history of wrestling essay

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What Can the History of Wrestling Tell Us and How to Write an Essay About It?

Wrestling, one of the oldest forms of combat, tells a story across various cultures and epochs. Its rich history provides a unique lens through which we can understand different societies and the human condition. When writing an essay about the history of wrestling, there are key points to consider that will illuminate the past and engage the reader in a journey through time.

The Ancient Origins of Wrestling

Wrestling’s origins can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where it was more than just a sport – it was a crucial part of their culture and mythology. In ancient Greece, wrestling was a central feature in the Olympic Games, symbolizing strength, honor, and heroism. It was also a training exercise for soldiers in both Greek and Roman societies. The depictions of wrestling in ancient art and literature, such as the famous Greek vases or the Roman mosaics, provide valuable insights into the techniques and significance of these societies. When writing about this era, focusing on how wrestling reflected the values and the daily life of these ancient cultures can provide a deeper understanding of their worldviews. 

Wrestling isn’t just a fun activity – it can also be a fascinating research topic. If you need to write a wrestling-related paper for college, you may be wondering how to write a history essay on this peculiar subject. If so, check out some handy tips on history essay writing.

Wrestling in Different Cultures

As wrestling evolved, it took on different forms in various cultures, each with its unique style and significance. For example, in Japan, Sumo wrestling became a ceremonial sport steeped in Shinto tradition, while in Mongolia, Bökh wrestling is a test of strength and skill that is integral to their nomadic culture. In India, the traditional sport of Kushti combines wrestling with a spiritual lifestyle. Exploring these diverse forms of wrestling can reveal how different societies have adapted and incorporated wrestling into their cultural fabric. An essay on this topic can highlight the diversity and universality of wrestling, showing how a single sport can take on numerous meanings worldwide.

Wrestling and Modern Sports Culture

The transition of wrestling from traditional combat to a modern sport offers insights into the evolution of sports culture and society’s changing attitudes towards physical competition. Modern wrestling, as seen in the Olympics and various international competitions, has standardized rules and weight classes, reflecting a shift towards a more organized and globally unified sport. This evolution can be tied to broader societal changes, such as the rise of international sports organizations and the increasing value placed on sportsmanship and fair play. An essay focusing on this aspect can discuss how wrestling’s development mirrors the evolution of modern sports and what it tells us about our contemporary values and global connections.

Writing an Essay on the History of Wrestling

When writing an essay on the history of wrestling, it’s important to approach the topic comprehensively and engagingly:

• Start with Research: Gather information from credible sources about the different eras and cultural forms of wrestling. Historical texts, academic journals, and reputable websites are good starting points.
• Create a Strong Thesis: Your thesis should reflect the central idea of your essay. For example, it could be about how wrestling has evolved over time or what it reveals about different cultures.
• Organize Your Points: Structure your essay in a logical flow. You might start with ancient wrestling, move through different cultural forms, and end with modern-day wrestling.
• Use Descriptive Language: Make your writing vivid and engaging by describing the art, culture, and techniques associated with wrestling.
• Connect to Larger Themes: Tie your discussion of wrestling to broader historical or cultural themes, such as changes in societal values, the evolution of sports, or the expression of cultural identity.

The history of wrestling offers a fascinating window into the human past, reflecting our cultural diversity and shared experiences. An essay on this topic educates and entertains, drawing connections between different periods and cultures. By understanding how to approach such an essay, writers can effectively convey the rich and varied story of wrestling, capturing the imagination of their readers and shedding light on this timeless sport.

Author: Ruby Reginald

Ruby Reginald is a dedicated article writer whose passion for wrestling shines through in her engaging and insightful pieces. With a keen eye for the sport’s intricacies and a deep appreciation for its history and culture, she brings a unique and informed perspective to her readers. Ruby’s love for wrestling and talent for storytelling make her articles a favorite among sports enthusiasts and casual readers alike.

Since 2001, WrestlingAttitude is your number one source for WWE wrestling news, rumors and results. Make sure to follow us on social media to get the latest news in real time! We are facebook, Twitter, Pinterest and Instagram at the following links:

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The forms of wrestling we know today as Greco-Roman, Folkstyle, and Freestyle found their origins in the lands on the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea.

These lands are where the Ancient Greeks resided, and developed the art of wrestling. The Greeks influenced the styles and skills of wrestling of today."The sport of wrestling has been highly developed for over five thousand years, and it is believed to have begun part of the soldiers training," The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling stated. Proof of this lie on the walls of the tomb in Beni Hasan in the form of pictures.

These pictures are about five thousand years old and show holds from both the standing positions and the ground positions. From that time to the present wrestling turned from military skill to a sport skill. (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-2) During this time wrestling was also developed in other cultures, like that of ancient Greeks. Wrestling to the Greeks was not only part of the soldier's training, but was also a part of everyday life. Youth did not only learn grammar, art of speech, and mathematics, but young men also went through physical training, which consist of dancing and the art of wrestling. The Greeks saw wrestling as a development of grace and an activity that demands a high skill and physical fitness.

(The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-3) Greek literature points out this skill of wrestling was used by gods and kings, as well as by soldiers and private citizens, in their efforts to overcome evil and brute force. Most of the heroes of Greek mythology were considered skillful wrestlers. Their view of skill most likely led to its introduction as a major sport in the Olympic Games in the year 704 B.C. (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-4) Wrestling was a major sport in most Greek festivals, including the Olympic Games. In these festivals sports other than wrestling, such as foot races, chariot-races, throwing of the discos and javelin, and boxing, were also included.

These events with variations and additions made up the program of the athletic festivals of Greece through the whole history. The events of the Olympic Games survived even through the rise and the fall of the Roman Empire. "With the conquering of the Greece by the Romans, the Greek form of wrestling began to lose popularity, since, the Romans didn't have the same sense of grace and skill," stated The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling. The Romans were also not interested in brute strength and violence.(The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-5) One last thing that brought the decline of Greek wrestling, is the participation of many more countries in the Olympics.

This was due to The Romans allowing other countries in the Olympics. The Greek spectators became tired of seeing their local wrestling heroes being defeated by competitors from the East. The success of the Asian wrestlers and others help along the decline of Greek Wrestling. (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-5) Wrestling technique has changed very little, and many of the modern holds were derived from the sport as it was practiced in ancient Egypt, in 704, included wrestling.

"Evidence that matches were increasingly being fixed and competitors rigged, however, cut short popularity of the sport, and it lay dormant for hundreds of years," stated the Concise Encyclopedia of Sports. (Concise Encyclopedia of Sports, 7-3) During the 19th century, Freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling regained popular interest. Circuses and carnivals in the United States sponsored wrestling matches, and this activity led directly to the revival of wrestling. William Muldon was declared the first American Champion. Following World War I, fixed professional wrestling matches threatened to discredit wrestling, but the Federation International des Luttes Amateur founded in 1921, saved the sport. This governing body codified rules, set standards, and organized competitions for all amateur 7 freestyle and 6 Greco-Roman weight divisions, an increase from only having one weight division in the 1904 Olympics.

(Concise Encyclopedia of Sports, 7-3) In the Olympic and international completions wrestlers compete against others approximately the same weight. Ten weight classifications exist from 15.8 pounds too more than 220.4 pounds. Competitors must wear tight-fitting one-piece singlets. The wrestling mat is a raised platform, 6-8 meters square.

A match is scheduled for three rounds, each period lasting three minutes, with 1-minute rest periods between them. Matches are won either by pinning an opponent's shoulders to the mat and holding them for one second or by accumulating the greater number of points during the match. A referee, judge, and a mat chairman decide on the awarding of penalty points. Wrestlers are not allowed to pull hair, kick, punch, grip the edge of the mat, use head locks, and bend an opponent's arm more than 90 degrees or use any hold that may endanger the physical well-being of the opponent.

(Sports and Games, 5-4) There are many different styles of wrestling. One of the most popular that is used in high school and college in the United States is folkstyle. This style developed in the United States as a modified form of the European Freestyle with variations influenced by the American Indian and early pioneers. In fact several history references indicated that both George Washington and Abe Lincoln were good Folkstyle wrestlers. (Rules of the Game, 4-2) Folkstyle concentrates on control and the execution of moves, with points awarded for successfully executing a move to gain control or escape your opponents' control. The wrestler on top must constantly work towards a pin while the wrestler on bottom must continually try to escape or reverse.

In some aspects, Folkstyle is similar to Freestyle terms of wrestling technique used, however the rules influence the selection of attacks and the conduct of the match. (Rules of the Game, 4-2) Another popular style of wrestling is Freestyle. Freestyle is used in the Olympic games. It is similar folkstyle wrestling in terms of technique, but the rules and scoring are different. Anyone who wrestles folkstyle can wrestler freestyle.

Because of the rules there are additional moves that can be don such as the gut wrench and leg lace. Matches are usually on five-minute period in the open and high school divisions and two periods with short break between for the younger age groups. Wrestlers start on their feet, and points are accumulated by taking the opponent to the mat and exposing his back. Points are given for back exposure without having to hold your man down on his back for a certain period of time. Your opponents' back does not have to touch the mat, just be exposed towards the mat for a fraction of a second.

"A pin is accomplished by bringing both of your opponents' shoulders or scapula in contact with the mat at the same time," according to Rules of the Game. "Since the emphasis in Freestyle is on attack and exposure, just controlling the opponent from the top with no continuos back exposure is considered a stalemate, and both wrestlers are brought to their feet after a short time in order for the bout to continue," stated in Rules of the Game. Also, a wrestler can easily score points or pin himself by exposing his own back unless he is very careful how he performs his movements. There are no points for escapes and you can stall on bottom after you are takedown. Your objective on bottom is to gain a stalemate and to be restarted from the neutral position.

Attempting an escape may only give your opponents points if you expose your back to the mat. You can score 1 point for a reversal from the defensive position. However, you may give up points if you expose your back while attempting a reversal. (Rules of the Game,4-3) Another important points about both Freestyle and Greco-Roman is that there is no penalty for failed throws. If a wrestler attempts a throw and ends up being taken down by his opponent, his opponent does not score points and wrestling is restarted from the neutral position. Also, either wrestler can lock his hands at any time.

Wrestling is an old sport, it is extremely popular in ancient Greek and Roman societies. When the Romans conquered the Greeks, their two styles of wrestling gradually merged and created the internationally popular style of wrestling named Greco-Roman. Although other styles of wrestling are more popular in the United States, Greco-Roman is very popular in many other parts of the world. The unique characteristics that makes Greco-Roman so different from other styles of wrestling is the fact that holds or attacks below the waist are not permitted. For this reason, upper body throws are the norm.(Rules of the Game, 4-4) Like Freestyle, Greco-Roman concentrates on taking your opponent to the mat and exposing his back, without using or attacking the legs.

Points for takedowns and exposures are nearly identical between Freestyle and Greco-Roman, so long as the legs are not used. Both Freestyle and Greco-Roman, in addition to judo, are recognized Olympic sports. (Rules of the Game, 4-4) In addition to these styles there are many other styles of wrestling. In the national style of Ireland, "collar-and-elbow" wrestling, the competitors wear short jackets with strong collars and grasp each other's collar behind the left ear with the right hand. The position of the hands cannot be changed until the fall is secure.

Changing the position of the hands is a foul and loses the fall. Two shoulders and one hip or both hips and one shoulder must touch the floor at the same time for this fall. Wrestling in Japan dates more than 2,000 years. Two styles are popular: sumo and jujitsu. Sumo is the national style.

Weight is the main factor, and so most Japanese sumo wrestlers are very large. The methods are similar to those of Greco-Roman, but touching the floor with any part of the body except the feet or leaving the mat loses the fall. A similar sport is popular in India, but both shoulders must be pinned to the mat at the same time. (Encyclopedia of World Sports, 3-2) Jujitsu was introduced into Japan from China many centuries ago. "For ages it was a secret art, guarded jealously by the nobility", stated the Encyclopedia of World Sports. Now it is known not only throughout Japan many other countries.

During World War II and there after all United States combat troops learned judo, which is similar to jujitsu, as means of fighting without weapons. (Encyclopedia of World Sports, 3-3) The art of falling without injury is the first principle of jujitsu. Often an expert will fall purposely in order to trap an unwary opponent into a dangerous position. This is called conquering by yielding. Another type of wrestling, called sambo, was recognized in 1964 by the International Federation of Amateur Wrestling.

Developed in the Soviet Union in the 1930s, it is popular today in Russia and also in Bulgaria and Japan. Based on regional wrestling styles, sambo resembles both jujitsu and Greco-Roman. There are many different variations of the sport of wrestling but they all still carry the tradition that the early Greeks started many years ago. This tradition is hard work, discipline and grace. Bibliography Brosch, R.

How Did Sports Begin? New York: David McKay company, Inc., 1970 Carson, Ray. The Ancient Greeks and the Sport of Wrestling. New Jersey: Barnes and Co., 1974. Lewinson, David, Christensen, Karen.

III Encyclopedia of World Sports. California: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996. Sports and Games.

California: Sydney, 1997. The Consise Encyclopedia of Sports. USA: Grolier Incorporated, 1970. Rules of the Game. USA: Paddington Press LTD, 1974. "Wrestling.

" Comptors Encyclopedia. 1995 ed.

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Wrestling History Essay

The forms of wrestling we know today as Greco-Roman, Folkstyle, and Freestyle found their origins in the lands on the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. These lands are where the Ancient Greeks resided, and developed the art of wrestling. The Greeks influenced the styles and skills of wrestling of today. “The sport of wrestling has been highly developed for over five thousand years, and it is believed to have begun part of the soldiers training,” The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling stated.

Proof of this lie on the walls of the tomb in Beni Hasan in the form of pictures. These pictures are about five thousand years old and show holds from both the standing positions and the ground positions. From that time to the present wrestling turned from military skill to a sport skill. (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-2) During this time wrestling was also developed in other cultures, like that of ancient Greeks. Wrestling to the Greeks was not only part of the soldier’s training, but was also a part of everyday life .

Youth did not only learn grammar, art of speech, and mathematics, but young men also went through hysical training, which consist of dancing and the art of wrestling. The Greeks saw wrestling as a development of grace and an activity that demands a high skill and physical fitness . (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-3) Greek literature points out this skill of wrestling was used by gods and kings, as well as by soldiers and private citizens, in their efforts to overcome evil and brute force. Most of the heroes of Greek mythology were considered skillful wrestlers.

Their view of skill most likely led to its introduction as a major sport in the Olympic Games in the year 704 B. C. (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-4) Wrestling was a major sport in most Greek festivals, including the Olympic Games. In these festivals sports other than wrestling, such as foot races, chariot-races, throwing of the discos and javelin, and boxing, were also included. These events with variations and additions made up the program of the athletic festivals of Greece through the whole history.

The events of the Olympic Games survived even through the rise and the fall of the Roman Empire . With the conquering of the Greece by the Romans, the Greek orm of wrestling began to lose popularity, since, the Romans didn’t have the same sense of grace and skill,” stated The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling. The Romans were also not interested in brute strength and violence. (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-5) One last thing that brought the decline of Greek wrestling, is the participation of many more countries in the Olympics. This was due to The Romans allowing other countries in the Olympics.

The Greek spectators became tired of seeing their local wrestling heroes being defeated by competitors from the East. The success of the Asian restlers and others help along the decline of Greek Wrestling. (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-5) Wrestling technique has changed very little, and many of the modern holds were derived from the sport as it was practiced in ancient Egypt , in 704, included wrestling.

“Evidence that matches were increasingly being fixed and competitors rigged, however, cut short popularity of the sport, and it lay dormant for hundreds of years,” stated the Concise Encyclopedia of Sports. Concise Encyclopedia of Sports, 7-3) During the 19th century , Freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling regained popular interest. Circuses and carnivals in the United States sponsored wrestling matches, and this activity led directly to the revival of wrestling. William Muldon was declared the first American Champion. Following World War I, fixed professional wrestling matches threatened to discredit wrestling, but the Federation International des Luttes Amateur founded in 1921, saved the sport.

This governing body codified rules, set standards, and organized competitions for all amateur 7 freestyle and 6 Greco-Roman weight divisions, an increase from only having one weight division in the 1904 Olympics. (Concise Encyclopedia of Sports, 7-3) In the Olympic and international completions wrestlers compete against others approximately the same weight. Ten weight classifications exist from 15. 8 pounds too more than 220. 4 pounds. Competitors must wear tight-fitting one-piece singlets. The wrestling mat is a raised platform, 6-8 meters square.

A match is scheduled for three rounds, each period lasting three minutes , with 1-minute rest periods between them. Matches are won either by pinning an opponent’s shoulders to the mat and holding them for one second or by accumulating the greater number of points during the match. A referee, judge, nd a mat chairman decide on the awarding of penalty points. Wrestlers are not allowed to pull hair, kick, punch, grip the edge of the mat, use head locks, and bend an opponent’s arm more than 90 degrees or use any hold that may endanger the physical well-being of the opponent.

There are many different styles of wrestling. One of the most popular that is used in high school and college in the United States is folkstyle. This style developed in the United States as a modified form of the European Freestyle with variations influenced by the American Indian and early pioneers. In fact several history references indicated that both George Washington and Abe Lincoln were good Folkstyle wrestlers. (Rules of the Game, 4-2) Folkstyle concentrates on control and the execution of moves, with points awarded for successfully executing a move to gain control or escape your opponents’ control.

The wrestler on top must constantly work towards a pin while the wrestler on bottom must continually try to escape or reverse. In some aspects, Folkstyle is similar to Freestyle terms of wrestling technique used, however the rules influence the selection of attacks and the conduct of the match. Rules of the Game, 4-2) Another popular style of wrestling is Freestyle. Freestyle is used in the Olympic games. It is similar folkstyle wrestling in terms of technique, but the rules and scoring are different. Anyone who wrestles folkstyle can wrestler freestyle.

Because of the rules there are additional moves that can be don such as the gut wrench and leg lace. Matches are usually on five-minute period in the open and high school divisions and two periods with short break between for the younger age groups. Wrestlers start on their feet, and points are accumulated by taking the opponent o the mat and exposing his back. Points are given for back exposure without having to hold your man down on his back for a certain period of time .

Your opponents’ back does not have to touch the mat, just be exposed towards the mat for a fraction of a second. A pin is accomplished by bringing both of your opponents’ shoulders or scapula in contact with the mat at the same time,” according to Rules of the Game. “Since the emphasis in Freestyle is on attack and exposure, just controlling the opponent from the top with no continuos back exposure is considered a stalemate, and both wrestlers are rought to their feet after a short time in order for the bout to continue,” stated in Rules of the Game. Also, a wrestler can easily score points or pin himself by exposing his own back unless he is very careful how he performs his movements.

There are no points for escapes and you can stall on bottom after you are takedown. Your objective on bottom is to gain a stalemate and to be restarted from the neutral position. Attempting an escape may only give your opponents points if you expose your back to the mat. You can score 1 point for a reversal from the defensive position. However, you may give up points if you expose your back while attempting a reversal. (Rules of the Game,4-3) Another important points about both Freestyle and Greco-Roman is that there is no penalty for failed throws.

If a wrestler attempts a throw and ends up being taken down by his opponent, his opponent does not score points and wrestling is restarted from the neutral position. Also, either wrestler can lock his hands at any time. Wrestling is an old sport, it is extremely popular in ancient Greek and Roman societies. When the Romans conquered the Greeks, their wo styles of wrestling gradually merged and created the internationally popular style of wrestling named Greco-Roman. Although other styles of wrestling are more popular in the United States , Greco-Roman is very popular in many other parts of the world.

The unique characteristics that makes Greco-Roman so different from other styles of wrestling is the fact that holds or attacks below the waist are not permitted. For this reason, upper body throws are the norm. (Rules of the Game, 4-4) Like Freestyle, Greco-Roman concentrates on taking your opponent to the mat and exposing his back, without using or attacking the legs. Points for takedowns and exposures are nearly identical between Freestyle and Greco-Roman, so long as the legs are not used.

Both Freestyle and Greco-Roman, in addition to judo, are recognized Olympic sports. Rules of the Game, 4-4) In addition to these styles there are many other styles of wrestling. In the national style of Ireland, “collar-and-elbow” wrestling, the competitors wear short jackets with strong collars and grasp each other’s collar behind the left ear with the right hand. The position of the hands cannot be changed until the fall is secure. Changing the position of the hands is a foul nd loses the fall. Two shoulders and one hip or both hips and one shoulder must touch the floor at the same time for this fall.

Wrestling in Japan dates more than 2,000 years. Two styles are popular: sumo and jujitsu. Sumo is the national style. Weight is the main factor, and so most Japanese sumo wrestlers are very large. The methods are similar to those of Greco-Roman, but touching the floor with any part of the body except the feet or leaving the mat loses the fall. A similar sport is popular in India, but both shoulders must be pinned to the mat at the same time.

Jujitsu was introduced into Japan from China many centuries ago. For ages it was a secret art, guarded jealously by the nobility”, stated the Encyclopedia of World Sports. Now it is known not only throughout Japan many other countries. During World War II and there after all United States combat troops learned judo, which is similar to jujitsu, as means of fighting without weapons. (Encyclopedia of World Sports, 3-3) The art of falling without injury is the first principle of jujitsu. Often an expert will fall purposely in order to trap an unwary opponent nto a dangerous position.

This is called conquering by yielding. Another type of wrestling, called sambo, was recognized in 1964 by the International Federation of Amateur Wrestling. Developed in the Soviet Union in the 1930s, it is popular today in Russia and also in Bulgaria and Japan. Based on regional wrestling styles, sambo resembles both jujitsu and Greco-Roman. There are many different variations of the sport of wrestling but they all still carry the tradition that the early Greeks started many years ago. This tradition is hard work, discipline and grace.

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History of Wrestling

The Essay: History and Definition

Attempts at Defining Slippery Literary Form

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
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"One damned thing after another" is how Aldous Huxley described the essay: "a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything."

As definitions go, Huxley's is no more or less exact than Francis Bacon's "dispersed meditations," Samuel Johnson's "loose sally of the mind" or Edward Hoagland's "greased pig."

Since Montaigne adopted the term "essay" in the 16th century to describe his "attempts" at self-portrayal in prose , this slippery form has resisted any sort of precise, universal definition. But that won't an attempt to define the term in this brief article.

In the broadest sense, the term "essay" can refer to just about any short piece of nonfiction  -- an editorial, feature story, critical study, even an excerpt from a book. However, literary definitions of a genre are usually a bit fussier.

One way to start is to draw a distinction between articles , which are read primarily for the information they contain, and essays, in which the pleasure of reading takes precedence over the information in the text . Although handy, this loose division points chiefly to kinds of reading rather than to kinds of texts. So here are some other ways that the essay might be defined.

Standard definitions often stress the loose structure or apparent shapelessness of the essay. Johnson, for example, called the essay "an irregular, indigested piece, not a regular and orderly performance."

True, the writings of several well-known essayists ( William Hazlitt and Ralph Waldo Emerson , for instance, after the fashion of Montaigne) can be recognized by the casual nature of their explorations -- or "ramblings." But that's not to say that anything goes. Each of these essayists follows certain organizing principles of his own.

Oddly enough, critics haven't paid much attention to the principles of design actually employed by successful essayists. These principles are rarely formal patterns of organization , that is, the "modes of exposition" found in many composition textbooks. Instead, they might be described as patterns of thought -- progressions of a mind working out an idea.

Unfortunately, the customary divisions of the essay into opposing types --  formal and informal, impersonal and familiar  -- are also troublesome. Consider this suspiciously neat dividing line drawn by Michele Richman:

Post-Montaigne, the essay split into two distinct modalities: One remained informal, personal, intimate, relaxed, conversational and often humorous; the other, dogmatic, impersonal, systematic and expository .

The terms used here to qualify the term "essay" are convenient as a kind of critical shorthand, but they're imprecise at best and potentially contradictory. Informal can describe either the shape or the tone of the work -- or both. Personal refers to the stance of the essayist, conversational to the language of the piece, and expository to its content and aim. When the writings of particular essayists are studied carefully, Richman's "distinct modalities" grow increasingly vague.

But as fuzzy as these terms might be, the qualities of shape and personality, form and voice, are clearly integral to an understanding of the essay as an artful literary kind. 

Many of the terms used to characterize the essay -- personal, familiar, intimate, subjective, friendly, conversational -- represent efforts to identify the genre's most powerful organizing force: the rhetorical voice or projected character (or persona ) of the essayist.

In his study of Charles Lamb , Fred Randel observes that the "principal declared allegiance" of the essay is to "the experience of the essayistic voice." Similarly, British author Virginia Woolf has described this textual quality of personality or voice as "the essayist's most proper but most dangerous and delicate tool."

Similarly, at the beginning of "Walden, "  Henry David Thoreau reminds the reader that "it is ... always the first person that is speaking." Whether expressed directly or not, there's always an "I" in the essay -- a voice shaping the text and fashioning a role for the reader.

Fictional Qualities

The terms "voice" and "persona" are often used interchangeably to suggest the rhetorical nature of the essayist himself on the page. At times an author may consciously strike a pose or play a role. He can, as E.B. White confirms in his preface to "The Essays," "be any sort of person, according to his mood or his subject matter." 

In "What I Think, What I Am," essayist Edward Hoagland points out that "the artful 'I' of an essay can be as chameleon as any narrator in fiction." Similar considerations of voice and persona lead Carl H. Klaus to conclude that the essay is "profoundly fictive":

It seems to convey the sense of human presence that is indisputably related to its author's deepest sense of self, but that is also a complex illusion of that self -- an enactment of it as if it were both in the process of thought and in the process of sharing the outcome of that thought with others.

But to acknowledge the fictional qualities of the essay isn't to deny its special status as nonfiction.

Reader's Role

A basic aspect of the relationship between a writer (or a writer's persona) and a reader (the implied audience ) is the presumption that what the essayist says is literally true. The difference between a short story, say, and an autobiographical essay  lies less in the narrative structure or the nature of the material than in the narrator's implied contract with the reader about the kind of truth being offered.

Under the terms of this contract, the essayist presents experience as it actually occurred -- as it occurred, that is, in the version by the essayist. The narrator of an essay, the editor George Dillon says, "attempts to convince the reader that its model of experience of the world is valid." 

In other words, the reader of an essay is called on to join in the making of meaning. And it's up to the reader to decide whether to play along. Viewed in this way, the drama of an essay might lie in the conflict between the conceptions of self and world that the reader brings to a text and the conceptions that the essayist tries to arouse.

At Last, a Definition—of Sorts

With these thoughts in mind, the essay might be defined as a short work of nonfiction, often artfully disordered and highly polished, in which an authorial voice invites an implied reader to accept as authentic a certain textual mode of experience.

Sure. But it's still a greased pig.

Sometimes the best way to learn exactly what an essay is -- is to read some great ones. You'll find more than 300 of them in this collection of  Classic British and American Essays and Speeches .

• What is a Familiar Essay in Composition?
• What Does "Persona" Mean?
• What Are the Different Types and Characteristics of Essays?
• Rhetorical Analysis Definition and Examples
• What Is a Personal Essay (Personal Statement)?
• The Writer's Voice in Literature and Rhetoric
• Point of View in Grammar and Composition
• What Is Colloquial Style or Language?
• What Is Literary Journalism?
• Definition and Examples of Formal Essays
• What Is Expository Writing?
• The Difference Between an Article and an Essay
• First-Person Point of View
• What Is Tone In Writing?
• An Introduction to Literary Nonfiction

Doris Kearns Goodwin and husband Dick Goodwin lived, observed, created and chronicled the 1960s

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Book Review

An Unfinished Love Story: A Personal History of the 1960s

By Doris Kearns Goodwin Simon & Schuster: 480 pages, $35 If you buy books linked on our site, The Times may earn a commission from Bookshop.org , whose fees support independent bookstores.

“An Unfinished Love Story: A Personal History of the 1960s” isn’t precisely the book that presidential historian Doris Kearns Goodwin set out to write.

Dominating this often fascinating volume is both the colossal presence and the sudden absence of Richard “Dick” Goodwin, Doris’ late husband, whose speechwriting talents defined some of the most memorable moments of the 1960s. The couple’s aim was to co-write a book based on his extraordinary archive — 300 boxes! — of personal papers and curios, from voluminous speech drafts to a shattered police club from the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago.

Husband and wife spent years perusing and discussing those treasures, an effort short-circuited by his death in 2018, at 86, of cancer. Amid her grief and a move from their rambling home in Concord, Mass., to a Boston condo, Goodwin took up the project on her own.

She describes the result as a hybrid of history, biography and memoir. At its most poignant, “An Unfinished Love Story” is, as the title indicates, an account of personal loss. It also turns out to be a reflection on the process of constructing history, suggesting how time, perspective and stories left unwritten can shape our view of the past.

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Goodwin, the author of award-winning biographies of Lyndon B. Johnson, Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt and others, has a nice touch as a storyteller. Here she successfully navigates the awkward feat of weaving together the couple’s gently probing conversations, her husband’s archival documentation, other historical sources and her own reporting.

“An Unfinished Love Story” offers a bird’s-eye view of familiar events, and of a decade marked by both idealism and political violence. “Too often,” Goodwin writes, with her characteristic optimism, “memories of assassination, violence, and social turmoil have obscured the greatest illumination of the Sixties, the spark of communal idealism and belief that kindled social justice and love for a more inclusive vision of America.”

While arguing for this rosier perspective, the book provides nuance and detail on matters such as the origins of the Peace Corps and the Alliance for Progress, Robert F. Kennedy’s private agonies over whether to challenge LBJ for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968, and Jackie Kennedy’s emotional struggles after her husband’s 1963 assassination. In a 1966 letter from Hawaii, Jackie addresses Dick Goodwin, her close friend, as a fellow “lost soul” and complains of “memories that drag you down into a life that can never be the same.” That is a sentiment that Doris Kearns Goodwin understands.

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She and the then-married Goodwin — with his “curly, disheveled black hair,” “thick, unruly eyebrows” and “pockmarked face” — met at Harvard in 1972, where she taught a popular course on the American presidency. He had left the Johnson administration in 1965, three years before she joined it, and had become disillusioned with the Vietnam War. Despite having penned her own antiwar piece for the New Republic, she would become an LBJ confidante, an aide on his presidential memoirs and a lifelong admirer.

Not just a speechwriter but a policy advisor and political strategist, Dick Goodwin enjoyed a Zelig-like march through 20th century American history. President of the Harvard Law Review and law clerk to U.S. Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, Goodwin worked for two presidents, John F. Kennedy and Johnson, and several would-be presidents, including Eugene McCarthy and Robert F. Kennedy. He later wrote the concession speech that Al Gore delivered after the Supreme Court stopped the recount of the 2000 presidential election vote in Florida.

According to his widow, Goodwin idolized the coolly self-possessed JFK, fused with LBJ, regarded McCarthy as “the most original mind” he’d encountered in politics and adored RFK, his best friend of the bunch. (No mention is made here of the seamier side of these politicians’ lives, or how their sexual indiscretions bear on their legacies.)

Nearly every Democratic leader seems to have sought the services of the brilliant, cigar-smoking, workaholic Goodwin. But, as “An Unfinished Love Story” makes clear, he was more than a pen for hire. Goodwin had passionately held views about civil rights, the alleviation of poverty and other issues. As Johnson’s principal speechwriter, he helped fashion both the title and the programs of the Great Society. He was responsible for LBJ’s single most powerful speech, on behalf of the 1965 Voting Rights Act, which coopted the anthem of the civil rights movement: “We Shall Overcome.”

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Goodwin left the Johnson administration, against the president’s wishes, to pursue a solo writing career. Over time, his public stance against American involvement in Vietnam pitted him against his former boss. “It’s like being bitten by your own dog,” Johnson said of Goodwin’s defection.

Goodwin was, at heart, deeply loyal, his widow suggests, even if he sometimes chose loyalty to principles over personal attachments. On the other hand, when a previously hesitant Bobby Kennedy entered the 1968 Democratic primary race against McCarthy, friendship prevailed, and Goodwin switched sides, as he had earlier warned McCarthy he would. The RFK assassination, following victory in the California Democratic primary (and Martin Luther King Jr.’s murder earlier that year), was shattering for Goodwin, as for so many others.

“An Unfinished Love Story” is at its most moving when it touches on the Goodwins’ long, happy, occasionally contentious marriage; its bumpy origins (after becoming a widower, he wasn’t as ready to commit as she was); and his emotional farewell. Always attuned to relationships, Goodwin is an astute chronicler of her own.

Beyond underlining the brighter side of the 1960s, the archive and the conversations it prompted changed the couple’s views of the two presidents they served. She gained a deeper appreciation of the impact of Kennedy’s idealism, she writes, while her husband moderated his long-standing bitterness toward Johnson. Embedded in that rapprochement is an unstated hope: that more knowledge and informed debate might somehow ease our country’s current political polarization as well.

Julia M. Klein is a cultural reporter and critic in Philadelphia.

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The 2024 U.S. Olympic Wrestling Trials took place at Penn State University, and now the Olympic roster for Paris is nearly set.

Thirteen athletes secured their spots on the U.S. Olympic team this summer, while five other athletes took a pivotal step closer to Paris but still have some work left to do.

Here are the key stories coming out of an event filled with plenty of surprises.

No returning gold medalists for Team USA

The U.S. is coming off a historic Tokyo Olympics where it won medals in nine of the 12 freestyle divisions. That massive medal haul included three golds, the country's most in 25 years.

But if the U.S. is going to repeat that feat in Paris, it will have to do so without any of the wrestlers who won Olympic titles in Tokyo.

Tamyra Mensah-Stock retired from competitive wrestling after joining WWE. Gable Steveson , who also joined WWE, considered a run at the Paris Games but didn't end up competing at Olympic Trials. That just left David Taylor , the Tokyo gold medalist in men's freestyle 86kg, as the lone holdover.

Taylor, whose rivalry with Iran's Hassan Yazdani has been one of wrestling's best in recent years, entered Trials as the gold medal favorite for the Paris Olympics but was stunned by 23-year-old Aaron Brooks , a fellow Penn State alumnus. Brooks, who recently won his fourth straight NCAA championship, made his way through the challenge tournament and then swept Taylor in the best-of-three championship final, beating Taylor by a combined score of 7-2 across the two rounds.

Brooks won a U23 world title last year and will now try to join the likes of Kyle Snyder (Rio 2016) and Steveson (Tokyo 2020) in successfully making the quick transition from NCAA champion to Olympic champion.

Amit Elor set for breakout Olympics?

With Taylor missing out on Paris, the top U.S. gold medal favorite this summer may very well be 20-year-old Amit Elor .

Elor, who has won a total of eight world titles across different age groups, is the two-time reigning world champion in the non-Olympic 72kg weight class. To make it to the Paris Games, she had to shift weight classes and opted to move down to 68kg.

Because she qualified the weight class at a Pan American qualification tournament, Elor had a bye into the best-of-three finals at Olympic Trials. Facing Forrest Molinari in those finals, Elor controlled the first match with a 6-0 victory, then held on in the second match for a 2-1 win to complete the sweep.

Elor was one day too young to be eligible to compete at the last Olympic Trials. Since then, she's already become the youngest American wrestler to win a world or Olympic title, and now she's the youngest U.S. female wrestler to ever make an Olympic team.

Helen Maroulis makes U.S. wrestling history

In 2016, Helen Maroulis became the first American woman to win a wrestling gold medal. Now, she's the first American woman wrestler to make three Olympic teams.

Because she qualified the women's freestyle 57kg weight class for the Paris Olympics, Maroulis received a bye into the best-of-three championship final. There, she faced a formidable opponent: Jacarra Winchester , the silver medalist at last year's World Championships in the non-Olympic 55kg weight class.

It was a dominant showing for Maroulis. She pinned Winchester in the first match, then won the second match with a 6-0 shutout to complete the sweep.

Maroulis earned medals at each of her first two Olympic Games (gold at Rio 2016, bronze at Tokyo 2020) and won a world title as recently as 2021.

Freestyle team loaded with medal potential

Can the U.S. match the nine freestyle medals it earned at the last Olympics? Based on the track record of the Olympic Trials winners, it's certainly possible.

Brooks currently has limited international experience at the senior level, but the other three men who made the Olympic freestyle team ( Kyle Dake , Snyder and Mason Parris ) all won medals at last year's World Championships. Dake and Snyder are multi-time world champions who both won titles as recently as 2022.

That group could potentially be joined by Zain Retherford , the reigning world champion in the non-Olympic 70kg weight class. Retherford was the Trials champion at 65kg but will still need to qualify the weight class at an international tournament in May.

It's a similar story on the women's side as five of the six Olympic qualifiers have won medals at recent world championships. Elor, as mentioned above, has won back-to-back world titles at a higher weight class, and Dominique Parrish was the 2022 world champion at 53kg. Sarah Hildebrandt , Maroulis and Kayla Miracle have also earned world medals within the last two years.

The only woman on the team currently without a world medal, 20-year-old Kennedy Blades , defeated the most decorated woman in U.S. wrestling history at Olympic Trials. Blades was one of the weekend's most dominant athletes, with all three of her challenge tournament matches ending via technical superiority. She faced Adeline Gray , owner of nine world medals and an Olympic silver medal, in the best-of-three final and swept her (11-6 in the first match, 8-3 in the second match) to claim the 76kg Olympic spot.

Three Greco-Roman wrestlers secure Olympic spots

Greco-Roman wrestling provided some of the most drama, as all three championship finals that determined Olympic spots went down to a decisive third match during the best-of-three series.

In the end, Payton Jacobson , Joe Rau and Adam Coon all won their third matches and earned spots on the U.S. Olympic team.

Jacobson was one of the weekend's biggest surprises. The 21-year-old started the tournament as the No. 7 seed out of just nine wrestlers in the field but worked his way through the challenge bracket and then defeated Spencer Woods in the 87kg final.

Rau, 33, is finally headed to the Olympics after years of near misses. In 2016, he won Olympic Trials but didn't qualify the weight class afterward. In 2021, he qualified the weight class but then controversially lost the Trials final and left his shoes on the mat to indicate retirement. This year, he had to come all the way through the challenge tournament before knocking off Alan Vera in the 97kg final series.

Coon, a former rival of Snyder while at the University of Michigan, is also headed to his first Games after coming through the 130kg challenge tournament and taking out Cohlton Schultz in the best-of-three final.

The U.S. is seeking its first Olympic medal in Greco-Roman wrestling since 2008.

Five wrestlers headed to the qualification tournament

Most of the focus at Olympic Trials was on the 13 weight classes that were already qualified for the Paris Games, but the results in the other five weight class also carried importance.

As of now, two men's freestyle weight classes (57kg, 65kg) and three Greco-Roman weight classes (60kg, 70kg, 77kg) remain non-qualified for the Paris Olympics. The Trials champions in those weight classes now have the right to attend a last-chance World Qualification Tournament this May in Istanbul. If any of them finish in the top three, they will qualify the weight class and automatically make the Olympic team.

Of particular interest will be the two men's freestyle champions: Spencer Lee (57kg) and Retherford (65kg). Lee was a three-time NCAA champion at the University of Iowa, while Retherford won a world title last year in the non-Olympic 70kg weight class.

Olympic Trials results

The Olympic Trials champions in every weight class are listed below.

*Wrestlers in italics are not yet on the Olympic team — they will need to qualify the weight class during the last-chance tournament in May.

Men's Freestyle 57kg: Spencer Lee* 65kg: Zain Retherford* 74kg: Kyle Dake 86kg: Aaron Brooks 97kg: Kyle Snyder 125kg: Mason Parris

Women's Freestyle 50kg: Sarah Hildebrandt 53kg: Dominique Parrish 57kg: Helen Maroulis 62kg: Kayla Miracle 68kg: Amit Elor 76kg: Kennedy Blades

Greco-Roman 60kg: Dalton Roberts* 67kg: Ellis Coleman* 77kg: Kamal Bey* 87kg: Payton Jacobson 97kg: Joe Rau 130kg: Adam Coon

Note: Some components of NBCOlympics.com may not be optimized for users browsing with Internet Explorer 11, 10 or older browsers or systems.

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History Of Wrestling Essay (1949 words)

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The forms of wrestling we know today as Greco-Roman, Folkstyle, and Freestyle found their origins in the lands on the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. These lands are where the Ancient Greeks resided, and developed the art of wrestling. The Greeks influenced the styles and skills of wrestling of today. The sport of wrestling has been highly developed for over five thousand years, and it is believed to have begun part of the soldiers training, The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling stated. Proof of this lie on the walls of the tomb in Beni Hasan in the form of pictures.

These pictures are about five thousand years old and show holds from both the standing positions and the ground positions. From that time to the present wrestling turned from military skill to a sport skill. (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-2)During this time wrestling was also developed in other cultures, like that of ancient Greeks. Wrestling to the Greeks was not only part of the soldier’s training, but was also a part of everyday life.

Youth did not only learn grammar, art of speech, and mathematics, but young men also went through physical training, which consist of dancing and the art of wrestling. The Greeks saw wrestling as a development of grace and an activity that demands a high skill and physical fitness. (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-3)Greek literature points out this skill of wrestling was used by gods and kings, as well as by soldiers and private citizens, in their efforts to overcome evil and brute force. Most of the heroes of Greek mythology were considered skillful wrestlers.

Their view of skill most likely led to its introduction as a major sport in the Olympic Games in the year 704 B. C. (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-4)Wrestling was a major sport in most Greek festivals, including the Olympic Games. In these festivals sports other than wrestling, such as foot races, chariot-races, throwing of the discos and javelin, and boxing, were also included.

These events with variations and additions made up the program of the athletic festivals of Greece through the whole history. The events of the Olympic Games survived even through the rise and the fall of the Roman Empire. With the conquering of the Greece by the Romans, the Greek form of wrestling began to lose popularity, since, the Romans didn’t have the same sense of grace and skill, stated The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling. The Romans were also not interested in brute strength and violence.

(The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-5) One last thing that brought the decline of Greek wrestling, is the participation of many more countries in the Olympics. This was due to The Romans allowing other countries in the Olympics. The Greek spectators became tired of seeing their local wrestling heroes being defeated by competitors from the East. The success of the Asian wrestlers and others help along the decline of Greek Wrestling. (The Ancient Greeks and The sport of Wrestling,7-5)Wrestling technique has changed very little, and many of the modern holds were derived from the sport as it was practiced in ancient Egypt, in 704, included wrestling. Evidence that matches were increasingly being fixed and competitors rigged, however, cut short popularity of the sport, and it lay dormant for hundreds of years, stated the Concise Encyclopedia of Sports.

(Concise Encyclopedia of Sports, 7-3)During the 19th century, Freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling regained popular interest. Circuses and carnivals in the United States sponsored wrestling matches, and this activity led directly to the revival of wrestling. William Muldon was declared the first American Champion. Following World War I, fixed professional wrestling matches threatened to discredit wrestling, but the Federation International des Luttes Amateur founded in 1921, saved the sport. This governing body codified rules, set standards, and organized competitions for all amateur 7 freestyle and 6 Greco-Roman weight divisions, an increase from only having one weight division in the 1904 Olympics. (Concise Encyclopedia of Sports, 7-3) In the Olympic and international completions wrestlers compete against others approximately the same weight.

Ten weight classifications exist from 15. 8 pounds too more than 220. 4 pounds. Competitors must wear tight-fitting one-piece singlets. The wrestling mat is a raised platform, 6-8 meters square. A match is scheduled for three rounds, each period lasting three minutes, with 1-minute rest periods between them.

Matches are won either by pinning an opponent’s shoulders to the mat and holding them for one second or by accumulating the greater number of points during the match. A referee, judge, and a mat chairman decide on the awarding of penalty points. Wrestlers are not allowed to pull hair, kick, punch, grip the edge of the mat, use head locks, and bend an opponent’s arm more than 90 degrees or use any hold that may endanger the physical well-being of the opponent. (Sports and Games, 5-4)There are many different styles of wrestling.

One of the most popular that is used in high school and college in the United States is folkstyle. This style developed in the United States as a modified form of the European Freestyle with variations influenced by the American Indian and early pioneers. In fact several history references indicated that both George Washington and Abe Lincoln were good Folkstyle wrestlers. (Rules of the Game, 4-2)Folkstyle concentrates on control and the execution of moves, with points awarded for successfully executing a move to gain control or escape your opponents’ control.

The wrestler on top must constantly work towards a pin while the wrestler on bottom must continually try to escape or reverse. In some aspects, Folkstyle is similar to Freestyle terms of wrestling technique used, however the rules influence the selection of attacks and the conduct of the match. (Rules of the Game, 4-2) Another popular style of wrestling is Freestyle. Freestyle is used in the Olympic games.

It is similar folkstyle wrestling in terms of technique, but the rules and scoring are different. Anyone who wrestles folkstyle can wrestler freestyle. Because of the rules there are additional moves that can be don such as the gut wrench and leg lace. Matches are usually on five-minute period in the open and high school divisions and two periods with short break between for the younger age groups. Wrestlers start on their feet, and points are accumulated by taking the opponent to the mat and exposing his back. Points are given for back exposure without having to hold your man down on his back for a certain period of time.

Your opponents’ back does not have to touch the mat, just be exposed towards the mat for a fraction of a second. A pin is accomplished by bringing both of your opponents’ shoulders or scapula in contact with the mat at the same time, according to Rules of the Game. Since the emphasis in Freestyle is on attack and exposure, just controlling the opponent from the top with no continuos back exposure is considered a stalemate, and both wrestlers are brought to their feet after a short time in order for the bout to continue, stated in Rules of the Game. Also, a wrestler can easily score points or pin himself by exposing his own back unless he is very careful how he performs his movements. There are no points for escapes and you can stall on bottom after you are takedown. Your objective on bottom is to gain a stalemate and to be restarted from the neutral position.

Attempting an escape may only give your opponents points if you expose your back to the mat. You can score 1 point for a reversal from the defensive position. However, you may give up points if you expose your back while attempting a reversal. (Rules of the Game,4-3)Another important points about both Freestyle and Greco-Roman is that there is no penalty for failed throws.

If a wrestler attempts a throw and ends up being taken down by his opponent, his opponent does not score points and wrestling is restarted from the neutral position. Also, either wrestler can lock his hands at any time. Wrestling is an old sport, it is extremely popular in ancient Greek and Roman societies. When the Romans conquered the Greeks, their two styles of wrestling gradually merged and created the internationally popular style of wrestling named Greco-Roman. Although other styles of wrestling are more popular in the United States, Greco-Roman is very popular in many other parts of the world.

The unique characteristics that makes Greco-Roman so different from other styles of wrestling is the fact that holds or attacks below the waist are not permitted. For this reason, upper body throws are the norm. (Rules of the Game, 4-4)Like Freestyle, Greco-Roman concentrates on taking your opponent to the mat and exposing his back, without using or attacking the legs. Points for takedowns and exposures are nearly identical between Freestyle and Greco-Roman, so long as the legs are not used. Both Freestyle and Greco-Roman, in addition to judo, are recognized Olympic sports. (Rules of the Game, 4-4) In addition to these styles there are many other styles of wrestling.

In the national style of Ireland, collar-and-elbow wrestling, the competitors wear short jackets with strong collars and grasp each other’s collar behind the left ear with the right hand. The position of the hands cannot be changed until the fall is secure. Changing the position of the hands is a foul and loses the fall. Two shoulders and one hip or both hips and one shoulder must touch the floor at the same time for this fall.

Wrestling in Japan dates more than 2,000 years. Two styles are popular: sumo and jujitsu. Sumo is the national style. Weight is the main factor, and so most Japanese sumo wrestlers are very large. The methods are similar to those of Greco-Roman, but touching the floor with any part of the body except the feet or leaving the mat loses the fall.

A similar sport is popular in India, but both shoulders must be pinned to the mat at the same time. (Encyclopedia of World Sports, 3-2)Jujitsu was introduced into Japan from China many centuries ago. For ages it was a secret art, guarded jealously by the nobility, stated the Encyclopedia of World Sports. Now it is known not only throughout Japan many other countries.

During World War II and there after all United States combat troops learned judo, which is similar to jujitsu, as means of fighting without weapons. (Encyclopedia of World Sports, 3-3)The art of falling without injury is the first principle of jujitsu. Often an expert will fall purposely in order to trap an unwary opponent into a dangerous position. This is called conquering by yielding. Another type of wrestling, called sambo, was recognized in 1964 by the International Federation of Amateur Wrestling.

Developed in the Soviet Union in the 1930s, it is popular today in Russia and also in Bulgaria and Japan. Based on regional wrestling styles, sambo resembles both jujitsu and Greco-Roman. There are many different variations of the sport of wrestling but they all still carry the tradition that the early Greeks started many years ago. This tradition is hard work, discipline and grace. BibliographyBIBLIOGRAPHYBrosch, R.

How Did Sports Begin? New York: David McKay company, Inc. , 1970Carson, Ray. The Ancient Greeks and the Sport of Wrestling. New Jersey: Barnes and Co. , 1974. Lewinson, David, Christensen, Karen.

III Encyclopedia of World Sports. California: ABC-CLIO, Inc. , 1996. Sports and Games.

California: Sydney, 1997. The Consise Encyclopedia of Sports. USA: Grolier Incorporated, 1970. Rules of the Game. USA: Paddington Press LTD, 1974. Wrestling.

Comptors Encyclopedia. 1995 ed.Sports and Games Essays

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Skepticism Is Healthy, but in Medicine, It Can Be Dangerous

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Dr. Lamas, a contributing Opinion writer, is a pulmonary and critical-care physician at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston.

I arrived at the hospital one recent morning to find a team of doctors gathered just outside a patient room. The patient was struggling — his breaths too fast and too shallow. For days we had been trying to walk the line between treating the pain caused by his rapidly growing cancer and prolonging his life.

Overnight he had worsened. His family, wrestling with the inevitability of his death, had come to a tentative plan, and I needed to make sure that his wife understood what was ahead. I explained that if we inserted a breathing tube, as she had decided overnight, her husband would be sedated. When the rest of their family arrived in Boston, we would take out the tube and he would die. We would not be able to wake him up — to do so would only cause him to suffer.

At this, his wife stiffened. Why wouldn’t he be able to wake up? I explained that his cancer was so advanced that to wake him would be to give him the conscious awareness of drowning. I watched as she took me in, this doctor she had never met before, telling her something she did not want to hear. Her expression shifted. “Why should I believe you?” she asked me. And then, her voice toughening: “I don’t think that I do.”

The room was silent. My patient’s wife looked into her bag, rooting around for a tissue. I glanced down at my feet. Why should she believe me? I was wearing sneakers with my scrub pants, and I found myself wondering whether she would have trusted me without question if I appeared more professional, or if I were older or male. Perhaps, but there was so much more at play in that moment. This was not just about one doctor and one family member, but instead, about a public for whom the medical system is no longer an institution to be trusted.

We are at a crossroads in medicine when it comes to public trust. After a pandemic that twisted science for political gain, it is not surprising that confidence in medicine is eroding. In fact, trust in medical scientists has fallen to its lowest levels since January 2019. As a result, more people are seeking out less conventional voices of “authority” that hew closer to their beliefs. Robert F. Kennedy Jr., a longtime vaccine skeptic campaigning for the presidency, is finding double-digit support in some polls and has made medical freedom a recurring theme of his candidacy.

But our medical system relies on trust — in face-to-face meetings as well as public health bulletins. Distrust can lead doctors to burnout and can encourage avoidable negative outcomes for our patients. This is partly what is driving increasing rates of measles among unvaccinated children , failure to follow recommended cancer screening and refusal to take lifesaving preventive medications . There are no easy solutions here. But if we do not find ways to restore and strengthen trust with our patients, more lives will be lost.

This is relatively new terrain for American physicians. When I was in medical training, we did not talk much about trust. During my early years as a doctor, I barely trusted myself and in fact felt uncomfortable with the responsibility I had to keep my patients alive. Only recently have I found myself thinking about what happens when this ephemeral ingredient in the doctor-patient relationship is lost.

Medical skepticism is not the same as medical nihilism. The data behind the drugs doctors prescribe and the decisions we make need not be the purview of us alone; the public has the right to review the numbers and to make their own decisions about risk and benefit. But when that skepticism shifts into abject and irreparable disbelief, we see some patients make dangerous decisions. And when doctors respond with frustration, that only further separates us from those patients.

Trust can sometimes be repaired by clearly presenting facts and figures, but it is about more than explaining numbers. We tell patients things about the body that are unseen. We recommend lifestyle changes and medication to treat or to prevent problems that may not be felt. Surgeons refer to a profound version of trust called the surgical contract: the idea that when people go under the knife, they are allowing their surgeon to make them sicker — to cut them open — in order to make them better. That trust must be earned.

In emergencies, patients don’t have the luxury to choose whom to trust, and medical decisions must happen hastily, in minutes even. So part of our job is to build rapport quickly. That becomes harder, impossible even, when we enter into the climax of a medical crisis to find that whatever trust our patient may have once had long ago has been eroded. Many of our patients started their medical journeys wanting to believe in their doctors. But then the medical system that they wanted to trust failed them, in small ways and large, from haphazardly rescheduled appointments to real medical error. How do we begin the process of repair, both as a profession and as individuals, when time is short?

In medicine, we talk about the idea of shared decision-making, in which medical decisions are arrived at jointly by doctor and patient, in contrast to the paternalistic tone of years gone by. As doctors, we do not tell our patients what to do — instead we offer them the information necessary for them to choose the path that is right for them.

For all our training, our medical knowledge is useless if our patients are unwilling or unable to believe what we have to offer. And that isn’t a fault of our patients, no matter how bothered we might become. This is a fault of a system that does not deserve our patients’ blind faith, of a surrounding political milieu that has turned scientific fact into fiction in many people’s minds.

That is how I found myself in that room, early that one morning, with my patient’s wife, her disbelief and the weight of the decision hanging between us. I knew so little about her. I did not know her history or her interactions with the medical system. I did not know the story of her husband’s diagnosis and treatment, or whether he had struggled to find care for his cancer. In our fractured system, I was just meeting her that day. I had no way to make her trust me, except to sit with her, to give her what little time with her husband we could. And to hope that regardless of what came before, she would choose to believe what I was telling her.

I am not certain what she believed, but she chose against intubation. Her husband lived until the rest of his family came anyway. And when he died, they left without a word, carrying with them his bags of belongings and — I can only hope — faith that we had done the best we could.

Daniela Lamas is a contributing Opinion writer and a pulmonary and critical-care physician at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston.

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