food research paper example

Food Research Paper

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Food as Medicine

Domestication of plants and animals, how domestication occurred, domestication of plants, domestication of animals, the present, future directions.

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Introduction

By 2009 the world population has reached 6.7 billion people, according to the U.S. Census Bureau (2009). In 1900, there were “only” 1.65 billion people on earth, 2.5 billion by 1950, with a projected 9 billion by 2050. While a number of factors have affected this exponential increase, not the least of which is reallocation of resources and labor (Boone, 2002), the abundance and distribution of food has played a major role, spurring technology to increase production and distribution. The result is the food crisis emerging in this early part of the 21st century.

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Leading to this crisis, there are four major “events” in the history of food use. The first is cooking—the act of using heat to transform a substance from one state to another. This is an emergent behavior, as no other primate does anything like it. The second event, equally as dramatic, is the domestication of plants and animals; the outcome has been increasing control of resources (plants, animals) to the point of manufacture. This manufacture has included husbandry procedures, breeding, sterilization, and the like—and most recently, genetic engineering. The third event, directly related to manufacture, is the dispersion of foods throughout the world, which is a continuous process beginning at the time of domestication and continuing today, albeit now in the form of globalization. The “typical” diets of China, Italy, France, or anywhere are the result of diffusion and dispersion of these domesticated plants or animals, known as domesticates (Sokolov, 1991). The fourth event is the industrialization of food. This is an ongoing event beginning in the latter part of the 18th century with the invention of canning (Graham, 1981) and continuing today in the form of frozen meals, new packaging materials, ways of reconstituting foods, and, in the near future, creating animal “meat” by tissue engineering (Edelman, McFarland, Mironov, & Matheny, 2005). The purpose of this research paper is to describe the events concerning the human use of food in the past (prehistory to the 1700s) and present, and speculate on the trends for the future.

We are primates, descended from a long line that began around 80 million years ago (Ackermann & Cheverud, 2004). As a group, primates are omnivores and consume nuts, seeds, leaves, stalks, pith, underground roots and storage organs, flowers, insects, lizards, birds, eggs, and mammals. The source of nutrients, or its emphasis, varies from group to group so that it is possible to classify primates by food intake. Table 1 illustrates these groups.

Prosimians, or lower primates, tend to be insect eaters while certain types of these primates prefer lizards or small invertebrates; monkeys—both Old and New World—rely on fruits with a significant input from insects or small vertebrates. Apes eat from a variety of larders (food supplies) depending on type: orangutans eat fruit, gorillas eat stalks and pith, and chimps eat fruit and hunt for mammals—but none eat one type to the exclusion of all else. Physical specializations to extract nutrients from the source vary greatly. Some primates ferment their food; others reingest it.

The shape of teeth and jaws, and the length of gut and digestive tract, also affect different emphases of diet. Fruit eaters, for example, are equipped with molars that are not shaped for crushing or grinding, but are small in relation to their body size (Kay, 2005). Some leaf eaters, like colobines or howler monkeys, have sacculated stomachs containing bacteria that aid in digestion. One type of lemur is probably coprophagous; that is, like rabbits, it ingests its own waste pellets to extract semidigested nutrients. The length of the gut in primates that eat any kind of animal is 4 to 6 times its body length, while that of a leaf eater is 10 to 30 times its body length (Milton, 1993).

Primates, unlike some other mammals, require certain vitamins. The most important substances, vitamins B 12 and C, must be obtained from outside sources. In the case of B 12 , it must be extracted from animals including insects (Wakayama, Dillwith, Howard, & Blomquist, 1984), and for vitamin C, from fruits and a little from muscle meat. Genes controlling the manufacture of these substances were reassigned ( exapted ), as it were, to other functions when the anthropoid group of monkeys, apes, and humans split from prosimians. The genetic information is affirmed by the fact that some prosimian relatives of the earliest primates are still able to synthesize these substances (Milton, 1993).

The model for human evolution derives from the behavior and physiology of African apes, particularly the two kinds of chimpanzees: the bonobo and the common chimpanzee. These primates are more active than either gorillas or orangutans and a good deal more sociable than the orangutan, also known as the red giant of Asia. Their choice of diet is considered an important factor in their activity, as larger primates tend to rely on leaves and foliage, as do gorillas, who have a range of only around 300 meters per day. Fruit eaters are not only more active than foliage eaters, they are more eclectic in their diet, including nuts, seeds, berries, and especially insects of some sort because fruits are an inadequate source of protein (Rothman, Van Soest, & Pell, 2006). They are also considered to be more “intelligent,” as witnessed by recent studies of New World capuchin monkeys, and Old World macaques and chimpanzees. Chimps can take in as much as 500 grams of animal protein a week (Goodall, 1986; Milton, 1993).

Animal protein is considered high-quality food, and the importance of high-quality protein to the evolution of the human brain cannot be underestimated (Leonard, 2002). From only 85 grams (3.5 ounces) of animal protein, 200 kilocalories are obtained. In comparison, this amount of fruit would provide about 100 kilocalories, and leaves would provide considerably less—about 20 kilocalories. The daily range of chimpanzees can extend to about 4 kilometers per day, and their societies are highly complex social groups. It is this complexity that enables them to conduct their hunts, coordinating members as they approach their prey using glances, piloerection, and pointing. Since primates evolved from insectivores at a time when fruits and flowers were also evolving, their ability to exploit this new resource demonstrates the most important characteristic of primates: flexibility.

Primates can readily adapt to extreme conditions like drought. Under harsh conditions, primates will seek (as indeed, humans do) what are called fallback foods. These are foods like bark, or even figs, that are less desirable because they lack ingredients such as fats or sweet carbohydrates (Knott, 2005). Primates have a remarkable repertoire of methods to deal with changes in food availability: They can change their diets; they can change their location; they change their behavior according to the energy they take in (Brockman, 2005).

This flexibility in adapting behavior to changing circumstances was a decisive advantage for the primates, as they implemented the underlying knowledge about resources with the ability to remember locations of specific foods. Equally as important is the ability to evaluate the probability of encountering predators in these locations. The ability to adapt to environmental and social changes depends not only on genetic evolution but, as Hans Kummer (1971) noted, on cultural processes arrived at through group living. The behavioral mode responds more quickly to dynamic situations than does physical evolution.

Gathering, Hunting, and the Beginnings of Food Control

The ancestors of humans continued the food-gathering techniques of their primate predecessors, gathering invertebrates and small vertebrates, as well as plant materials, in the trees, on the ground, and below ground. As prey gets larger, the techniques shift from one individual working to a concerted, group effort. The former is seen in the behavior of capuchin monkeys and baboons, and the more sophisticated planning and coordination is well documented among chimpanzees. With greater reliance on meat, there are more changes in the primate body—the more reliance on protein, the more prevalence of the hormone ghrelin. Ghrelin is active in promoting the organism to eat, and therefore causes an increase in body mass and the conservation of body fat (Cummings, Foster-Schubert, & Overduin, 2005).

The secretion of ghrelin stimulates the growth hormone as it increases body mass. Human brains require huge amounts of energy—as much as 25% of our total energy needs. Most mammals, in contrast, require up to about 5%, and our close relatives, the other nonhuman primates, need about 10% at the most (Leonard, 2002; Leonard & Robertson, 1992, 1994; Paabo, 2003). The brains of our other close relatives, the australopiths, were apelike, measuring about 400 cubic centimeters (cc) at 4 mya. Our ancestor, Homo, experienced rapid brain expansion from 600 cc in Homo habilis at 2.5 mya, to 900 cc in Homo erectus in only a half-million years. This value is just below the lowest human value of 950 cc.

Somewhere near this period of time, Homo erectus began using fire to cook. While the association with fire may have been long-standing (Burton, 2009), its use in transforming plants and animals from one form to a more digestible one appears to have begun after 2 mya, and according to some, the date of reckoning is 1.9 mya (Platek, Gallup, & Fryer, 2002).

Tubers are underground storage organs (USOs) of plants. They became more abundant after about 8.2 mya, when the impact of an asteroid cooled the earth creating an environment favoring the evolution of C4 plants over C3 ones (trees and some grasses). The USOs are often so hard or so large that they cannot easily be eaten, and contain toxic substances. Heat from a fire softens the USO, making cell contents accessible, and it also renders the toxic compounds harmless.

For some years, Richard Wrangham and coworkers (Wrangham & Conklin-Brittain, 2003; Wrangham, 2001; Wrangham, McGrew, de Waal, & Heltne, 1994) have been proposing that cooking was the major influence in human evolution. As explained, the application of heat made USOs more nutritively accessible. Recently, in an experiment to test this hypothesis, captive chimpanzees, gorillas, bonobos, and orangutans were offered cooked and uncooked carrots, and sweet and white potatoes. Apparently there was a strong tendency for the great apes to prefer softer items (Wobber, Hare, & Wrangham, 2008). While monkeys dig for corms and the like (Burton, 1972), the finding that chimpanzees use tools to dig up USOs (Hernandez-Aguilar, Moore, & Pickering, 2007) underscores the appeal of this hypothesis. In addition, there is evidence that Homo had already been using tools for over a half-million years when cooking probably began. The inclusion of “meat” in cooking had to have begun by 1.8 mya because there is substantial evidence of big-game hunting by this date. Equally important to Wrangham and colleagues is the consideration that the jaws and teeth of these members of Homo could not have dealt with the fibrousness and toughness of mammalian meat (Wrangham & Conklin-Brittain, 2003). This is despite the fact that apes and monkeys regularly partake of raw flesh; all primates eat insects, and many eat small vertebrates like lizards.

Insects are not termed meat, although their nutritive value is comparable. Certainly the early Homo was eating mammals. Recent evidence from Homo ergaster shows that this hominin was infested with tapeworms by 1.7 mya and that these parasites came from mammals (Hoberg, Alkire, de Queiroz, & Jones, 2001). The remains suggest that either the cooking time at this site was too short, or the temperature was not high enough to kill the parasitic larvae, but also that these hominins were utilizing fire as an instrument of control in their environment. The knowledge base of our ancestors was extensive: It had to be for them to prosper, and it included knowledge of medicinal qualities of plants in their habitat.

It is now well attested that animals self-medicate (Engel, 2002; Huffman, 1997). Plants are used externally as, for example, insect repellent or poultices on wounds, and internally against parasites and gastrointestinal upsets. They may also regulate fertility, as recent evidence suggests that the higher the fats versus protein or carbohydrate, the more males are born (Rosenfeld et al., 2003), and the higher the omega-6 versus omega-3, the more females are born (Fountain et al., 2007; Green et al., 2008). The fact that the animals seem to know the toxic limits of the substances they use and consume is also significant (Engel, 2002).

As knowledge is passed from generation to generation, it crosses lines of species. Homo erectus became Homo sapiens, and their knowledge base was a compendium of all that had gone before that could be remembered. Hence, the knowledge base included the breeding habits of plants and animals, their annual cycles, and where and when to find them, as well as what dangers were associated with them.

Somewhere between the advent of Homo sapiens, at the earliest around 250,000 years ago, and first evidence around 15 kya, this knowledge became translated into domestication. The process of domestication was first delineated by Zeuner (1963). Foreshortening of the muzzle, lightening of the fur, and crowding of the teeth are characteristic of this condition. There are even changes in the part of the brain relating to fear, as there is a relaxation toward the fearful stimulus—in this case with humans— under domestication (Hare & Tomasello, 2005). Because human care is extended to the domesticate, a relaxation of natural selection occurs as nonadaptive traits are supported. This process is seen in sheep, and laboratory and pet mice, as well as dogs, and whatever other animal has been domesticated.

Evidence of diets having components of domestication is attested to by microwear patterns, detected with an electron microscope. These can be found on teeth; isotope analysis of the ratio of C3 to C4 plants, since the latter include more domesticated plants; biomechanics; and anatomical characteristics, such as tooth size or length of shearing crests on molars. Researchers also experiment with various kinds of abrasion and compare these to the “unknown”—the fossil. Biomechanics, an engineering type of study, analyzes forces and examines tooth and bone under the conditions of different diets.

While earlier in our history, only about 30% of the dietary intake would have come from eating organisms that ate C4 plants, under domestication, the number of animals as well as C4 plants increased. This is known from isotope analysis, which evaluates how CO 2 is taken up by plants, and which can estimate the proportion of C3 to C4 plants in the diet. What’s more, the nature of the diet itself can be understood.

Descriptions of domestication follow different theoretical models. Terms like center, zone, or even homeland relate to a view of process and dispersion. How many separate areas of independent domestication there were relative to subareas that received the domesticate or knowledge on how to domesticate also depends on the scholar. A general consensus is that there were seven separate areas where domestication took place: the Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Mesoamerica, South America, eastern North America, and from the Near East to Europe, with firm evidence dating from between 12,000 and 10,000 BCE in the Fertile Crescent of west Asia. The time of transition between hunting and gathering and cultivation of plants and animals is well documented at a number of sites. One, in the Levant, at Ohalo II near Haifa, has evidence for the earliest brush dwellings (Nadel, 2003) and is fairly typical of this transition period. It is dated radiometrically to 19,500 BP (or radiocarbon years before present, RCYBP), which gives a calibrated date of between 22,500 and 23,500 BP (Nadel, 2003). In this Upper Paleolithic, or Epipaleolithic site, evidence from dentition suggests an abrasive diet emphasizing food based on cereals, fish, and a variety of local animals, especially gazelle. In addition to wild barley, wheat, and fruits, small-grained grasses were well represented in the remains (Weiss, Wetterstrom, Nadel, & Bar-Yosef, 2004). The Ohalo II people occupied the site for at least two seasons, likely spring and autumn (Kislev, Nadel, & Carmic, 1992) and perhaps throughout the year (Bar-Yosef, 1998) in brush huts along the lakeshore. These sites at the end of the Upper Paleolithic along the Mediterranean, and in Europe during the Mesolithic, indicate that plants were relied on as dietary objects and may well have been cared for around campsites to ensure their growth.

The specifics of how domestication occurred in each region differ (Bar-Yosef, 1998). Classical theories seeking to analyze the how and why of domestication focus on the environment, population growth, the organization and management of small-scale societies, trade, and changes in the daily schedule (Sutton & Anderson, 2004) . Extending in time from the 18th century, the discussion of these is too complex and lengthy to be included here. More recently, Boone (2002) invoked an energy-budget model, consonant with contemporary notions of evolutionary demography and ecology. A scenario then emerged based on archaeological evidence that the climate was becoming increasingly unpredictable. These dramatic changes in climate, some of them a result of asteroids (Firestone et al., 2007), caused big game to decrease. The subsistence base changed to accommodate the lessened availability, requiring the diet to become more diverse. Fishing became important as groups moved to rich coastal areas, especially along the Mediterranean (e.g., the Levant and Turkey). Activities changed as a consequence, since traditional jobs were now replaced and the need to “follow the herds” was replaced with sedentism, itself a complex phenomenon defined by activities at a given locale as well as infrastructure developed there (Bar-Yosef, 1998).

While populations over most of prehistory had overall zero growth, the cultural processes that emerged with hominines affected mortality and population increase (Boone, 2002), culturally “buffering” local climatic and environmental changes. Brush huts and other shelters are emblematic of this. Larger groups encouraged specializations to emerge. A concomitant to climate change was the decrease in big game. These had provided substantial amounts of protein, and some, because of their size, had little or no predator response, making them particularly easy for small people with limited technology to overcome (Surovell, Waguespack, & Brantingham, 2005). So proficient had the hominines become that these efforts apparently caused massive extinctions of megafauna worldwide, in particular, proboscideans (Alroy, 2001; Surovell et al., 2005).

The actual effect humans have had on megafauna elsewhere, however, remains controversial (Brook & Bowman, 2002), and the demise of big game may indeed owe more to an extraterrestrial impact around 12 kya and its concomitant effect on climate (Firestone et al., 2007). At the same time, humans were obliged to include in their larder a wide variety of foods that either were not as palatable or required a great deal more effort for the caloric return— rather like the choices of fallback foods that nonhuman primates make under poor environmental conditions. The heads of cereals (wheat or barley, for example) need to be gathered, dried, ground, and boiled to make satisfactory “bread.” They can be, and are, eaten whole, with the consequence of heavy dental abrasion (Mahoney, 2007). The circular process of exploiting new or different resources required techniques and technology to extract nutrients, and in turn, the new methods provided access to new food sources (Boone, 2002): Between the 7th and the 5th millennia, for example, milk was being consumed by farmers in southeastern Europe, Anatolia, and the Levant. The evidence comes from comparing the residue left on pottery sherds—that of fat from fatty acid from milk to carcass fats (Evershed et al., 2008).

In his discussions of the San, Richard Lee (1979) noted that the cultural practice of reciprocal food sharing, as complex as it was, functioned as storage in a climate where there was no other means: As perishable meat was given away, it ensured the giver a return portion some days later. Had the giver kept the entire kill, undoubtedly most of it would have spoiled. Stiner (2001) references Binford’s suggestion that the development of storage systems was one of the technological “inventions” that must have accompanied the broadening of the diet so that the new variety of seeds and grain could be kept for some days. While hunter-gatherers, even until the end of the old ways (until 1965), would gather grain heads as they walked from one camping site to another— an observation documented in the Australian government’s films on the Arunta—the development of implements to break open the grain heads, removing the chaff and pulverizing the germ, perhaps preceded domestication. As grains and grasses became more important in the diet, the gathering of those that failed to explode and release their seed grain became the staple domesticates. The advent of domestication has been dated at the various areas illustrated in Table 2.

Early domestication developed in different ways in different areas, as local people responded to local exigencies in different conditions and with different cultural standards (Evershed et al., 2008). Gathering and colonization were how plants and animals came to be domesticated, with some evidence that people practiced cultivation in naturally growing areas of desirable plants. By removing competitors, distributing water, or protecting from predators, the people were able to enhance the growth of the desired plant. Because plants were gathered and brought back to home base, some seeds took root nearby. Awareness of the relationship of these seeds to the burgeoning plant spurred the next stage. Those plants that were gathered often had less efficient dispersal mechanisms. Their seed heads did not break off, and their seeds did not blow away. This was the case for flax, peas, beans, and many others, facilitating their cultivation. It seems a natural progression to the next step, outright sowing.

Gathering of seeds, and keeping them for the next season, was the final and significant step in the process of domestication, but it requires surplus as well as foresight and storage facilities. The seeds that would become the next season’s crop were selected for some attribute they possessed: The plant had produced more, the seeds were less volatile, less able to disperse, or predators had been kept from taking them. Forms of plants that were more suitable were selected, probably initially unconsciously, and later intentionally—skewing the genetic mix in favor of domestication.

The supposition about animal domestication includes various ideas: Perhaps the cubs of hunted mothers were brought home and raised; some kinds of animals “followed” people home where making a living was easier; animals were kept in corrals or tethered to allow captive ones to mate with the wild until the population grew substantially so that taking them was easier; or animals showing traits such as aggression not favorable to people were eliminated from the gene pool. The “big five” of domesticated animals—pigs, cows, sheep, chickens, and goats—were domesticated in different regions, independently from one another (Diamond, 2002), whereas domestication of plants seems to have diffused through areas. The animals that became domesticated were those that had behavioral traits that permitted it: They were gregarious and lived in herds where following the leader was part of the repertoire. Diamond (2002) suggests that it is the geographic range in which domesticates were found that influenced whether there were single or multiple areas of origin. The range of the big five is so great in each case that they were independently domesticated throughout, whereas the plants had a more limited range and so both domesticates and process diffused.

A population boom is clearly recorded at the centers of domestication (e.g., the city of Jericho in the Near East had up to 3,000 people living in it by 8500 BCE, according to the original researcher, Kathleen Kenyon, although that number has been revised downward [as cited in Bar-Yosef, 1986]). In these centers, there were an impressive number of people supporting themselves on a variety of domesticated plants such as einkorn, emmer wheat, and barley. The city of Teotihuacan in what is now Mexico had a population of 200,000 just before the Spaniards arrived (Hendon & Joyce, 2003). The abundance of food has its repercussions in population size with a concomitant development of trade specializations.

Over time, however, the benefits of agriculture become somewhat overshadowed. Zoonoses from association with farm animals increased. Tapeworms were known from 1.7 mya along with hookworm and forms of dysentery. Because settlements were often near bodies of still water such as marshes or streams, malaria became endemic. The development of agriculture and its concomitant population increase encouraged a variety of contagious diseases in the human population. In addition, noninfectious diseases became increasingly apparent: arthritis; repetitive strain injury; caries; osteoporosis; rickets; bacterial infections; birthing problems; and crowded teeth, anemia, and other forms of nutritional stress, especially in weanlings who were weaned from mother’s milk to grain mush. Caries and periodontal disease accompanied softer food and increased dependence on carbohydrates (Swedlund & Armelagos, 1990). Lung diseases caused by association with campfires, often maintained within a dwelling without proper ventilation, plagued humanity as well (Huttner, Beyer, & Bargon, 2007). Warfare also makes its appearance as state societies fight over irrigation, territory, and resources, and have and have-not groups vie for their privileges (Gat, 2006). Hunter-gatherers were generally not only healthier, but taller. The decrease in height is probably a result of less calcium or vitamin D, and insufficient essential amino acids, because meat became more prized and was only distributed to the wealthy. Women suffered differentially, as males typically received the best cuts and more, especially when meat was not abundant (Cohen & Armelagos, 1984).

The more mouths to feed, the greater the incentive to develop farming techniques to increase supporting output. Implements changed, human labor gave way to animal labor, metal replaced wood, carts and their wheels became more sophisticated, but above all, selection of seed and breed animals became more trait specific as knowledge grew. The associated decrement in variety began early and has continued to the present.

The changes that have taken place in the use of plants and animals are momentous. The idea of change promoted the advances that mark the 18th century. As has too often been the case, warfare encouraged new technology. Napoleon’s dictum that armies run on their stomachs inspired competition to find a way to preserve food for his campaigns. Metal, rather than glass, was soon introduced to preserve food in a vacuum (Graham, 1981). It did not always work: Botulism and lead poisoning from solder used to seal the tin played havoc with health. (Currently, the bisphenol in the solder is also a concern.) Nevertheless, the technique was not abandoned, especially as it meant that food could be eaten out of season. “Exotic” foods from elsewhere could now be introduced from one country to another. The ingredients of Italian spaghetti are an obvious case in point: noodles from China, tomatoes from Mesoamerica, and beef originally from the Fertile Crescent combined in one place at different dates. For very different historical reasons, the Conquistadors brought much of it back to Europe after Columbus’s momentous voyage. Diffusion of crops and techniques had occurred since they were first developed, evident in the “Muslim agricultural revolution” at the height of Islam from 700 CE to the 12th century (DeYoung, 1984; Kaba, 1984; Watson, 1983). During this period, China received soybeans, which arrived in c. 1000 CE, and peanut oil—both staples in the modern Chinese diet. Millet had been more important in China than rice (just as in contemporary west Africa, corn is replacing the more proteinaceous millet), and tea was a novelty until the Tang dynasty.

In “the present,” the kind of foodstuffs that could be dispersed elaborated the inventory. The Industrial Revolution, with its harnessing of fossil fuel (coal) to produce energy (steam), further encouraged the process as travel time diminished. Food could be eaten—fresh—out of season and brought from thousands of miles away. The refrigerator truck could take food from its source, usually unripe, and deliver it thousands of miles away. With this new mechanism, the food value in the produce is diminished, but the extravagance of eating produce out of season remains.

Rivaling the distribution of foodstuffs in its impact on human history is the continued control of breeding. Indeed, Darwin’s great work proposed “natural” selection in contrast to husbandry, or “artificial” selection. Before the gene was known and named—properly a 20th-century achievement— “inheritance” in humans was sufficiently understood in the form of eugenics (with its dubious history) as put forth by Galton in the late 1880s. When Mendel’s findings were recovered in 1900, Bateson named the gene (1905–1906), and Morgan discovered the chromosome (1910), genetics got seriously under way, and culminated, in the context of this research paper, in the Green Revolution.

By the 1960s, famine had become a major world issue, with increasing frequency and severity: the Bengal famine of 1942 to 1945; the famine in China between 1958 and 1961, which killed 30 million people; and the famines in Africa, especially Ethiopia and the west African Sahel in the early 1970s (Sen, 1981) rivaled the famines recorded in ancient history and throughout modern history, especially in the late 19th century. Although the causes of famine are usually environmental, for example drought or pests, the underlying causes are often economic and political (Sen, 1981). In the United States, the President’s Science Advisory Committee (1967) issued a report noting that the problem of famine, worldwide, was severe, and could be predicted to continue unless and until an unprecedented effort to bring about new policies was inaugurated (Hazell, n.d.).

In an attempt to bypass the underlying issues by producing more food for starving millions, the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations initiated what was named the Green Revolution. This was a dramatic change in farming techniques introduced to have-not countries of the time: India, China, and nations throughout Asia and Central America.

Mexico had initiated this decades earlier, in the early 1940s, when Norman Borlaug (1997) developed highyielding, dwarf varieties of plants. Production increased exponentially, and seed and technology from the “experiment” in Mexico was soon exported to India and Pakistan. At the occasion of his Nobel Prize being awarded in 1970, Borlaug noted that wheat production had risen substantially in India and Pakistan: From 1964 to 1965, a record harvest of 4.6 million tons of wheat was produced in Pakistan. The harvest increased to 6.7 million tons in 1968, by which time West Pakistan had become self-sufficient. Similarly, India became self-sufficient by the late 1960s, producing record harvests of 12.3 million tons, which increased to 20 million tons in the 1970s (Borlaug, 1997).

To sustain these harvests, however, petrochemicals had to be employed, and land had to be acquired. The new genetic seeds were bred for traits requiring fertilizers, pesticides, and water. Since the mid-1990s, the enthusiasm for the Green Revolution has waned as the numbers of the hungry have increased worldwide, and production has decreased. According to the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) (2008), the global rice yields have risen by less than 1% per year in the past several decades.

The explanations for the decrease vary, but among the most important is the fact that soil degradation results from intensity of farming, and petrochemicals that do not “feed” the soil itself. Depletion in soil nutrients requires stronger fertilizers; pesticides select for resistant pests and diseases, which in turn require stronger pesticides. Poorly trained farmers overuse the petrochemicals, exacerbating the situation. Irrigation itself causes a serious problem: The evaporation of water leaves a salt residue that accumulates in the soil. There is a concomitant loss of fertility estimated as 25 million acres per year, that is, nearly 40% of irrigated land worldwide (Rauch, 2003). In addition, new genetic breeds have not addressed social factors: Water supplies are regional, and irrigation requires financial resources; and farmers with greater income buy up smaller holdings and can afford to purchase industrial equipment. Access to food was not enhanced by the Green Revolution, especially in Africa (Dyson, 1999), where imports are approximately one third of the world’s rice (IRRI, 2008). It is access to food, more than abundance or pest resistance, that mitigates famine, dramatically demonstrated by Sen (1981). Determining access falls into the hands of government— implementing social security programs, maintaining political stability, and legislating property rights. The small farmers then move to cities, which become overcrowded, and lack employment.

While access has improved in some areas, the increase in population—often occurring exponentially—requires yet greater production. The response has been what, at the end of the 1990s, some have termed frankenfood (Thelwall & Price, 2006), or genetically engineered seed. This combines traits from very different species to enhance the plant. Thus, cold-water genes from fish are put into wheat to enable it to grow in regions not hospitable to the plant, or plants are engineered to resist a herbicide that would otherwise kill it as it destroys competitors. Transgenic genes might allow insemination for a variety of plants into soil that has become infertile due to salinization, and thereby extend productivity to regions where production has long ago ceased (Rauch, 2003).

Genetically modified (GM) plants are spreading throughout the world, even as some countries refuse them entry. The powerful corporations and governments that endorse their use see them as a panacea: New varieties for new climate issues, which themselves, like global warming, have arisen as a result of human activity, not the least of which is the industrialization of food. In addition, farmers are restricted from using seed from engineered plants, even if they blow into their fields, as the seeds are, in effect, copyrighted and the use of them has caused expensive legal challenges (“In Depth,” 2004). While GM crops are less damaging to the environment than typical introduced species, as the numbers and distribution of these increase, the probabilities of them spreading, evolving, and mixing with local varieties increases (Peterson et al., 2000). Early “evidence” at the beginning of the century that transgenes had entered the genomes of local plants in Oaxaca, Mexico, was based on two distinctive gene markers. The studies were corroborated by government agencies but further controlled, and a peer-reviewed study of a huge sample of farms and corn plants did not find transgenes in this region (Ortiz-García et al., 2005). The question therefore remains moot, at least in Mexico, but the issue gave rise to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (1999–2000), which regulates the movement of living modified organisms—plant and animal—whether for direct release or for food (Clapp, 2006). A number of countries in Europe and Africa have refused modified seed, although pressure on them to accept the seed continues. The Food and Agriculture Association’s (FAO) Swaminathan (2003) has urged India not to permit a “genetic divide” to exclude it from equality with other developing nations. Anxious that there not be a genetic divide between those countries that pursue transgenic organisms and those that do not, the United Nations World Health Organization (WHO) has echoed this concern (WHO/EURO, 2000).

Over time, selection for certain desired traits and hybridization of stock to develop specific traits (resistance to disease, etc.) has meant the loss of biodiversity in agriculture. Conservation of seed, by agencies like the Global Crop Diversity Trust, and seed banks, like IRRI in the Philippines, and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway, have been established in order to retain plant biodiversity. Their purpose is to have available strains that can reinvigorate domesticated species with genes from the “wild type.” Because domestication reduces variation, these “banks” become increasingly important (AcostaGallegos, Kelly, & Gepts, 2007).

Certainly there will be more technological advances as the pressure for food continues and the area available for cultivation diminishes. The growth of genetic modification over the past decade has been exponential and is a harbinger of the future. The food crisis in the mid-1970s caused by oil prices, and the world summit on finding solutions, both had little permanent effect. The food crisis in the first decade of the 21st century has multiple causes, not the least of which is climate change. But that is not the cause: It is a concomitant, as Sen (1981) has argued. Newspapers and magazines detail the economic and political actions that seem paramount, and then a climate disaster hits and the crisis becomes full-blown. Australia, for example, has been suffering drought for over a decade, especially in its wheat-growing areas, but its economy can support basic food imports; Canada’s prairies were overwhelmed by a heat wave due to climate change, which reduced its 5-year production of wheat by over 3 million tons. Ironically, one of the major factors is that due to the Green Revolution, the health and diet of billions of people, in China and India in particular, has improved, but this has led to obesity (Popkin, 2008). Their demand for meat, which traditionally was an ingredient in a vegetable-based gravy over a staple, has escalated, and with it a shift from land producing for people to land producing for, especially, cattle. And, world over, the amount of arable land left has decreased from 0.42 hectares per person in 1961 to just about half this figure by the beginning of this century (as cited in Swaminathan, 2003).

Over the past two decades, the rise in the price of oil has caused an escalation of food prices, since transportation by ship, plane, or truck requires energy and global food markets require foodstuffs that once were kept local. Clearly another form of energy needed to be found, and the answer lay in the conversion of biomass to energy. The demand for biofuel, initially created from corn, kept acres out of food production and relegated them to energy manufacture. Currently the move is to find other sources of biomass— like algae, for example—to relieve the pressure on foodstuffs, and ultimately to use waste to create fuel. Then too, agglomeration of land into huge holdings has helped to make farming a business enterprise, subsidized by government and reflected in the market fluctuations in the prices of commodities, where 60% of the wheat trade, for example, is controlled by large investment corporations. The consequence has been that small farmers cannot compete with imports that are cheaper than what they can produce; production cannot compete with demand (IRRI, 2008). An even further result is scarcity in precisely those countries where the crops are grown, resulting in hoarding not only by individuals, but also by governments, for example, the ban on rice in India and Vietnam (IRRI, 2008).

Global organizations such as the G8 and the World Trade Organization (WTO), together with nongovernmental agencies, individual governments, think tanks, and institutes, are “closing the barn door after the horse has escaped” with a variety of stop-gap measures. At the same time, there are clear and significant countertrends occurring. Not the least of these, and perhaps the best established, is the organic movement, whose origins followed the introduction of vast petrochemical use in the 1940s. Since then, the movement has grown out of the “fringe” to become “established.” In the mid-1980s, supermarkets’ recognition of a substantial market for certified-organic produce and meat broadcast the knowledge of the health implications of additives (from MSG to nitrites).

Of course, advances in technology and science focus on ensuring that there will be sufficient food for future populations. Livestock require vast amounts of land to produce the food they eat. By the early 1970s, the calculation was that conversion of cow feed to meat produced amounts to only 15% (Whittaker, 1972), and cows eat prodigious amounts of food. The agriculture department of Colorado State University, for example, reckons a cow eats up to 25 pounds of grain, 30 pounds of hay, and 40 to 60 pounds of silage— per day. One way around this is the virtual “creation” of meat. The future will see the industrial manufacture of meat through tissue engineering (Edelman et al., 2005). Using principles currently devised for medical purposes, cultured meat may actually reduce environmental degradation (less livestock, less soil pollution) and ensure human health through control of kinds and amounts of fat, as well as bacteria. Given the growth of the world’s population, in order to maintain health levels, the current trend of creating, nurturing, and breeding neutraceuticals will be expanded. The Consultative Group on Agriculture Research’s (CGIAR) Harvest Plus Challenge Program is breeding vitamin and mineral dense staples: wheat, rice, maize, and cassava for the developing world (HarvestPlus, 2009). Similarly, the inclusion of zinc, iron, and vitamin A into plant foods is under way in breeding and GM projects. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) terms its efforts Agrosalud as it seeks to increase the food value of beans, especially with regard to iron and calcium content (AcostaGallegos et al., 2007).

There is a distinct interest in returning to victory gardens —those small, even tiny plots of land in urban environments that produced huge quantities of food in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada during World War II. By 1943, there were 20 million gardens using every available space: roofs of apartment buildings, vacant lots, and of course backyards. Together they produced 8 million tons of food (Levenstein, 2003). The beginnings of this movement are seen in the community gardens hosted in many cities, and in blogs and Web sites all over the Internet. Cities will also see the development of vertical farms —towering buildings growing all sorts of produce and even livestock. This idea, first promulgated by Dickson Despommier, a professor of microbiology at Columbia University, has quickly found adherents (Venkataraman, 2008). One project, proposed for completion by 2010, is a 30-story building in Las Vegas that will use hydroponic technology to grow a variety of produce. The idea of small plots, some buildings, and some arable land—in effect, a distribution of spaces to grow in—is consonant with the return to “small” and local: the hallmarks of the slow movement.

The future may see a return to local produce grown by small farmers, independent of the industrialized superfarms, utilizing nonhybridized crops from which seed can be stored. The small and local is part of the slow movement, which originated in Italy in the mid-1980s as a protest against fast food and what is associated with it. Its credo is to preserve a local ecoregion: its seeds, animals, and food plants, and thereby its cuisine (Petrini, 2003). It has grown into hundreds of chapters worldwide with a membership approaching 100,000 and has achieved this in only two decades. In concert with this movement is a new respect for, and cultivation of, traditional knowledge. The World Bank, for example, hosts a Web site on indigenous knowledge (Indigenous Knowledge Program, 2009) providing information ranging from traditional medicine, to farming techniques (e.g., composting, terracing, irrigating), to information technology and rural development.

The best example of small, local, and slow, along with exemplary restoration of indigenous knowledge, comes from Cuba. When the United States closed its doors to Cuba in the late 1950s, the Soviet Union became the chief supporter of Cuba, providing trade, material, and financial support. With the fall of communism, and the collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, Cuba could no longer rely on the imports of petrochemicals that had been traded for citrus and sugar and upon which agribusiness depended. Large-scale state farms therefore were broken into local cooperatives; industrial employees were encouraged to work on farms, or to produce gardens in the cities much like victory gardens. A change in the economic system, permitting small-scale farmers to sell their surplus, encouraged market gardening and financial independence. Oxen replaced tractors, and new “old” techniques of interplanting, crop rotation, and composting replaced petrochemicals. Universities found practitioners and taught traditional medicine and farming techniques. It may not be feasible for small and local to exist everywhere, yet the future will see some of each as expedience requires.

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• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Topics

120 Food Research Paper Topics

How to choose a topic for food research paper:, fast food research paper topics:.

• The impact of fast food consumption on obesity rates in children
• The influence of fast food advertising on consumer behavior
• The correlation between fast food consumption and cardiovascular diseases
• The role of fast food in the development of type 2 diabetes
• The effects of fast food on mental health and well-being
• The environmental impact of fast food packaging and waste
• Fast food and its contribution to food deserts in urban areas
• The economic implications of the fast food industry on local communities
• Fast food and its association with food addiction and cravings
• The nutritional value and quality of ingredients used in fast food
• The influence of fast food on dietary patterns and nutritional deficiencies
• The role of fast food in the globalization of food culture
• The ethical concerns surrounding fast food production and animal welfare
• The impact of fast food consumption on academic performance in students
• Fast food and its relationship to food insecurity and poverty

Food Insecurity Research Paper Topics:

• The impact of food insecurity on child development
• Food insecurity and its relationship to mental health
• Exploring the causes of food insecurity in urban areas
• The role of food banks in addressing food insecurity
• Food insecurity among college students: prevalence and consequences
• The effects of food insecurity on maternal and infant health
• Food insecurity and its implications for rural communities
• The relationship between food insecurity and obesity
• Food insecurity and its impact on academic performance in children
• The role of government policies in addressing food insecurity
• Food insecurity and its connection to chronic diseases
• The effects of food insecurity on older adults’ health and well-being
• Food insecurity and its influence on food choices and dietary quality
• The role of community gardens in reducing food insecurity
• Food insecurity and its impact on social inequalities and disparities

Organic Food Research Paper Topics:

• The impact of organic farming on soil health and fertility
• The nutritional differences between organic and conventionally grown fruits and vegetables
• The effects of organic farming practices on water quality and conservation
• The potential health benefits of consuming organic dairy products
• The role of organic agriculture in reducing pesticide exposure and its associated health risks
• The economic viability and market trends of organic food production
• The impact of organic farming on biodiversity and ecosystem services
• Consumer perceptions and attitudes towards organic food: A global perspective
• The effectiveness of organic farming in mitigating climate change
• The role of organic farming in promoting sustainable food systems
• Organic versus conventional meat production: A comparison of animal welfare standards
• The impact of organic food consumption on human health and disease prevention
• The challenges and opportunities of organic food certification and labeling
• The role of organic farming in reducing food waste and promoting food security
• The potential environmental and health risks associated with genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in organic food production

Food Technology Research Paper Topics:

• The impact of food processing techniques on nutritional value
• The role of food technology in reducing food waste
• The development of sustainable packaging materials for food products
• The use of nanotechnology in food processing and preservation
• The application of artificial intelligence in food quality control
• The potential of 3D printing in personalized nutrition
• The impact of food technology on the sensory properties of food products
• The role of food technology in improving food safety and reducing foodborne illnesses
• The development of novel food ingredients using biotechnology
• The use of blockchain technology in ensuring traceability and transparency in the food supply chain
• The impact of food technology on the shelf life and stability of food products
• The role of food technology in addressing food allergies and intolerances
• The application of robotics in food processing and manufacturing
• The development of functional foods for specific health conditions
• The use of genetic engineering in enhancing crop productivity and nutritional content

Food Safety Research Paper Topics:

• The impact of foodborne illnesses on public health
• The role of government regulations in ensuring food safety
• Food safety practices in the restaurant industry
• The effectiveness of food safety training programs for food handlers
• Food safety risks associated with genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
• The role of food packaging in maintaining food safety
• Food safety concerns in the global food supply chain
• The impact of climate change on food safety and security
• Food safety risks associated with food delivery services
• The role of consumer behavior in ensuring food safety
• Food safety practices in home kitchens
• The impact of food additives and preservatives on food safety
• Food safety risks associated with food allergies and intolerances
• The role of technology in enhancing food safety measures
• Food safety challenges in developing countries

Food History Research Paper Topics:

• The Evolution of Food Preservation Techniques
• The Impact of the Columbian Exchange on Global Cuisine
• The Role of Food in Ancient Egyptian Society
• The Origins and Development of Chocolate as a Culinary Delight
• The Influence of French Cuisine on Modern Gastronomy
• The Cultural Significance of Spices in Medieval Europe
• The History of Food and Nutrition in World War II
• The Impact of Industrialization on Food Production and Consumption
• The Role of Food in Ancient Greek and Roman Rituals and Festivals
• The History of Street Food and its Socioeconomic Impact
• The Origins and Evolution of Sushi in Japanese Cuisine
• The Influence of Immigration on American Food Culture
• The History of Food and Medicine: From Ancient Remedies to Modern Nutraceuticals
• The Role of Food in Colonialism and Cultural Assimilation
• The Evolution of Fast Food and its Impact on Global Health

Food Marketing Research Paper Topics:

• The impact of social media on consumer behavior in the food industry
• The effectiveness of celebrity endorsements in food marketing campaigns
• The influence of packaging design on consumer perception and purchasing decisions
• The role of sensory marketing in food product development and promotion
• The effects of nutritional labeling on consumer choices and health outcomes
• The use of virtual reality and augmented reality in food marketing strategies
• The impact of food advertising on children’s food preferences and consumption patterns
• The role of cultural factors in shaping food marketing strategies and consumer behavior
• The effectiveness of personalized marketing approaches in the food industry
• The influence of food branding and brand loyalty on consumer purchasing behavior
• The role of sustainability and ethical considerations in food marketing practices
• The effects of food pricing strategies on consumer choices and market competition
• The impact of online food delivery platforms on consumer behavior and market dynamics
• The role of food labeling claims and certifications in consumer trust and decision-making
• The effects of food marketing on public health and policy implications

Food Chemistry Research Paper Topics:

• Analysis of food additives and their effects on human health
• Investigating the role of antioxidants in preventing food spoilage
• The chemistry behind flavor development in fermented foods
• Analyzing the chemical composition of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food
• Understanding the chemical reactions involved in food browning and Maillard reaction
• Investigating the chemistry of food preservation methods, such as canning and freezing
• Analyzing the chemical changes in food during cooking and their impact on nutritional value
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• Published: 06 December 2017

Healthy food choices are happy food choices: Evidence from a real life sample using smartphone based assessments

• Deborah R. Wahl 1   na1 ,
• Karoline Villinger 1   na1 ,
• Laura M. König   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3655-8842 1 ,
• Katrin Ziesemer 1 ,
• Harald T. Schupp 1 &
• Britta Renner 1  

Scientific Reports volume  7 , Article number:  17069 ( 2017 ) Cite this article

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• Health sciences
• Human behaviour

Research suggests that “healthy” food choices such as eating fruits and vegetables have not only physical but also mental health benefits and might be a long-term investment in future well-being. This view contrasts with the belief that high-caloric foods taste better, make us happy, and alleviate a negative mood. To provide a more comprehensive assessment of food choice and well-being, we investigated in-the-moment eating happiness by assessing complete, real life dietary behaviour across eight days using smartphone-based ecological momentary assessment. Three main findings emerged: First, of 14 different main food categories, vegetables consumption contributed the largest share to eating happiness measured across eight days. Second, sweets on average provided comparable induced eating happiness to “healthy” food choices such as fruits or vegetables. Third, dinner elicited comparable eating happiness to snacking. These findings are discussed within the “food as health” and “food as well-being” perspectives on eating behaviour.

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Introduction

When it comes to eating, researchers, the media, and policy makers mainly focus on negative aspects of eating behaviour, like restricting certain foods, counting calories, and dieting. Likewise, health intervention efforts, including primary prevention campaigns, typically encourage consumers to trade off the expected enjoyment of hedonic and comfort foods against health benefits 1 . However, research has shown that diets and restrained eating are often counterproductive and may even enhance the risk of long-term weight gain and eating disorders 2 , 3 . A promising new perspective entails a shift from food as pure nourishment towards a more positive and well-being centred perspective of human eating behaviour 1 , 4 , 5 . In this context, Block et al . 4 have advocated a paradigm shift from “food as health” to “food as well-being” (p. 848).

Supporting this perspective of “food as well-being”, recent research suggests that “healthy” food choices, such as eating more fruits and vegetables, have not only physical but also mental health benefits 6 , 7 and might be a long-term investment in future well-being 8 . For example, in a nationally representative panel survey of over 12,000 adults from Australia, Mujcic and Oswald 8 showed that fruit and vegetable consumption predicted increases in happiness, life satisfaction, and well-being over two years. Similarly, using lagged analyses, White and colleagues 9 showed that fruit and vegetable consumption predicted improvements in positive affect on the subsequent day but not vice versa. Also, cross-sectional evidence reported by Blanchflower et al . 10 shows that eating fruits and vegetables is positively associated with well-being after adjusting for demographic variables including age, sex, or race 11 . Of note, previous research includes a wide range of time lags between actual eating occasion and well-being assessment, ranging from 24 hours 9 , 12 to 14 days 6 , to 24 months 8 . Thus, the findings support the notion that fruit and vegetable consumption has beneficial effects on different indicators of well-being, such as happiness or general life satisfaction, across a broad range of time spans.

The contention that healthy food choices such as a higher fruit and vegetable consumption is associated with greater happiness and well-being clearly contrasts with the common belief that in particular high-fat, high-sugar, or high-caloric foods taste better and make us happy while we are eating them. When it comes to eating, people usually have a spontaneous “unhealthy = tasty” association 13 and assume that chocolate is a better mood booster than an apple. According to this in-the-moment well-being perspective, consumers have to trade off the expected enjoyment of eating against the health costs of eating unhealthy foods 1 , 4 .

A wealth of research shows that the experience of negative emotions and stress leads to increased consumption in a substantial number of individuals (“emotional eating”) of unhealthy food (“comfort food”) 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 . However, this research stream focuses on emotional eating to “smooth” unpleasant experiences in response to stress or negative mood states, and the mood-boosting effect of eating is typically not assessed 18 . One of the few studies testing the effectiveness of comfort food in improving mood showed that the consumption of “unhealthy” comfort food had a mood boosting effect after a negative mood induction but not to a greater extent than non-comfort or neutral food 19 . Hence, even though people may believe that snacking on “unhealthy” foods like ice cream or chocolate provides greater pleasure and psychological benefits, the consumption of “unhealthy” foods might not actually be more psychologically beneficial than other foods.

However, both streams of research have either focused on a single food category (fruit and vegetable consumption), a single type of meal (snacking), or a single eating occasion (after negative/neutral mood induction). Accordingly, it is unknown whether the boosting effect of eating is specific to certain types of food choices and categories or whether eating has a more general boosting effect that is observable after the consumption of both “healthy” and “unhealthy” foods and across eating occasions. Accordingly, in the present study, we investigated the psychological benefits of eating that varied by food categories and meal types by assessing complete dietary behaviour across eight days in real life.

Furthermore, previous research on the impact of eating on well-being tended to rely on retrospective assessments such as food frequency questionnaires 8 , 10 and written food diaries 9 . Such retrospective self-report methods rely on the challenging task of accurately estimating average intake or remembering individual eating episodes and may lead to under-reporting food intake, particularly unhealthy food choices such as snacks 7 , 20 . To avoid memory and bias problems in the present study we used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) 21 to obtain ecologically valid and comprehensive real life data on eating behaviour and happiness as experienced in-the-moment.

In the present study, we examined the eating happiness and satisfaction experienced in-the-moment, in real time and in real life, using a smartphone based EMA approach. Specifically, healthy participants were asked to record each eating occasion, including main meals and snacks, for eight consecutive days and rate how tasty their meal/snack was, how much they enjoyed it, and how pleased they were with their meal/snack immediately after each eating episode. This intense recording of every eating episode allows assessing eating behaviour on the level of different meal types and food categories to compare experienced eating happiness across meals and categories. Following the two different research streams, we expected on a food category level that not only “unhealthy” foods like sweets would be associated with high experienced eating happiness but also “healthy” food choices such as fruits and vegetables. On a meal type level, we hypothesised that the happiness of meals differs as a function of meal type. According to previous contention, snacking in particular should be accompanied by greater happiness.

Eating episodes

Overall, during the study period, a total of 1,044 completed eating episodes were reported (see also Table  1 ). On average, participants rated their eating happiness with M  = 77.59 which suggests that overall eating occasions were generally positive. However, experienced eating happiness also varied considerably between eating occasions as indicated by a range from 7.00 to 100.00 and a standard deviation of SD  = 16.41.

Food categories and experienced eating happiness

All eating episodes were categorised according to their food category based on the German Nutrient Database (German: Bundeslebensmittelschlüssel), which covers the average nutritional values of approximately 10,000 foods available on the German market and is a validated standard instrument for the assessment of nutritional surveys in Germany. As shown in Table  1 , eating happiness differed significantly across all 14 food categories, F (13, 2131) = 1.78, p  = 0.04. On average, experienced eating happiness varied from 71.82 ( SD  = 18.65) for fish to 83.62 ( SD  = 11.61) for meat substitutes. Post hoc analysis, however, did not yield significant differences in experienced eating happiness between food categories, p  ≥ 0.22. Hence, on average, “unhealthy” food choices such as sweets ( M  = 78.93, SD  = 15.27) did not differ in experienced happiness from “healthy” food choices such as fruits ( M  = 78.29, SD  = 16.13) or vegetables ( M  = 77.57, SD  = 17.17). In addition, an intraclass correlation (ICC) of ρ = 0.22 for happiness indicated that less than a quarter of the observed variation in experienced eating happiness was due to differences between food categories, while 78% of the variation was due to differences within food categories.

However, as Figure  1 (left side) depicts, consumption frequency differed greatly across food categories. Frequently consumed food categories encompassed vegetables which were consumed at 38% of all eating occasions ( n  = 400), followed by dairy products with 35% ( n  = 366), and sweets with 34% ( n  = 356). Conversely, rarely consumed food categories included meat substitutes, which were consumed in 2.2% of all eating occasions ( n  = 23), salty extras (1.5%, n  = 16), and pastries (1.3%, n  = 14).

Left side: Average experienced eating happiness (colour intensity: darker colours indicate greater happiness) and consumption frequency (size of the cycle) for the 14 food categories. Right side: Absolute share of the 14 food categories in total experienced eating happiness.

Amount of experienced eating happiness by food category

To account for the frequency of consumption, we calculated and scaled the absolute experienced eating happiness according to the total sum score. As shown in Figure  1 (right side), vegetables contributed the biggest share to the total happiness followed by sweets, dairy products, and bread. Clustering food categories shows that fruits and vegetables accounted for nearly one quarter of total eating happiness score and thus, contributed to a large part of eating related happiness. Grain products such as bread, pasta, and cereals, which are main sources of carbohydrates including starch and fibre, were the second main source for eating happiness. However, “unhealthy” snacks including sweets, salty extras, and pastries represented the third biggest source of eating related happiness.

Experienced eating happiness by meal type

To further elucidate the contribution of snacks to eating happiness, analysis on the meal type level was conducted. Experienced in-the-moment eating happiness significantly varied by meal type consumed, F (4, 1039) = 11.75, p  < 0.001. Frequencies of meal type consumption ranged from snacks being the most frequently logged meal type ( n  = 332; see also Table  1 ) to afternoon tea being the least logged meal type ( n  = 27). Figure  2 illustrates the wide dispersion within as well as between different meal types. Afternoon tea ( M  = 82.41, SD  = 15.26), dinner ( M  = 81.47, SD  = 14.73), and snacks ( M  = 79.45, SD  = 14.94) showed eating happiness values above the grand mean, whereas breakfast ( M  = 74.28, SD  = 16.35) and lunch ( M  = 73.09, SD  = 18.99) were below the eating happiness mean. Comparisons between meal types showed that eating happiness for snacks was significantly higher than for lunch t (533) = −4.44, p  = 0.001, d  = −0.38 and breakfast, t (567) = −3.78, p  = 0.001, d  = −0.33. However, this was also true for dinner, which induced greater eating happiness than lunch t (446) = −5.48, p  < 0.001, d  = −0.50 and breakfast, t (480) = −4.90, p  < 0.001, d  = −0.46. Finally, eating happiness for afternoon tea was greater than for lunch t (228) = −2.83, p  = 0.047, d  = −0.50. All other comparisons did not reach significance, t  ≤ 2.49, p  ≥ 0.093.

Experienced eating happiness per meal type. Small dots represent single eating events, big circles indicate average eating happiness, and the horizontal line indicates the grand mean. Boxes indicate the middle 50% (interquartile range) and median (darker/lighter shade). The whiskers above and below represent 1.5 of the interquartile range.

Control Analyses

In order to test for a potential confounding effect between experienced eating happiness, food categories, and meal type, additional control analyses within meal types were conducted. Comparing experienced eating happiness for dinner and lunch suggested that dinner did not trigger a happiness spill-over effect specific to vegetables since the foods consumed at dinner were generally associated with greater happiness than those consumed at other eating occasions (Supplementary Table  S1 ). Moreover, the relative frequency of vegetables consumed at dinner (73%, n  = 180 out of 245) and at lunch were comparable (69%, n  = 140 out of 203), indicating that the observed happiness-vegetables link does not seem to be mainly a meal type confounding effect.

Since the present study focuses on “food effects” (Level 1) rather than “person effects” (Level 2), we analysed the data at the food item level. However, participants who were generally overall happier with their eating could have inflated the observed happiness scores for certain food categories. In order to account for person-level effects, happiness scores were person-mean centred and thereby adjusted for mean level differences in happiness. The person-mean centred happiness scores ( M cwc ) represent the difference between the individual’s average happiness score (across all single in-the-moment happiness scores per food category) and the single happiness scores of the individual within the respective food category. The centred scores indicate whether the single in-the-moment happiness score was above (indicated by positive values) or below (indicated by negative values) the individual person-mean. As Table  1 depicts, the control analyses with centred values yielded highly similar results. Vegetables were again associated on average with more happiness than other food categories (although people might differ in their general eating happiness). An additional conducted ANOVA with person-centred happiness values as dependent variables and food categories as independent variables provided also a highly similar pattern of results. Replicating the previously reported analysis, eating happiness differed significantly across all 14 food categories, F (13, 2129) = 1.94, p  = 0.023, and post hoc analysis did not yield significant differences in experienced eating happiness between food categories, p  ≥ 0.14. Moreover, fruits and vegetables were associated with high happiness values, and “unhealthy” food choices such as sweets did not differ in experienced happiness from “healthy” food choices such as fruits or vegetables. The only difference between the previous and control analysis was that vegetables ( M cwc  = 1.16, SD  = 15.14) gained slightly in importance for eating-related happiness, whereas fruits ( M cwc  = −0.65, SD  = 13.21), salty extras ( M cwc  = −0.07, SD  = 8.01), and pastries ( M cwc  = −2.39, SD  = 18.26) became slightly less important.

This study is the first, to our knowledge, that investigated in-the-moment experienced eating happiness in real time and real life using EMA based self-report and imagery covering the complete diversity of food intake. The present results add to and extend previous findings by suggesting that fruit and vegetable consumption has immediate beneficial psychological effects. Overall, of 14 different main food categories, vegetables consumption contributed the largest share to eating happiness measured across eight days. Thus, in addition to the investment in future well-being indicated by previous research 8 , “healthy” food choices seem to be an investment in the in-the moment well-being.

Importantly, although many cultures convey the belief that eating certain foods has a greater hedonic and mood boosting effect, the present results suggest that this might not reflect actual in-the-moment experiences accurately. Even though people often have a spontaneous “unhealthy = tasty” intuition 13 , thus indicating that a stronger happiness boosting effect of “unhealthy” food is to be expected, the induced eating happiness of sweets did not differ on average from “healthy” food choices such as fruits or vegetables. This was also true for other stereotypically “unhealthy” foods such as pastries and salty extras, which did not show the expected greater boosting effect on happiness. Moreover, analyses on the meal type level support this notion, since snacks, despite their overall positive effect, were not the most psychologically beneficial meal type, i.e., dinner had a comparable “happiness” signature to snacking. Taken together, “healthy choices” seem to be also “happy choices” and at least comparable to or even higher in their hedonic value as compared to stereotypical “unhealthy” food choices.

In general, eating happiness was high, which concurs with previous research from field studies with generally healthy participants. De Castro, Bellisle, and Dalix 22 examined weekly food diaries from 54 French subjects and found that most of the meals were rated as appealing. Also, the observed differences in average eating happiness for the 14 different food categories, albeit statistically significant, were comparable small. One could argue that this simply indicates that participants avoided selecting bad food 22 . Alternatively, this might suggest that the type of food or food categories are less decisive for experienced eating happiness than often assumed. This relates to recent findings in the field of comfort and emotional eating. Many people believe that specific types of food have greater comforting value. Also in research, the foods eaten as response to negative emotional strain, are typically characterised as being high-caloric because such foods are assumed to provide immediate psycho-physical benefits 18 . However, comparing different food types did not provide evidence for the notion that they differed in their provided comfort; rather, eating in general led to significant improvements in mood 19 . This is mirrored in the present findings. Comparing the eating happiness of “healthy” food choices such as fruits and vegetables to that of “unhealthy” food choices such as sweets shows remarkably similar patterns as, on average, they were associated with high eating happiness and their range of experiences ranged from very negative to very positive.

This raises the question of why the idea that we can eat indulgent food to compensate for life’s mishaps is so prevailing. In an innovative experimental study, Adriaanse, Prinsen, de Witt Huberts, de Ridder, and Evers 23 led participants believe that they overate. Those who characterised themselves as emotional eaters falsely attributed their over-consumption to negative emotions, demonstrating a “confabulation”-effect. This indicates that people might have restricted self-knowledge and that recalled eating episodes suffer from systematic recall biases 24 . Moreover, Boelsma, Brink, Stafleu, and Hendriks 25 examined postprandial subjective wellness and objective parameters (e.g., ghrelin, insulin, glucose) after standardised breakfast intakes and did not find direct correlations. This suggests that the impact of different food categories on wellness might not be directly related to biological effects but rather due to conditioning as food is often paired with other positive experienced situations (e.g., social interactions) or to placebo effects 18 . Moreover, experimental and field studies indicate that not only negative, but also positive, emotions trigger eating 15 , 26 . One may speculate that selective attention might contribute to the “myth” of comfort food 19 in that people attend to the consumption effect of “comfort” food in negative situation but neglect the effect in positive ones.

The present data also show that eating behaviour in the real world is a complex behaviour with many different aspects. People make more than 200 food decisions a day 27 which poses a great challenge for the measurement of eating behaviour. Studies often assess specific food categories such as fruit and vegetable consumption using Food Frequency Questionnaires, which has clear advantages in terms of cost-effectiveness. However, focusing on selective aspects of eating and food choices might provide only a selective part of the picture 15 , 17 , 22 . It is important to note that focusing solely on the “unhealthy” food choices such as sweets would have led to the conclusion that they have a high “indulgent” value. To be able to draw conclusions about which foods make people happy, the relation of different food categories needs to be considered. The more comprehensive view, considering the whole dietary behaviour across eating occasions, reveals that “healthy” food choices actually contributed the biggest share to the total experienced eating happiness. Thus, for a more comprehensive understanding of how eating behaviours are regulated, more complete and sensitive measures of the behaviour are necessary. Developments in mobile technologies hold great promise for feasible dietary assessment based on image-assisted methods 28 .

As fruits and vegetables evoked high in-the-moment happiness experiences, one could speculate that these cumulate and have spill-over effects on subsequent general well-being, including life satisfaction across time. Combing in-the-moment measures with longitudinal perspectives might be a promising avenue for future studies for understanding the pathways from eating certain food types to subjective well-being. In the literature different pathways are discussed, including physiological and biochemical aspects of specific food elements or nutrients 7 .

The present EMA based data also revealed that eating happiness varied greatly within the 14 food categories and meal types. As within food category variance represented more than two third of the total observed variance, happiness varied according to nutritional characteristics and meal type; however, a myriad of factors present in the natural environment can affect each and every meal. Thus, widening the “nourishment” perspective by including how much, when, where, how long, and with whom people eat might tell us more about experienced eating happiness. Again, mobile, in-the-moment assessment opens the possibility of assessing the behavioural signature of eating in real life. Moreover, individual factors such as eating motives, habitual eating styles, convenience, and social norms are likely to contribute to eating happiness variance 5 , 29 .

A key strength of this study is that it was the first to examine experienced eating happiness in non-clinical participants using EMA technology and imagery to assess food intake. Despite this strength, there are some limitations to this study that affect the interpretation of the results. In the present study, eating happiness was examined on a food based level. This neglects differences on the individual level and might be examined in future multilevel studies. Furthermore, as a main aim of this study was to assess real life eating behaviour, the “natural” observation level is the meal, the psychological/ecological unit of eating 30 , rather than food categories or nutrients. Therefore, we cannot exclude that specific food categories may have had a comparably higher impact on the experienced happiness of the whole meal. Sample size and therefore Type I and Type II error rates are of concern. Although the total number of observations was higher than in previous studies (see for example, Boushey et al . 28 for a review), the number of participants was small but comparable to previous studies in this field 20 , 31 , 32 , 33 . Small sample sizes can increase error rates because the number of persons is more decisive than the number of nested observations 34 . Specially, nested data can seriously increase Type I error rates, which is rather unlikely to be the case in the present study. Concerning Type II error rates, Aarts et al . 35 illustrated for lower ICCs that adding extra observations per participant also increases power, particularly in the lower observation range. Considering the ICC and the number of observations per participant, one could argue that the power in the present study is likely to be sufficient to render the observed null-differences meaningful. Finally, the predominately white and well-educated sample does limit the degree to which the results can be generalised to the wider community; these results warrant replication with a more representative sample.

Despite these limitations, we think that our study has implications for both theory and practice. The cumulative evidence of psychological benefits from healthy food choices might offer new perspectives for health promotion and public-policy programs 8 . Making people aware of the “healthy = happy” association supported by empirical evidence provides a distinct and novel perspective to the prevailing “unhealthy = tasty” folk intuition and could foster eating choices that increase both in-the-moment happiness and future well-being. Furthermore, the present research lends support to the advocated paradigm shift from “food as health” to “food as well-being” which entails a supporting and encouraging rather constraining and limiting view on eating behaviour.

The study conformed with the Declaration of Helsinki. All study protocols were approved by University of Konstanz’s Institutional Review Board and were conducted in accordance with guidelines and regulations. Upon arrival, all participants signed a written informed consent.

Participants

Thirty-eight participants (28 females: average age = 24.47, SD  = 5.88, range = 18–48 years) from the University of Konstanz assessed their eating behaviour in close to real time and in their natural environment using an event-based ambulatory assessment method (EMA). No participant dropped out or had to be excluded. Thirty-three participants were students, with 52.6% studying psychology. As compensation, participants could choose between taking part in a lottery (4 × 25€) or receiving course credits (2 hours).

Participants were recruited through leaflets distributed at the university and postings on Facebook groups. Prior to participation, all participants gave written informed consent. Participants were invited to the laboratory for individual introductory sessions. During this first session, participants installed the application movisensXS (version 0.8.4203) on their own smartphones and downloaded the study survey (movisensXS Library v4065). In addition, they completed a short baseline questionnaire, including demographic variables like age, gender, education, and eating principles. Participants were instructed to log every eating occasion immediately before eating by using the smartphone to indicate the type of meal, take pictures of the food, and describe its main components using a free input field. Fluid intake was not assessed. Participants were asked to record their food intake on eight consecutive days. After finishing the study, participants were invited back to the laboratory for individual final interviews.

Immediately before eating participants were asked to indicate the type of meal with the following five options: breakfast, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner, snack. In Germany, “afternoon tea” is called “Kaffee & Kuchen” which directly translates as “coffee & cake”. It is similar to the idea of a traditional “afternoon tea” meal in UK. Specifically, in Germany, people have “Kaffee & Kuchen” in the afternoon (between 4–5 pm) and typically coffee (or tea) is served with some cake or cookies. Dinner in Germany is a main meal with mainly savoury food.

After each meal, participants were asked to rate their meal on three dimensions. They rated (1) how much they enjoyed the meal, (2) how pleased they were with their meal, and (3) how tasty their meal was. Ratings were given on a scale of one to 100. For reliability analysis, Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated to assess the internal consistency of the three items. Overall Cronbach’s alpha was calculated with α = 0.87. In addition, the average of the 38 Cronbach’s alpha scores calculated at the person level also yielded a satisfactory value with α = 0.83 ( SD  = 0.24). Thirty-two of 38 participants showed a Cronbach’s alpha value above 0.70 (range = 0.42–0.97). An overall score of experienced happiness of eating was computed using the average of the three questions concerning the meals’ enjoyment, pleasure, and tastiness.

Analytical procedure

The food pictures and descriptions of their main components provided by the participants were subsequently coded by independent and trained raters. Following a standardised manual, additional components displayed in the picture were added to the description by the raters. All consumed foods were categorised into 14 different food categories (see Table  1 ) derived from the food classification system designed by the German Nutrition Society (DGE) and based on the existing food categories of the German Nutrient Database (Max Rubner Institut). Liquid intake and preparation method were not assessed. Therefore, fats and additional recipe ingredients were not included in further analyses, because they do not represent main elements of food intake. Further, salty extras were added to the categorisation.

No participant dropped out or had to be excluded due to high missing rates. Missing values were below 5% for all variables. The compliance rate at the meal level cannot be directly assessed since the numbers of meals and snacks can vary between as well as within persons (between days). As a rough compliance estimate, the numbers of meals that are expected from a “normative” perspective during the eight observation days can be used as a comparison standard (8 x breakfast, 8 × lunch, 8 × dinner = 24 meals). On average, the participants reported M  = 6.3 breakfasts ( SD  = 2.3), M  = 5.3 lunches ( SD  = 1.8), and M  = 6.5 dinners ( SD  = 2.0). In comparison to the “normative” expected 24 meals, these numbers indicate a good compliance (approx. 75%) with a tendency to miss six meals during the study period (approx. 25%). However, the “normative” expected 24 meals for the study period might be too high since participants might also have skipped meals (e.g. breakfast). Also, the present compliance rates are comparable to other studies. For example, Elliston et al . 36 recorded 3.3 meal/snack reports per day in an Australian adult sample and Casperson et al . 37 recorded 2.2 meal reports per day in a sample of adolescents. In the present study, on average, M  = 3.4 ( SD  = 1.35) meals or snacks were reported per day. These data indicate overall a satisfactory compliance rate and did not indicate selective reporting of certain food items.

To graphically visualise data, Tableau (version 10.1) was used and for further statistical analyses, IBM SPSS Statistics (version 24 for Windows).

Data availability

The dataset generated and analysed during the current study is available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research within the project SmartAct (Grant 01EL1420A, granted to B.R. & H.S.). The funding source had no involvement in the study’s design; the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; the writing of the report; or the decision to submit this article for publication. We thank Gudrun Sproesser, Helge Giese, and Angela Whale for their valuable support.

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Deborah R. Wahl and Karoline Villinger contributed equally to this work.

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Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany

Deborah R. Wahl, Karoline Villinger, Laura M. König, Katrin Ziesemer, Harald T. Schupp & Britta Renner

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B.R. & H.S. developed the study concept. All authors participated in the generation of the study design. D.W., K.V., L.K. & K.Z. conducted the study, including participant recruitment and data collection, under the supervision of B.R. & H.S.; D.W. & K.V. conducted data analyses. D.W. & K.V. prepared the first manuscript draft, and B.R. & H.S. provided critical revisions. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript for submission.

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Wahl, D.R., Villinger, K., König, L.M. et al. Healthy food choices are happy food choices: Evidence from a real life sample using smartphone based assessments. Sci Rep 7 , 17069 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-17262-9

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150+ Food Research Paper Topics Ideas for Students

When writing a research paper on food, there are many angles to explore to choose great research topics about food. You can write argumentative essay topics on food processing methods or search for social media research topics . Moreover, the food industry is advancing, and food styles are changing – another inspiration for an outstanding research topic about food. In other words, if you are looking for your ideal topic for food research , there are many places to look.

How to Choose the “Ideal” Food Research Topics

150+ ideas of experimental research titles about food, research title about food processing.

• Interesting Research Topics on Fast Food

Research Title about Food Industry

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Nevertheless, it can be hard to decipher what characterizes a good example of a thesis title for food. Hence, this article will briefly explain what factors to look for in a research title about food so-to-speak. Then, we will provide up to 150 food topics you can explore.

Personal interest is a vital factor to consider when sourcing the best thesis title about food . If you’re choosing a research title about cookery, you want to ensure it is something you’re interested in. If you’re unsure where your interest lies, you can check out social issues research topics .

Also, the availability of information on the topic of food is important in any research, whether it’s a thesis statement about social media or nutrition topics . Furthermore, choose several food topics to have options if one thesis about food doesn’t work out. Last but not least, ensure your chosen topic about food is neither too broad nor too narrow.

If you are unsure what title about food to work on for your research paper, here we are. Below are some of the best examples of thesis titles or professional thesis writers about food for students and researchers.

• Plant sterols in treating high cholesterol
• Is skipping breakfast healthy?
• Macrobiotic diet: advantages
• Food trendmakers
• Chocolates and emotions: the connection
• Are trans fats carcinogenic?
• Does green tea burn calories?
• Humble lentil: a superfood?

Interesting Research Topics Fast Food

• Fast foods: impact on living organisms
• Food court restaurants
• Misconceptions about fast foods
• Is McDonald’s healthy?
• Fast food: a social problem?
• National cuisine
• Fast food: effect on the liver
• Fast food education
• Students’ nutrition
• Fast food in children’s diet
• Food and 3D virtual reality
• The contemporary hotel industry
• Food and fashion
• Food in different cultures
• Can food be used for cultural identification?
• Trends in food box consumption
• Information innovation in the food industry
• The food industry in developing countries
• Proper nutrition
• History and origin of food traditions
• Can dietary supplements increase bone density?
• Why nutrition science matters
• Organic food: impact on nutrition
• Antimicrobial resistance
• Services ensuring food safety in the US
• Food safety violations in the workplace
• pH balance impacts flavor
• Animal testing should be abolished
• Does overeating suppress the immune system?
• Lifestyle-related chronic diseases
• Food justice
• Government’s involvement in food justice
• Dietary deficiencies
• Spice rack organization
• Nutrients for body development
• Milk for kids: more or less?
• Organic food and health
• Animal-sourced foods: beneficial or dangerous?
• Continental dishes
• Continental dishes vs. Indian spices
• Food factor in national security
• Junk food vs. healthy food
• Environmental food safety
• Safety and control of food colors in the food industry today
• Criteria and scope of food security
• Ensuring food security
• Cooking technology
• Food quality of agricultural raw materials
• Problems and solutions to food safety
• Food security: the theory and methodology
• Recent labeling food innovations
• Health benefits of genetically modified foods
• The vegetarian diet
• Caloric foods
• Fast food affects on health
• Food allergies
• Fast foods: nutritional value
• Food in the 21st century
• The Slow Food movement
• Doughnut’s history
• Food safety: role in gene pool preservation
• Controlling synthetic colors used in food
• Food assessment and control
• Food: its influence on pharmacotherapy’s effectiveness
• Human rights to balanced nutrition
• Quality of food products in urban areas
• Food in rural areas vs. urban areas
• Food security in Uganda
• Food safety: developed vs. developing countries
• Food factor in biopolitics
• Corn starch in baking: the importance
• Bacteria concerns in baking: Clostridium botulinum
• Normal butter vs. brown butter
• Matcha in Japanese pastry
• Sweet in baked desserts
• Effect of flour type on cake quality
• Sugar vs. stevia
• Why so much sugar in packed cakes?
• Carob is use in baking
• Coca-Cola baking: is it safe?
• Cooking schools
• Protein food preservation
• Food preservation techniques
• Vegan vs. non-vegan
• Caffeine in drinks
• Plastic and food quality
• History of carrot cake
• Turmeric: health properties
• Japanese tea ceremonies
• Healthy sugar substitutes
• The popularity of plant-based diet
• Food steaming: history
• CBD-infused foods
• Achieving the umami flavor in cooking
• Climate and diet
• Quick-service restaurants: impact on life expectancy
• Drinking and Judaism
• Chinese tea: a historical analysis
• Meat canning
• Resistance of meat to antimicrobials
• Eliminating botulism
• Reducing food allergies
• Avian influenza
• Vitamin D nutrition: the worldwide status
• Nutritional supplements are available for the poor
• Food science: importance in human nutrition
• Amino acids and muscle growth
• Poor nutrition and bone density
• Women and diet
• Tea vs. coffee
• Is tea addictive?
• Cholesterol: myths
• Sugar vs. sweeteners
• Keto diet: effect on health
• Food sensitivities in children
• African superfoods
• Spirulina: the properties
• Wine in French cuisine
• Garlic and onions
• Stored foods
• Preventing food poisoning
• Food addiction
• How to fight against food waste
• Aqueous environment: the toxicity
• Fast food in hospitals
• The risks associated with junk
• Food culture and obesity
• The link between fast food and obesity
• Burgers: are they sandwiches?
• Food additives
• History of curry
• Freezing dough: impact on quality
• Best pizza Margherita recipe
• Making low-calorie food tasty
• Jamaica and British cuisine
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• How to eat eggs
• Egg poaching
• Italian pasta: types

From food innovation research titles to food sustainability research topics , there are many areas of the food industry to explore. With the list of topics and tips for choosing a topic provided here, finding your ideal topic should be easier.

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A Theoretical Framework on the Determinants of Food Purchasing Behavior of the Elderly: A Bibliometric Review with Scientific Mapping in Web of Science

Associated data.

The sample of papers and all data are available upon request to any of the authors.

The past few years have seen significant demographic changes in most regions, including an increased elderly population. Subsequently, elderly citizens comprise an important market segment of consumers, with the food industry one of the most affected areas in this context. However, food market managers previously believed that elderly consumers’ needs were stereotyped in nature. The lack of focus on this sector, therefore, left elderly consumers as an untapped market, without realizing the financial independence of this segment regarding their nutrition. This research will attempt to provide the key determinant factors on elderly consumers’ behavior related to food. For that purpose, a complete literature review of more than 123 papers regarding these concepts has been carried out. Once analyzed, we highlight the common insights to give clear guidance for supermarket managers and food manufacturers to have a better knowledge of the reasons behind elderly people’s food acquisitions.

1. Introduction

Age is one of the most critical factors that influences or affects consumer behavior [ 1 ] because it determines the way of life of an individual. For elderly consumers, the age-related changes drive their specific choices of products and services, which tend to be different from younger adults, and, therefore, have major significance in consumer behavior and marketing [ 2 ]. As Drolet et al. [ 3 ] stated in their research, the influence of aging on consumers and their shopping experiences and purchasing decision-making is generally complicated, since it involves various behaviors and mental processes for different aging individuals. In this regard, based on the literature, some of the mental processes related to age that play a key role in influencing consumer behavior include factors of cognition, sensory functioning, motivation, and affect. Therefore, it is of great importance for marketers to use different approaches to identify the specific needs and demands of the aging population to achieve positive consumer behavior.

It is understandable that marketers cannot expect people of all ages, whether they are 20 or 70 years, to have the same desires and needs for products and services. In fact, people’s habits evolve with age and time, resulting in changing needs for products and services. This is why age is one of the key factors marketers must look at when considering consumer behavior analysis [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. The present work aims to advance the understanding of the research hitherto carried out on the purchasing and consumption habits of the elderly. To meet this objective, we prepared a synthesis and a systematic review of the literature [ 7 ], based on science maps [ 8 , 9 ], in order to highlight the aspects identified by authors who have studied this theme. Additionally, we explore the main research topics hitherto discussed, and propose a comprehensive theoretical framework based on previous literature. This research continues the path started among others by Yoon et al. [ 10 ], Host et al. [ 11 ], and Zniva and Weitzl [ 12 ] in an effort to group and consolidate the accumulated knowledge.

1.1. Elderly Consumers and Their Importance

When elderly consumers are discussed, it is important to note that over the lifespan of an individual, changes tend to occur in respect of their choices and actions. Without addressing the needs of this particular segment of consumers, it can be said that it represents a loss for businesses, as they miss out on targeting a significant percentage of the population as customers [ 13 ].

In addition, one of the key factors that make elderly consumers an important sector to focus on is that there has been a significant change in demographics over time. It is known that thanks to improved overall living standards and health conditions of people, along with greater advances in healthcare systems, longevity has increased and older people live longer. This, therefore, suggests that this particular consumer segment (elderly consumers) is continuously growing, and hence becomes a more important segment to address by marketers [ 14 , 15 , 16 ].

The importance of elderly consumers also significantly lies with their changing food habits and patterns, which in turn influence their purchasing decisions. The food consumption habits of consumers hold major significance among marketers, supermarkets, and retailers, as the sale of such products has a major influence and impact on businesses. Hence, if food habits change with age, it becomes important to highlight such changes in elderly consumers so that marketers can accordingly offer them their preferred products [ 17 , 18 ]. In this regard, the factor of heterogeneity holds another major significance, in that elderly consumers are important for marketers and retailers to consider, analyze and target as a separate consumer group [ 12 , 19 ]. Consumer behavior needs to be studied from the first moment the consumer is faced with a series of decisions to be made. These vary according to the type of product or purchase situation which defines their behavior. Elderly consumers have to face a wide variety of decisions when selecting a product in the market and they depend on their available resources (time, money, and knowledge).

1.2. Challenges of Elderly and Food Purchase

The current COVID-19 pandemic has not only caused global concerns on health issues of individuals, it has also changed the behavior of consumers, mainly because going out and shopping normally is now considered a threat to the lives of people due to the threat of the virus. Examples of changed behaviors include stocking up of essential items at home, especially in times of lockdown when going out is prohibited, owing to the need for social distancing. Unlike previous times, new products have been added to the shopping list as essential items, such as sanitizers, masks, gloves, and other protective gear, for virus protection purposes [ 20 ].

This situation represents a particular challenge for older people. Because of lockdowns and layoffs in companies to manage business losses, older people are mostly being affected, losing their jobs, experiencing major disruptions in their normal service activities, and losing their retirement savings. On the other hand, their health vulnerabilities are on the rise, along with other associated issues such as depression and anxiety driven by suffering from the disease or being in a state of panic and threat [ 21 ]. Furthermore, as they are facing challenges with their earning and savings, it also has an impact on how much they can spend on their purchases.

Thus, there is an overall change in the traditional ways and habits of shopping styles and purchases. Online purchases have increased drastically during the COVID-19 pandemic t, which reflects how technology is taking over. Customers are increasingly considering online shopping options instead of physically visiting the stores [ 22 ]. Due to the technological advances and increased involvement of information and communications technology, ICT is driving the advanced designs of supermarkets and their services, and elderly consumers are experiencing more difficulties shopping in the supermarkets. Additionally, the use of ICT, lack of proper signage, and lack of effective customer support is further reducing the motivation levels of the elderly consumers to consider supermarkets for shopping. Although they are trying to learn quickly and use technology to avoid visiting stores, they do not feel comfortable with the Internet and online shopping features. On the other hand, there is the possibility that the new habits that people are adopting could become habitual habits in the future, which could mean that older consumers will gradually adopt new experiences and shopping options [ 23 ].

2. Materials and Methods

In accordance with the objectives proposed in this work, two methodological approaches were combined. First, we used the PRISMA protocol [ 7 ], a proven procedure in the field of systematic literature reviews and meta-analyses that provided transparency and replicability to the review [ 24 ]. Thus, we gathered a representative set of documents related to the behavior of buying and choosing food in older people. Next, we applied scientific mapping techniques through co-word analysis [ 25 , 26 ], which allowed us to approach the intellectual structure of previously selected documents [ 27 , 28 ]. Both techniques have been used in previous work on the elderly [ 29 , 30 ].

2.1. Systematic Review of the Literature

The PRISMA protocol integrates a series of successive stages that allow organizing the selection criteria used and reaching the relevant knowledge in a given field of study [ 7 ]. Figure 1 summarizes the whole procedure:

Flow diagram adapted according to the PRISMA protocol.

The identification included the choice of the information source. To this effect, we opted for the use of the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection, since it ensured that unique patterns of document classification according to research areas were used; in addition, it had a sufficient volume of documents, scientific quality, and debugging [ 31 ]. The search terms were selected in line with previous research in the field of behavioral studies in the elderly [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. The temporal coverage was not limited, nor the documentary typology, which allowed the inclusion of articles from conferences and other sources such as books or book chapters that may be of interest in the analysis of such a specific research domain. The initial search was screened and refined using the WoS “Marked list” function, applying multiple combinations with the selected keywords and the “Refine Results” option. In the initial searches, all records that could not be discarded without reading the full text were kept, and then the references contained in the selected studies were screened and compared with documents included in previous reviews [ 10 , 11 , 12 ].

There were three eligibility criteria. In the first place, the theme had to directly address consumer behavior or choice in older people. Second, the document had to address food consumption, even if it was part of a larger investigation or at least indirectly. Thirdly, it must be possible to retrieve the full text. For that purpose, a first reading was carried out, discarding those documents without a specific theme or methodology or those that did not provide research data, objectives, or results clearly.

The document search process began in November 2020 and was updated until February 2021, adding new records as a result of new publications. The second reading of documents was carried out and the determinants found in the sample were synthesized, from which a summary was extracted with the objectives and variables reported in the 123 documents constituting the review.

2.2. Systematic Map: Co-Word Analysis

The so-called science maps are spatial representations that help to visualize the relations that arise between documents, in other words, they show links between authors, bibliographic references, journals, disciplines, and predominately words [ 25 , 26 , 27 ]. In relation to the research objective, a network analysis was proposed that delved into the content of the documents through the co-occurrence of keywords. This methodology is especially suitable if the intention is to advance the intellectual structure of a specific part of a domain or research field [ 26 , 28 ]. As pointed out by Choi et al. [ 32 ], the keywords indexed in documents and those contained in titles and abstracts are essential for the identification of significant topics within a specific research area.

The visual representation of this type of map is usually done with bibliometric software [ 19 ]. In this research, we used VOSviewer [ 9 ] and SciMAT [ 8 ]. The first tool was used to offer a broad vision of the research domain focused on the determinants of food buying behavior in older people and, the second, to illustrate the “motor”, “basic”, “emerging”, “developed”, or “isolated” themes within the domain [ 33 ]. The combination of both instruments increased the advantages and offered new possibilities for global interpretation [ 34 , 35 , 36 ].

VOSviewer stands out for its graphic power; it is positioned as a particularly suitable instrument [ 37 ] to show the complete domain of research. With this tool, the centrality of a word (node) determines its relative position in the network. The software calculates the centrality and strength of all the words; the greater the weight is, the larger the node or word size is. Links between nodes represent the number of times words appear together, and the strength of the link is illustrated by its thickness. For its part, Scimat incorporates more options related to the scientific mapping workflow [ 35 , 37 ]; for example, it is easier to identify the documents that are generating specific thematic networks and are highlighted within the set. Table 1 shows the data related to the configuration used with the two tools. In VOSviewer, a minimum frequency of occurrences of 2 was determined, since it was intended to broadly show the largest possible number of thematic networks. A thesaurus file was used to debug and group synonymous terms or the singular and plural of certain words (for example: aged, age; behaviors, behavior, etc.). In the case of Scimat, we proceeded in the same way, using its grouping and debugging tools.

Software configuration.

On the other hand, Scimat represents the themes (keywords) in two-dimensional diagrams where the “ x ” axis shows the centrality and the “ y ” axis shows the density of the thematic groupings. Centrality establishes the degree of interaction of a topic or word with others, in other words, its importance for the development of the domain. Density reflects the internal strength of the subject with respect to others, that is, the ability to maintain and develop over time. As a result, a diagram composed of four quadrants was generated: (a) Motor themes, with high centrality and density; (b) Basic themes, with high centrality and low density; (c) Emerging or declining themes, with low centrality and density, and (d) Developed and isolated themes, with low centrality and high density. For the creation of the networks, the algorithm of the simple centers and the equivalence index were applied. More details on the configuration and application of the software can be found in [ 8 , 27 , 33 ].

The sample consisted of a total of 123 documents [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 10 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 140 , 141 , 142 , 143 , 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 148 , 149 ] whose analysis period included works published and indexed in the database in the interval between 1973 [ 125 ] and February 2021.

3.1. Description of the Sample Documents

The first documents dealt with the mobility and transportation difficulties faced by the elderly to satisfy basic food needs [ 125 ], their satisfactory and unsatisfactory experiences with purchased products [ 99 ], and attitudes and preferences regarding purchased foods [ 118 ]. On this basis, progress was made towards greater complexity in the topics and variables used to obtain a better understanding of the results. For example, the most recent documents addressed the influence of the senses on eating behavior [ 6 ], food insecurity, loneliness, and social support among the elderly [ 44 ], or the consumer’s assessment of specific foods [ 4 ]. Figure 2 shows the document typology and the indexing categories in WoS, taking into account that the same document can be indexed in several categories or typologies simultaneously.

Documentary typology and predominant indexing categories.

The 123 documents mainly included articles, quantitative and qualitative works (obtained from samples of different sizes, local, regional and national, of different age groups, usually from 50 years), descriptive statistics and rigorous tests, segmentations [ 138 ], and general reviews [ 16 , 74 , 148 ]. As expected, the main indexing categories were aligned with the main theme of this review, such that documents cataloged as nutrition and dietetics [ 64 ], business [ 10 ] and food, science and technology [ 89 ] stood out.

3.2. Global Visualization of Accumulated Research Using VoSviewer

The keyword network with the criteria established in the methodology section with a minimum of two occurrences was composed of 170 words. The most representative keywords generated different clusters. Those with the strongest links and number of occurrences designated the grouping by assigning a label. Table 2 shows the summary with the main groupings and Figure 3 shows their visualization, as well as the level of saturation.

Map of thematic clusters detected and density visualization.

Thematic cluster detected in global research.

The first thematic grouping was characterized by grouping themes related to the motivation of the elderly consumer [ 79 , 95 , 106 , 108 ], and the different segments into which these themes could be grouped [ 84 , 138 , 140 ]. The second grouping included papers that addressed characteristic issues such as quality of life or the nutritional status of older people [ 19 , 69 ]. The third cluster included topics related to the health of the individual and the quality of the diet [ 50 , 120 ]. The fourth grouping mainly addressed patterns of behavior in the purchase of food [ 14 , 68 , 72 , 126 ], as well as risks [ 116 ] or diseases associated with their eating [ 41 , 106 , 137 ]. The fifth grouping delved into generational differences related to consumption [ 111 , 146 , 147 ]. The sixth cluster stood out for including the different ways of understanding consumption orientation according to the age groups found in the elderly [ 75 , 95 , 97 , 123 ], as well as other influential variables such as the available information [ 53 , 90 , 127 ]. The seventh grouping was very varied, it included topics aligned with the different determinants that could be found to understand the multiple patterns of consumption [ 43 , 48 , 55 , 65 , 68 , 80 , 112 , 122 , 136 ]. Finally, the last grouping included topics related to additional variables such as attitudes [ 103 , 118 ], knowledge [ 16 , 139 ], or heterogeneity [ 17 , 138 , 140 ].

As a whole, the research domain represented through the sample of documents did not reflect signs of saturation ( Figure 3 , bottom); however, it included a multitude of overlapping topics that became intertwined and progressively hindered a specific understanding.

3.3. Conceptual Field Evolution Using Scimat

The documents indexed a total of 678 terms or keywords that were reduced to 459 keywords by grouping singular and plural, or synonymous terms, as indicated in the methodology section. After executing the Scimat scientific mapping software with the established configuration ( Table 1 ), 14 strategic topics were obtained related to the research domain on food purchases and consumption habits in elderly people. Table 3 lists the centrality and density of each of the clusters, as well as the main documents linked to each cluster. The topics with greater centrality and density were configured as engines of the research domain. Among them were “Countries”, “Antecedents”, “Meat-consumption”, “Population”, “Age-Differences”, and “People”. As basic and cross-cutting themes, “Determinants” and “Senior-Marketing” appeared. Thirdly, four emerging or declining themes emerged: “Accessibility”, “Loneliness”, “Food-Products”, and “Aging-population” and, finally, two rapidly developing or isolated themes: “Supermarket” and “Odor”.

Thematic cluster and core documents detected by Scimat .

Due to the fact that some of the labels assigned to the different groupings could be too generic, their interpretation was extended to the set of the most representative terms contained in each one of them, as well as to the number of documents in which they appeared, as shown in the ( Figure 4 ).

Matrix diagram depicting the performance of the research themes by the number of documents.

The motor themes located in the first quadrant (Q1) were mainly composed of groupings that included attributes and characteristics that were best adapted to the elderly that were shown to be decisive in understanding purchasing and consumption behavior [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 138 ]. It was fundamentally about a person’s individual elements, including their habits and customs, as well as the analyses carried out in different countries and geographical contexts [ 56 , 57 , 108 ]. Among the most prominent were common topics such as “Nutrition” [ 41 , 90 , 148 ], “Health” [ 41 , 93 , 112 ], “Disease” [ 41 , 106 , 137 ], “Personal-Satisfaction” [ 46 , 92 , 99 ], “Orientations” [ 88 ], “Gender Differences” [ 49 , 110 ], “Quality of Life” [ 67 , 69 , 120 ], and “Age differences” [ 53 ]. These groups made substantial contributions to the development of the domain since its inception and were still in full force.

The basic and cross-cutting topics were positioned in the second quadrant (Q2) and corresponded to two main topics—“Determinants” [ 48 , 55 , 65 , 68 , 80 , 112 , 122 , 136 ] and “Senior Marketing” [ 82 , 107 , 132 ]. Among the most prominent groups were those focused on the determinants of consumption and eating patterns [ 14 , 72 , 126 ], which included purchasing habits and behaviors and actions carried out in the field of marketing specifically aimed at the different segments that made up the group of elderly people. These themes extended indirectly or crosswise through the rest of the groupings detected (Q1, Q3, Q4), complementing the motor themes of the domain, and were fundamental in providing a better understanding of the rest of the groupings generated.

The emerging or declining topics located in the third quadrant (Q3) dealt mainly with attributes linked to establishments [ 81 ], types of stores [ 38 ], retail stores [ 39 , 111 ], availability [ 104 , 124 ], choice [ 40 , 108 ], environment [ 17 , 94 ] or source of satisfaction and dissatisfaction in the elderly clients [ 46 , 92 , 99 ].

Finally, quadrant four collected highly developed or isolated themes and mainly integrated groupings related to the senses [ 62 , 89 , 122 , 129 ] and department stores [ 17 , 18 , 63 , 104 , 109 , 115 ].

3.4. A Integrative Theoretical Framework through Thematic Analysis

Once the topics through which the set of representative documents of the research domain were configured, a review of the literature and a full-text reading of the set were carried out. Subsequently, a multilevel perspective was applied [ 150 ] based on the progress reported in previous reviews [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. In this way, three levels were established. The first level, called the person level, collected the individual characteristics of the elderly person, including their individual traits, age, generation or cohort, goals, motivations, and general psychography [ 10 , 138 ]. The second level, called the intermediate level, was based on the person-task adjustments, which linked the characteristics with the changes that the individual had undergone relative to the passage of time; for example, changes in health, nutrition, or finances. The third level, called product, linked the food product with the characteristics and attributes of the establishments where purchases were made and which were a source of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Finally, the thematic groupings obtained with VoSviewer and Scimat were positioned according to the degree of proximity to each of the three levels, as shown in ( Figure 5 ).

Theoretical framework and positioning of thematic clusters obtained with VoSviewer and Scimat.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

Based on the theoretical model proposed in this article and the results provided by its analysis, three different levels are shown:

First of all, the “personal level” was widely considered. To explain the behavior of the elderly consumer, we select the factors that can be considered personal and that constitute fundamental variables [ 1 , 77 , 92 , 106 , 121 ]. To begin with, the age and stage of the individual’s life cycle influence the changes present in the structure of products and services. On the other hand, due to the growth of the elderly population and the adaptation of markets to their needs, aspects such as profession, level of education, and purchasing power are also included here, mainly [ 51 , 52 , 123 ]. However, age stands out as the main study variable. The concept of third age is commonly used to refer to those over 65 years old; however, there are studies that differ and mark the figure by more than 55 or even 75 years old. In this sense, the World Health Organization considers people aged 65 years or more as older people and people aged 85 years or over as very old people. Ultimately, the consensus opinion in the literature refers to the fact that the group of elderly people is not a homogeneous group and requires other more sophisticated segmentation factors.

On the other hand, both emotion and motivation are representative aspects of the non-cognitive part of human thought, which are defined by their intrinsic relation with factors associated with the practice of consumption [ 10 ]. The factor of affection could be reviewed as a more determining factor in the behavior among elderly consumers. In this regard, it could be deduced that their emotions further contribute to their personality and the perceptions which drive their preference for particular brands, products, or services and, hence, determine their choices of offering as well as shopping preferences [ 77 , 122 ]. Furthermore, cultural factors can be highlighted, understanding culture as a group of beliefs, rules, values, knowledge, attitudes, and habits established over time and shared by individuals from the same community. Other classifications corresponding to cultural factors are the subculture and social class, the latter being the common characteristics shared by individuals of the same social status.

Likewise, within this level, social factors are of paramount importance. The social groups of reference through a feeling of union, common rules, and objectives affect consumer behavior in the process of formalizing opinions [ 44 , 105 ]. The family stands out especially, as the modality with the greatest influence on the consumer due to its durability superior to the rest. Consequently, on a large number of occasions, the family is the driving force behind the purchase [ 14 , 110 ].

From this level, it can be inferred that, in recent years, as a consequence of an aging world population, the attention paid to elderly consumers has increased in the scientific literature. Nowadays it is recognized that changes in the number of working-age and elderly people influence consumption and savings patterns. Undoubtedly, older customers play and will play an important role in retail spending in a convulsed economic future in the aftermath of the global pandemic.

Secondly, an “intermediate level” in which the works of authors that affect the convenience of adaptation to this market segment are observed. It is true that for retailers it becomes crucial to firstly address and understand the specific needs and expectations of elderly consumers, considering them a completely different marketing segment to target [ 42 , 55 , 83 , 117 ]. However, the question nonetheless arises as to whether they really understand the elderly consumers. As could be reviewed, usually with aging, they experience a systematic decline in cognitive processing that includes memory issues and deficient executive functioning of the brain. Age effects also become visible in the speed of their information processing during mental operations skills [ 70 , 75 , 141 ].

In this regard, it could be considered that the emotions of elderly consumers further contribute to their personality and perceptions, which drive their affection for particular brands, products, or services and, hence, determine their choices of offering as well as shopping preferences [ 10 , 66 , 108 ]. Moreover, it could also be perceived that if a brand is able to develop suitable promotional measures such as advertising capable of initiating positive emotions in consumers, positive purchase actions can also be expected from the elderly consumers, since in their case, it is based on the affection factor rather than on cognition [ 79 ]. This means that marketers could review the role of advertising and marketing in influencing the affection of older consumers, as it affects the behavior of this type of consumer.

The benefits related to elderly consumers, however, lie in the scope which marketers have in developing new products to address the specific needs that this segment has, which are different from those of other customer segments. This implies that businesses can focus on innovations and newer developments in products to address this segment, as well as increasing profits from sales if they can rightly fulfill the needs and requirements of elderly consumers [ 116 ]. In relation to the necessary adaptation, we can indicate a deficit of studies focused on the role of elderly consumers in digital environments. When it comes to technological challenges, elderly consumers face difficulties in adapting to technological advances, including their physical challenges or lack of comfort with the use of technology because they lack confidence in their skills and abilities [ 132 ]. The elderly consumers need more assistance, which in turn becomes a barrier for them. However, at the same time, a major positive factor has been found associated with the use of technological advances by senior customer groups. Although they initially tend to have greater challenges with understanding technology and making use of it, once they are able to embrace technology and its benefits, the elderly people engage more with Internet-based activities, which provides major benefits for both the elderly consumers and the businesses marketing products to them [ 30 ]. This opens up new scope and opportunities for businesses to connect with this particular segment, understand their needs and hence offer them specific products and services. The benefits are also for elderly consumers, as they would then not lag behind other segments in respect of having information on various products and services, and hence, will make better purchasing decision-making.

Following this, it is highly recommended to managers from supermarkets to provide guides for using online systems, remove financial barriers, and prioritize a conversational user interface with audio, as well as developing apps focused on elderly users that are intuitive, with a clear layout, bigger letters, and customized guidance.

Thirdly and last, a “product level” is warned. A significant research gap could be realized in determining the purchase response of elderly consumers to supermarkets and the impacts of promotions of supermarkets on this market segment, considering the available sources of previous research findings. As could be obtained from the reviews, the choice of and responses to supermarkets have a significant association of people’s choices of diets and lifestyles, which they look for being fulfilled with offerings made by the supermarkets [ 18 , 133 , 145 ]. The sales promotions of supermarkets are largely based on the displays of products on the shelves in multiple aisles and customers tend to get influenced by the information they have from the product packaging [ 67 , 82 , 115 ]. The shape and size of the products, the information shared on the packaging, and the packaging materials play a crucial part in promoting the products to the customers, which in turn determines their behavior [ 130 ]. Older people face difficulties in shopping from the high and low shelves where different products are arranged in a supermarket. The height of the shelves, signs and displays, size and proportions, and labeling are not effectively suitable for elderly consumers in most cases, particularly when they have long been comfortable with traditional grocery store style shopping. At the same time, there are changing consumption patterns among the elderly consumers, which, however, seem to be less addressed by the supermarkets in their marketing and promotions [ 17 , 63 ].

In aspects to consider, we highlight the different physical needs in relation to the service and design of supermarkets, the predilection or rejection of department stores, or the desire for personal treatment by shop assistants [ 81 , 113 ]. Deficiencies and failures in these factors are the cause of elderly consumers abandoning a brand and losing loyalty. As den Uijl, Jager, de Graaf, Waddell, and Kremer [ 60 ] stated in their research paper, the loyalty of elderly consumers is more associated with their affection rather than their cognition. In this regard, it could be realized that affection, cognition, and customer satisfaction are the three key factors determining the loyalty of elderly consumers. When affection is considered, it represents the emotional and mental ways in which an individual interprets information, the actuation of their perception, which in turn determines their positive or negative feelings and affections for other people or objects.

In parallel, the location of the supermarket is a very important aspect, especially when it is a point to be evaluated by elderly consumers [ 17 , 108 ]. Numerous studies have concluded that both the distribution of products in the supermarket and the equipment for their transport are two of the most evaluated points [ 52 ]. Due to the physical deterioration of buyers, comfort is the main deciding factor. Within this convenience, the most relevant components are: easy entry and exit points, informed and trained sales staff, or celerity at checkout counters. From what has been mentioned, the physical environment/surroundings in supermarkets, malls, or restaurants are critical factors that can determine the level of influence on the minds of elderly customers towards driving them to a purchase. The effectiveness, comfort, and presentation of physical surroundings also determine how and why customers would choose one marketing brand over another, which is particularly true when it comes to physical shopping food experiences for customers. In order to achieve sales, therefore, managers need to focus on this factor significantly, ensuring that they offer a comfortable and safe physical surrounding to their elderly customers. Such physical surroundings are also significant in relation to the sales and promotion techniques considered by a marketer. In cases of supermarkets and hypermarkets, while the marketer can offer various discounts and offers on their products, it is also important that the physical surroundings are suitable. Unless the physical surroundings and shopping experience of the consumers are suitable and comfortable, discounts and offers or any promotional activities rarely would have significant impacts on the consumer.

Limitations and Future Lines of Research

The results presented here, including the theoretical framework developed from the previous literature, are not without limitations nor do they pretend to offer a single vision of reality. Our purpose is to make a small contribution to the structuring of an emerging and now booming research domain. The main limitation of this work stems from the choice of a single source for its development, the Web of Science Core Collection. Being aware that it is a controversial decision, it was made to mitigate possible errors derived from the use of bibliometric software. However, it opens the door to future analyses by combining other sources that help to complete and contrast the findings presented here. Secondly, the interpretation of a scientific map is extremely complex. Despite the detailed reading of all the included papers and the monitoring of a structured process, this study remains descriptive-qualitative and may harbor any bias unintentionally introduced by the researchers involved. Thirdly, only documents in English were reviewed; however, our work opens the door to future research that should be carried out based on the events that have occurred in recent times. The incidence of the period of isolation in the eating habits of the elderly is undoubtedly one of the greatest challenges for the future.

A more detailed analysis of the purchasing behavior of older people by different age ranges, gender, and nationality are proposed as future lines of research. Finally, this paper represents the first step of an on-going project with a variety of actions focused on the elderly. The authors are developing a survey in line with the research model including the constructs of loyalty, physical surroundings, buying behavior, and sales promotion techniques (point of purchase, advertisement, free sample, price discounts, two for one, and refunds). All these results will contribute to a proposed app to ease online shopping for this market segment and help address a very demanding need that is now fundamental to remain in business for managers of supermarkets and distributors in the food industry.

Acknowledgments

Our thanks to the creators of the software used, especially Manuel Jesús Cobo (Scimat); Nees Jan van Eck and Ludo Waltman (VoSviewer).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.A. and L.S.-R.; methodology, L.J.C.-R.; software, L.J.C.-R.; validation, K.A. and L.S.-R.; formal analysis, K.A. and L.S.-R.; investigation, K.A., L.S.-R., and L.J.C.-R.; data curation, K.A., L.S.-R. and L.J.C.-R.; writing—original draft preparation, K.A., L.S.-R. and L.J.C.-R.; writing—review and editing, L.J.C.-R.; visualization, L.J.C.-R.; supervision, L.S.-R. and L.J.C.-R.; project administration, K.A. and L.S.-R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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A Methodology for Sustainable Management of Food Waste

• Original Paper
• Open access
• Published: 25 October 2016
• Volume 8 , pages 2209–2227, ( 2017 )

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• Guillermo Garcia-Garcia   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5562-9197 1 ,
• Elliot Woolley 1 ,
• Shahin Rahimifard 1 ,
• James Colwill 1 ,
• Rod White 2 &
• Louise Needham 3  

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As much as one-third of the food intentionally grown for human consumption is never consumed and is therefore wasted, with significant environmental, social and economic ramifications. An increasing number of publications in this area currently consider different aspects of this critical issue, and generally focus on proactive approaches to reduce food waste, or reactive solutions for more efficient waste management. In this context, this paper takes a holistic approach with the aim of achieving a better understanding of the different types of food waste, and using this knowledge to support informed decisions for more sustainable management of food waste. With this aim, existing food waste categorizations are reviewed and their usefulness are analysed. A systematic methodology to identify types of food waste through a nine-stage categorization is used in conjunction with a version of the waste hierarchy applied to food products. For each type of food waste characterized, a set of waste management alternatives are suggested in order to minimize environmental impacts and maximize social and economic benefits. This decision-support process is demonstrated for two case studies from the UK food manufacturing sector. As a result, types of food waste which could be managed in a more sustainable manner are identified and recommendations are given. The applicability of the categorisation process for industrial food waste management is discussed.

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Introduction

Food waste is one of the most challenging issues humankind is currently facing worldwide. Currently, food systems are extremely inefficient: it is estimated that between one-third and one half of the food produced is lost before reaching a human mouth [ 1 , 2 ]. The Sustainable Development Goal 12 ‘Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns’ established by the United Nations in 2015 includes a specific target for food waste reduction: halve per capita global food waste at retail and consumer levels by 2030. Additionally, it also includes a more general goal to reduce food losses along food supply chains [ 3 ]. Therefore, it is expected that there will be an increasing number of initiatives, campaigns and legislative developments in order to reach the aforementioned objectives.

Nevertheless, reduction of the current levels of food waste must be accompanied by better management of the waste: inevitably there will always be some food waste. Furthermore, some parts of the food products are inedible and will unavoidably become a waste stream. There are countless alternatives to manage food waste, however the most common solution worldwide is still landfilling [ 4 ], which is highly damaging to the environment and poses a risk to human health, whereas it does not provide any benefit. In spite of the progress achieved in recent years to find alternative solutions, particularly in developed nations, better management of food waste in supply chains is still required.

Sustainable management of food waste is a momentous research area that has rapidly grown over recent years. Meritorious examples of research aiming to find sustainable solutions for food waste management are numerous, but they have been generally inclined to look into only one area of sustainability: environmental, economic or social ramifications [ 5 , 6 ]. Recent research aims to expand the scope and consider two or even all three pillars of sustainability implications mentioned above. Remarkable examples are work by Münster et al. [ 7 ], Ahamed et al. [ 8 ] and Martinez-Sanchez et al. [ 9 ], who consider economic and environmental ramifications of food waste management.

Nevertheless, as the scope of this research area expands, systematic analyses are needed to obtain comparable results. Examples of frameworks with this aim have been developed for solid waste management (e.g. [ 10 , 11 ]), but are less common for food waste management. A recent example of this is the framework recently developed by Manfredi et al. [ 12 ], which provides a useful six-step methodology to evaluate environmental and economic sustainability of different alternatives to manage food waste, with the aim of also incorporating social considerations.

The waste hierarchy applied to food products is a useful tool to rank waste management alternatives by sustainability performance. The waste hierarchy concept was introduced for the first time into European waste policy in 1975 [ 13 ], and has been continuously used until today in European Directives which have been implemented since then. It is also used in the UK by the Government and institutions such as Defra [ 14 ] and WRAP [ 15 ], and has been implemented in UK law [ 16 ]. There is a considerable number of research papers published in prestigious scientific journals discussing the waste hierarchy, plenty of them focussed on food waste, e.g. [ 17 , 18 ]. More detailed information on the technologies described in the food waste hierarchy and their associated emissions can be found in the Best Available Techniques for the Waste Treatments Industries [ 19 ].

This paper describes a novel, systematic methodology to support sustainable decisions regarding management of food waste. With this objective, a nine-stage categorization and a version of the food waste hierarchy are used as a basis of a methodical procedure to identify types of food waste and alternative activities to manage them. As a result, a novel Food Waste Management Decision Tree is developed and discussed, and its applicability is tested using two case studies from the UK food manufacturing sector.

Methodology

Research aim and structure.

The decision as to which is the most beneficial waste management alternative to utilise to manage food waste is usually made considering fundamentally only economic reasons and availability of waste management facilities. Furthermore, legislation delimits the range of solutions applicable to manage different types of food waste and therefore the decision is often made considering only a few alternatives. This paper seeks to add environmental and social considerations to the decision-making process so that more sustainable solutions can be achieved from the range of feasible waste management options. With this aim, the structure of the research presented in this paper is as follows: firstly, the definition of food waste used throughout this paper is provided; secondly, previous categorizations of food waste are discussed; thirdly, a categorization process is described based on the most pertinent indicators to classify food wastes; fourthly, the different types of food waste identified are linked to their most appropriate waste management alternatives, building a Food Waste Management Decision Tree; and finally, the categorization process is illustrated with two case studies from the UK food industry. A visual model of the research approach used can be seen in Fig.  1 .

Structure of the research presented in this paper

Definition of Food Waste

The first aspect to look upon in order to improve food waste management is to define unambiguously the exact meaning of ‘food waste’. Unfortunately an agreement has not been reached yet and rather there are a range of definitions used. For consistency in this paper, food waste will be defined as food materials (including drinks) originally intended to be used to feed humans and not ultimately sold for human consumption by the food business under study, and inedible parts of food. Consequently, food sent to charities by companies is considered food waste in this paper, as it implies an economic loss to the food business, although from a biological and legal aspect this product remains being food and could be classified as surplus food. Inedible parts of food are also included in the definition because waste is often composed of both edible and inedible parts difficult to separate, and food businesses must manage this waste. Inedible food waste is thus considered unavoidable waste. Any food used in other way than for human consumption is also considered food waste (e.g. animal feeding, industrial uses). On the other hand, food wasted by consumers and managed at home (e.g. home composting) falls out of the scope of this paper. Clearly, the inclusion of these factors in the definition is debatable; this paper studies the management of these materials and therefore they have been included in the term ‘food waste’.

Review on Methods to Classify Food Waste

Categorization is a key step in order to identify the most appropriate waste management alternative for different types of food waste. Such categorization should consider all the divisions necessary to link different types of food waste with treatment methodologies in a way that their economic and social benefit are maximised and their environmental impact is minimized. Usually different studies use their own categorizations [ 20 ]. This section describes different attempts to classify food waste. These classifications are assessed and their usefulness to select optimal food waste management alternatives is discussed.

The most obvious categorization divides different types of food waste according to the type of food: cereals, fruits, meat, fish, drinks, etc. This categorization is useful to quantify the amount of food wasted based on mass (more commonly), energy content, economic cost, etc. There exist plenty of examples to classify food waste according to its food sector, e.g. [ 21 , 22 ]. This type of classification is typically based on codes, e.g. the recently published Food Loss and Waste Accounting and Reporting Standard recommends the use of the Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Food Additives (GSFA) system or the United Nations’ Central Product Classification (CPC) system as main codes, and when more precise classifications are needed, the Global Product Category (GPC) code or the United Nations Standard Products and Services Code (UNSPSC) as additional codes [ 23 ]. Additionally, food waste can be categorized with regard to its nutrient composition (e.g. carbohydrate and fat content [ 24 ]), chemical composition (e.g. C, H, N, O, S and Cl content [ 25 ]) or storage temperature (e.g. ambient, chilled or frozen [ 26 ]). Nonetheless, the information provided with these examples is not enough to prioritise some waste management alternatives against others.

In the UK, WRAP also identified the stages of the supply chain where food waste was generated (e.g. manufacturer, retailer) and assess the edibility of the waste. In this way, food waste can be avoidable (parts of the food that were actually edible), unavoidable (inedible parts of the food, such as bones, fruit skin, etc.) and possibly avoidable (food that some people would have eaten and others do not, such as bread crusts and potato skins) [ 27 ]. Different authors have further classified food waste at the household level as cooked/uncooked, as unpackaged/packaged food waste (when waste is packaged, it is additionally sorted as opened/unopened packaging) and according to their reason to disposal [ 28 – 30 ]. Other researchers also identified the leftovers and untouched food which goes to waste (e.g. [ 31 ]). Considering these options will be useful for a more comprehensive categorization, but there is still a lack of sections that further classify the waste in a way that a selection of the most appropriate waste management practice is facilitated. Furthermore, some of these classifications have been applied only to household food waste: a comprehensive categorization must include all stages of the food supply chain.

A more detailed attempt to classify food waste was carried out by Lin et al. [ 32 ], where food waste falls into the following categories: organic crop residue (including fruits and vegetables), catering waste, animal by-products, packaging, mixed food waste and domestic waste. In this study the potential for valorisation and some of the most appropriate options to manage the waste were assessed for each type of waste. However, the edibility of the waste and whether the food was fully processed during manufacturing were not considered.

Edjabou et al. [ 33 ] included two new factors: vegetable/animal-derived food waste and avoidable-processed/avoidable-unprocessed food waste. A more explicit classification with sub-categories was also suggested by Lebersorger and Schneider [ 20 ]. However the new sub-categories introduced, namely life cycle stage and packaging, are applicable only at the retail and household levels. They are irrelevant to improve the management of waste at other stages of the supply chain. On the other hand, Chabada et al. [ 34 ] used the ‘seven wastes’ approach from lean theory (namely transport, inventory, motion, waiting, overproduction, over-processing and defects) to classify categories of waste in fresh foods and identify the causes of waste generation, but not solutions for waste management. Garcia-Garcia et al. [ 35 ] suggested a number of indicators to classify food waste that provides useful information to delimit the range of waste management solutions applicable, nevertheless these indicators have not been used yet to identify the different types of food waste and propose the most appropriate waste management alternatives to manage them.

Therefore, a comprehensive and exhaustive analysis of all types of food waste has yet to be published. A holistic approach, where all relevant sub-categories of food wastes are identified and assessed, is necessary to support effective waste management. A solution to fill this knowledge gap is described in the following sections of this paper.

Indicators to Classify Food Waste

The previous section of the paper highlights the lack of a standardised and holistic approach to food waste management and the need for a classification process applicable to all types of food wastes as defined previously. The final aim of such a classification is to provide support for a better selection of alternatives to manage food waste. Any scheme should allow prioritisation of sustainability decisions in terms of the three pillars of sustainability:

Economic ramifications, which can be either positive (economic benefit obtained from management of the waste) or negative (economic cost to dispose of the waste).

Environmental impacts, which are usually negative (e.g. greenhouse gas emissions), but can also be positive (e.g. use of waste for the removal of pollutants in wastewater).

Social considerations, which can be either positive (e.g. food redistributed to people in need) or negative (e.g. increased taxes).

The categorization proposed in this paper is based on nine indicators as explained by Garcia-Garcia et al. [ 35 ] and shown in Fig.  2 . The assessment of these characteristics provides a systematic classification of the different types of food waste that enables a more appropriate selection amongst the available waste management alternatives. In each stage of the categorization process, one characteristic out of two or three options must be selected. Clarification of the different indicators can be found below:

Indicators to categorize food waste. Adapted from Garcia-Garcia et al. [ 35 ]

Edibility : the product is edible if it is or has been expected to be consumed by humans at any point during its life cycle, otherwise the product is inedible. Inedible products include fruit skins, meat bones, some vegetable stalks, etc. When the product is edible from a biological point of view, but there is no demand for it (e.g. some types of offal, spent grain from breweries) it is considered inedible in this scheme, as it is not possible to reallocate it for human consumption. Therefore, the edibility of some food wastes can vary over time and geographical area considered. Various foods contain inedible parts when they are sold (e.g. banana and its skin); these food products are considered edible.

State : this characteristic must be assessed only for edible products. The product is eatable if it has not lost the required properties to be sold and fit for human consumption at the moment of its management as waste, otherwise the product is uneatable. If the food had not lost those properties, but requires further processing in the factory before being sold or consumed, it is classified as eatable and unprocessed (see indicator 6). A food product can become uneatable by being damaged at different points of the supply chain (e.g. overcooked during its manufacture, spilled during its distribution), being spoiled (e.g. leaving the cold chain), passing its use-by date, etc. If a product contains both uneatable and eatable parts and it is going to be managed as a whole, it must be considered uneatable. When the product is eatable from a biological point of view, there may still be ethical issues that can lead to classify it as uneatable to restrict its usage for human consumption, for instance to prevent using surplus alcoholic drinks for redistribution to charities, or products of lower quality to an acceptable established level. A third category includes products uneatable for humans because of safety concerns, but still fit for animal feeding (e.g. fallen from conveyor belts during manufacturing).

Origin : the product is animal based if it was produced by an animal (e.g. dairy products, eggs, honey) or using parts of animals (meat, including fish), otherwise the product is plant based. When the product contains both plant and animal-based materials (e.g. ready meals), it must be classified according to its predominant ingredient. If this is a plant ingredient the product will be also classified as a mixed product (see next categorization stage).

Complexity : this characteristic is only required for plant-based products. The product is single if it is formed of only one type of ingredient and it has not been in contact with other food material, otherwise the product is mixed.

Animal product presence : when the product is animal based, it must be categorized as meat (including fish), animal product (a product produced by animals) or by-product from animal bodies not intended for human consumption (e.g. by-products from slaughterhouses). In the last case, the waste should be further classified according to European regulations into Category 1, 2 or 3 [ 36 ]. When the product is plant based and mixed, it must be assessed as to whether the product contains any animal-based material or has been in contact with animal-based material.

Treatment : a food is considered processed when it has the same properties as the final product to be sold to the consumer (i.e. it has completed the manufacturing process, e.g. a ready meal; or the food does not need any processing before being distributed, e.g. fresh fruits and vegetables). If the food still needed any treatment at the moment of its management as waste it is unprocessed. Consequently, only edible and eatable waste should be assessed in this stage.

Packaging : a product is unpackaged if it is not contained in any packaging material. If the product is packaged but there is an available technology for unpacking and separating the food waste from its packaging, the product can be considered unpackaged; otherwise the product is packaged.

Packaging biodegradability : this characteristic must be assessed for packaged foods. Commonly, biodegradability of a material means that it can be digested by microorganisms, although the process may last for several months or years. Therefore, in this paper biodegradable packaging refers to that made of materials which have been tested and received a certificate of being “suitable for anaerobic digestion” or “compostable” in a technical composting plant (e.g. ‘DIN CERTCO’ logo and the ‘OK compost’ logo). Biodegradable packaging is generally composed of paper, bioplastics, wood or any plant-based product. Typically non-biodegradable packaging is made of plastic, glass or metal.

Stage of the supply chain : catering waste includes domestic waste and waste from food services (e.g. restaurants, schools, hospitals, etc.); non-catering waste is generated in earlier stages of the supply chain (i.e. during farming, manufacturing, distribution or retailing).

The assessment of these nine stages, and the consequent determination of nine characteristics, is the starting point to select the most convenient waste management alternative. The hypothesis of this work is that each combination of nine indicators has associated with it one most favourable solution. The nine-stage categorization scheme is intended to be easy to apply and determinative for selection of the optimal waste management alternatives, taking into account regulations and economic, environmental and social ramifications. The next chapter proposes a set of waste management alternatives for the different food waste types identified following the categorization based on the nine indicators explained in this section.

Development and Partial Results

Having identified and classified the different food wastes following the guidelines presented in the previous section, the next step is to identify and analyse the food waste management alternatives. In order to do so, the waste hierarchy applied to food products is an appropriate tool to classify the different options to manage food waste, based on the sustainability of its results. The particular order of the different options in the hierarchy (i.e. the preference of some alternatives against others) is debatable (e.g. anaerobic digestion is considered better than composting), but the final aim is to prioritize options with better environmental, economic and social outcomes. Hence, there are several slightly different adaptations of the food waste hierarchy, however the most recent versions are usually based on the Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC [ 37 ]. An example of a food waste hierarchy which aims to prioritise sustainable management alternatives can be seen in Fig.  3 ; it is based on previous versions, including those of Defra et al. [ 14 ], Adenso-Diaz and Mena [ 38 ], Papargyropoulou et al. [ 17 ] and Eriksson et al. [ 18 ].

Waste hierarchy for surplus food and food waste. Adapted from Garcia-Garcia et al. [ 35 ] and based on Defra et al. [ 14 ], Adenso-Diaz and Mena [ 38 ], Papargyropoulou et al. [ 17 ] and Eriksson et al. [ 18 ]

It is difficult to apply a waste hierarchy to food products due to the heterogeneity of these materials and the numbers of actors at different stages of the food supply chain that waste food. Therefore, the waste hierarchy must be assessed for each type of food waste, rather than for ‘food waste’ as a whole. This case-specific application of the waste hierarchy has been also recommended by Rossi et al. in their analysis of the applicability of the waste hierarchy for dry biodegradable packaging [ 39 ].

In this paper, environmental, economic and social ramifications associated with food waste management are considered, but impacts of the food during its life cycle are not included as they do not affect food waste management decisions (i.e. the impacts have already occurred before the food was wasted). Consequently, a life-cycle approach was not necessary to assess different alternatives and only end-of-life impacts were studied.

In order to link the categorization process and the waste management alternatives from the food waste hierarchy, the indicators described previously have been firstly used to identify the different types of food waste. Each indicator has been assessed and the superfluous categories for each indicator have been eliminated to simplify the analysis (e.g. state for inedible waste). The optimal waste management alternatives have been identified for each type of food waste in compliance with UK and European regulations and based on the food waste hierarchy, therefore prioritising the most sustainable solutions (Fig.  3 ). The result of this analysis has been represented in a diagram (namely Food Waste Management Decision Tree, FWMDT) that helps with analysing food waste using the indicators described. This FWMDT has been divided into four parts for display purposes and can be seen in Fig.  4 (edible, eatable animal-based food waste), Fig.  5 (edible, eatable, plant-based food waste), Fig.  6 (edible, uneatable food waste) and Fig.  7 (inedible and uneatable for humans, eatable for animals food waste).

Food Waste Management Decision Tree (FWMDT). Edible, eatable, animal-based food wastes and their most convenient waste management alternatives

Food Waste Management Decision Tree (FWMDT). Edible, eatable, plant-based food wastes and their most convenient waste management alternatives

Food Waste Management Decision Tree (FWMDT). Edible, uneatable food wastes and their most convenient waste management alternatives

Food Waste Management Decision Tree (FWMDT). Inedible and uneatable for humans, eatable for animals food wastes and their most convenient waste management alternatives. The list of materials classified as animal by-products categories 1–3 can be found in [ 36 ]

The FWMDT functions as a flowchart. The user begins at the highest level, and selects the indicator that best describes the food waste (e.g. edible or inedible). The user then moves through subsequent levels of the diagram, following the arrows and making further indicator selections. At the bottom the user is presented with a set of waste management alternatives that differ according to the set of indicators for that food type.

The food waste must be broken down for analysis into the same subgroups as for the treatments to be applied, e.g. if a food business generates both plant-based waste and animal-based waste which are collected and treated separately, they must be also assessed independently. However, if a producer of convenience foods produces undifferentiated waste composed of both plant and animal products, this must be studied as a whole. In the latter example, the waste is classified as a mixed product. It is readily seen that separate collection provides the benefit that more targeted management practices can be carried out on the different food waste streams. When separate collection is not possible, a thorough waste sorting is still recommended, although some of the alternatives will not be available then (e.g. plant-based food waste that has been in contact with meat cannot be used for animal feeding).

The development of a categorization that covers all types of food waste is arduous due to the number of waste types and their dissimilarity. Similarly, there are numerous alternatives for food waste management. In Fig.  3 some of these numerous alternatives have been grouped—for instance, all processes for extracting substances from all types of food waste are included in extraction of compounds of interest. This is because there are dozens of chemical and physical routes to obtain bio-compounds from food products, and also numerous possibilities to use different types of food waste for industrial applications such as removal of pollutants from wastewater. It is therefore unfeasible to consider all these options explicitly for all the food waste categories. Consequently, in all cases when there are management alternatives other than redistribution and animal feeding suggested in the FWMDT, a targeted study for each type of waste must be carried out in order to find what opportunities there are to extract compounds of interest or for industrial use, before considering options lower down in the food waste hierarchy.

Additionally, prevention of food waste generation is not included in the FWMDT because is out of the scope of this research, and also this option would be always prioritised, as it is at the top of the food waste hierarchy and can potentially be applied to all types of edible food wastes. The option of prevention also includes alternative uses of products for human consumption (e.g. a misshapen vegetable that can be used in convenience foods). In these cases the products must be reprocessed and they would not be considered food waste according to the definition provided in the previous section, and therefore they are out of the scope of this work. If instead they are directly consumed without further processing the alternative to follow will be redistribution, although this will normally give a smaller economic benefit to the food company than selling them at their normal price. In this paper it is assumed that all prevention steps have been taken to minimize food waste generation, but nevertheless food waste is created and requires waste management optimisation.

Landspreading can be used with the majority of food waste types, but according to the food waste hierarchy (Fig.  3 ) this alternative is less beneficial than composting. As both alternatives can be used to treat the same types of food wastes, landspreading has not been further considered in this work and only composting has been examined.

Additionally, the last two waste management practices, namely landfilling and thermal treatment without energy recovery, are not considered in the analysis. Landfilling has a high environmental impact, and its economic and social outcomes are also negative. Treatment without energy recovery damages the environment likewise, but its economic and social ramifications are generally less adverse. In both cases there are always more sustainable management practices that can be used to manage food waste, even if these two alternatives could be potentially used with all types of food waste, regardless of their nature.

The FWMDT was designed as far as possible to embody the categories and indicators described in the previous section, but this was not always achievable. For instance, the category animal-product presence includes additional indicators for inedible, animal-based products, as can be seen in Fig.  7 , to comply with European regulations [ 36 ].

A description of each management alternative evaluated and the associated types of waste can be found below.

Redistribution for Human Consumption

Redistribution for human consumption is the optimal alternative, as food is used to feed people. Agreements with charities and food banks help to distribute surplus food to those in need. Products must be edible, eatable and processed, as defined in the previous section. It must be noted that processed does not necessarily mean that the final product was fully processed as initially planned by the food business, e.g. surplus potatoes for the preparation of chips for ready meals can be redistributed if they are fit for human consumption and distribution (for example, they have not been peeled yet) and comply with regulations. In this case the potatoes are defined as processed because they are as sold to final consumers. The European legislation redistribution for human consumption must meet is the General Food Law [ 40 ], the Food Hygiene Package [ 41 – 44 ], the Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 [ 45 ], and the Tax legislation [ 46 ], as explained by O’Connor et al. [ 47 ]. An extensive study of the situation of food banks and food donation in the UK was carried out by Downing et al. [ 48 ].

Animal Feeding

This is the best alternative for foods which are not fit for human consumption but are suitable for animal feeding. In this category only farmed animals are considered (e.g. cattle, swine, sheep, poultry and fish). Pets, non-ruminant zoo animals, etc. are excluded, following guidelines explained in [ 49 ]. In order to be used for animal feeding, products must either be eatable or uneatable for humans but eatable for animals, unpackaged or separable from packaging, and non-catering waste. Inedible, plant based, single product, non-catering waste can be used for animal feeding depending on the type of waste. This particular case must be assessed for each type of waste independently. When the product is mixed, it must be either not in contact with or containing meat, by-products from animal bodies or raw eggs if it is eatable, or not in contact with or containing animal-based products if it is inedible or uneatable for humans but eatable for animals. Mixed waste containing animal products from manufacturers is suitable for animal feeding when the animal product is not the main ingredient. Meat (or plant-based products containing meat) cannot be sent for animal feeding. Eggs and egg products (or plant-based products containing them) must come from the agricultural or manufacturing stage when used for animal feeding and must follow specific treatments. Milk and dairy products can be used for animal feeding if they are processed (the processing needed is similar to that for human consumption), or unprocessed under UK rules if the farm is a registered milk processing establishment. Inedible, animal based, category 3 waste can also be used for animal feeding only under the conditions listed in the FWMDT (Fig.  7 ). According to European regulations, all types of category 3 animal by-products can be used in animal feed except hides, skins, hooves, feathers, wool, horns, hair, fur, adipose tissue and catering waste. Nevertheless the UK regulation is stricter than European regulations and this has been incorporated into the FWMDT. It must be noted that technically some category 3 animal by-products are edible, but they are not intended for human consumption. In any case, they must be not spoiled in order to be usable for animal feeding, and in most cases they must be processed following specific requirements before being used. If a waste contains different categories of animal by-products, it must be treated following the requirements of the material with the highest risk (category 1: highest risk, category 3: lowest risk). The following sources have been used to develop the FWMDT and must be consulted when using animal by-products in animal feeds: European regulations [ 36 , 50 , 51 ] and UK legislation [ 52 ]. Useful guidance information on this matter in the UK can be found at [ 49 , 53 ]. Further information on additional legislation that applies to work with animal by-products can be found at [ 54 ] and [ 55 ] for milk products. Eggs must be treated in a processing facility under national rules [ 56 ]. The following additional legislation for animal feeding has also been consulted: European regulations [ 57 – 59 ] and regulations in England [ 60 ]. General guidance on animal feeding was collected by Food Standards Agency [ 61 ].

Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic digestion can be used with all types of food waste except animal by-products category 1 and packaged waste (i.e. non-separable from packaging) in a non-biodegradable packaging. The animal by-products category 3 must be pasteurised; the particle size of animal by-products category 2 must be 50 mm or smaller, and its core must have reached a temperature of 133 °C for at least 20 min without interruption at an absolute pressure of at least 3 bar [ 36 , 52 , 62 ]. Anaerobic digestion plants in the UK must comply with regulations with regard to environmental protection, animal by-products, duty of care, health and safety and waste handling (more information about the different legal requirements can be found in [ 63 ]).

The types of material suitable for composting are the same as for anaerobic digestion: all food waste except animal by-products category 1 and packaged waste (i.e. non-separable from packaging) in non-biodegradable packaging. Animal by-products category 2 can be composted if processed according to regulations [ 36 , 52 ]. Composting must be carried out in closed vessels (in-vessel composting) if the waste contains or has been in contact with any animal-based material [ 15 , 62 ], as it can attract vermin. Further guidance for the composting of waste can be found in [ 64 ].

Thermal Treatment with Energy Recovery

This alternative can be applied to every type of food waste; nevertheless its use must be minimized as it provides small benefit compared to the impacts generated. Additionally, a great quantity of energy is needed to treat food waste due to its mainly high water content, and therefore this alternative may be useful and give an energy return on investment when treating dry food wastes (e.g. bread and pastries) or food waste mixed with other materials, such as in municipal solid waste. Thermal treatments with energy recovery, which includes incineration, pyrolysis and gasification, is the only alternative available to treat packaged food (non-separable from packaging) in non-biodegradable packaging, except the cases when the product is also edible, eatable and processed, and therefore can be redistributed for human consumption. As this type of waste is the final packaged product it will usually be generated in the last stages of the supply chain, particularly at retailing and consumer level (municipal solid waste). Thermal treatments with energy recovery are also the most appropriate alternative to treat animal by-products category 1, and in some cases, it is also necessary to process by pressure sterilisation [ 36 , 52 ]. Useful information on incineration of municipal solid waste can be found in [ 65 ] and on technologies and emissions from waste incineration in the Best Available Techniques for Waste Incineration [ 66 ].

Final Results and Discussion: Case Studies

Introduction to case studies.

The food waste categorization process presented in this paper has been applied to two case studies to demonstrate its applicability: a brewery (Molson Coors) and a manufacturer of meat-alternative products (Quorn Foods). These food companies were selected because previous contact between the researchers and the industries existed, and also due to their leading position in their product market, large size and therefore a predictable number of different types of food waste produced. A visit to their headquarters took place in June 2015, in which interviews were held with company employees. A questionnaire was used to systematically identify food waste streams and collect relevant data.

The categorization of these wastes according to the categorization scheme and the most favourable waste treatment alternatives identified using the FWMDT (Figs.  4 – 7 ) are explained in the following sections. The rest of the alternatives from the food waste hierarchy were also assessed for each type of food waste.

Brewery: Molson Coors

This section categorizes the different types of food waste generated at one of Molson Coors’ manufacturing sites, a brewery situated in central England. The different types of food waste generated, in order of decreasing quantity, are: spent grain, waste beer, conditioning bottom, filter waste and trub. The quantity of waste generated during a year is only dependent on the level of production, since a relatively constant percentage of waste is generated per amount of final product manufactured. The different types of food waste identified are categorized in Table  1 and explained below.

Spent Grain

Spent grain accounts for around 85 % of the total food waste in the manufacturing plant. It is an unavoidable by-product of the mashing process and is formed of barley and small amounts of wheat.

According to the FWMDT (Fig.  7 ), the best option is to send the waste for animal feeding. Currently spent grain is mixed with trub (in an approximate proportion of 99 % spent grain, 1 % trub) and used for animal feeding. However, the possibility of reprocessing the waste to adapt it for human consumption was also assessed, as suggested in the previous subsection. Spent grains contain high proportions of dietary fibres and proteins which may provide a number of health benefits [ 67 ]. Spent grain should not be mixed with trub if it is intended to use it to produce food products. Flour can be produced from spent grain following a process that includes drying and grinding [ 67 ]. This can be mixed afterwards with wheat flour and used in a wide range of food products such as bread, muffins, biscuits, etc., increasing their health benefits [ 68 ]. It must be noted that production of new food products was not selected by using the FWMDT because spent grain was considered inedible, as there is no current consumer demand for the products described above. If technology existed to produce new food products from spent grain, such as those described above, and these products could be sold because there was a consumer demand for it, spent grain would not be considered food waste providing it was used for this purpose.

Other uses for spent grain, apart from food uses and for animal fodder, include pet food, use in construction bricks, removal of pollutants in wastewater, production of paper, growing medium for mushrooms or microorganisms, extraction and synthesis of compounds (e.g. bioethanol, lactic acid, polymers and resins, hydroxycinnamic acids, arabinooligoxylosides, xylitol, pullulan), anaerobic digestion, composting, thermal treatment with energy recovery and landspreading [ 68 – 70 ].

This waste corresponds to the final product which is not ultimately consumed. There are three reasons as to why this waste is generated:

Beer left in casks brought back from the food service sector, which accounts for most of the waste in this category. It means an economic loss to the food service sector, not to the brewing company; therefore, it has not been given a high importance by the beer producer.

Beer rejected because of mislabelling.

Spilled beer in the filling process, which accounts for a negligible amount.

Currently, 95 % of the waste is sent to farms and mixed with other waste to feed animals (pigs). The remaining 5 % is sent to sewage.

Ideally, and according to the FWMDT (Fig.  5 ), beer left in casks could be reused for human consumption; however, as this comes from outside of the factory, it is difficult to prove that it has not been altered and is safe for consumption. If the option of redistribution for human consumption is discarded, the next recommended alternative is animal feeding, which is the current final use.

Beer rejected because of mislabelling is perfectly potable, so it is potentially reusable; however, there is difficulty of extracting the product from its packaging (i.e. emptying bottles and dispensing the product into new bottles). This would require significant employee time or new technologies for automation of the process, but would prevent beer from being wasted. Alternatively, in England the mislabelled beer can be sold at a lower price to a redistributor of surplus products such as Company Shop, where the label is corrected to meet Food Information Regulations 2014 [ 71 ], and providing the beer is compliant with food safety legislation it can be sold at a lower price to the final consumer. Similarly, European legislation that regulates the food information that must be provided to consumers in product labelling is the Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 [ 45 ]. Food banks generally do not serve beer and therefore in these cases it cannot be redistributed to charities for people in need.

Alternatively, extraction of alcohol from waste beer by distillation could also give an economic benefit.

Conditioning Bottom

This waste is an unavoidable by-product which settles to the bottom of the conditioner tanks during the maturation process. It is composed principally of yeast, thus it is edible. However, it is not suitable for redistribution for human consumption, as the waste is not processed. Currently it is sent for animal feeding (pigs), which is the optimal alternative according to the FWMDT (Fig.  5 ).

Alternatively, some substances from the conditioning bottom can be used to produce new food products. Yeast can be separated and used to produce foodstuff. In order to recover yeast, the sediment should be filtered and squeezed, and this gives the opportunity to recover cloudy-type beer. As well as with spent grain, discussed previously, production of new food products was not selected by using the FWMDT because conditioning bottom is unprocessed, as there is either no current consumer demand for it or no technology available to undertake the processes required.

Filter Waste

Filter waste is formed of diatomaceous earth, yeasts and proteins. Yeast and proteins are edible; typically diatomaceous earth (i.e. fossilized remains of diatoms) is considered inedible; however there are two types: food grade diatomaceous earth and inedible diatomaceous earth. In order to choose the best waste management alternative the type of diatomaceous earth must first be identified. As the current use for beer production is as a filter medium, it will be assumed to be inedible diatomaceous earth.

Following the FWMDT (Fig.  7 ), the waste should be used in animal feeds. However, the type of diatomaceous earth used is not suitable for animal feeding and therefore the next alternative from the food waste hierarchy was suggested: anaerobic digestion to obtain energy. Currently, filter waste is sent to composting (when it is dry) and sewage (when it is wet). As composting is an alternative under anaerobic digestion in the waste hierarchy and sewage is at the bottom of the hierarchy, there is an important opportunity for improvement. Potential additional uses of diatomaceous earth include industrial (filter medium, stabiliser of nitroglycerin, abrasive in metal polishes and toothpaste, thermal insulator, reinforcing filler in plastics and rubber, anti-block in plastic films, support for catalysts, activation in blood coagulating studies, cat litter, etc.), additive in ceramic mass for the production of red bricks, insecticide and anticaking agent for grain storage (when it is food grade), growing medium in hydroponic gardens and plotted plants and landspreading [ 72 , 73 ].

This is an unavoidable by-product obtained principally in the separator after the brewing process. It is formed of hops, inactive yeast, heavy fats and proteins. Currently this waste is mixed with spent grain and sent to animal feeding, which is the best alternative according to the FWMDT (Fig.  7 ).

On the other hand, while hops are typically considered inedible, some parts are actually edible. For example, hop shoots can be consumed by humans [ 74 ]. Ideally edible parts of the hops would be separated and used in food products and the remaining hops be sent to animal feeding. Yeast, fats and proteins could potentially be used in food products. As well as with spent grain, discussed previously, production of new food products was not selected by using the FWMDT because trub was considered inedible, as there is either no current consumer demand for the products described above or no technology available to undertake the processes required.

Applicability of the Categorization Process and the FWMDT

The FWMDT was proved to be useful to classify food waste generated at Molson Coors, as two types of waste were identified to be upgradeable: waste beer and filter waste could be managed in an alternative way in which more value would be obtained.

The assessment of some categories was complex for some food wastes, e.g. edibility for spent grain and waste beer. Spent grain was demonstrated to be edible, but as there is no market for this product for human consumption spent grain waste was consequently further classified as inedible. Research and investment to produce new food products from spent grain is encouraged, and when that takes place the categorization of spent grain will have to be amended. Waste beer was classified as eatable, however safety concerns regarding beer left in casks brought back from the food service sector must be overcome before the beer is reused. Should waste beer be considered safe for consumption but of low quality, ethical issues may arise regarding the benefits of using it for human consumption. Following the FWMDT, redistributing safe food for human consumption is always better from a sustainable point of view than any other alternative from the food waste hierarchy.

The feasibility to send food waste to animal feeding was also difficult to assess. It was found that when considering animal feeding for inedible, plant-based, single or mixed product not in contact with or containing animal-based products, non-catering waste (Fig.  7 ) each type of food waste should be analysed independently. For instance, trub can be sent for animal feeding but filter waste not because it contains diatomaceous earth which cannot be digested by animals.

Additionally, waste formed principally of yeast could not be strictly classified as plant-based or animal-based. The ‘microorganisms’ indicator was introduced for this reason, but in practice this was considered as plant-based material, since it is not under animal by-product regulations.

Molson Coors also generates a by-product from the mashing process, spent yeast, which is currently sold to a food company nearby to produce Marmite ® , a food spread. Since this by-product is sold as planned by Molson Coors to produce a food product, it is not considered food waste according to the definition provided previously, and therefore is out of the scope of this work. If spent yeast were sent for any other use, it would be considered food waste and would have to be analysed using the FWMDT.

Manufacturer of Meat Alternatives: Quorn Foods

This section categorizes the different types of food waste generated at Quorn Foods, a manufacturer of meat alternatives situated in Northern England. Two types of food waste were identified: food solid/slurry mix and food product returns, which account for 63 and 21 % of the total waste in the factory respectively. The rest of the waste is non-food materials such as cardboard, plastic, etc. The quantity of waste generated during a year is only conditional on the level of production: a relatively constant percentage of waste is generated per amount of final product manufactured. The different food waste types are listed and categorized in Table  2 and explained below.

Food Solid/Slurry Mix

This category of waste includes products being lost through the production line: product falling from conveyor belts, trimmings, product stuck onto inner walls of the industrial equipment, etc. It has the same ingredients as the final product: fungus (mycoprotein), plant-based material, and animal-based products (egg albumen) in low proportions: 2–3 % by mass of the final product. It is an avoidable waste as it could be reduced or eliminated with more appropriate industrial equipment.

This waste was considered eatable, as it is generated only because of the inefficiency of the systems rather than to due to problems with the product. However, a more detailed analysis should be carried out to identify all different cases where this waste is generated and assess their state. If uneatable waste (e.g. spilled food onto the floor) is found, this should be classified as a different category of waste [ 75 ], although the new food waste management alternative for this waste according to the FWMDT would remain unchanged in this particular case: animal feeding.

Considering the previous comments, the most beneficial alternative according to the FWMDT (Fig.  5 ) is animal feeding, which is the option currently followed by the company. Unfortunately, this does not provide any economic income at present.

An investment in improvements in the industrial equipment would reduce the amount of food wasted in this category. Alternatively, the waste generated could be recovered and used to produce more final product.

Food Product Returns

Food product returns is the final product which cannot be sold to the final consumer for a number of reasons, including incorrect formulation, no traceability, packaging errors, etc. It has the same ingredients as the final product: fungus (mycoprotein), plant-based material, and animal-based products (egg albumen) in low proportions: 2–3 % by mass of the final product. It is an avoidable waste as it could be reduced or eliminated with more appropriate manufacturing practices.

This waste was considered eatable, as it corresponds to the final product. However, a more detailed analysis must be carried out before redistributing the food for human consumption in order to identify all different cases where this waste is generated and assess their state. If uneatable waste is found (e.g. its use-by date has passed), it must be classified as a different category of waste and this will allow a bespoke solution for this type of food waste. In this case, since the product is packaged, there is no risk of uneatable waste contaminating eatable waste.

Considering the previous comments, the most beneficial alternative is redistribution for human consumption, according to the FWMDT (Fig.  5 ). Currently the waste is separated from its packaging and sent to anaerobic digestion. The remaining packaging is used to produce refuse-derived fuel.

The FWMDT was proved to be useful to classify food waste generated at Quorn Foods, as one type of waste was identified to be upgradeable: food product returns could be managed in an alternative way in which more value would be obtained.

A more detailed analysis would be useful to identify sub-types of food waste and consequently the categorization process should be completed for all new food wastes found. This would provide a tailored waste management alternative for each type of food waste. For instance, if a final product for which the use-by date has passed is found, this could be named as ‘expired food product returns’ and its most appropriate waste management alternative would be anaerobic digestion, unlike the current generic ‘food product returns’ which should be redistributed.

Additionally, waste formed principally of fungus could not be strictly classified as plant-based or animal-based. The ‘fungus’ indicator was introduced for this reason, but in practice this was considered as plant-based material, since it is not covered by animal by-product regulations.

Conclusions

The food waste categorization and management selection flowchart (i.e. the Food Waste Management Decision Tree) discussed in this paper facilitates the selection of the most sustainable food waste management alternative, with the objective of minimizing environmental impacts and maximising economic and social benefits. The categorization is intended to be easy to apply, facilitating identification of the type of food waste generated, and its link with the most appropriate food waste management alternative. This methodology has been illustrated with case studies from two large UK food and drink manufacturers. Their food waste types have been identified and their existing waste management practices compared to the proposed alternatives. It was found that a detailed breakdown of the types of food waste provides significantly better results than general itemisation, since bespoke solutions can be used for each food waste.

The analysis described can be applied to every type of food waste from every stage of the food supply chain. However, this methodology is expected to be more useful in the early stages (agricultural and manufacturing) of the food supply chain, where separate collection is generally carried out more effectively, than in the retailing and consumer stages where waste is often sent to municipal solid waste. Additionally, it is recommended to adapt the categorization to each food sector or business and include more waste management alternatives in the analysis (e.g. extraction of compounds of interest from food waste).

Unfortunately, the alternatives at the top of the food waste hierarchy are applicable to fewer food waste types than those at the bottom. Consequently, a range of solutions is required for a tailored treatment of each food waste type. A clear example of this is the reduction in the previously widespread use of food waste for animal feeding. This is due to stricter regulation that has resulted in fewer types of food waste that can be used to feed animals [ 76 ]. Health and safety concerns influence legislation on food waste management, but excessively zealous bans of food waste management options results in the unintended consequence that less advantageous alternatives are more commonly used. Regarding the animal feeding example, there are initiatives to change legislation and allow more types of food waste to be fed to animals [ 77 ].

The food waste categorization scheme is also useful for monitoring purposes. It provides an easy way to classify food waste in a business or a region to assess progress in management and sustainability and measure against other companies or areas. In order to do that, firstly a clear definition of food waste must be agreed, the boundaries of the system to analyse must be delimited, and afterwards the food waste types can be identified and quantified.

Evaluating the relative merits of waste management alternatives is a complex task. The factors determining which solution is more convenient are difficult to assess and sometimes even difficult to identify, including yields of the processes, proximity of waste management facilities, tax regulations, and demand for by-products, amongst many others. As a consequence, the waste hierarchy should be applied to every type of food waste identified independently, rather than to food waste as a whole, and undertake an exhaustive analysis for each food waste. To meet this challenge the authors are developing an analysis method and associated figures of merit to allow quantitative comparison of waste management alternatives, with a focus on environmental impacts, as an improvement over the current, qualitative approach.

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Acknowledgments

This research is funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) UK through the Grant EP/K030957/1.

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Garcia-Garcia, G., Woolley, E., Rahimifard, S. et al. A Methodology for Sustainable Management of Food Waste. Waste Biomass Valor 8 , 2209–2227 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-016-9720-0

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Food Topics for A+ Grade Research Writing

01 December, 2021

13 minutes read

Author:  Richard Pircher

Food is a sensitive topic since it impacts human lives directly. As experts say, you are what you eat is indeed true that the meals you consume can either build or weaken your immune system. Careful diet selection affects your health immensely. You need to eat nutritious meals to maintain a healthy lifestyle and lower the risks of various diseases. That is why there are numerous diet courses and programs offered in colleges and universities.

Students get assigned numerous research papers as part of the course assessment. However, the diversity of the subject makes it difficult for learners to pick the best topics about food. It is quite a broad subject, which might confuse students more. Therefore, you must be keen during topic selection to compose remarkable research papers. Our experts have listed food safety topics and other compelling ideas to help you.

Furthermore, there are limitless controversial food topics that you can derive interesting arguments for your paper. Read on and gain more insights on how to choose appropriate topics and tips to write impressive papers.

Food Research Paper Explanation

A food research paper is an academic project that entails composing original essays and projects that analyze and explain information surrounding the nutrition industry. It could be researching safety, policies, management, nutrition, or diet innovations.

Tutors use research assignments to gauge the understanding of learners on specific subjects. That is why the papers must follow the required academic standards.

Therefore, it is imperative to identify a suitable food essay topic to compose an exceptional paper that meets the research purpose.

The Main Branches of Food Science

Food science is a study that involves multiple disciplines that relate to different nutrition aspects. It is a course that analyses nutrition properties in terms of chemical compositions and the physical aspect. The subjects also cover various scientific aspects like food safety, the processing stages, and storage.

Let us take a look at the main branches:

• Analytical chemistry.
• Engineering.
• Biotechnology.
• Quality control
• Food safety.

Thus, it is imperative to note that food technology has a massive impact on bulk production. The industry takes essential steps in how to preserve, package, and distribute food for human consumption.

Due to the subject’s diversity, learners have limitless food debate topics to cover. You can never miss out during topic selection as long as you understand the research question.

Food Topics Are Tricky – How To Choose and Work On Them

Topic selection is a critical phase even for research papers. Most students get stuck on how to approach this broad subject. It is pretty tricky to get good food topics to write about from a diverse category of options. From food arguments topics to safety issues, learners can identify numerous controversial themes to explore.

You must brainstorm to get related themes surrounding the main subject. Ensure you read the essay prompt carefully to understand the angle you will take when selecting a relevant topic. It is imperative to take adequate time to avoid picking inappropriate topics that do not align with the research purpose. For instance, if you select argumentative essay topics about food, you must incorporate logical arguments to persuade your readers about the research perspective.

In addition, you must research extensively to find verifiable sources. Crafting original documents with correct citations is paramount in research paper writing. Make sure the websites or books you are getting information contain enough content. Some controversial topics might have plenty of information, while others have fewer data.

Fortunately, it is a subject that opens debatable conversations and offers a rich ground for writing captivating research papers that can advance the medical field and the culinary world in general.

However, if you still find it challenging to select topics, you can seek professional assistance from our trusted service. Our experts are on standby 24/7, helping numerous students out and producing stellar essays and research papers on a broad array of nutrition-related topics.

20 Captivating Food As A Science Topic Ideas

Here are original food science topics to inspire your writing process:

• Explain the different categories of nutrition.
• Analyze the significant nutrition types essential for body development.
• Discuss the relationship between poor nutrition and bone density.
• Can poor people afford nutrition supplements?
• Discuss the importance of vitamin D on young children.
• An analysis of female dietary habits compared to males.
• Impact of science in nutrition.
• The types of nutrition that improve bone density.
• Discuss the importance of amino acids in muscle growth.
• An analysis of organic vs. processed diets.
• Discuss the nutritional value of dry beans and their health benefits.
• Explore the health benefits of an organic diet.
• Discuss why organic milk is a significant nutritional source.
• The role of culture in diet preferences.
• Analyze the future of the fast meal industry.
• Food Science: A quantitative analysis of modern nutrition supplements.
• Why hospitals do not provide junk meals to patients.
• Stored meals: Discuss the nutritional value and health hazards.
• Causes and effects of food poisoning.
• An analysis of nutritional deficiency and related diseases. 

10 Controversial Food Topics

Here are interesting food controversy topics that will develop compelling arguments and impress your tutor.

• What is the healthiest method to cook eggs?
• Is pizza good for young developing children?
• Effective storage for diet sauce.
• Do vegetarians live a long healthy life compared to meat consumers?
• The influence of obesity on fast restaurants.
• Analyze the causes of the rising sedentary lifestyle.
• Impact of excessive caffeine intake.
• Evaluate the role of beauty standards in eating disorders.
• The effectiveness of dietary supplements.
• Discuss the significance of a fatty diet in children.

10 Interactive Food Topics For Argumentative Writing

Diet forms part of a growing health debate in modern times. Let us look at some of the engaging food argumentative essay topics to jumpstart your writing.

• Are sodas suitable for young children?
• The adverse effects of a vegan diet.
• The impact of chocolate addiction on a healthy diet.
• Why honey is essential in managing flu ailments.
• Discuss the fruits that are effective in detoxing the human system.
• The impact of poor detoxification in the body.
• The role of garlic in insulin metabolism.
• Are there healthy sugar substitutes?
• How do quick-service restaurants affect society?
• The influence of climate on diet preferences.

10 Interesting Food Topics That Are Perfect For Debates

Numerous food debates topics help develop excellent research papers. Below are interesting topic ideas that can form captivating debates.

• Are color additives safe for human consumption?
• Can good eating habits reduce diet allergies in children?
• What is Avian Influenza? Should consumers be worried about it?
• Discuss the effective methods of organizing food in the fridge.
• An analysis of healthy spices and their benefits.
• The role of the government in creating awareness about organic diet.
• Can nutrition supplements replace organic diets?
• Explore diet choices between men and women.
• Discuss the benefits of adopting a macrobiotic diet.
• The influence of technology on eating habits.

10 Captivating Food Topics on Safety Measures

Looking for more fascinating topics? Below is a list of topic ideas about safety measures:

• Discuss the health concerns surrounding coffee?
• How to avoid food poisoning.
• The impact of biofuels in the food industry.
• Evaluate why stored meals are toxic in the human system.
• Why the government should be strict on safety and inspection.
• Effective methods of reducing botulism.
• An analysis of food safety policy.
• Discuss the significance of proper packaging.
• The downside of selling junk meals to school children.
• The role of the government in improving food safety.

10 Brilliant Food Topics For A Research Project

If you are stuck with a research paper without any topic ideas, we have you covered. The following are brilliant food research topics to inspire your research projects:

• Causes and effects of high acidity in the body.
• The thin line between weight loss diets and malnutrition.
• How does overeating affect the immune system?
• The pros and cons of consuming genetically modified foods.
• The negative effects of binge eating.
• Home-cooked meals vs. restaurant meals.
• The role of the government in curbing obesity.
• Discuss why meal choice is an individual responsibility.
• The fast-food industry is manipulating people’s eating habits.
• Analyze the long-term effects of eating.

10 Engaging Food Topics To Use In An Essay

Need more attention-grabbing food essay topics? Peruse the list below and find one that suits your research paper:

• Discuss the health hazards of genetically modified foods.
• An analysis of plant sterols in high cholesterol treatment.
• Why athletes require a special, optimal diet.
• Compare and contrast sugar and sweeteners.
• Is breakfast the most important meal to start your day?
• Impact of plastics as a packaging product.
• How biotechnology helps in meeting the nutritional needs of poor people.
• Analyze the influence of caffeinated drinks on human health.
• Are beans a better source of proteins than meat?
• Do carbonated drinks accelerate the aging of cells?

10 Interesting Food Topics for Smooth Writing

Research writing requires interactive topics to make the paper attention-grabbing to the target audience. Here are some interesting topics for your research paper:

• What are antioxidants? Discuss the nutritional value.
• Food addiction: Definition, causes, and effects.
• Why is it essential to maintain balanced pH levels?
• Discuss the socio-economic advantages of the fast-food industry.
• Discuss the controversies surrounding vegetable oils.
• Why intermittent fasting is not a healthy practice.
• The role of culture in fueling obesity.
• An analysis of chronic lifestyle diseases.
• The significance of drinking freshly extracted fruit juice.
• Is margarine a healthy choice? Discuss its implications.

10 Food Topics For Open Discussion

Let us explore other exciting food topics to talk about with rich analysis.

• Vegetarian diet: What drives people to become vegans? Is the diet suitable for everyone?
• Does interval fasting cure sedentary illnesses?
• Does lack of milk cause calcium deficiency?
• Discuss alternative calcium sources for people allergic to dairy products.
• Impact of sugar and sweeteners on human health.
• Does labeling affect consumer choices when purchasing food?
• Discuss the effective methods of reducing meal wastage.
• Impact of long-term Keto diet.
• An analysis of allergies in young children.
• Discuss the legal implications of diet adulteration.

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Food and nutritional sciences research project guidance: Doing your literature review

• Project management
• Ethical approval
• Doing a systematic literature search
• Evaluating your sources
• Doing your literature review
• Citing references
• Using EndNote
• File and data management
• Your lab/log book

All projects will include a literature review:

• In a lab-based project the review may just be part of the introduction helping to outline the state of the knowledge and gap you are trying to address.
• For literature-based projects this will be the bulk of your discussion, although the way your report is structured will depend on the type of review you are doing. If you are doing a systematic review you will need to follow a specific protocol for writing it up. See ' Doing a systematic literature search ' for guidance and links.

Getting started

• Video tutorial on doing a literature review

A literature review sets up your project and positions it in relation to the background research. It also provides evidence you can refer back to later to help interpret your own results. When getting started on your literature review, it helps to know what role this plays in your overall project.

A literature review:

• Provides the background / context to your topic
• Demonstrates familiarity with previous research
• Positions your study in relation to the research
• Provides evidence that may help explain your findings later
• Highlights any gaps in the research
• Identifies your research question/s

In your literature review you should include:

• Background to the topic (e.g. general considerations, mechanisms of formation, analytical techniques, etc…)
• Why it is important (e.g. food with improve flavour, less carcinogens, more taste, less processed foods, new probiotics ......... & etc.)
• What research has been performed and what has been found out
• The specific area you are interested in (e.g. cheese, snacks, fruits, ….)
• Current ideas and hypotheses in this area
• The key research questions which remain

It can seem difficult to know where to start with your literature review, but to a certain extent it doesn’t matter where you start…as long as you do!

If you like understanding the bigger picture and seeing the whole of an idea before getting into the detail – try starting with a general text and then using the bibliography of this to find more specific journal articles.

If you like to start small with one idea or study, find a relevant journal article or single study and then build up by trying to find related studies and also contrasting studies.

Further help

For more on this view the video tutorial on the other tab in this box, or take a look at these study guides:

• Starting a literature review
• Undertaking a literature review

Read the script for the video (PDF)

Note-taking

• Tips on note-taking
• Video tutorial on critical note taking

A key to a good literature review, is having a good system for recording and keeping track of what you are reading. Good notes means you will have done a lot of the thinking, synthesising, and interpreting of the literature before you come to write it up and it will hopefully make the writing process that bit smoother. Systematic note-taking will also ensure you have all the details you need to write your references and won’t accidentally plagiarise.

Have a format for recording your notes that suits you – whether this is in a table, bullet points, spider diagrams, using a programme like Evernote, or in a traditional notebook! 

Tables can be a useful way of recording notes for a literature review as it enables you to compare and contrast studies side-by-side in the table. It also forces you to write a concise summary or it won’t fit into the table!  

e.g.  A suggested outline for a note-making table

Have a system for distinguishing quotations and your own words – you don’t want to accidentally include something only to discover it was someone else’s words and you may have plagiarised by mistake. Always make sure your quotation marks are clear in your notes (it is easy to miss them in a hurry) and it really helps to record the page number of any direct quotation so you can go back to check easily.

Avoid the temptation to copy out text – copying out large chunks of text is slow and also means you tend not to process and understand what you copy. Summarising and writing short phrases instead means you are likely to have a better understanding and will remember it and be able to use your notes more easily later. 

Summarise – writing a short summary or overview of what you have just read helps you to clarify their argument and position. It also means you have a handy short reminder when you come back to it later – you don’t want to be re-reading notes that are as long as the original text in the first place!

Always record the full bibliographical details – it only takes a few moments to write down everything you need for your reference. You may think it is fine to leave it as you will be able to find these details later…but you probably won’t and you will waste time searching for them when your deadline is fast approaching.

A top tip if you find it hard to put things in your own words – try reading a longer section of the text before taking notes. It is very difficult to paraphrase something line-by-line as you go along, because everything seems important and it is too easy to just lift the phrases the author has used. Reading a longer section will give you a better overview and fuller understanding, meaning you can choose what is important and relevant to your own project. 

For more on this watch the video tutorial on the other tab in this box, or take a look at these study guides:

• Managing academic reading
• Effective note-taking

If you are unable to view this video on YouTube it is also available on YuJa - view the Critical note taking video on YuJa (University username and password required)

Referencing and avoiding plagiarism

• Managing references
• Video tutorial on avoiding unintentional plagiarism

It is a good idea to keep your references up to date as you write so that you know exactly where each idea comes from (and it will save a tedious job at the end ).

Make sure you reference every idea that comes from another source, which includes things like images, diagrams, and statistics, not just word-for-word quotations.

Use the referencing style detailed in the 'Referencing' page in this guide and stick to it consistently! Don’t switch between styles or formats. It may seem petty, but meticulously formatted referencing shows you have taken care in your work and have a professional academic approach (and it will get you marks!). You could consider using a reference management tool, such as EndNote Online, for storing your references and inserting them into your report (see the 'Referencing' page ) - this will be essential if you are doing a literature-based project or a systematic review.

A top tip is to have a proof-read through for referencing only – print out your literature review as it is easier to spot mistakes on paper than on screen.

Referencing checklist

• Is every idea from another source referenced?
• Does every word-for-word quotation have quote marks and is referenced?
• Are all paraphrases in your own words (not just changing a few words) and referenced?
• Does every in-text reference match a full reference in the bibliography?
• Are all names and titles in the references spelled correctly?
• Have you followed the department’s preferred referencing style consistently?

For more on this watch the video tutorial on the other tab in this box.

For detailed help on citing references see the Referencing page in this guide:

• Referencing Includes detailed guidance on the referencing style you should use for your project.

If you are unable to view this video on YouTube it is also available on YuJa - view the Avoiding Unintentional Plagiarism video on YuJa (University username and password required)

Structuring your review

A literature review compares and contrasts the research that has been done on a topic. It isn’t a chronological account of how the research has developed in the field nor is it a summary of each source in turn like a ‘book review’. Instead a literature review explores the key themes or concepts in the literature and compares what different research has found about each theme.

Use sub-headings to structure your literature review as this helps you group the different studies to compare and contrast them and avoids a straight chronological narrative.

To help find your sub-headings:

• Brainstorm all the different concepts or themes in the research that relate to your topic or title
• Identify the ones that are important to your research question – think of what the reader needs to know about to understand the different aspects of your project
• Place the themes in an order that would make sense to your reader – usually going from broad themes to themes more directly related to your project (see funnel diagram in Getting started)
• Turn these into sub-headings
• Use these sub-headings as an outline plan for your literature review – what will come under each sub-heading

Below is an example structure of a literature review that starts broad and starts to narrow by linking the concepts that are specific to this project:

For more on this see the following study guide:

Writing the literature review

When writing a literature review, you want to be comparing and contrasting the studies to build up a picture of what the research says about your topic.

This means you should be using comparative and evaluative language more than descriptive language:

For more examples of the kinds of comparative and evaluative language used in literature reviews see:

• Academic Phrasebank Use this site for examples of linking phrases and ways to refer to sources.

Be selective

Also you want to be selective in how you refer to the literature . In a literature review, you don’t have to refer to each study in the same depth. Think of the points you want to make and then include just enough detail about the study to provide evidence for this. For example, you don’t have to analyse the strengths and weaknesses of the methodology for each study in depth, you only need to do this if you are making a point which relates to the methodology or a point about the findings which depends on the methods being robust and valid (e.g. the authors claim there are wide-spread applications of their trials, but they have used a very small sample size, which suggests they can’t make such a bold assertion). 

For example - the summary below maps out the state of current research and the positions taken by the key researchers. A significant amount of reading and in-depth understanding of the field has gone in to being able to summarise the research in these few sentences.

Sometimes you need to go into greater depth and refer to some sources in more detail in order to interrogate the methods and stand points expressed by these researchers. Even in this more analytical piece of writing, only the relevant points of the study and the theory are mentioned briefly - but you need a confident and thorough understanding to refer to them so concisely.

For example:

See the following study guide for more on this:

• Developing your literature review

Returning to your literature review - link to the discussion

Once you have written your literature review, its job doesn’t end there. The literature review sets up the ideas and concepts that you can draw upon later to help interpret your own findings.

Do your own findings confirm or contradict the previous research? And why might this be?

If your literature review funnels down from broad to narrow, you can think of your discussion like the other half of the hour-glass, broadening out to the wider applications of your project at the end:

So although you may draft your literature review as one of your first steps, you will probably come back to it towards the end of your project to redraft it to help fit in with your discussion. You may need to emphasise some studies that didn’t initially seem that important, but which are now more useful because of what you have found in your own experiments.

This is an example of the thinking that might go on behind interpreting a result and linking it to the previous literature:

• << Previous: Evaluating your sources
• Next: Citing references >>
• Last Updated: Apr 11, 2024 5:49 PM
• URL: https://libguides.reading.ac.uk/food-research-project

160 Excellent Food Research Paper Topics for Students

Table of Contents

Are you a food science or food technology student searching for unique topics for your research paper? If yes, then this blog post is for you. Here, for your convenience, we have shared a list of the best 160 food research paper topics and ideas on various themes related to the subject.

Basically, food is essential for all living things because of the nutritional support it provides. Hence, it is impossible to imagine life without food. Moreover, in the fast-moving digital era, along with the development of technology, food has also taken different forms. In specific, processed food, packaged food, fast food and ready-made food with added preservatives are dominating human life. Due to these advancements in the food industry and the changes in the food style, certain health diseases also affect humans.

As food is one of the basic needs, a lot of research activities are being conducted in the field of food processing, food technology, food science, dairy technology, food safety, nutrition, and dietetics. So, for preparing your food research paper, you can also choose any intriguing topic from any of these domains.

List of Food Research Paper Topics

Whenever you get stuck with what topic to choose for your food research paper or essay, the list of ideas presented below will be more helpful to you. Explore the entire list and pick any food research topic that you feel is appropriate for you.

Food Research Paper Topics on Nutrition

• What are the most important types of nutrition to help body development?
• Bone density and poor nutrition: the correlation
• How affordable are nutritional supplements for poor people?
• The worldwide status of vitamin D nutrition
• Is it safe to use nutritional supplements to help bone density?
• Why is food science important in human nutrition?
• Why are amino acids important to the growth of muscles?
• How do the dietary habits of females affect their overall nutrition?
• An exhaustive definition of nutritional deficiency and the critical diseases malnutrition can cause.
• Nutrition-related health effects of organic foods
• Do dry beans serve proper nutrition and health benefits?
• Is organic milk a significant source of nutrition?
• Increased nutrition regulations on fast food restaurants
• Food preferences and nutrition culture
• Qualitative analysis of natural nutritional supplements.
• Should children be fed more dietary products like milk or less?
• Women and diet around the world.
• What are Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics?
• Discuss the sugar reduction strategies in foods
• Microbial safety evaluation of sugar-reduced foods and beverages
• Discuss the health effects of fermented foods containing added sugars
• Discuss some novel and emerging techniques for the detection of mycotoxins  in foods
• How to remove mycotoxins from foods?
• Psychological issues connected to food

Research Paper Topics on Food Safety

• Food and antimicrobial resistance
• How to eliminate the risk of botulism?
• How to effectively reduce the risk of food allergies?
• Meat and resistance to antimicrobials
• Recommendations for Ensuring Food Safety & Reducing Disease-Causing Mosquitoes
• Food safety and inspection service in your country
• Food safety risk assessment
• The role of government in food safety
• Food safety and health violations at the workplace.
• What consumers must know about Avian Influenza
•  Food and antimicrobial resistance
•  How to reduce the risk of botulism?
•  Health concerns for the use of coffee and caffeine
• Are color additives safe?
• How a community can contribute to ensuring food safety?
• Discuss the phenomena of negative-calorie foods
• Why it is important to ensure food safety for all?

Research Topics on Food Science

• What happens to stored foods?
• Factors that influence the taste of wine
• How to effectively prevent food poisoning?
• The influence of ethanol and pH balance on taste.
• How to influence the psychology of eating?
• What’s wrong with food addiction?
• Production and uses of protein hydrolysates and removal of bittering principles
• A comparative study on the physio-chemical properties of vegetable oils
• The innovative ways to help to fight against Food Waste.
• Toxicity of the aqueous environment
• Why food science is important in human nutrition
• How dietary habits of females affect their overall nutrition
• Influence of Food Science on the Diet of Persons
• Promoting Food Safety

Food Essay Topics

• The effects of fast food on society
• Should fast foods be sold in hospitals?
• An analysis of the socio-economic benefits of the fast-food industry.
• Do we need more fast-food restaurants in society?
• Certain food groups should not be mixed – true or false?
• What are the chronic diseases of lifestyle?
• What are immune-boosting foods?
• Protective fats are found in seeds and nuts.
• Food presentation is a form of art.
• The risks of eating junk food
• The influence of food on America
• Food culture and obesity
• The future of food
• How has technology changed the way we eat?
• How do biofuels impact the food industry?
• Nutrition: Food Containing Calories
• Negative Influence of Fast Foods
• Food Science and Technology of Genetic Modification.
• Fast Food and Obesity Link

Argumentative Food Research Topics

• What is the most salubrious way to cook eggs?
• Are burgers sandwiches?
• The pros and cons of grass-fed beef vs. grain-fed beef.
• Is it possible to make good pizza at home?
• Is a low glycemic index meal for a Neapolitan pizza a suitable choice for diabetes patients?
• The health impacts of vegetarian and vegan diets.
• Oxidative DNA damage in prostate: Can cancer patients consume tomato sauce?
• What is the best way to boil rice?
• Is it easy to become addicted to food quickly?
• Overeating suppresses the immune system.
• Do you think that abortion should be made illegal?
• Do you think that animal testing should be banned?
• Do you think that manufacturers are responsible for the effects of the chemicals used in creating their products?
• Should Hospitals Ban Fast Food Outlets?
• Where should food sauce be stored?

Read here:   Argumentative Essay Topics That You Must Consider

Interesting Food Research Topics

• Are emotions related to consuming chocolates?
• What causes raised acid levels in the body?
• Should a vegetarian take vitamin and mineral supplements?
• The role of tartrazine in foods such as butter and margarine
• Do trans fats, found in many kinds of margarine, lead to cancer?
• The Role of super-food in our health
• Does green tea help burn kilojoules?
• Does an apple a day keep the doctor away?
• Why the humble lentil is considered a superfood?
• The role of sodium in sports drinks
• Coconut oil and Alzheimer’s disease
• The role of honey in healing wounds.
• Food additives: Artificial Sweeteners
• Freshly extracted juices are the ultimate source of live enzymes.
• How does the consumption of sugared soda drinks cause cell aging?
• Is raw juice fasting effective for detoxifying?
• Does poor detoxification lead to inflammation?
• Does garlic help regulate insulin metabolism?
• Is there a link between tartrazine and hyperactivity in children?
• Organic food and healthy eating.
• Our health and fast food from McDonald’s.
• Fast food is a social problem of our time.
•  National cuisine is like healthy competition for fast food.

Amazing Food Research Ideas

• Is Genetically Modified Food Safe for Human Bodies and the Environment?
• The role of plant sterols in treating high cholesterol.
• Is there one optimal diet to suit everyone’s sporting needs?
• Flavonoids – powerful antioxidants that prevent the formation of free radicals.
• Explain the impact of caffeine on health.
• Compare and contrast home-cooked meals and fast food.
• The role of biotechnology and research in fulfilling the nutritional needs of people at a low price.
• The winemaking process.
• Myths of good and bad cholesterol.
• Calcium deficiency and milk
• The effects of sweeteners and sugar on health.
• Is it healthy to skip breakfast?
• Should plastic food packaging be banned?
• Are beans a good substitute for meat proteins?
• Food sensitivities in children.
• Calcium sources for dairy-allergic people.
• What are the advantages of the macrobiotic diet?
• The impacts of a long-term ketogenic diet on health
• What are the healthiest sugar substitutes?
• Low Carb Diet Craze

Trending Food Research Paper Topics

• Millenials: Food Trendmakers
• Write about the production of Organic Food
• Describe the connections between stress, junk foods, and obesity
• Critical analysis of the issues related to fast safety in modern agriculture
• Pizza and London Cheese Cake are the two most favorite foods among Americans: Explain
• Discuss the food items consumed by the people belonging to America’s working class
• Critical analysis of the results and implications of the slow food movement in America
• Explain the importance of meeting Sustainable Development Goal 2: Zero Hunger for ensuring food safety globally
• Describe the benefits and limitations of using 3D food printers and robotics in the food industry
•  Describe the significance of the digital food management system
• Describe the three most popular food technologies and their use
• Discuss the top ten food technology trends in 2023
• Discuss the benefits and limitations of alternative protein sources and personalized nutrition
• Analyze the use and effectiveness of ‘Restaurant Voice Bots’ in the US-based startup named Orderscape
•  Describe the importance of using eco-friendly materials for the packaging of baby foods
• Discuss the prospects for the development of food industry enterprises using molecular cuisine technology
• Analyze the pros and cons of food tourism in the context of developing nations.

Captivating Food Research Topics

• Evaluate the properties of Oil obtained from Carica Papaya Seeds.
• Discuss the effects of blending cow milk with soy milk and analyze the quality of yogurt.
• Evaluate the vegetable oil refining process and its food value.
• Explain the functional properties of plantain flour.
• Evaluate the nutrient constituents of fresh forages and formulated diets.
• Analyze the impact of nutrition education on the dietary habits of females.
• Analyze the use of composite blends for biscuit making.
• Discuss the storage time effects on the functional properties of Bambara groundnut.
• Write about the additives and preservatives used in food processing and preservation.
• Analyze the physical and chemical properties of soya beans.

The Bottom Line

Out of the top 150+ food research paper topics suggested in this blog post, pick an ideal topic of your choice. In order to make your work successful, when writing your food research paper, first, prepare an outline and then compose the content by providing the relevant facts and evidence supporting the main points of your topic.

If you struggle to find a good food topic for your research or if you are confused about how to write a persuasive food research paper, then reach out to us for assignment help . As per your requirements, our team of professional writers will assist you in writing an essay or research paper on any topic related to food science or food technology.

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I am an Academic Writer and have affection to share my knowledge through posts’. I do not feel tiredness while research and analyzing the things. Sometime, I write down hundred of research topics as per the students requirements. I want to share solution oriented content to the students.

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