are small zooplankton found in freshwater inland lakes and are thought to switch their mode of reproduction from asexual to sexual in response to extreme temperatures (Mitchell 1999). Lakes containing have an average summer surface temperature of 20°C (Harper 1995) but may increase by more than 15% when expose to warm water effluent from power plants, paper mills, and chemical industry (Baker et al. 2000). Could an increase in lake temperature caused by industrial thermal pollution affect the survivorship and reproduction of ?
The sex of is mediated by the environment rather than genetics. Under optimal environmental conditions, populations consist of asexually reproducing females. When the environment shifts may be queued to reproduce sexually resulting in the production of male offspring and females carrying haploid eggs in sacs called ephippia (Mitchell 1999).
The purpose of this laboratory study is to examine the effects of increased water temperature on survivorship and reproduction. This study will help us characterize the magnitude of environmental change required to induce the onset of the sexual life cycle in . Because are known to be a sensitive environmental indicator species (Baker et al. 2000) and share similar structural and physiological features with many aquatic species, they serve as a good model for examining the effects of increasing water temperature on reproduction in a variety of aquatic invertebrates.
We hypothesized that populations reared in water temperatures ranging from 24-26 °C would have lower survivorship, higher male/female ratio among the offspring, and more female offspring carrying ephippia as compared with grown in water temperatures of 20-22°C. To test this hypothesis we reared populations in tanks containing water at either 24 +/- 2°C or 20 +/- 2°C. Over 10 days, we monitored survivorship, determined the sex of the offspring, and counted the number of female offspring containing ephippia.
Comments:
Background information
· Opening paragraph provides good focus immediately. The study organism, gender switching response, and temperature influence are mentioned in the first sentence. Although it does a good job documenting average lake water temperature and changes due to industrial run-off, it fails to make an argument that the 15% increase in lake temperature could be considered “extreme” temperature change.
· The study question is nicely embedded within relevant, well-cited background information. Alternatively, it could be stated as the first sentence in the introduction, or after all background information has been discussed before the hypothesis.
Rationale
· Good. Well-defined purpose for study; to examine the degree of environmental change necessary to induce the Daphnia sexual life
cycle.
How will introductions be evaluated? The following is part of the rubric we will be using to evaluate your papers.
0 = inadequate (C, D or F) | 1 = adequate (BC) | 2 = good (B) | 3 = very good (AB) | 4 = excellent (A) | |
Introduction BIG PICTURE: Did the Intro convey why experiment was performed and what it was designed to test?
| Introduction provides little to no relevant information. (This often results in a hypothesis that “comes out of nowhere.”) | Many key components are very weak or missing; those stated are unclear and/or are not stated concisely. Weak/missing components make it difficult to follow the rest of the paper. e.g., background information is not focused on a specific question and minimal biological rationale is presented such that hypothesis isn’t entirely logical
| Covers most key components but could be done much more logically, clearly, and/or concisely. e.g., biological rationale not fully developed but still supports hypothesis. Remaining components are done reasonably well, though there is still room for improvement. | Concisely & clearly covers all but one key component (w/ exception of rationale; see left) clearly covers all key components but could be a little more concise and/or clear. e.g., has done a reasonably nice job with the Intro but fails to state the approach OR has done a nice job with Intro but has also included some irrelevant background information
| Clearly, concisely, & logically presents all key components: relevant & correctly cited background information, question, biological rationale, hypothesis, approach. |
By charlesworth author services.
The rationale for one’s research is the justification for undertaking a given study. It states the reason(s) why a researcher chooses to focus on the topic in question, including what the significance is and what gaps the research intends to fill. In short, it is an explanation that rationalises the need for the study. The rationale is typically followed by a hypothesis/ research question (s) and the study objectives.
The rationale of a study can be presented both before and after the research is conducted.
The study rationale is predominantly based on preliminary data . A literature review will help you identify gaps in the current knowledge base and also ensure that you avoid duplicating what has already been done. You can then formulate the justification for your study from the existing literature on the subject and the perceived outcomes of the proposed study.
In a research proposal or research article, the rationale would not take up more than a few sentences . A thesis or dissertation would allow for a longer description, which could even run into a couple of paragraphs . The length might even depend on the field of study or nature of the experiment. For instance, a completely novel or unconventional approach might warrant a longer and more detailed justification.
Every research rationale should include some mention or discussion of the following:
Note: This uses a fictional study.
Abc xyz is a newly identified microalgal species isolated from fish tanks. While Abc xyz algal blooms have been seen as a threat to pisciculture, some studies have hinted at their unusually high carotenoid content and unique carotenoid profile. Carotenoid profiling has been carried out only in a handful of microalgal species from this genus, and the search for microalgae rich in bioactive carotenoids has not yielded promising candidates so far. This in-depth examination of the carotenoid profile of Abc xyz will help identify and quantify novel and potentially useful carotenoids from an untapped aquaculture resource .
It is important to describe the rationale of your research in order to put the significance and novelty of your specific research project into perspective. Once you have successfully articulated the reason(s) for your research, you will have convinced readers of the importance of your work!
Maximise your publication success with Charlesworth Author Services.
Charlesworth Author Services , a trusted brand supporting the world’s leading academic publishers, institutions and authors since 1928.
To know more about our services, visit: Our Services
Sign up – stay updated.
We use cookies to offer you a personalized experience. By continuing to use this website, you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with our Cookie Policy.
A research hypothesis is an attempt at explaining a phenomenon or the relationships between phenomena/variables in the real world. Hypotheses are sometimes called “educated guesses”, but they are in fact (or let’s say they should be) based on previous observations, existing theories, scientific evidence, and logic. A research hypothesis is also not a prediction—rather, predictions are ( should be) based on clearly formulated hypotheses. For example, “We tested the hypothesis that KLF2 knockout mice would show deficiencies in heart development” is an assumption or prediction, not a hypothesis.
The research hypothesis at the basis of this prediction is “the product of the KLF2 gene is involved in the development of the cardiovascular system in mice”—and this hypothesis is probably (hopefully) based on a clear observation, such as that mice with low levels of Kruppel-like factor 2 (which KLF2 codes for) seem to have heart problems. From this hypothesis, you can derive the idea that a mouse in which this particular gene does not function cannot develop a normal cardiovascular system, and then make the prediction that we started with.
You might think that these are very subtle differences, and you will certainly come across many publications that do not contain an actual hypothesis or do not make these distinctions correctly. But considering that the formulation and testing of hypotheses is an integral part of the scientific method, it is good to be aware of the concepts underlying this approach. The two hallmarks of a scientific hypothesis are falsifiability (an evaluation standard that was introduced by the philosopher of science Karl Popper in 1934) and testability —if you cannot use experiments or data to decide whether an idea is true or false, then it is not a hypothesis (or at least a very bad one).
So, in a nutshell, you (1) look at existing evidence/theories, (2) come up with a hypothesis, (3) make a prediction that allows you to (4) design an experiment or data analysis to test it, and (5) come to a conclusion. Of course, not all studies have hypotheses (there is also exploratory or hypothesis-generating research), and you do not necessarily have to state your hypothesis as such in your paper.
But for the sake of understanding the principles of the scientific method, let’s first take a closer look at the different types of hypotheses that research articles refer to and then give you a step-by-step guide for how to formulate a strong hypothesis for your own paper.
Hypotheses can be simple , which means they describe the relationship between one single independent variable (the one you observe variations in or plan to manipulate) and one single dependent variable (the one you expect to be affected by the variations/manipulation). If there are more variables on either side, you are dealing with a complex hypothesis. You can also distinguish hypotheses according to the kind of relationship between the variables you are interested in (e.g., causal or associative ). But apart from these variations, we are usually interested in what is called the “alternative hypothesis” and, in contrast to that, the “null hypothesis”. If you think these two should be listed the other way round, then you are right, logically speaking—the alternative should surely come second. However, since this is the hypothesis we (as researchers) are usually interested in, let’s start from there.
If you predict a relationship between two variables in your study, then the research hypothesis that you formulate to describe that relationship is your alternative hypothesis (usually H1 in statistical terms). The goal of your hypothesis testing is thus to demonstrate that there is sufficient evidence that supports the alternative hypothesis, rather than evidence for the possibility that there is no such relationship. The alternative hypothesis is usually the research hypothesis of a study and is based on the literature, previous observations, and widely known theories.
The hypothesis that describes the other possible outcome, that is, that your variables are not related, is the null hypothesis ( H0 ). Based on your findings, you choose between the two hypotheses—usually that means that if your prediction was correct, you reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative. Make sure, however, that you are not getting lost at this step of the thinking process: If your prediction is that there will be no difference or change, then you are trying to find support for the null hypothesis and reject H1.
While the null hypothesis is obviously “static”, the alternative hypothesis can specify a direction for the observed relationship between variables—for example, that mice with higher expression levels of a certain protein are more active than those with lower levels. This is then called a one-tailed hypothesis.
Another example for a directional one-tailed alternative hypothesis would be that
H1: Attending private classes before important exams has a positive effect on performance.
Your null hypothesis would then be that
H0: Attending private classes before important exams has no/a negative effect on performance.
A nondirectional hypothesis does not specify the direction of the potentially observed effect, only that there is a relationship between the studied variables—this is called a two-tailed hypothesis. For instance, if you are studying a new drug that has shown some effects on pathways involved in a certain condition (e.g., anxiety) in vitro in the lab, but you can’t say for sure whether it will have the same effects in an animal model or maybe induce other/side effects that you can’t predict and potentially increase anxiety levels instead, you could state the two hypotheses like this:
H1: The only lab-tested drug (somehow) affects anxiety levels in an anxiety mouse model.
You then test this nondirectional alternative hypothesis against the null hypothesis:
H0: The only lab-tested drug has no effect on anxiety levels in an anxiety mouse model.
Now that we understand the important distinctions between different kinds of research hypotheses, let’s look at a simple process of how to write a hypothesis.
Ask a question, based on earlier research. Research always starts with a question, but one that takes into account what is already known about a topic or phenomenon. For example, if you are interested in whether people who have pets are happier than those who don’t, do a literature search and find out what has already been demonstrated. You will probably realize that yes, there is quite a bit of research that shows a relationship between happiness and owning a pet—and even studies that show that owning a dog is more beneficial than owning a cat ! Let’s say you are so intrigued by this finding that you wonder:
What is it that makes dog owners even happier than cat owners?
Let’s move on to Step 2 and find an answer to that question.
Formulate a strong hypothesis by answering your own question. Again, you don’t want to make things up, take unicorns into account, or repeat/ignore what has already been done. Looking at the dog-vs-cat papers your literature search returned, you see that most studies are based on self-report questionnaires on personality traits, mental health, and life satisfaction. What you don’t find is any data on actual (mental or physical) health measures, and no experiments. You therefore decide to make a bold claim come up with the carefully thought-through hypothesis that it’s maybe the lifestyle of the dog owners, which includes walking their dog several times per day, engaging in fun and healthy activities such as agility competitions, and taking them on trips, that gives them that extra boost in happiness. You could therefore answer your question in the following way:
Dog owners are happier than cat owners because of the dog-related activities they engage in.
Now you have to verify that your hypothesis fulfills the two requirements we introduced at the beginning of this resource article: falsifiability and testability . If it can’t be wrong and can’t be tested, it’s not a hypothesis. We are lucky, however, because yes, we can test whether owning a dog but not engaging in any of those activities leads to lower levels of happiness or well-being than owning a dog and playing and running around with them or taking them on trips.
Make your predictions and define your variables. We have verified that we can test our hypothesis, but now we have to define all the relevant variables, design our experiment or data analysis, and make precise predictions. You could, for example, decide to study dog owners (not surprising at this point), let them fill in questionnaires about their lifestyle as well as their life satisfaction (as other studies did), and then compare two groups of active and inactive dog owners. Alternatively, if you want to go beyond the data that earlier studies produced and analyzed and directly manipulate the activity level of your dog owners to study the effect of that manipulation, you could invite them to your lab, select groups of participants with similar lifestyles, make them change their lifestyle (e.g., couch potato dog owners start agility classes, very active ones have to refrain from any fun activities for a certain period of time) and assess their happiness levels before and after the intervention. In both cases, your independent variable would be “ level of engagement in fun activities with dog” and your dependent variable would be happiness or well-being .
Let’s look at a few examples of good and bad hypotheses to get you started.
Working from home improves job satisfaction. | Employees who are allowed to work from home are less likely to quit within 2 years than those who need to come to the office. |
Sleep deprivation affects cognition. | Students who sleep <5 hours/night don’t perform as well on exams as those who sleep >7 hours/night. |
Animals adapt to their environment. | Birds of the same species living on different islands have differently shaped beaks depending on the available food source. |
Social media use causes anxiety. | Do teenagers who refrain from using social media for 4 weeks show improvements in anxiety symptoms? |
Garlic repels vampires. | Participants who eat garlic daily will not be harmed by vampires. | Nobody gets harmed by vampires— . |
Chocolate is better than vanilla. | No clearly defined variables— . |
If you understood the distinction between a hypothesis and a prediction we made at the beginning of this article, then you will have no problem formulating your hypotheses and predictions correctly. To refresh your memory: We have to (1) look at existing evidence, (2) come up with a hypothesis, (3) make a prediction, and (4) design an experiment. For example, you could summarize your dog/happiness study like this:
(1) While research suggests that dog owners are happier than cat owners, there are no reports on what factors drive this difference. (2) We hypothesized that it is the fun activities that many dog owners (but very few cat owners) engage in with their pets that increases their happiness levels. (3) We thus predicted that preventing very active dog owners from engaging in such activities for some time and making very inactive dog owners take up such activities would lead to an increase and decrease in their overall self-ratings of happiness, respectively. (4) To test this, we invited dog owners into our lab, assessed their mental and emotional well-being through questionnaires, and then assigned them to an “active” and an “inactive” group, depending on…
Note that you use “we hypothesize” only for your hypothesis, not for your experimental prediction, and “would” or “if – then” only for your prediction, not your hypothesis. A hypothesis that states that something “would” affect something else sounds as if you don’t have enough confidence to make a clear statement—in which case you can’t expect your readers to believe in your research either. Write in the present tense, don’t use modal verbs that express varying degrees of certainty (such as may, might, or could ), and remember that you are not drawing a conclusion while trying not to exaggerate but making a clear statement that you then, in a way, try to disprove . And if that happens, that is not something to fear but an important part of the scientific process.
Similarly, don’t use “we hypothesize” when you explain the implications of your research or make predictions in the conclusion section of your manuscript, since these are clearly not hypotheses in the true sense of the word. As we said earlier, you will find that many authors of academic articles do not seem to care too much about these rather subtle distinctions, but thinking very clearly about your own research will not only help you write better but also ensure that even that infamous Reviewer 2 will find fewer reasons to nitpick about your manuscript.
Now that you know how to write a strong research hypothesis for your research paper, you might be interested in our free AI Proofreader , Wordvice AI, which finds and fixes errors in grammar, punctuation, and word choice in academic texts. Or if you are interested in human proofreading , check out our English editing services , including research paper editing and manuscript editing .
On the Wordvice academic resources website , you can also find many more articles and other resources that can help you with writing the other parts of your research paper , with making a research paper outline before you put everything together, or with writing an effective cover letter once you are ready to submit.
This teaching resource helps students understand and apply the importance of having a rationale when writing up a research proposal in a research methods course.
The APA Committee on Associate and Baccalaureate Education awarded a Teaching Resources Award to Vanessa Woods, PhD, for her submission of the assignment on Understanding and Developing a Rationale and Hypotheses for an Experiment. This exemplar (PDF, 230KB) is featured in APA Project Assessment .
You may also like.
Last Updated: May 19, 2023 Fact Checked
This article was co-authored by Jake Adams and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Jake Adams is an academic tutor and the owner of Simplifi EDU, a Santa Monica, California based online tutoring business offering learning resources and online tutors for academic subjects K-College, SAT & ACT prep, and college admissions applications. With over 14 years of professional tutoring experience, Jake is dedicated to providing his clients the very best online tutoring experience and access to a network of excellent undergraduate and graduate-level tutors from top colleges all over the nation. Jake holds a BS in International Business and Marketing from Pepperdine University. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 59,147 times.
A study rationale explains the reason for a study and the importance of its findings for a particular field. Commonly, you'll need to write a study rationale as part of a university course of study, although you may also need to write one as a professional researcher to apply for funding or other support. As a student, your study rationale also justifies how it fulfills the requirements for your degree program or course of study. Do research before you write your study rationale so that you can discuss the previous work your study builds on and explain its significance to your field. Thorough research is also important in the professional context because your rationale will likely become part of the contract if funding or support is approved. [1] X Research source
Tip: A methodology that is more complex, difficult, or expensive requires more justification than one that is straightforward and simple.
Tip: If you have to defend or present your rationale to an advisor or team, try to anticipate the questions they might ask you and include the answers to as many of those questions as possible.
Tip: If you don't have any particular credentials or experience that are relevant to your study, tell the readers of your rationale what drew you to this particular topic and how you became interested in it.
wikiHow Tech Help Pro:
Develop the tech skills you need for work and life
Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.
Published on November 8, 2019 by Rebecca Bevans . Revised on June 22, 2023.
Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics . It is most often used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses, that arise from theories.
There are 5 main steps in hypothesis testing:
Though the specific details might vary, the procedure you will use when testing a hypothesis will always follow some version of these steps.
Step 1: state your null and alternate hypothesis, step 2: collect data, step 3: perform a statistical test, step 4: decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis, step 5: present your findings, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about hypothesis testing.
After developing your initial research hypothesis (the prediction that you want to investigate), it is important to restate it as a null (H o ) and alternate (H a ) hypothesis so that you can test it mathematically.
The alternate hypothesis is usually your initial hypothesis that predicts a relationship between variables. The null hypothesis is a prediction of no relationship between the variables you are interested in.
Discover proofreading & editing
For a statistical test to be valid , it is important to perform sampling and collect data in a way that is designed to test your hypothesis. If your data are not representative, then you cannot make statistical inferences about the population you are interested in.
There are a variety of statistical tests available, but they are all based on the comparison of within-group variance (how spread out the data is within a category) versus between-group variance (how different the categories are from one another).
If the between-group variance is large enough that there is little or no overlap between groups, then your statistical test will reflect that by showing a low p -value . This means it is unlikely that the differences between these groups came about by chance.
Alternatively, if there is high within-group variance and low between-group variance, then your statistical test will reflect that with a high p -value. This means it is likely that any difference you measure between groups is due to chance.
Your choice of statistical test will be based on the type of variables and the level of measurement of your collected data .
Based on the outcome of your statistical test, you will have to decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis.
In most cases you will use the p -value generated by your statistical test to guide your decision. And in most cases, your predetermined level of significance for rejecting the null hypothesis will be 0.05 – that is, when there is a less than 5% chance that you would see these results if the null hypothesis were true.
In some cases, researchers choose a more conservative level of significance, such as 0.01 (1%). This minimizes the risk of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis ( Type I error ).
Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:
See an example
The results of hypothesis testing will be presented in the results and discussion sections of your research paper , dissertation or thesis .
In the results section you should give a brief summary of the data and a summary of the results of your statistical test (for example, the estimated difference between group means and associated p -value). In the discussion , you can discuss whether your initial hypothesis was supported by your results or not.
In the formal language of hypothesis testing, we talk about rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis. You will probably be asked to do this in your statistics assignments.
However, when presenting research results in academic papers we rarely talk this way. Instead, we go back to our alternate hypothesis (in this case, the hypothesis that men are on average taller than women) and state whether the result of our test did or did not support the alternate hypothesis.
If your null hypothesis was rejected, this result is interpreted as “supported the alternate hypothesis.”
These are superficial differences; you can see that they mean the same thing.
You might notice that we don’t say that we reject or fail to reject the alternate hypothesis . This is because hypothesis testing is not designed to prove or disprove anything. It is only designed to test whether a pattern we measure could have arisen spuriously, or by chance.
If we reject the null hypothesis based on our research (i.e., we find that it is unlikely that the pattern arose by chance), then we can say our test lends support to our hypothesis . But if the pattern does not pass our decision rule, meaning that it could have arisen by chance, then we say the test is inconsistent with our hypothesis .
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Methodology
Research bias
Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.
A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.
A hypothesis is not just a guess — it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).
Null and alternative hypotheses are used in statistical hypothesis testing . The null hypothesis of a test always predicts no effect or no relationship between variables, while the alternative hypothesis states your research prediction of an effect or relationship.
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.
Bevans, R. (2023, June 22). Hypothesis Testing | A Step-by-Step Guide with Easy Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved August 30, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/hypothesis-testing/
Other students also liked, choosing the right statistical test | types & examples, understanding p values | definition and examples, what is your plagiarism score.
Knowledge and curiosity lays the foundation of scientific progress. The quest for knowledge has always been a timeless endeavor. Scholars seek reasons to explain the phenomena they observe, paving way for development of research. Every investigation should offer clarity and a well-defined rationale in research is a cornerstone upon which the entire study can be built.
Research rationale is the heartbeat of every academic pursuit as it guides the researchers to unlock the untouched areas of their field. Additionally, it illuminates the gaps in the existing knowledge, and identifies the potential contributions that the study aims to make.
Table of Contents
Research rationale is the “why” behind every academic research. It not only frames the study but also outlines its objectives , questions, and expected outcomes. Additionally, it helps to identify the potential limitations of the study . It serves as a lighthouse for researchers that guides through data collection and analysis, ensuring their efforts remain focused and purposeful. Typically, a rationale is written at the beginning of the research proposal or research paper . It is an essential component of the introduction section and provides the foundation for the entire study. Furthermore, it provides a clear understanding of the purpose and significance of the research to the readers before delving into the specific details of the study. In some cases, the rationale is written before the methodology, data analysis, and other sections. Also, it serves as the justification for the research, and how it contributes to the field. Defining a research rationale can help a researcher in following ways:
Overall, research rationale is essential for providing a clear and convincing argument for the value and importance of your research study, setting the stage for the rest of the research proposal or manuscript. Furthermore, it helps establish the context for your work and enables others to understand the purpose and potential impact of your research.
Research rationale must include certain components which make it more impactful. Here are the key elements of a research rationale:
By incorporating these elements, you provide a strong and convincing case for the legitimacy of your research, which is essential for gaining support and approval from academic institutions, funding agencies, or other stakeholders.
Writing a rationale requires careful consideration of the reasons for conducting the study. It is usually written in the present tense.
Here are some steps to guide you through the process of writing a research rationale:
After writing the initial draft, it is essential to review and revise the research rationale to ensure that it effectively communicates the purpose of your research. The research rationale should be persuasive and compelling, convincing readers that your study is worthwhile and deserves their attention.
Although there is no pre-defined length for a rationale in research, its length may vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project. It also depends on the academic institution or organization, and the guidelines set by the research advisor or funding agency. In general, a research rationale is usually a concise and focused document.
Typically, it ranges from a few paragraphs to a few pages, but it is usually recommended to keep it as crisp as possible while ensuring all the essential elements are adequately covered. The length of a research rationale can be roughly as follows:
A. Around 1 to 3 pages
B. Ensure clear and comprehensive explanation of the research question, its significance, literature review , and methodological approach.
A. Around 3 to 5 pages
B. Ensure an extensive coverage of the literature review, theoretical framework, and research objectives to provide a robust justification for the study.
A. Usually concise. Ranges from few paragraphs to one page
B. The research rationale is typically included as part of the introduction section
However, remember that the quality and content of the research rationale are more important than its length. The reasons for conducting the research should be well-structured, clear, and persuasive when presented. Always adhere to the specific institution or publication guidelines.
In conclusion, the research rationale serves as the cornerstone of a well-designed and successful research project. It ensures that research efforts are focused, meaningful, and ethically sound. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive and logical justification for embarking on a specific investigation. Therefore, by identifying research gaps, defining clear objectives, emphasizing significance, explaining the chosen methodology, addressing ethical considerations, and recognizing potential limitations, researchers can lay the groundwork for impactful and valuable contributions to the scientific community.
So, are you ready to delve deeper into the world of research and hone your academic writing skills? Explore Enago Academy ‘s comprehensive resources and courses to elevate your research and make a lasting impact in your field. Also, share your thoughts and experiences in the form of an article or a thought piece on Enago Academy’s Open Platform .
Join us on a journey of scholarly excellence today!
A rationale of the study can be written by including the following points: 1. Background of the Research/ Study 2. Identifying the Knowledge Gap 3. An Overview of the Goals and Objectives of the Study 4. Methodology and its Significance 5. Relevance of the Research
Start writing a research rationale by defining the research problem and discussing the literature gap associated with it.
A research rationale can be ended by discussing the expected results and summarizing the need of the study.
A rationale for thesis can be made by covering the following points: 1. Extensive coverage of the existing literature 2. Explaining the knowledge gap 3. Provide the framework and objectives of the study 4. Provide a robust justification for the study/ research 5. Highlight the potential of the research and the expected outcomes
A rationale for dissertation can be made by covering the following points: 1. Highlight the existing reference 2. Bridge the gap and establish the context of your research 3. Describe the problem and the objectives 4. Give an overview of the methodology
Rate this article Cancel Reply
Your email address will not be published.
Dr. Sarah Chen stared at her computer screen, her eyes staring at her recently published…
10 Tips to Prevent Research Papers From Being Retracted
Research paper retractions represent a critical event in the scientific community. When a published article…
Google has released its 2024 Scholar Metrics, assessing scholarly articles from 2019 to 2023. This…
Academic integrity is the foundation upon which the credibility and value of scientific findings are…
How to Optimize Your Research Process: A step-by-step guide
For researchers across disciplines, the path to uncovering novel findings and insights is often filled…
Mitigating Survivorship Bias in Scholarly Research: 10 tips to enhance data integrity
The Power of Proofreading: Taking your academic work to the next level
Sign-up to read more
Subscribe for free to get unrestricted access to all our resources on research writing and academic publishing including:
We hate spam too. We promise to protect your privacy and never spam you.
I am looking for Editing/ Proofreading services for my manuscript Tentative date of next journal submission:
In your opinion, what is the most effective way to improve integrity in the peer review process?
The “Golden Thread” Explained Simply (+ Examples)
By: David Phair (PhD) and Alexandra Shaeffer (PhD) | June 2022
The research aims , objectives and research questions (collectively called the “golden thread”) are arguably the most important thing you need to get right when you’re crafting a research proposal , dissertation or thesis . We receive questions almost every day about this “holy trinity” of research and there’s certainly a lot of confusion out there, so we’ve crafted this post to help you navigate your way through the fog.
The golden thread simply refers to the collective research aims , research objectives , and research questions for any given project (i.e., a dissertation, thesis, or research paper ). These three elements are bundled together because it’s extremely important that they align with each other, and that the entire research project aligns with them.
Importantly, the golden thread needs to weave its way through the entirety of any research project , from start to end. In other words, it needs to be very clearly defined right at the beginning of the project (the topic ideation and proposal stage) and it needs to inform almost every decision throughout the rest of the project. For example, your research design and methodology will be heavily influenced by the golden thread (we’ll explain this in more detail later), as well as your literature review.
The research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread) define the focus and scope ( the delimitations ) of your research project. In other words, they help ringfence your dissertation or thesis to a relatively narrow domain, so that you can “go deep” and really dig into a specific problem or opportunity. They also help keep you on track , as they act as a litmus test for relevance. In other words, if you’re ever unsure whether to include something in your document, simply ask yourself the question, “does this contribute toward my research aims, objectives or questions?”. If it doesn’t, chances are you can drop it.
Alright, enough of the fluffy, conceptual stuff. Let’s get down to business and look at what exactly the research aims, objectives and questions are and outline a few examples to bring these concepts to life.
Simply put, the research aim(s) is a statement that reflects the broad overarching goal (s) of the research project. Research aims are fairly high-level (low resolution) as they outline the general direction of the research and what it’s trying to achieve .
True to the name, research aims usually start with the wording “this research aims to…”, “this research seeks to…”, and so on. For example:
“This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail HR.” “This study sets out to assess the interaction between student support and self-care on well-being in engineering graduate students”
As you can see, these research aims provide a high-level description of what the study is about and what it seeks to achieve. They’re not hyper-specific or action-oriented, but they’re clear about what the study’s focus is and what is being investigated.
The research objectives take the research aims and make them more practical and actionable . In other words, the research objectives showcase the steps that the researcher will take to achieve the research aims.
The research objectives need to be far more specific (higher resolution) and actionable than the research aims. In fact, it’s always a good idea to craft your research objectives using the “SMART” criteria. In other words, they should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound”.
Let’s look at two examples of research objectives. We’ll stick with the topic and research aims we mentioned previously.
For the digital transformation topic:
To observe the retail HR employees throughout the digital transformation. To assess employee perceptions of digital transformation in retail HR. To identify the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR.
And for the student wellness topic:
To determine whether student self-care predicts the well-being score of engineering graduate students. To determine whether student support predicts the well-being score of engineering students. To assess the interaction between student self-care and student support when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students.
As you can see, these research objectives clearly align with the previously mentioned research aims and effectively translate the low-resolution aims into (comparatively) higher-resolution objectives and action points . They give the research project a clear focus and present something that resembles a research-based “to-do” list.
Finally, we arrive at the all-important research questions. The research questions are, as the name suggests, the key questions that your study will seek to answer . Simply put, they are the core purpose of your dissertation, thesis, or research project. You’ll present them at the beginning of your document (either in the introduction chapter or literature review chapter) and you’ll answer them at the end of your document (typically in the discussion and conclusion chapters).
The research questions will be the driving force throughout the research process. For example, in the literature review chapter, you’ll assess the relevance of any given resource based on whether it helps you move towards answering your research questions. Similarly, your methodology and research design will be heavily influenced by the nature of your research questions. For instance, research questions that are exploratory in nature will usually make use of a qualitative approach, whereas questions that relate to measurement or relationship testing will make use of a quantitative approach.
Let’s look at some examples of research questions to make this more tangible.
Again, we’ll stick with the research aims and research objectives we mentioned previously.
For the digital transformation topic (which would be qualitative in nature):
How do employees perceive digital transformation in retail HR? What are the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR?
And for the student wellness topic (which would be quantitative in nature):
Does student self-care predict the well-being scores of engineering graduate students? Does student support predict the well-being scores of engineering students? Do student self-care and student support interact when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students?
You’ll probably notice that there’s quite a formulaic approach to this. In other words, the research questions are basically the research objectives “converted” into question format. While that is true most of the time, it’s not always the case. For example, the first research objective for the digital transformation topic was more or less a step on the path toward the other objectives, and as such, it didn’t warrant its own research question.
So, don’t rush your research questions and sloppily reword your objectives as questions. Carefully think about what exactly you’re trying to achieve (i.e. your research aim) and the objectives you’ve set out, then craft a set of well-aligned research questions . Also, keep in mind that this can be a somewhat iterative process , where you go back and tweak research objectives and aims to ensure tight alignment throughout the golden thread.
Alignment is the keyword here and we have to stress its importance . Simply put, you need to make sure that there is a very tight alignment between all three pieces of the golden thread. If your research aims and research questions don’t align, for example, your project will be pulling in different directions and will lack focus . This is a common problem students face and can cause many headaches (and tears), so be warned.
Take the time to carefully craft your research aims, objectives and research questions before you run off down the research path. Ideally, get your research supervisor/advisor to review and comment on your golden thread before you invest significant time into your project, and certainly before you start collecting data .
In this post, we unpacked the golden thread of research, consisting of the research aims , research objectives and research questions . You can jump back to any section using the links below.
As always, feel free to leave a comment below – we always love to hear from you. Also, if you’re interested in 1-on-1 support, take a look at our private coaching service here.
This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...
Thank you very much for your great effort put. As an Undergraduate taking Demographic Research & Methodology, I’ve been trying so hard to understand clearly what is a Research Question, Research Aim and the Objectives in a research and the relationship between them etc. But as for now I’m thankful that you’ve solved my problem.
Well appreciated. This has helped me greatly in doing my dissertation.
An so delighted with this wonderful information thank you a lot.
so impressive i have benefited a lot looking forward to learn more on research.
I am very happy to have carefully gone through this well researched article.
Infact,I used to be phobia about anything research, because of my poor understanding of the concepts.
Now,I get to know that my research question is the same as my research objective(s) rephrased in question format.
I please I would need a follow up on the subject,as I intends to join the team of researchers. Thanks once again.
Thanks so much. This was really helpful.
I know you pepole have tried to break things into more understandable and easy format. And God bless you. Keep it up
i found this document so useful towards my study in research methods. thanks so much.
This is my 2nd read topic in your course and I should commend the simplified explanations of each part. I’m beginning to understand and absorb the use of each part of a dissertation/thesis. I’ll keep on reading your free course and might be able to avail the training course! Kudos!
Thank you! Better put that my lecture and helped to easily understand the basics which I feel often get brushed over when beginning dissertation work.
This is quite helpful. I like how the Golden thread has been explained and the needed alignment.
This is quite helpful. I really appreciate!
The article made it simple for researcher students to differentiate between three concepts.
Very innovative and educational in approach to conducting research.
I am very impressed with all these terminology, as I am a fresh student for post graduate, I am highly guided and I promised to continue making consultation when the need arise. Thanks a lot.
A very helpful piece. thanks, I really appreciate it .
Very well explained, and it might be helpful to many people like me.
Wish i had found this (and other) resource(s) at the beginning of my PhD journey… not in my writing up year… 😩 Anyways… just a quick question as i’m having some issues ordering my “golden thread”…. does it matter in what order you mention them? i.e., is it always first aims, then objectives, and finally the questions? or can you first mention the research questions and then the aims and objectives?
Thank you for a very simple explanation that builds upon the concepts in a very logical manner. Just prior to this, I read the research hypothesis article, which was equally very good. This met my primary objective.
My secondary objective was to understand the difference between research questions and research hypothesis, and in which context to use which one. However, I am still not clear on this. Can you kindly please guide?
In research, a research question is a clear and specific inquiry that the researcher wants to answer, while a research hypothesis is a tentative statement or prediction about the relationship between variables or the expected outcome of the study. Research questions are broader and guide the overall study, while hypotheses are specific and testable statements used in quantitative research. Research questions identify the problem, while hypotheses provide a focus for testing in the study.
Exactly what I need in this research journey, I look forward to more of your coaching videos.
This helped a lot. Thanks so much for the effort put into explaining it.
What data source in writing dissertation/Thesis requires?
What is data source covers when writing dessertation/thesis
This is quite useful thanks
I’m excited and thankful. I got so much value which will help me progress in my thesis.
where are the locations of the reserch statement, research objective and research question in a reserach paper? Can you write an ouline that defines their places in the researh paper?
Very helpful and important tips on Aims, Objectives and Questions.
Thank you so much for making research aim, research objectives and research question so clear. This will be helpful to me as i continue with my thesis.
Thanks much for this content. I learned a lot. And I am inspired to learn more. I am still struggling with my preparation for dissertation outline/proposal. But I consistently follow contents and tutorials and the new FB of GRAD Coach. Hope to really become confident in writing my dissertation and successfully defend it.
As a researcher and lecturer, I find splitting research goals into research aims, objectives, and questions is unnecessarily bureaucratic and confusing for students. For most biomedical research projects, including ‘real research’, 1-3 research questions will suffice (numbers may differ by discipline).
Awesome! Very important resources and presented in an informative way to easily understand the golden thread. Indeed, thank you so much.
Well explained
The blog article on research aims, objectives, and questions by Grad Coach is a clear and insightful guide that aligns with my experiences in academic research. The article effectively breaks down the often complex concepts of research aims and objectives, providing a straightforward and accessible explanation. Drawing from my own research endeavors, I appreciate the practical tips offered, such as the need for specificity and clarity when formulating research questions. The article serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers, offering a concise roadmap for crafting well-defined research goals and objectives. Whether you’re a novice or an experienced researcher, this article provides practical insights that contribute to the foundational aspects of a successful research endeavor.
A great thanks for you. it is really amazing explanation. I grasp a lot and one step up to research knowledge.
I really found these tips helpful. Thank you very much Grad Coach.
I found this article helpful. Thanks for sharing this.
thank you so much, the explanation and examples are really helpful
This is a well researched and superbly written article for learners of research methods at all levels in the research topic from conceptualization to research findings and conclusions. I highly recommend this material to university graduate students. As an instructor of advanced research methods for PhD students, I have confirmed that I was giving the right guidelines for the degree they are undertaking.
Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *
Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.
Table of contents, key differences, comparison chart, usage in research, requirements, compare with definitions, common curiosities, what is a hypothesis, can a rationale be part of a hypothesis, how are hypotheses tested, does every research need a hypothesis, how detailed should a rationale be, how does a hypothesis differ from a theory, what types of research benefit most from a clear rationale, what happens if a hypothesis is refuted, what is the purpose of a rationale, is a rationale subject to testing, can a hypothesis lead to the development of a theory, how should a hypothesis be formulated, why is a rationale important in research, can both a hypothesis and a rationale be included in a single study, how can a rationale affect the outcome of research, share your discovery.
An official website of the United States government
The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.
The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.
Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .
Patricia farrugia.
* Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, the
† Division of Orthopaedic Surgery and the
‡ Departments of Surgery and
§ Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ont
There is an increasing familiarity with the principles of evidence-based medicine in the surgical community. As surgeons become more aware of the hierarchy of evidence, grades of recommendations and the principles of critical appraisal, they develop an increasing familiarity with research design. Surgeons and clinicians are looking more and more to the literature and clinical trials to guide their practice; as such, it is becoming a responsibility of the clinical research community to attempt to answer questions that are not only well thought out but also clinically relevant. The development of the research question, including a supportive hypothesis and objectives, is a necessary key step in producing clinically relevant results to be used in evidence-based practice. A well-defined and specific research question is more likely to help guide us in making decisions about study design and population and subsequently what data will be collected and analyzed. 1
In this article, we discuss important considerations in the development of a research question and hypothesis and in defining objectives for research. By the end of this article, the reader will be able to appreciate the significance of constructing a good research question and developing hypotheses and research objectives for the successful design of a research study. The following article is divided into 3 sections: research question, research hypothesis and research objectives.
Interest in a particular topic usually begins the research process, but it is the familiarity with the subject that helps define an appropriate research question for a study. 1 Questions then arise out of a perceived knowledge deficit within a subject area or field of study. 2 Indeed, Haynes suggests that it is important to know “where the boundary between current knowledge and ignorance lies.” 1 The challenge in developing an appropriate research question is in determining which clinical uncertainties could or should be studied and also rationalizing the need for their investigation.
Increasing one’s knowledge about the subject of interest can be accomplished in many ways. Appropriate methods include systematically searching the literature, in-depth interviews and focus groups with patients (and proxies) and interviews with experts in the field. In addition, awareness of current trends and technological advances can assist with the development of research questions. 2 It is imperative to understand what has been studied about a topic to date in order to further the knowledge that has been previously gathered on a topic. Indeed, some granting institutions (e.g., Canadian Institute for Health Research) encourage applicants to conduct a systematic review of the available evidence if a recent review does not already exist and preferably a pilot or feasibility study before applying for a grant for a full trial.
In-depth knowledge about a subject may generate a number of questions. It then becomes necessary to ask whether these questions can be answered through one study or if more than one study needed. 1 Additional research questions can be developed, but several basic principles should be taken into consideration. 1 All questions, primary and secondary, should be developed at the beginning and planning stages of a study. Any additional questions should never compromise the primary question because it is the primary research question that forms the basis of the hypothesis and study objectives. It must be kept in mind that within the scope of one study, the presence of a number of research questions will affect and potentially increase the complexity of both the study design and subsequent statistical analyses, not to mention the actual feasibility of answering every question. 1 A sensible strategy is to establish a single primary research question around which to focus the study plan. 3 In a study, the primary research question should be clearly stated at the end of the introduction of the grant proposal, and it usually specifies the population to be studied, the intervention to be implemented and other circumstantial factors. 4
Hulley and colleagues 2 have suggested the use of the FINER criteria in the development of a good research question ( Box 1 ). The FINER criteria highlight useful points that may increase the chances of developing a successful research project. A good research question should specify the population of interest, be of interest to the scientific community and potentially to the public, have clinical relevance and further current knowledge in the field (and of course be compliant with the standards of ethical boards and national research standards).
Feasible | ||
Interesting | ||
Novel | ||
Ethical | ||
Relevant |
Adapted with permission from Wolters Kluwer Health. 2
Whereas the FINER criteria outline the important aspects of the question in general, a useful format to use in the development of a specific research question is the PICO format — consider the population (P) of interest, the intervention (I) being studied, the comparison (C) group (or to what is the intervention being compared) and the outcome of interest (O). 3 , 5 , 6 Often timing (T) is added to PICO ( Box 2 ) — that is, “Over what time frame will the study take place?” 1 The PICOT approach helps generate a question that aids in constructing the framework of the study and subsequently in protocol development by alluding to the inclusion and exclusion criteria and identifying the groups of patients to be included. Knowing the specific population of interest, intervention (and comparator) and outcome of interest may also help the researcher identify an appropriate outcome measurement tool. 7 The more defined the population of interest, and thus the more stringent the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the greater the effect on the interpretation and subsequent applicability and generalizability of the research findings. 1 , 2 A restricted study population (and exclusion criteria) may limit bias and increase the internal validity of the study; however, this approach will limit external validity of the study and, thus, the generalizability of the findings to the practical clinical setting. Conversely, a broadly defined study population and inclusion criteria may be representative of practical clinical practice but may increase bias and reduce the internal validity of the study.
Population (patients) | ||
Intervention (for intervention studies only) | ||
Comparison group | ||
Outcome of interest | ||
Time |
A poorly devised research question may affect the choice of study design, potentially lead to futile situations and, thus, hamper the chance of determining anything of clinical significance, which will then affect the potential for publication. Without devoting appropriate resources to developing the research question, the quality of the study and subsequent results may be compromised. During the initial stages of any research study, it is therefore imperative to formulate a research question that is both clinically relevant and answerable.
The primary research question should be driven by the hypothesis rather than the data. 1 , 2 That is, the research question and hypothesis should be developed before the start of the study. This sounds intuitive; however, if we take, for example, a database of information, it is potentially possible to perform multiple statistical comparisons of groups within the database to find a statistically significant association. This could then lead one to work backward from the data and develop the “question.” This is counterintuitive to the process because the question is asked specifically to then find the answer, thus collecting data along the way (i.e., in a prospective manner). Multiple statistical testing of associations from data previously collected could potentially lead to spuriously positive findings of association through chance alone. 2 Therefore, a good hypothesis must be based on a good research question at the start of a trial and, indeed, drive data collection for the study.
The research or clinical hypothesis is developed from the research question and then the main elements of the study — sampling strategy, intervention (if applicable), comparison and outcome variables — are summarized in a form that establishes the basis for testing, statistical and ultimately clinical significance. 3 For example, in a research study comparing computer-assisted acetabular component insertion versus freehand acetabular component placement in patients in need of total hip arthroplasty, the experimental group would be computer-assisted insertion and the control/conventional group would be free-hand placement. The investigative team would first state a research hypothesis. This could be expressed as a single outcome (e.g., computer-assisted acetabular component placement leads to improved functional outcome) or potentially as a complex/composite outcome; that is, more than one outcome (e.g., computer-assisted acetabular component placement leads to both improved radiographic cup placement and improved functional outcome).
However, when formally testing statistical significance, the hypothesis should be stated as a “null” hypothesis. 2 The purpose of hypothesis testing is to make an inference about the population of interest on the basis of a random sample taken from that population. The null hypothesis for the preceding research hypothesis then would be that there is no difference in mean functional outcome between the computer-assisted insertion and free-hand placement techniques. After forming the null hypothesis, the researchers would form an alternate hypothesis stating the nature of the difference, if it should appear. The alternate hypothesis would be that there is a difference in mean functional outcome between these techniques. At the end of the study, the null hypothesis is then tested statistically. If the findings of the study are not statistically significant (i.e., there is no difference in functional outcome between the groups in a statistical sense), we cannot reject the null hypothesis, whereas if the findings were significant, we can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis (i.e., there is a difference in mean functional outcome between the study groups), errors in testing notwithstanding. In other words, hypothesis testing confirms or refutes the statement that the observed findings did not occur by chance alone but rather occurred because there was a true difference in outcomes between these surgical procedures. The concept of statistical hypothesis testing is complex, and the details are beyond the scope of this article.
Another important concept inherent in hypothesis testing is whether the hypotheses will be 1-sided or 2-sided. A 2-sided hypothesis states that there is a difference between the experimental group and the control group, but it does not specify in advance the expected direction of the difference. For example, we asked whether there is there an improvement in outcomes with computer-assisted surgery or whether the outcomes worse with computer-assisted surgery. We presented a 2-sided test in the above example because we did not specify the direction of the difference. A 1-sided hypothesis states a specific direction (e.g., there is an improvement in outcomes with computer-assisted surgery). A 2-sided hypothesis should be used unless there is a good justification for using a 1-sided hypothesis. As Bland and Atlman 8 stated, “One-sided hypothesis testing should never be used as a device to make a conventionally nonsignificant difference significant.”
The research hypothesis should be stated at the beginning of the study to guide the objectives for research. Whereas the investigators may state the hypothesis as being 1-sided (there is an improvement with treatment), the study and investigators must adhere to the concept of clinical equipoise. According to this principle, a clinical (or surgical) trial is ethical only if the expert community is uncertain about the relative therapeutic merits of the experimental and control groups being evaluated. 9 It means there must exist an honest and professional disagreement among expert clinicians about the preferred treatment. 9
Designing a research hypothesis is supported by a good research question and will influence the type of research design for the study. Acting on the principles of appropriate hypothesis development, the study can then confidently proceed to the development of the research objective.
The primary objective should be coupled with the hypothesis of the study. Study objectives define the specific aims of the study and should be clearly stated in the introduction of the research protocol. 7 From our previous example and using the investigative hypothesis that there is a difference in functional outcomes between computer-assisted acetabular component placement and free-hand placement, the primary objective can be stated as follows: this study will compare the functional outcomes of computer-assisted acetabular component insertion versus free-hand placement in patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty. Note that the study objective is an active statement about how the study is going to answer the specific research question. Objectives can (and often do) state exactly which outcome measures are going to be used within their statements. They are important because they not only help guide the development of the protocol and design of study but also play a role in sample size calculations and determining the power of the study. 7 These concepts will be discussed in other articles in this series.
From the surgeon’s point of view, it is important for the study objectives to be focused on outcomes that are important to patients and clinically relevant. For example, the most methodologically sound randomized controlled trial comparing 2 techniques of distal radial fixation would have little or no clinical impact if the primary objective was to determine the effect of treatment A as compared to treatment B on intraoperative fluoroscopy time. However, if the objective was to determine the effect of treatment A as compared to treatment B on patient functional outcome at 1 year, this would have a much more significant impact on clinical decision-making. Second, more meaningful surgeon–patient discussions could ensue, incorporating patient values and preferences with the results from this study. 6 , 7 It is the precise objective and what the investigator is trying to measure that is of clinical relevance in the practical setting.
The following is an example from the literature about the relation between the research question, hypothesis and study objectives:
Study: Warden SJ, Metcalf BR, Kiss ZS, et al. Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound for chronic patellar tendinopathy: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Rheumatology 2008;47:467–71.
Research question: How does low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) compare with a placebo device in managing the symptoms of skeletally mature patients with patellar tendinopathy?
Research hypothesis: Pain levels are reduced in patients who receive daily active-LIPUS (treatment) for 12 weeks compared with individuals who receive inactive-LIPUS (placebo).
Objective: To investigate the clinical efficacy of LIPUS in the management of patellar tendinopathy symptoms.
The development of the research question is the most important aspect of a research project. A research project can fail if the objectives and hypothesis are poorly focused and underdeveloped. Useful tips for surgical researchers are provided in Box 3 . Designing and developing an appropriate and relevant research question, hypothesis and objectives can be a difficult task. The critical appraisal of the research question used in a study is vital to the application of the findings to clinical practice. Focusing resources, time and dedication to these 3 very important tasks will help to guide a successful research project, influence interpretation of the results and affect future publication efforts.
FINER = feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, relevant; PICOT = population (patients), intervention (for intervention studies only), comparison group, outcome of interest, time.
Competing interests: No funding was received in preparation of this paper. Dr. Bhandari was funded, in part, by a Canada Research Chair, McMaster University.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
Associate Editor for Simply Psychology
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Learn about our Editorial Process
Saul McLeod, PhD
Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Empathy involves sharing another’s emotional experience, while sympathy refers to feeling concern for someone in distress without necessarily experiencing their emotions. Emotion regulation (ER) is the process of modifying one’s emotional reactions to meet situational demands. ER may facilitate sympathy by helping individuals manage vicarious distress, allowing them to focus on others’ needs rather than becoming overwhelmed. In contrast, the relationship between ER and empathy is less clear, as empathic responses can occur automatically without regulation. Understanding these distinctions is crucial for interpreting the complex interplay between emotional processes in social-emotional development.
This meta-analysis aimed to clarify associations between emotion regulation (ER) and empathy/sympathy in childhood and adolescence.
While ER, empathy, and sympathy are considered key components of social-emotional development (Malti, 2021), empirical evidence on their interrelations has been mixed.
Some studies find positive associations between ER and empathy/sympathy (e.g., Jambon et al., 2019), while others report null or negative links (e.g., Christensen et al., 2011).
These inconsistencies may stem from variations in how constructs are defined and measured. Despite longstanding arguments to distinguish empathy and sympathy (Eisenberg, 2000), many researchers use the terms interchangeably.
Additionally, ER measures often conflate emotional and behavioral regulation.
By meta-analytically examining these associations and potential moderators, this study aimed to clarify when and why ER relates to empathy and/or sympathy across development.
A key goal was to test if ER differentially relates to empathy versus sympathy when accounting for measurement issues.
This analysis addresses important conceptual and methodological gaps in understanding the foundations of social-emotional competence in childhood and adolescence.
The researchers conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of studies examining associations between ER and empathy/sympathy in typically developing children and adolescents.
Hypothesis 1: There will be a significant positive association between ER and empathy/sympathy.
Result: Supported. Overall combined effect size r = .19, p < .001.
Hypothesis 2: The association between ER and empathy/sympathy will be moderated by measurement conflation.
Result: Supported. Studies with multiply conflated empathy/sympathy measures showed larger effects (r = .40) than unconflated measures (r = .14).
Hypothesis 3: ER will be more strongly associated with sympathy than empathy when accounting for measurement conflation.
Result: Supported. For unconflated measures, ER was significantly associated with sympathy (r = .24, p < .001) but not empathy (r = .04, p = .38).
Hypothesis 4: Associations between ER and empathy/sympathy will be moderated by measurement method.
Result: Partially supported. Nonphysiological ER measures showed larger effects than RSA measures. Shared-method/informant variance inflated effects.
Hypothesis 5: Associations will be consistent across sample characteristics (e.g., age, sex, culture).
Result: Largely supported. Few significant differences across demographic moderators, except lower effects in infancy/toddlerhood vs. older ages.
This meta-analysis provides the first comprehensive synthesis of research on associations between emotion regulation (ER) and empathy/sympathy in childhood and adolescence.
The overall small but significant positive association suggests that better ER relates to higher empathy/sympathy across development.
However, the key insight is that this association appears to be driven primarily by sympathy rather than empathy when measurement issues are accounted for.
The finding that ER was significantly associated with sympathy but not empathy (for unconflated measures) is particularly informative.
It suggests that the ability to regulate one’s emotions may be more critical for developing sympathetic concern for others than for the more automatic process of empathic arousal.
This aligns with theories proposing that ER helps children manage vicarious distress and focus on others’ needs rather than becoming overwhelmed by personal distress.
These results extend previous research by clarifying the distinct roles of empathy and sympathy in relation to ER.
They highlight the importance of differentiating these constructs both conceptually and methodologically – something many past studies have failed to do.
The findings also demonstrate how measurement conflation can lead to inflated or misleading effect sizes, particularly for empathy.
The largely consistent results across age (except early infancy), sex, and culture suggest these associations may reflect fundamental aspects of social-emotional development.
However, the moderation by measurement approaches (e.g., physiological vs. self-report) indicates the need for multi-method assessment to fully capture these complex constructs.
Future research should prioritize longitudinal and experimental designs to clarify causal and developmental processes.
Studies examining potential mediators (e.g., attention allocation, cognitive reappraisal) could further elucidate mechanisms linking ER to sympathy.
Additionally, research on clinical populations could reveal how these associations may differ in the context of psychopathology.
The study had many methodological strengths, including:
This study also has several methodological limitations, including:
These limitations suggest caution in generalizing results, particularly to clinical populations or non-Western cultures.
The cross-sectional data also prevent strong conclusions about developmental processes or causal relationships between ER and empathy/sympathy.
The results have significant implications for understanding social-emotional development and informing interventions:
Variables that may influence the results include measurement approach, presence of psychopathology, and specific ER strategies assessed.
The findings underscore the complexity of social-emotional processes and the need for nuanced, developmentally-sensitive research and interventions.
Yavuz, H. M., Colasante, T., Galarneau, E., & Malti, T. (2024). Empathy, sympathy, and emotion regulation: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 150 (1), 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000426
Christensen, K. J., Padilla-Walker, L. M., Busby, D. M., Hardy, S. A., & Day, R. D. (2011). Relational and social-cognitive correlates of early adolescents’ forgiveness of parents. Journal of adolescence , 34 (5), 903-913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.01.001
Eisenberg, N. (2000). Emotion, regulation, and moral development. Annual review of psychology , 51 (1), 665-697. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.665
Jambon, M., Colasante, T., Peplak, J., & Malti, T. (2019). Anger, sympathy, and children’s reactive and proactive aggression: Testing a differential correlate hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 47 , 1013-1024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0498-3
Malti, T. (2021). Kindness: A perspective from developmental psychology. European Journal of Developmental Psychology , 18 (5), 629-657. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2020.1837617
Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.
Nature Reviews Psychology ( 2024 ) Cite this article
3 Altmetric
Metrics details
Executive function deficits have been reported in both autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, little is known regarding which, if any, of these impairments are shared in children with ADHD and those with ASD. In this Review, we provide an overview of the current literature with a critical eye toward diagnostic, measurement and third-variable considerations that should be leveraged to provide more definitive answers. We conclude that the field’s understanding of executive function profiles in ASD and ADHD is highly limited because most research on each of these disorders has failed to account for the possible co-occurrence and the presence of symptoms of the other disorder. A vast majority of studies have relied on traditional neuropsychological tests and informant-rated executive function scales that have poor specificity and construct validity, and most studies have been unable to account for the well-documented between-person heterogeneity within and across disorders. At present, the most parsimonious conclusion is that children with ADHD and/or ASD tend to perform moderately worse than neurotypical children on a broad range of neuropsychological tests. However, the extent to which these difficulties are unique to one of these disorders or shared, or are attributable to impairments in specific executive functions, remains largely unknown. We end with focused recommendations for future research.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 digital issues and online access to articles
55,14 € per year
only 4,60 € per issue
Buy this article
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edn (American Psychiatric Association, 2022).
Polanczyk, G., de Lima, M. S., Horta, B. L., Biederman, J. & Rohde, L. A. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am. J. Psychiat. 164 , 942–948 (2007).
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Polanczyk, G. V., Willcutt, E. G., Salum, G. A., Kieling, C. & Rohde, L. A. ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: an updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. 43 , 434–442 (2014).
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Boyle, C. A. et al. Trends in the prevalence of developmental disabilities in US children, 1997–2008. Pediatrics 127 , 1034–1042 (2011).
Kogan, M. D. et al. Prevalence of parent-reported diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder among children in the US, 2007. Pediatrics 124 , 1395–1403 (2009).
Federico, A. et al. Predictors of autism spectrum disorder and ADHD: results from the national survey of children’s health. Disabil. Health J. 17 , 101512 (2023).
Aduen, P. A. et al. Social problems in ADHD: is it a skills acquisition or performance problem? J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess. 40 , 440–451 (2018).
Kofler, M. J. et al. Neurocognitive and behavioral predictors of social problems in ADHD: a Bayesian framework. Neuropsychology 32 , 344–355 (2018).
Ros, R. & Graziano, P. A. Social functioning in children with or at risk for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 47 , 213–235 (2018).
Pedreño, C., Pousa, E., Navarro, J., Pàmias, M. & Obiols, J. Exploring the components of advanced theory of mind in autism spectrum disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 47 , 2401–2409 (2017).
Grzadzinski, R., Dick, C., Lord, C. & Bishop, S. Parent-reported and clinician-observed autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): implications for practice under DSM-5. Molec. Autism 7 , 7 (2016).
Article Google Scholar
Locke, J., Shih, W., Kretzmann, M. & Kasari, C. Examining playground engagement between elementary school children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Autism 20 , 653–662 (2016).
Gates, J. A., McNair, M. L., Richards, J. K. & Lerner, M. D. Social knowledge & performance in autism: a critical review & recommendations. Clin. Child. Fam. Psychol. Rev. 26 , 665–689 (2023).
Demetriou, E. A., DeMayo, M. M. & Guastella, A. J. Executive function in autism spectrum disorder: history, theoretical models, empirical findings, and potential as an endophenotype. Front. Psychiat. 10 , 753 (2019).
Kofler, M. J. et al. Reaction time variability in ADHD: a meta-analytic review of 319 studies. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 33 , 795–811 (2013).
Nigg, J. T. Annual research review: on the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 58 , 361–383 (2017).
Barrasso-Catanzaro, C. & Eslinger, P. J. Neurobiological bases of executive function and social-emotional development: typical and atypical brain changes. Fam. Relat. 65 , 108–119 (2016).
Diamond, A. Activities and programs that improve children’s executive functions. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 21 , 335–341 (2012).
Miyake, A. et al. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn. Psychol. 41 , 49–100 (2000).
Diamond, A. Executive functions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 64 , 135–168 (2013).
Baddeley, A. Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 63 , 1–29 (2012).
Wiemers, E. A. & Redick, T. S. Working memory capacity and intra-individual variability of proactive control. Acta Psychol. 182 , 21–31 (2018).
Raiker, J. S., Rapport, M. D., Kofler, M. J. & Sarver, D. E. Objectively-measured impulsivity and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): testing competing predictions from the working memory and behavioral inhibition models of ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 40 , 699–713 (2012).
Patros, C. H. et al. Visuospatial working memory underlies choice-impulsivity in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Res. Dev. Disabil. 38 , 134–144 (2015).
Singh, L. J., Gaye, F., Cole, A. M., Chan, E. S. & Kofler, M. J. Central executive training for ADHD: effects on academic achievement, productivity, and success in the classroom. Neuropsychology 36 , 330–345 (2022).
Demaray, M. K. & Jenkins, L. N. Relations among academic enablers and academic achievement in children with and without high levels of parent-rated symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Psychol. Sch. 48 , 573–586 (2011).
Barkley, R. A. Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol. Bull. 121 , 65–94 (1997).
Pennington, B. F. & Ozonoff, S. Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 37 , 51–87 (1996).
Rapport, M. D., Chung, K.-M., Shore, G. & Isaacs, P. A conceptual model of child psychopathology: implications for understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and treatment efficacy. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 30 , 48–58 (2001).
Kofler, M. J., Raiker, J. S., Sarver, D. E., Wells, E. L. & Soto, E. F. Is hyperactivity ubiquitous in ADHD or dependent on environmental demands? Evidence from meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 46 , 12–24 (2016).
Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory deficits and social problems in children with ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 39 , 805–817 (2011).
Groves, N. B. et al. Executive functioning and emotion regulation in children with and without ADHD. Res. Child. Adolesc. Psychopathol. 50 , 721–735 (2021).
Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E. & Raiker, J. S. ADHD and working memory: the impact of central executive deficits and exceeding storage/rehearsal capacity on observed inattentive behavior. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 38 , 149–161 (2010).
Hill, E. L. Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism. Dev. Rev. 24 , 189–233 (2004).
Leung, R. C., Vogan, V. M., Powell, T. L., Anagnostou, E. & Taylor, M. J. The role of executive functions in social impairment in autism spectrum disorder. Child. Neuropsychol. 22 , 336–344 (2016).
Mostert-Kerckhoffs, M. A., Staal, W. G., Houben, R. H. & de Jonge, M. V. Stop and change: inhibition and flexibility skills are related to repetitive behavior in children and young adults with autism spectrum disorders. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 45 , 3148–3158 (2015).
Ozonoff, S. in Learning and Cognition in Autism: Current Issues in Autism (eds Schopler, E. & Mesibov, G. B.) 199–219 (Springer, 1995).
Karr, J. E. et al. The unity and diversity of executive functions: a systematic review and re-analysis of latent variable studies. Psychol. Bull. 144 , 1147–1185 (2018).
Miyake, A. & Friedman, N. P. The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: four general conclusions. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 21 , 8–14 (2012).
Wiebe, S. A. et al. The structure of executive function in 3-year-olds. J. Exp. Child. Psychol. 108 , 436–452 (2011).
Zelazo, P. D., Craik, F. I. & Booth, L. Executive function across the life span. Acta Psychol. 115 , 167–183 (2004).
Lerner, M. D. & Lonigan, C. J. Executive function among preschool children: unitary versus distinct abilities. J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess. 36 , 626–639 (2014).
St Clair-Thompson, H. L. & Gathercole, S. E. Executive functions and achievements in school: shifting, updating, inhibition, and working memory. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 59 , 745–759 (2006).
Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and organizational skills problems in ADHD. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 59 , 57–67 (2018).
Jaroslawska, A. J., Gathercole, S. E., Logie, M. R. & Holmes, J. Following instructions in a virtual school: does working memory play a role? Mem. Cogn. 44 , 580–589 (2016).
Engle, R. W. & Kane, M. J. in The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory Vol. 44 (ed. Ross, B. H.) 145–199 (Elsevier Science, 2004).
Chacko, A., Kofler, M. & Jarrett, M. Improving outcomes for youth with ADHD: a conceptual framework for combined neurocognitive and skill-based treatment approaches. Clin. Child. Fam. Psychol. Rev. 17 , 368–384 (2014).
Antshel, K. M. & Russo, N. Autism spectrum disorders and ADHD: overlapping phenomenology, diagnostic issues, and treatment considerations. Curr. Psychiat. Rep. 21 , 34 (2019).
Townes, P. et al. Do ASD and ADHD have distinct executive function deficits? A systematic review and meta-analysis of direct comparison studies. J. Atten. Disord. 27 , 1571–1582 (2023).
Sullivan, G. M. & Feinn, R. Using effect size — or why the P value is not enough. J. Grad. Med. Educ. 4 , 279–282 (2012).
Kofler, M. J. et al. Executive functioning heterogeneity in pediatric ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 47 , 273–286 (2019).
Pievsky, M. A. & McGrath, R. E. The neurocognitive profile of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review of meta-analyses. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. 33 , 143–157 (2018).
Kasper, L. J., Alderson, R. M. & Hudec, K. L. Moderators of working memory deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 32 , 605–617 (2012).
Fosco, W. D., Kofler, M. J., Groves, N. B., Chan, E. S. & Raiker, J. S. Which ‘working’components of working memory aren’t working in youth with ADHD? J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 48 , 647–660 (2020).
Wager, T. D. & Smith, E. E. Neuroimaging studies of working memory. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 3 , 255–274 (2003).
Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: a bifactor modeling approach. Neuropsychology 34 , 686–698 (2020).
Pauli-Pott, U. & Becker, K. Neuropsychological basic deficits in preschoolers at risk for ADHD: a meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 31 , 626–637 (2011).
Schoemaker, K., Mulder, H., Deković, M. & Matthys, W. Executive functions in preschool children with externalizing behavior problems: a meta-analysis. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 41 , 457–471 (2013).
Demetriou, E. A. et al. Autism spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis of executive function. Mol. Psychiat. 23 , 1198–1204 (2018).
Habib, A., Harris, L., Pollick, F. & Melville, C. A meta-analysis of working memory in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. PLoS ONE 14 , e0216198 (2019).
Wang, Y. et al. A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychol. Rev. 27 , 46–61 (2017).
Edmunds, S. R., Colman, C., Vidal, P. & Faja, S. Brief report: examining the links between language processes and working memory impairments in toddlers and preschoolers with ASD. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 52 , 1872–1880 (2022).
Lai, C. L. E. et al. Meta-analysis of neuropsychological measures of executive functioning in children and adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res. 10 , 911–939 (2017).
Yerys, B. E. et al. Set-shifting in children with autism spectrum disorders: reversal shifting deficits on the Intradimensional/Extradimensional Shift Test correlate with repetitive behaviors. Autism 13 , 523–538 (2009).
Yerys, B. E. et al. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms moderate cognition and behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Res. 2 , 322–333 (2009).
Karalunas, S. L. et al. Overlapping and distinct cognitive impairments in attention-deficit/hyperactivity and autism spectrum disorder without intellectual disability. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 46 , 1705–1716 (2018).
Craig, F. et al. A review of executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychiat. Dis. Treat . 12 , 1191–1202 (2016).
Google Scholar
Neely, R. J., Green, J. L., Sciberras, E., Hazell, P. & Anderson, V. Relationship between executive functioning and symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in 6–8 year old children. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 46 , 3270–3280 (2016).
Sinzig, J., Morsch, D., Bruning, N., Schmidt, M. H. & Lehmkuhl, G. Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. Ment. Health 2 , 1–4 (2008).
Benallie, K. J., McClain, M. B., Bakner, K. E., Roanhorse, T. & Ha, J. Executive functioning in children with ASD + ADHD and ASD + ID: a systematic review. Res. Autism Spectr. Disord. 86 , 101807 (2021).
Carroll, A. G. Comparing Executive Functioning Impairments Across Clinical Groups: Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and Their Comorbid Occurrence in Children PhD thesis https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/comparing-executive-functioning-impairments/docview/2594697995/se-2?accountid=15728 (Indiana Univ. Pennsylvania, 2022).
Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Sarver, D. E. & Kofler, M. J. ADHD and behavioral inhibition: a re-examination of the stop-signal task. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 36 , 989–998 (2008).
Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D. & Kofler, M. J. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and behavioral inhibition: a meta-analytic review of the stop-signal paradigm. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 35 , 745–758 (2007).
Wright, L., Lipszyc, J., Dupuis, A., Thayapararajah, S. W. & Schachar, R. Response inhibition and psychopathology: a meta-analysis of go/no-go task performance. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 123 , 429–439 (2014).
Lipszyc, J. & Schachar, R. Inhibitory control and psychopathology: a meta-analysis of studies using the stop signal task. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 16 , 1064–1076 (2010).
Lansbergen, M. M., Kenemans, J. L. & van Engeland, H. Stroop interference and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology 21 , 251–262 (2007).
Mullane, J. C., Corkum, P. V., Klein, R. M. & McLaughlin, E. Interference control in children with and without ADHD: a systematic review of Flanker and Simon task performance. Child. Neuropsychol. 15 , 321–342 (2009).
Geurts, H. M., van den Bergh, S. F. W. M. & Ruzzano, L. Prepotent response inhibition and interference control in autism spectrum disorders: two meta-analyses. Autism Res. 7 , 407–420 (2014).
Tonizzi, I., Giofrè, D. & Usai, M. C. Inhibitory control in autism spectrum disorders: meta-analyses on indirect and direct measures. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 52 , 4949–4965 (2022).
Irwin, L. N., Kofler, M. J., Soto, E. F. & Groves, N. B. Do children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have set shifting deficits? Neuropsychology 33 , 470–481 (2019).
Irwin, L. N., Groves, N. B., Soto, E. F. & Kofler, M. J. Is there a functional relation between set shifting and hyperactivity in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 26 , 1019–1027 (2020).
Irwin Harper, L. N., Groves, N. B., Marsh, C. L., Cole, A. M. & Kofler, M. J. Does training working memory or inhibitory control produce far-transfer improvements in set shifting for children with ADHD? A randomized controlled trial. Child. Neuropsychol. 29 , 825–845 (2023).
Reed, P. Behavioural flexibility of children with autism spectrum disorder on a card-sorting task with varying task difficulty. Heliyon 4 , e00842 (2018).
Miller, H. L., Ragozzino, M. E., Cook, E. H., Sweeney, J. A. & Mosconi, M. W. Cognitive set shifting deficits and their relationship to repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 45 , 805–815 (2015).
Chen, S.-F. et al. Deficits in executive functions among youths with autism spectrum disorders: an age-stratified analysis. Psychol. Med. 46 , 1625–1638 (2016).
Boshomane, T. T., Pillay, B. J. & Meyer, A. Mental flexibility (set-shifting) deficits in children with ADHD: a replication and extension study. J. Psychol. Afr. 31 , 344–349 (2021).
Fair, D. A., Bathula, D., Nikolas, M. A. & Nigg, J. T. Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 109 , 6769–6774 (2012).
Dajani, D. R., Llabre, M. M., Nebel, M. B., Mostofsky, S. H. & Uddin, L. Q. Heterogeneity of executive functions among comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders. Sci. Rep. 6 , 36566 (2016).
Karalunas, S. L. et al. Heterogeneity in development of aspects of working memory predicts longitudinal attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptom change. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 126 , 774–792 (2017).
Irwin, L. N. et al. Activities of daily living and working memory in pediatric attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child. Neuropsychol. 27 , 468–490 (2021).
Korkman, M., Kirk, U. & Kemp, S. NEPSY II: Clinical and Interpretive Manual (Harcourt Assessment, PsychCorp, 2007).
Wechsler, D. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children 5th edn (WISC-V) ( Pearson, 2014).
Andersson, A. et al. Research review: the strength of the genetic overlap between ADHD and other psychiatric symptoms — a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 61 , 1173–1183 (2020).
Yerys, B. E. et al. Evaluation of the ADHD rating scale in youth with autism. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 47 , 90–100 (2017).
Zhou, X., Reynolds, C., Zhu, J. & Kamphaus, R. W. Differentiating autism from ADHD in children and adolescents using BASC-3. J. Pediatr. Neuropsychol. 6 , 61–65 (2020).
Rosen, T. E., Mazefsky, C. A., Vasa, R. A. & Lerner, M. D. Co-occurring psychiatric conditions in autism spectrum disorder. Int. Rev. Psychiat. 30 , 40–61 (2018).
Mazefsky, C. A. et al. ASD, a psychiatric disorder, or both? Psychiatric diagnoses in adolescents with high-functioning ASD. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 41 , 516–523 (2012).
Miodovnik, A., Harstad, E., Sideridis, G. & Huntington, N. Timing of the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics 136 , e830–e837 (2015).
Katusic, M. Z., Myers, S. M., Weaver, A. L. & Voigt, R. G. IQ in autism spectrum disorder: a population-based birth cohort study. Pediatrics 148 , e2020049899 (2021).
Witwer, A. N. & Lecavalier, L. Validity of comorbid psychiatric disorders in youngsters with autism spectrum disorders. J. Dev. Phys. Disabil. 22 , 367–380 (2010).
Musser, E. D. et al. Shared familial transmission of autism spectrum and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 55 , 819–827 (2014).
Lerner, M. D. et al. Verbal ability and psychiatric symptoms in clinically referred inpatient and outpatient youth with ASD. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 48 , 3689–3701 (2018).
Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E. & Conway, A. R. Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 128 , 309–331 (1999).
Giofrè, D., Mammarella, I. C. & Cornoldi, C. The structure of working memory and how it relates to intelligence in children. Intelligence 41 , 396–406 (2013).
Tourva, A., Spanoudis, G. & Demetriou, A. Cognitive correlates of developing intelligence: the contribution of working memory, processing speed and attention. Intelligence 54 , 136–146 (2016).
Lilienfeld, S. O. & Landfield, K. in P sychopathology: History, Diagnosis, and Empirical Foundations (eds Craighead, W. E., Miklowitz, D. J. & Craighead, L. W.) 1–33 (John Wiley & Sons, 2008).
Brown, T. A. & Barlow, D. H. A proposal for a dimensional classification system based on the shared features of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders: implications for assessment and treatment. Psychol. Assess. 21 , 256–271 (2009).
Cuthbert, B. N. & Insel, T. R. Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: the seven pillars of RDoC. BMC Med. 11 , 126 (2013).
Sokolova, E. et al. A causal and mediation analysis of the comorbidity between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). J. Autism Dev. Disord. 47 , 1595–1604 (2017).
Krakowski, A. D. et al. Characterizing the ASD–ADHD phenotype: measurement structure and invariance in a clinical sample. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 63 , 1534–1543 (2022).
Anning, K. L., Langley, K., Hobson, C. & Van Goozen, S. H. M. Dimensional associations between executive function processes and symptoms of ADHD, ASD, oppositional defiance and anxiety in young school-referred children. Cortex 167 , 132–147 (2023).
Snyder, H. R., Miyake, A. & Hankin, B. L. Advancing understanding of executive function impairments and psychopathology: bridging the gap between clinical and cognitive approaches. Front. Psychol. 6 , 328 (2015).
Semrud-Clikeman, M. & Ellison, P. A. T. Child Neuropsychology (Springer, 2009).
Sattler, J. Assessment of Children: Cognitive Foundations and Applications and Resource Guide to Accompany Assessment of Children: Cognitive Foundations and Applications (Sattler, 2018).
Benson, N. F. et al. Test use and assessment practices of school psychologists in the United States: findings from the 2017 national survey. J. Sch. Psychol. 72 , 29–48 (2019).
Delis, D. C., Kaplan, E. & Kramer, J. H. Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System Assessment D-KEFS Database 10.1037/t15082-000 (APA PsycTests, 2001).
Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S. & Mather, N. Woodcock–Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities (Riverside Publishing, 2001).
Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Sergeant, J. A., Nigg, J. & Willcutt, E. Executive dysfunction and delay aversion in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: nosologic and diagnostic implications. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. Clin. N. Am. 17 , 367–384 (2008).
Canivez, G. L., Dombrowski, S. C. & Watkins, M. W. Factor structure of the WISC-V in four standardization age groups: exploratory and hierarchical factor analyses with the 16 primary and secondary subtests. Psychol. Sch. 55 , 741–769 (2018).
Floyd, R. G., Bergeron, R., Hamilton, G. & Parra, G. R. How do executive functions fit with the Cattell–Horn–Carroll model? Some evidence from a joint factor analysis of the Delis–Kaplan executive function system and the Woodcock–Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities. Psychol. Sch. 47 , 721–738 (2010).
Singh, L. J., Floyd, R. G., Reynolds, M. R., Pike, N. A. & Huenergarde, M. C. What does the developmental Neuropsychological Assessment–II (NEPSY-II) measure in children ages 7 to 12? A structural and psychometric analysis. Child Neuropsychol . https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2024.2357376 (2024).
Abad, F. J., Sorrel, M. A., Román, F. J. & Colom, R. The relationships between WAIS-IV factor index scores and educational level: a bifactor model approach. Psychol. Assess. 28 , 987 (2016).
Canivez, G. L. et al. Construct validity of the WISC-V in clinical cases: exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the 10 primary subtests. Assessment 27 , 274–296 (2020).
Canivez, G. L., Watkins, M. W. & Dombrowski, S. C. Factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — Fifth edition: exploratory factor analyses with the 16 primary and secondary subtests. Psychol. Assess. 28 , 975–986 (2016).
Dombrowski, S. C., Canivez, G. L. & Watkins, M. W. Factor structure of the 10 WISC-V primary subtests across four standardization age groups. Contemp. Sch. Psychol. 22 , 90–104 (2018).
Dombrowski, S. C., Canivez, G. L., Watkins, M. W. & Beaujean, A. A. Exploratory bifactor analysis of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — Fifth edition with the 16 primary and secondary subtests. Intelligence 53 , 194–201 (2015).
Gignac, G. E. & Watkins, M. W. Bifactor modeling and the estimation of model-based reliability in the WAIS-IV. Multivar. Behav. Res. 48 , 639–662 (2013).
Kranzler, J. H., Benson, N. & Floyd, R. G. Using estimated factor scores from a bifactor analysis to examine the unique effects of the latent variables measured by the WAIS-IV on academic achievement. Psychol. Assess. 27 , 1402–1416 (2015).
Watkins, M. W. et al. Long-term stability of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — 5th edition scores in a clinical sample. Appl. Neuropsychol. Child. 11 , 422–428 (2022).
Wells, E. L., Kofler, M. J., Soto, E. F., Schaefer, H. S. & Sarver, D. E. Assessing working memory in children with ADHD: minor administration and scoring changes may improve digit span backward’s construct validity. Res. Dev. Disabil. 72 , 166–178 (2018).
Conway, A. R. et al. Working memory span tasks: a methodological review and user’s guide. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 12 , 769–786 (2005).
Soto, E. F. et al. Executive functioning rating scales: ecologically valid or construct invalid? Neuropsychology 34 , 605–619 (2020).
Rapport, M. D., Orban, S. A., Kofler, M. J. & Friedman, L. M. Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 33 , 1237–1252 (2013).
Redick, T. S. & Lindsey, D. R. Complex span and n -back measures of working memory: a meta-analysis. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 20 , 1102–1113 (2013).
Isquith, P. K., Roth, R. M. & Gioia, G. Contribution of rating scales to the assessment of executive functions. Appl. Neuropsychol. Child. 2 , 125–132 (2013).
Toplak, M. E., West, R. F. & Stanovich, K. E. Practitioner review: do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct? J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 54 , 131–143 (2013).
Miranda, A., Colomer, C., Mercader, J., Fernández, M. I. & Presentación, M. J. Performance-based tests versus behavioral ratings in the assessment of executive functioning in preschoolers: associations with ADHD symptoms and reading achievement. Front. Psychol. 6 , 545 (2015).
Nordvall, O., Jonsson, B. & Neely, A. S. Self-reported and performance-based measures of executive functions in interned youth. Psychol. Crime. Law 23 , 240–253 (2017).
Spiegel, J. A., Lonigan, C. J. & Phillips, B. M. Factor structure and utility of the behavior rating inventory of executive function — preschool version. Psychol. Assess. 29 , 172–185 (2017).
Friedman, N. P. & Miyake, A. Unity and diversity of executive functions: individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex 86 , 186–204 (2017).
Biederman, J. et al. Impact of executive function deficits and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on academic outcomes in children. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 72 , 757–766 (2004).
Coghill, D. R., Seth, S. & Matthews, K. A comprehensive assessment of memory, delay aversion, timing, inhibition, decision making and variability in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: advancing beyond the three-pathway models. Psychol. Med. 44 , 1989–2001 (2014).
Nigg, J. T., Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E. & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes? Biol. Psychiat. 57 , 1224–1230 (2005).
Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V. & Pennington, B. F. Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol. Psychiat. 57 , 1336–1346 (2005).
Solanto, M. V. et al. The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD: a supplement to the NIMH multimodal treatment study of AD/HD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 29 , 215–228 (2001).
Sonuga-Barke, E., Bitsakou, P. & Thompson, M. Beyond the dual pathway model: evidence for the dissociation of timing, inhibitory, and delay-related impairments in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. 49 , 345–355 (2010).
Willoughby, M. T. & Blair, C. B. Measuring executive function in early childhood: a case for formative measurement. Psychol. Assess. 28 , 319 (2016).
Redick, T. S. et al. Measuring working memory capacity with automated complex span tasks. Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 28 , 164–171 (2012).
Nee, D. E. et al. A meta-analysis of executive components of working memory. Cereb. Cortex 23 , 264–282 (2013).
Kofler, M. J. et al. Rethinking hyperactivity in pediatric ADHD: preliminary evidence for a reconceptualization of hyperactivity/impulsivity from the perspective of informant perceptual processes. Psychol. Assess. 32 , 752–767 (2020).
Hwang-Gu, S.-L. et al. Symptoms of ADHD affect intrasubject variability in youths with autism spectrum disorder: an ex-Gaussian analysis. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 48 , 455–468 (2019).
Fosco, W. D. et al. Inhibitory control and information processing in ADHD: comparing the dual task and performance adjustment hypotheses. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 47 , 961–974 (2019).
Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and intraindividual variability as neurocognitive indicators in ADHD: examining competing model predictions. Neuropsychology 28 , 459–471 (2014).
Rapport, M. D. et al. Working memory deficits in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): the contribution of central executive and subsystem processes. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 36 , 825–837 (2008).
Kofler, M. J. et al. A randomized controlled trial of central executive training (CET) versus inhibitory control training (ICT) for ADHD. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 88 , 738–756 (2020).
Chan, E. S. M., Gaye, F., Cole, A. M., Singh, L. J. & Kofler, M. J. Central executive training for ADHD: impact on organizational skills at home and school. A randomized controlled trial. Neuropsychology 37 , 859–871 (2023).
Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E. & Wells, E. L. Working memory and increased activity level (hyperactivity) in ADHD: experimental evidence for a functional relation. J. Atten. Disord. 24 , 1330–1344 (2020).
Rapport, M. D. et al. Hyperactivity in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a ubiquitous core symptom or manifestation of working memory deficits? J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 37 , 521–534 (2009).
Schachar, R. J. et al. Autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: shared or unique neurocognitive profiles? Res. Child. Adolesc. Psychopathol. 51 , 17–31 (2023).
Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Hudec, K. L., Sarver, D. E. & Kofler, M. J. Competing core processes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): do working memory deficiencies underlie behavioral inhibition deficits? J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 38 , 497–507 (2010).
Alderson, R. M. et al. Working memory and behavioral inhibition in boys with ADHD: an experimental examination of competing models. Child. Neuropsychol. 23 , 255–272 (2017).
Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and information processing in ADHD: evidence for directionality of effects. Neuropsychology 34 , 127–143 (2020).
Goschke, T. Dysfunctions of decision-making and cognitive control as transdiagnostic mechanisms of mental disorders: advances, gaps, and needs in current research. Int. J. Methods Psychiat. Res. 23 , 41–57 (2014).
Bennett, C. L., Petros, T. V., Johnson, M. & Ferraro, F. R. Individual differences in the influence of time of day on executive functions. Am. J. Psychol. 121 , 349–361 (2008).
Lara, T., Madrid, J. A. & Correa, Á. The vigilance decrement in executive function is attenuated when individual chronotypes perform at their optimal time of day. PLoS ONE 9 , e88820 (2014).
Constantino, J. N. & Todd, R. D. Autistic traits in the general population: a twin study. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 60 , 524–530 (2003).
Robinson, E. B. et al. Evidence that autistic traits show the same etiology in the general population and at the quantitative extremes (5%, 2.5%, and 1%). Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 68 , 1113–1121 (2011).
McLennan, J. D. Understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder as a continuum. Can. Fam. Physician 62 , 979–982 (2016).
PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Yang, Y. et al. Child executive function and future externalizing and internalizing problems: a meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal studies. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 97 , 102194 (2022).
Dennis, M. et al. Why IQ is not a covariate in cognitive studies of neurodevelopmental disorders. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 15 , 331–343 (2009).
Howard, S. J. et al. Challenging socioeconomic status: a cross-cultural comparison of early executive function. Dev. Sci. 23 , e12854 (2020).
Alloway, T. P., Alloway, R. G. & Wootan, S. Home sweet home: does where you live matter to working memory and other cognitive skills? J. Exp. Child. Psychol. 124 , 124–131 (2014).
Bitsko, R. H. et al. Mental health surveillance among children — United States, 2013–2019. MMWR Suppl. 71 , 1–42 (2022).
Maenner, M. J. et al. Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years — autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2020. MMWR Surveill. Summ. 72 , 1–14 (2023).
Lai, M.-C., Lombardo, M. V., Auyeung, B., Chakrabarti, B. & Baron-Cohen, S. Sex/gender differences and autism: setting the scene for future research. J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. 54 , 11–24 (2015).
Millenet, S. et al. Sex-specific trajectories of ADHD symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood. Eur. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. 27 , 1067–1075 (2018).
Cockcroft, K. Are working memory models WEIRD? Testing models of working memory in a non-WEIRD sample. Neuropsychology 36 , 456–467 (2022).
Cheon, B. K., Melani, I. & Hong, Y. How USA-centric is psychology? An archival study of implicit assumptions of generalizability of findings to human nature based on origins of study samples. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 11 , 928–937 (2020).
Webber-Ritchey, K. J. et al. Recruitment strategies to optimize participation by diverse populations. Nurs. Sci. Q. 34 , 235–243 (2021).
Rowley, S. J. & Camacho, T. C. Increasing diversity in cognitive developmental research: issues and solutions. J. Cogn. Dev. 16 , 683–692 (2015).
Buchanan, N. T., Perez, M., Prinstein, M. J. & Thurston, I. B. Upending racism in psychological science: strategies to change how science is conducted, reported, reviewed, and disseminated. Am. Psychol. 76 , 1097–1112 (2021).
Werner, K. M., Inzlicht, M. & Ford, B. Q. Whither inhibition? Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 31 , 333–339 (2022).
Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and inhibitory control deficits in children with ADHD: an experimental evaluation of competing model predictions. Front. Psychiat. 15 , 1277583 (2024).
Howlett, C. A., Miles, S., Berryman, C., Phillipou, A. & Moseley, G. L. Conflation between self-report and neurocognitive assessments of cognitive flexibility: a critical review of the Jingle Fallacy. Aust. J. Psychol. 75 , 2174684 (2023).
Abikoff, H. et al. Remediating organizational functioning in children with ADHD: immediate and long-term effects from a randomized controlled trial. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 81 , 113–128 (2013).
Verbruggen, F., Chambers, C. D. & Logan, G. D. Fictitious inhibitory differences: how skewness and slowing distort the estimation of stopping latencies. Psychol. Sci. 24 , 352–362 (2013).
Duncan, A., Tamm, L., Birnschein, A. M. & Becker, S. P. Clinical correlates of sluggish cognitive tempo in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism 23 , 1354–1362 (2019).
McFayden, T. et al. Sluggish cognitive tempo in autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, and their comorbidity: implications for impairment. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 51 , 195–202 (2022).
Becker, S. P. et al. The internal, external, and diagnostic validity of sluggish cognitive tempo: a meta-analysis and critical review. J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. 55 , 163–178 (2016).
Becker, S. P. & Barkley, R. A. Sluggish cognitive tempo. In Oxford Textbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (eds Banaschewski, T., Coghill, D. & Zuddas, A.) Ch. 15, 147–153 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2018).
McBurnett, K. et al. Structure and validity of sluggish cognitive tempo using an expanded item pool in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 42 , 37–48 (2014).
Kofler, M. J. et al. What cognitive processes are “sluggish” in sluggish cognitive tempo? J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 87 , 1030 (2019).
Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L. & Waschbusch, D. A. Relationship between sluggish cognitive tempo and sleep, psychological, somatic, and cognitive problems and impairment in children with autism and children with ADHD. Clin. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 26 , 518–530 (2021).
Reinvall, O. et al. Sluggish cognitive tempo in children and adolescents with higher functioning autism spectrum disorders: social impairments and internalizing symptoms. Scand. J. Psychol. 58 , 389–399 (2017).
Mueller, A. K. et al. Sluggish cognitive tempo and its neurocognitive, social and emotive correlates: a systematic review of the current literature. J. Mol. Psychiat. 2 , 5 (2014).
Tamm, L. et al. Neurocognition in children with cognitive disengagement syndrome: accurate but slow. Child. Neuropsychol. 30 , 221–240 (2024).
Stark, R. & Mandl, H. Bridging the gap between basic and applied research by an integrative research approach. Educ. Res. Eval. 13 , 249–261 (2007).
Munro, C. L. & Savel, R. H. Narrowing the 17-year research to practice gap. Am. J. Crit. Care 25 , 194–196 (2016).
Mallonee, S., Fowler, C. & Istre, G. R. Bridging the gap between research and practice: a continuing challenge. Inj. Prev. 12 , 357–359 (2006).
American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association (APA) & National Council on Measurement in Education. Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (AERA, 2014).
Kane, M. J. & Engle, R. W. Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: the contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 132 , 47–70 (2003).
Hicks, K. L., Foster, J. L. & Engle, R. W. Measuring working memory capacity on the web with the online working memory lab (the OWL). J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 5 , 478–489 (2016).
Normand, S. & Tannock, R. Screening for working memory deficits in the classroom: the psychometric properties of the working memory rating scale in a longitudinal school-based study. J. Atten. Disord. 18 , 294–304 (2014).
Download references
Authors and affiliations.
Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
Michael J. Kofler, Leah J. Singh & Sherelle L. Harmon
Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Elia F. Soto
Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
Emma M. Jaisle, Jessica N. Smith & Kathleen E. Feeney
Department of Psychology, Barnard College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
Erica D. Musser
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
All authors researched data for the article and contributed substantially to the discussion of the content. M.J.K., E.F.S., L.J.S., S.L.H, E.M.J., J.N.S., K.E.F. and E.D.M. wrote the article and reviewed and/or edited the manuscript before submission.
Correspondence to Michael J. Kofler .
Competing interests.
The authors declare no competing interests.
Peer review information.
Nature Reviews Psychology thanks Alisha Pollastri, Russel Schachar and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information, rights and permissions.
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
Reprints and permissions
Cite this article.
Kofler, M.J., Soto, E.F., Singh, L.J. et al. Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Nat Rev Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-024-00350-9
Download citation
Accepted : 23 July 2024
Published : 29 August 2024
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-024-00350-9
Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:
Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative
Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
The rationale of the study is the justification for taking on a given study. It explains the reason the study was conducted or should be conducted. This means the study rationale should explain to the reader or examiner why the study is/was necessary. It is also sometimes called the "purpose" or "justification" of a study.
5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways. To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if…then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable. If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will improve.
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. It is a preliminary answer to your question that helps guide the research process. Consider a study designed to examine the relationship between sleep deprivation and test ...
Step 5: Phrase your hypothesis in three ways. To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if … then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable. If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will improve.
Here are some good research hypothesis examples: "The use of a specific type of therapy will lead to a reduction in symptoms of depression in individuals with a history of major depressive disorder.". "Providing educational interventions on healthy eating habits will result in weight loss in overweight individuals.".
Simple hypothesis. A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation between exactly two variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example, "Smoking is a prominent cause of lung cancer." The dependent variable, lung cancer, is dependent on the independent variable, smoking. 4.
Ideally, your research should be structured as observation, rationale, hypothesis, objectives, methods, results and conclusions. To write your rationale, you should first write a background on what all research has been done on your study topic. Follow this with 'what is missing' or 'what are the open questions of the study'.
INTRODUCTION. Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses.1,2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results.3,4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the ...
The rationale for research is also sometimes referred to as the justification for the study. When writing your rational, first begin by introducing and explaining what other researchers have published on within your research field. Having explained the work of previous literature and prior research, include discussion about where the gaps in ...
Examples. A research hypothesis, in its plural form "hypotheses," is a specific, testable prediction about the anticipated results of a study, established at its outset. It is a key component of the scientific method. Hypotheses connect theory to data and guide the research process towards expanding scientific understanding.
Write the hypothesis on the board or present on PowerPoint. 5) Solicit suggestions for a meaningful interaction hypothesis—noting there is more than one way to express these. Write the interaction hypothesis on the board or present on PowerPoint. 6) Spend 2 minutes reminding the students what a rationale is (as you have covered it before in
Dr. Michelle Harris, Dr. Janet Batzli,Biocore. This section provides guidelines on how to construct a solid introduction to a scientific paper including background information, study question, biological rationale, hypothesis, and general approach. If the Introduction is done well, there should be no question in the reader's mind why and on ...
19 November, 2021. The rationale for one's research is the justification for undertaking a given study. It states the reason (s) why a researcher chooses to focus on the topic in question, including what the significance is and what gaps the research intends to fill. In short, it is an explanation that rationalises the need for the study.
Another example for a directional one-tailed alternative hypothesis would be that. H1: Attending private classes before important exams has a positive effect on performance. Your null hypothesis would then be that. H0: Attending private classes before important exams has no/a negative effect on performance.
Hypotheses. A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study. This usually involves proposing a possible relationship between two variables: the independent variable (what the researcher changes) and the dependant variable (what the research measures).
The APA Committee on Associate and Baccalaureate Education awarded a Teaching Resources Award to Vanessa Woods, PhD, for her submission of the assignment on Understanding and Developing a Rationale and Hypotheses for an Experiment. This exemplar (PDF, 230KB) is featured in APA Project Assessment.
3. Identify the ways your study will correct those shortcomings. Carefully explain the ways in which your study will answer the research question in a way that the previous studies failed to do so. Be persuasive to convince your readers that your study will contribute something both useful and necessary to the field.
Present the findings in your results and discussion section. Though the specific details might vary, the procedure you will use when testing a hypothesis will always follow some version of these steps. Table of contents. Step 1: State your null and alternate hypothesis. Step 2: Collect data. Step 3: Perform a statistical test.
Research rationale helps to ideate new topics which are less addressed. Additionally, it offers fresh perspectives on existing research and discusses the shortcomings in previous studies. It shows that your study aims to contribute to filling these gaps and advancing the field's understanding. 3. Originality and Novelty.
Another problem / solution / rationale example: Scaffolding is the support provided by the teacher or a significant other, such as a classmate, which helps students in learning (Gibbons, 2015). Some students were having difficulty with the language at entry while others, particularly those who had completed the pre-tasks, had few problems.
Research Aims: Examples. True to the name, research aims usually start with the wording "this research aims to…", "this research seeks to…", and so on. For example: "This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail HR.". "This study sets out to assess the interaction between student ...
A hypothesis is a foundational element in scientific research, proposing a tentative explanation or prediction that can be tested through experimentation. In contrast, a rationale provides the underlying reasons for a particular decision or approach, often detailed in academic and strategic contexts. In constructing a hypothesis, researchers ...
The development of the research question, including a supportive hypothesis and objectives, is a necessary key step in producing clinically relevant results to be used in evidence-based practice. A well-defined and specific research question is more likely to help guide us in making decisions about study design and population and subsequently ...
Rationale. This meta-analysis aimed to clarify associations between emotion regulation (ER) and empathy/sympathy in childhood and adolescence. ... Hypothesis 1: There will be a significant positive association between ER and empathy/sympathy. Result: ... Associations will be consistent across sample characteristics (e.g., age, sex, culture).
For example, deficits in one or more of these executive function components have been implicated theoretically and/or experimentally in functional and behavioural outcomes relevant to ASD and/or ...