unlock the car while juggling two shopping bags and a crying baby.

Upgraded Wheels

A set of 20-inch rims is a great way to give your ride a visual boost, but it may be an expensive way to ruin the ride quality and make your steering feel heavy. The higher the side profile of your tires, the better your car will be at absorbing bumps and humps on the road. Low profile tires and large diameter wheels are also more likely to suffer damage from potholes.

Transmission Type

Manuals are best for enthusiasts who like to feel more engaged with their car and enjoy the mechanical interaction. Automatics are generally better for rush-hour traffic and easier to drive in hilly areas. 

Conventional automatic transmissions offer smooth shifts, while Dual-clutch automatics shuffle between gears very quickly but can judder at crawling speeds. CVT or Continuously Variable Transmissions are very smooth and unobtrusive but tend to keep the revs at a constant level. This can sound odd when you are accelerating hard. 

Engine Options

Many cars are offered with a variety of engine options to cater to a broader market segment. Powerful engines tend to use more fuel and will cost more to run, so unless you plan to use the extra performance, a smaller capacity engine or one tuned for economy will be a better fit.

Hybrids offer enhanced economy over regular gas engines, while Plug-in Hybrids allow all-electric driving for short periods, which can save you on gas bills. Bear in mind that you’ll still need to regularly charge these cars to get the most out of them and they are more complex which could result in higher running costs down the line. 

Read More From Wealth of Geeks

• 24 Luxury Cars That Turned Out To Be A Headache
• Classic Cars We Hope to See Back on the Road

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Chemical Science

New perspective crosslinking electrochemistry and other research fields: beyond electrochemical reactors †.

* Corresponding authors

a School of Chemistry and Materials Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China E-mail: [email protected]

Over the years, electrochemical reactors have evolved significantly, with modern reactors now able to achieve a high current density and power output in compact sizes. This leap in performance has not only greatly accelerated the rate of electrochemical reactions but also had a broader impact on the environment. Traditional research perspectives, focused primarily on the internal working systems of reactors, possibly overlook the potential of electrochemical systems in regulating their surrounding environment. A novel research perspective considering the interaction between electrochemical processes and their environmental context as a unified subject of study has gradually emerged alongside the dramatic development of electrochemical techniques. This viewpoint introduces a paradigm shift: electrochemical reactors are not isolated entities but rather are integral parts that interact with their surroundings. Correspondingly, this calls for an innovative research methodology that goes beyond studying the electrochemical processes in isolation. Rather, it integrates the design of the electrochemical system with its specific application environment, ensuring seamless integration for optimal performance under various practical conditions. Therefore, performance metrics should include not only the basic parameters of the electrochemical reactions but also the adaptability of the electrochemical system in real-world scenarios beyond the laboratory. By focusing on environmental integration and application-driven design, the applications of electrochemical technology can be more effectively leveraged. This perspective is exemplified by an electrochemical system based on coupled cathodic oxygen reduction and anodic oxygen evolution reactions. By adopting this new research paradigm, the applications of this electrochemical system can be extended to fields like medical treatment, food science, and microbial fermentation, with an emphasis on tailored designs for these specific application fields. This comprehensive and systematic new research approach aims to fully explore the potential applications of electrochemical technology and foster interdisciplinary collaboration in the electrochemical field.

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New perspective crosslinking electrochemistry and other research fields: beyond electrochemical reactors

Y. Zhang and Y. Wu, Chem. Sci. , 2024, Advance Article , DOI: 10.1039/D3SC06983D

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