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Feminist Philosophy

This entry provides an overview of all the entries in the feminist philosophy section of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP). After a brief account of the history of feminist philosophy and various issues regarding defining feminism, the entry discusses the three main sections on (1) approaches to feminist philosophy, (2) feminist interventions in philosophy, and (3) feminist philosophical topics.

Feminists working in all the main Western traditions of contemporary philosophy are using their respective traditions to approach their work, including the traditions of analytic, Continental, and pragmatist philosophy, along with other various orientations and intersections. As they do so, they are also intervening in how longstanding basic philosophical problems are understood. As feminist philosophers carry out work in traditional philosophical fields, from ethics to epistemology, they have introduced new concepts and perspectives that have transformed philosophy itself. They are also rendering philosophical previously un-problematized topics, such as the body, class and work, disability, the family, reproduction, the self, sex work, human trafficking, and sexuality. And they are bringing a particularly feminist lens to issues of science, globalization, human rights, popular culture, and race and racism.

1. Introduction

2.1 feminist beliefs and feminist movements, 2.2 normative and descriptive components, 2.3 feminism and the diversity of women, 2.4 feminism as anti-sexism, 3. approaches to feminism, 4. interventions in philosophy, 5. topics in feminism, other internet resources, related entries.

As this entry describes, feminism is both an intellectual commitment and a political movement that seeks justice for women and the end of sexism in all forms. Motivated by the quest for social justice, feminist inquiry provides a wide range of perspectives on social, cultural, economic, and political phenomena. Yet despite many overall shared commitments, there are numerous differences among feminist philosophers regarding philosophical orientation (whether, for example, Continental or analytic), ontological commitments (such as the category of woman), and what kind of political and moral remedies should be sought.

Contemporary feminist philosophical scholarship emerged in the 1970s as more women began careers in higher education, including philosophy. As they did so, they also began taking up matters from their own experience for philosophical scrutiny. These scholars were influenced both by feminist movements in their midst as well as by their philosophical training, which was anything but feminist. Until recently one could not go to graduate school to study “feminist philosophy”. While students and scholars could turn to the writings of Simone de Beauvoir or look back historically to the writings of “first wave” feminists like Mary Wollstonecraft, most of the philosophers writing in the first decades of the emergence of feminist philosophy brought their particular training and expertise to bear on analyzing issues raised by the women’s liberation movement of the 1960s and 1970s, such as abortion, affirmative action, equal opportunity, the institutions of marriage, sexuality, and love. Additionally, feminist philosophical scholarship increasingly focused on the very same types of issues philosophers had been and were dealing with.

Feminist philosophical scholarship begins with attention to women, to their roles and locations. What are women doing? What social/political locations are they part of or excluded from? How do their activities compare to those of men? Are the activities or exclusions of some groups of women different from those of other groups and why? What do the various roles and locations of women allow or preclude? How have their roles been valued or devalued? How do the complexities of a woman’s situatedness, including her class, race, ability, and sexuality impact her locations? To this we add attention to the experiences and concerns of women. Have any of women’s experiences or problems been ignored or undervalued? How might attention to these transform our current methods or values? And from here we move to the realm of the symbolic. How is the feminine instantiated and constructed within the texts of philosophy? What role does the feminine play in forming, either through its absence or its presence, the central concepts of philosophy? And so on.

Feminist philosophers brought their philosophical tools to bear on these questions. And since these feminist philosophers employed the philosophical tools they knew best and found most promising, feminist philosophy began to emerge from all the traditions of Western philosophy prevalent at the end of the twentieth century including analytic, Continental, and classical American philosophy. It should come as no surprise then that the thematic focus of their work was often influenced by the topics and questions highlighted by these traditions. Hence, as a result, a given question can be taken up and addressed from an array of views, sometimes, as discussed below, with quite contradictory answers.

Hence feminist philosophical scholarship is not homogeneous either in methods or in conclusions. Indeed, there has been significant debate within feminist philosophical circles concerning the effectiveness of particular methods within philosophy for feminist goals. Some, for example, have found the methods of analytic philosophy to provide clarity of both form and argumentation not found in some schools of Continental philosophy, while others have argued that such alleged clarity comes at the expense of rhetorical styles and methodological approaches that provide insights into affective, psychic, or embodied components of human experience. Other feminists find approaches within American pragmatism to provide the clarity of form and argumentation sometimes missing in Continental approaches and the connection to real world concerns sometimes missing in analytic approaches.

Founded in 1982 as a venue for feminist philosophical scholarship, Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy has embraced a diversity of methodological approaches in feminist philosophy, publishing work from all three traditions. Feminist scholarship in each of these traditions is also advanced and supported though scholarly exchange at various professional societies, including the Society for Women in Philosophy, founded in the United States in 1972. Additionally, the Society for Analytical Feminism, founded in 1991, promotes the study of issues in feminism by methods broadly construed as analytic, to examine the use of analytic methods as applied to feminist issues, and to provide a means by which those interested in analytical feminist can meet and exchange ideas. philoSOPHIA was established in 2005 to promote Continental feminist scholarly and pedagogical development. The Society for the Study of Women Philosophers was established in 1987 to promote the study of the contributions of women to the history of philosophy. Similar organizations and journals on many continents continue to advance scholarship in feminist philosophy.

Many of the ways in which feminist philosophy is not monolithic will be discussed below. Nevertheless, it is worth noting here at the start that although feminist philosophers have intended that their work—unlike the traditional philosophy they criticize—be applicable to all women and reflect the diverse experiences of women, in practice it has not always been the case. One important limitation that feminist philosophers are trying to overcome is their insufficient attention to the many interacting ways that human beings are oppressed, for example, along lines of race, sexuality, ability, class, religion, and nationality. Feminist philosophy strives for inclusivity and pluralism, even if it falls short.

2. What is Feminism?

The term “feminism” has many different uses and its meanings are often contested. For example, some writers use the term “feminism” to refer to a historically specific political movement in the United States and Europe; other writers use it to refer to the belief that there are injustices against women, though there is no consensus on the exact list of these injustices. Although the term “feminism” has a history in English linked with women’s activism from the late nineteenth century to the present, it is useful to distinguish feminist ideas or beliefs from feminist political movements, for even in periods where there has been no significant political activism around women’s subordination, individuals have been concerned with and theorized about justice for women. So, for example, it makes sense to ask whether Plato was a feminist, given his view that some women should be trained to rule ( Republic , Book V), even though he was an exception in his historical context (see, e.g., Tuana 1994).

Our goal here is not to survey the history of feminism—as a set of ideas or as a series of political movements—but rather to sketch some of the central uses of the term that are most relevant to those interested in contemporary feminist philosophy. The references we provide below are only a small sample of the work available on the topics in question; more complete bibliographies are available at the specific topical entries and also at the end of this entry.

In the mid-1800s the term “feminism” was used to refer to “the qualities of females”, and it was not until after the First International Women’s Conference in Paris in 1892 that the term, following the French term féministe , was used regularly in English for a belief in and advocacy of equal rights for women based on the idea of the equality of the sexes. Although the term “feminism” in English is rooted in the mobilization for woman suffrage in Europe and the United States during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, of course efforts to obtain justice for women did not begin or end with this period of activism. So some have found it useful, if controversial, to think of the women’s movement in the United States as occurring in “waves”. On the wave model, the struggle to achieve basic political rights during the period from the mid-nineteenth century until the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920 counts as “First Wave” feminism. Feminism waned between the two world wars, to be “revived” in the late 1960s and early 1970s as “Second Wave” feminism. In this second wave, feminists pushed beyond the early quest for political rights to fight for greater equality across the board, e.g., in education, the workplace, and at home. More recent transformations of feminism have resulted in a “Third Wave”. Third Wave feminists often critique Second Wave feminism for its lack of attention to the differences among women due to race, ethnicity, class, nationality, religion (see Section 2.3 below; also Breines 2002; Spring 2002), and emphasize “identity” as a site of gender struggle. (For more information on the “wave” model and each of the “waves”, see Other Internet Resources .)

However, some feminist scholars object to identifying feminism with these particular moments of political activism, on the grounds that doing so eclipses the fact that there has been resistance to male domination that should be considered “feminist” throughout history and across cultures: i.e., feminism is not confined to a few (White) women in the West over the past century or so. Moreover, even considering only relatively recent efforts to resist male domination in Europe and the United States, the emphasis on “First” and “Second” Wave feminism ignores the ongoing resistance to male domination between the 1920s and 1960s and the resistance outside mainstream politics, particularly by women of color and working class women (Cott 1987).

One strategy for solving these problems would be to identify feminism in terms of a set of ideas or beliefs rather than participation in any particular political movement. As we saw above, this also has the advantage of allowing us to locate isolated feminists whose work was not understood or appreciated during their time. But how should we go about identifying a core set of feminist beliefs? Some would suggest that we should focus on the political ideas that the term was apparently coined to capture, viz., the commitment to women’s equal rights. This acknowledges that commitment to and advocacy for women’s rights has not been confined to the Women’s Liberation Movement in the West. But this too raises controversy, for it frames feminism within a broadly liberal approach to political and economic life. Although most feminists would probably agree that there is some sense of rights on which achieving equal rights for women is a necessary condition for feminism to succeed, most would also argue that this would not be sufficient. This is because women’s oppression under male domination rarely if ever consists solely in depriving women of political and legal rights, but also extends into the structure of our society and the content of our culture, the workings of languages and how they shape perceptions and permeate our consciousness (e.g., Bartky 1988, Postl 2017).

Is there any point, then, to asking what feminism is? Given the controversies over the term and the politics of circumscribing the boundaries of a social movement, it is sometimes tempting to think that the best we can do is to articulate a set of disjuncts that capture a range of feminist beliefs. However, at the same time it can be both intellectually and politically valuable to have a schematic framework that enables us to map at least some of our points of agreement and disagreement. We’ll begin here by considering some of the basic elements of feminism as a political position or set of beliefs.

In many of its forms, feminism seems to involve at least two groups of claims, one normative and the other descriptive. The normative claims concern how women ought (or ought not) to be viewed and treated and draw on a background conception of justice or broad moral position; the descriptive claims concern how women are, as a matter of fact, viewed and treated, alleging that they are not being treated in accordance with the standards of justice or morality invoked in the normative claims. Together the normative and descriptive claims provide reasons for working to change the way things are; hence, feminism is not just an intellectual but also a political movement.

So, for example, a liberal approach of the kind already mentioned might define feminism (rather simplistically here) in terms of two claims:

• (Normative) Men and women are entitled to equal rights and respect.
• (Descriptive) Women are currently disadvantaged with respect to rights and respect, compared with men […in such and such respects and due to such and such conditions…].

On this account, that women and men ought to have equal rights and respect is the normative claim; and that women are denied equal rights and respect functions here as the descriptive claim. Admittedly, the claim that women are disadvantaged with respect to rights and respect is not a “purely descriptive” claim since it plausibly involves an evaluative component. However, our point here is simply that claims of this sort concern what is the case not what ought to be the case. Moreover, as indicated by the ellipsis above, the descriptive component of a substantive feminist view will not be articulable in a single claim, but will involve an account of the specific social mechanisms that deprive women of, e.g., rights and respect. For example, is the primary source of women’s subordination her role in the family? (Engels 1845; Okin 1989). Or is it her role in the labor market? (Bergmann 2002). Is the problem males’ tendencies to sexual violence (and what is the source of these tendencies?)? (Brownmiller 1975; MacKinnon 1987). Or is it simply women’s biological role in reproduction? (Firestone 1970).

Disagreements within feminism can occur with respect to either the descriptive or normative claims, e.g., feminists differ on what would count as justice or injustice for women (what counts as “equality”, “oppression”, “disadvantage”, what rights should everyone be accorded?) , and what sorts of injustice women in fact suffer (what aspects of women’s current situation are harmful or unjust?). Disagreements may also lie in the explanations of the injustice: two feminists may agree that women are unjustly being denied proper rights and respect and yet substantively differ in their accounts of how or why the injustice occurs and what is required to end it (Jaggar 1994).

Disagreements between feminists and non-feminists can occur with respect to both the normative and descriptive claims as well, e.g., some non-feminists agree with feminists on the ways women ought to be viewed and treated, but don’t see any problem with the way things currently are. Others disagree about the background moral or political views.

In an effort to suggest a schematic account of feminism, Susan James characterizes feminism as follows:

Feminism is grounded on the belief that women are oppressed or disadvantaged by comparison with men, and that their oppression is in some way illegitimate or unjustified. Under the umbrella of this general characterization there are, however, many interpretations of women and their oppression, so that it is a mistake to think of feminism as a single philosophical doctrine, or as implying an agreed political program. (James 1998: 576)

James seems here to be using the notions of “oppression” and “disadvantage” as placeholders for more substantive accounts of injustice (both normative and descriptive) over which feminists disagree.

Some might prefer to define feminism in terms of a normative claim alone: feminists are those who believe that women are entitled to equal rights, or equal respect, or…(fill in the blank with one’s preferred account of injustice), and one is not required to believe that women are currently being treated unjustly. However, if we were to adopt this terminological convention, it would be harder to identify some of the interesting sources of disagreement both with and within feminism, and the term “feminism” would lose much of its potential to unite those whose concerns and commitments extend beyond their moral beliefs to their social interpretations and political affiliations. Feminists are not simply those who are committed in principle to justice for women; feminists take themselves to have reasons to bring about social change on women’s behalf.

Taking “feminism” to entail both normative and empirical commitments also helps make sense of some uses of the term “feminism” in recent popular discourse. In everyday conversation it is not uncommon to find both men and women prefixing a comment they might make about women with the caveat, “I’m not a feminist, but…”. Of course this qualification might be (and is) used for various purposes, but one persistent usage seems to follow the qualification with some claim that is hard to distinguish from claims that feminists are wont to make. For example, I’m not a feminist but I believe that women should earn equal pay for equal work; or I’m not a feminist but I’m delighted that first-rate women basketball players are finally getting some recognition in the WNBA. If we see the identification “feminist” as implicitly committing one to both a normative stance about how things should be and an interpretation of current conditions, it is easy to imagine someone being in the position of wanting to cancel his or her endorsement of either the normative or the descriptive claim. So, e.g., one might be willing to acknowledge that there are cases where women have been disadvantaged without wanting to buy any broad moral theory that takes a stance on such things (especially where it is unclear what that broad theory is). Or one might be willing to acknowledge in a very general way that equality for women is a good thing, without being committed to interpreting particular everyday situations as unjust (especially if is unclear how far these interpretations would have to extend). Feminists, however, at least according to popular discourse, are ready to both adopt a broad account of what justice for women would require and interpret everyday situations as unjust by the standards of that account. Those who explicitly cancel their commitment to feminism may then be happy to endorse some part of the view but are unwilling to endorse what they find to be a problematic package.

As mentioned above, there is considerable debate within feminism concerning the normative question: what would count as (full) justice for women? What is the nature of the wrong that feminism seeks to address? For example, is the wrong that women have been deprived equal rights? Is it that women have been denied equal respect for their differences? Is it that women’s experiences have been ignored and devalued? Is it all of the above and more? What framework should we employ to identify and address the issues? (see, e.g., Jaggar 1983; Young 1985; Tuana & Tong 1995). Feminist philosophers in particular have asked: Do the standard philosophical accounts of justice and morality provide us adequate resources to theorize male domination, or do we need distinctively feminist accounts? (e.g., Okin 1979; Hoagland 1989; Okin 1989; Ruddick 1989; Benhabib 1992; Hampton 1993; Held 1993; Tong 1993; Baier 1994; Moody-Adams 1997; M. Walker 1998; Kittay 1999; Robinson 1999; Young 2011; O’Connor 2008).

Note, however, that by phrasing the task as one of identifying the wrongs women suffer (and have suffered), there is an implicit suggestion that women as a group can be usefully compared against men as a group with respect to their standing or position in society; and this seems to suggest that women as a group are treated in the same way, or that they all suffer the same injustices, and men as a group all reap the same advantages. But of course this is not the case, or at least not straightforwardly so. As bell hooks so vividly pointed out, in 1963 when Betty Friedan urged women to reconsider the role of housewife and demanded greater opportunities for women to enter the workforce (Friedan 1963), Friedan was not speaking for working class women or most women of color (hooks 1984: 1–4). Neither was she speaking for lesbians. Women as a group experience many different forms of injustice, and the sexism they encounter interacts in complex ways with other systems of oppression. In contemporary terms, this is known as the problem of intersectionality (Crenshaw 1991, Botts 2017). This critique has led some theorists to resist the label “feminism” and to adopt a different name for their view. Earlier, during the 1860s–80s, the term “womanism” had sometimes been used for such intellectual and political commitments; in 1990, Alice Walker proposed that “womanism” provides a contemporary alternative to “feminism” that better addresses the needs of Black women and women of color more generally. But given more recent work on trans issues such a gender-specific term would today raise many more problems than it would solve.

To consider some of the different strategies for responding to the phenomenon of intersectionality, let’s return to the schematic claims that women are oppressed and this oppression is wrong or unjust. Very broadly, then, one might characterize the goal of feminism to be ending the oppression of women. But if we also acknowledge that women are oppressed not just by sexism, but in many ways, e.g., by classism, homophobia, racism, ageism, ableism, etc., then it might seem that the goal of feminism is to end all oppression that affects women. And some feminists have adopted this interpretation (e.g., Ware 1970, quoted in Crow 2000: 1).

Note, however, that not all agree with such an expansive definition of feminism. One might agree that feminists ought to work to end all forms of oppression—oppression is unjust and feminists, like everyone else, have a moral obligation to fight injustice—without maintaining that it is the mission of feminism to end all oppression. One might even believe that in order to accomplish feminism’s goals it is necessary to combat racism and economic exploitation, but also think that there is a narrower set of specifically feminist objectives. In other words, opposing oppression in its many forms may be instrumental to, even a necessary means to, feminism, but not intrinsic to it. For example, bell hooks argues:

Feminism, as liberation struggle, must exist apart from and as a part of the larger struggle to eradicate domination in all its forms. We must understand that patriarchal domination shares an ideological foundation with racism and other forms of group oppression, and that there is no hope that it can be eradicated while these systems remain intact. This knowledge should consistently inform the direction of feminist theory and practice. (hooks 1989: 22)

On hooks’ account, the defining characteristic that distinguishes feminism from other liberation struggles is its concern with sexism:

Unlike many feminist comrades, I believe women and men must share a common understanding—a basic knowledge of what feminism is—if it is ever to be a powerful mass-based political movement. In Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center , I suggest that defining feminism broadly as “a movement to end sexism and sexist oppression” would enable us to have a common political goal…Sharing a common goal does not imply that women and men will not have radically divergent perspectives on how that goal might be reached. (hooks 1989: 23)

hooks’ approach depends on the claim that sexism is a particular form of oppression that can be distinguished from other forms, e.g., racism and homophobia, even though it is currently (and virtually always) interlocked with other forms of oppression. Feminism’s objective is to end sexism, though because of its relation to other forms of oppression, this will require efforts to end other forms of oppression as well. For example, feminists who themselves remain racists will not be able to fully appreciate the broad impact of sexism on the lives of women of color—nor the interconnections between racism and sexism. Furthermore because sexist institutions are also, e.g., racist, classist, and homophobic, dismantling sexist institutions will require that we dismantle the other forms of domination intertwined with them (Heldke & O’Connor 2004). Following hooks’ lead, we might characterize feminism schematically (allowing the schema to be filled in differently by different accounts) as the view that women are subject to sexist oppression and that this is wrong. This move shifts the burden of our inquiry from a characterization of what feminism is to a characterization of what sexism, or sexist oppression, is.

As mentioned above, there are a variety of interpretations—feminist and otherwise—of what exactly oppression consists in, but the leading idea is that oppression consists in “an enclosing structure of forces and barriers which tends to the immobilization and reduction of a group or category of people” (Frye 1983: 10–11). Not just any “enclosing structure” is oppressive, however, for plausibly any process of socialization will create a structure that both limits and enables all individuals who live within it. In the case of oppression, however, the “enclosing structures” in question are part of a broader system that asymmetrically and unjustly disadvantages one group and benefits another. So, for example, although sexism restricts the opportunities available to—and so unquestionably harms—both men and women (and considering some pairwise comparisons may even have a greater negative impact on a man than a woman), overall, women as a group unjustly suffer the greater harm. It is a crucial feature of contemporary accounts, however, that one cannot assume that members of the privileged group have intentionally designed or maintained the system for their benefit. The oppressive structure may be the result of an historical process whose originators are long gone, or it may be the unintended result of complex cooperative strategies gone wrong.

Leaving aside (at least for the moment) further details in the account of oppression, the question remains: What makes a particular form of oppression sexist? If we just say that a form of oppression counts as sexist oppression if it harms women, or even primarily harms women, this is not enough to distinguish it from other forms of oppression. Virtually all forms of oppression harm women, and arguably some besides sexism harm women primarily (though not exclusively), e.g., body size oppression, age oppression. Besides, as we’ve noted before, sexism is not only harmful to women, but is harmful to all of us.

What makes a particular form of oppression sexist seems to be not just that it harms women, but that someone is subject to this form of oppression specifically because she is (or at least appears to be) a woman. Racial oppression harms women, but racial oppression (by itself) doesn’t harm them because they are women, it harms them because they are (or appear to be) members of a particular race. The suggestion that sexist oppression consists in oppression to which one is subject by virtue of being or appearing to be a woman provides us at least the beginnings of an analytical tool for distinguishing subordinating structures that happen to affect some or even all women from those that are more specifically sexist (Haslanger 2004). But problems and unclarities remain.

First, we need to explicate further what it means to be oppressed “because you are a woman”. For example, is the idea that there is a particular form of oppression that is specific to women? Is to be oppressed “as a woman” to be oppressed in a particular way? Or can we be pluralists about what sexist oppression consists in without fragmenting the notion beyond usefulness?

Two strategies for explicating sexist oppression have proven to be problematic. The first is to maintain that there is a form of oppression common to all women. For example, one might interpret Catharine MacKinnon’s work as claiming that to be oppressed as a woman is to be viewed and treated as sexually subordinate, where this claim is grounded in the (alleged) universal fact of the eroticization of male dominance and female submission (MacKinnon 1987, 1989). Although MacKinnon allows that sexual subordination can happen in a myriad of ways, her account is monistic in its attempt to unite the different forms of sexist oppression around a single core account that makes sexual objectification the focus. Although MacKinnon’s work provides a powerful resource for analyzing women’s subordination, many have argued that it is too narrow, e.g., in some contexts (especially in developing countries) sexist oppression seems to concern more the local division of labor and economic exploitation. Although certainly sexual subordination is a factor in sexist oppression, it requires us to fabricate implausible explanations of social life to suppose that all divisions of labor that exploit women (as women) stem from the “eroticization of dominance and submission”. Moreover, it isn’t obvious that in order to make sense of sexist oppression we need to seek a single form of oppression common to all women.

A second problematic strategy has been to consider as paradigms those who are oppressed only as women, with the thought that complex cases bringing in additional forms of oppression will obscure what is distinctive of sexist oppression. This strategy would have us focus in the United States on white, wealthy, young, beautiful, able-bodied, heterosexual women to determine what oppression, if any, they suffer, with the hope of finding sexism in its “purest” form, unmixed with racism or homophobia, etc. (see Spelman 1988: 52–54). This approach is not only flawed in its exclusion of all but the most elite women in its paradigm, but it assumes that privilege in other areas does not affect the phenomenon under consideration. As Elizabeth Spelman makes the point:

…no woman is subject to any form of oppression simply because she is a woman; which forms of oppression she is subject to depend on what “kind” of woman she is. In a world in which a woman might be subject to racism, classism, homophobia, anti-Semitism, if she is not so subject it is because of her race, class, religion, sexual orientation. So it can never be the case that the treatment of a woman has only to do with her gender and nothing to do with her class or race. (Spelman 1988: 52–3)

Other accounts of oppression are designed to allow that oppression takes many forms, and refuse to identify one form as more basic or fundamental than the rest. For example, Iris Young describes five “faces” of oppression: exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism, and systematic violence (Young 1980 [1990a: ch. 2]). Plausibly others should be added to the list. Sexist or racist oppression, for example, will manifest itself in different ways in different contexts, e.g., in some contexts through systematic violence, in other contexts through economic exploitation. Acknowledging this does not go quite far enough, however, for monistic theorists such as MacKinnon could grant this much. Pluralist accounts of sexist oppression must also allow that there isn’t an over-arching explanation of sexist oppression that applies to all its forms: in some cases it may be that women’s oppression as women is due to the eroticization of male dominance, but in other cases it may be better explained by women’s reproductive value in establishing kinship structures (Rubin 1975), or by the shifting demands of globalization within an ethnically stratified workplace. In other words, pluralists resist the temptation to “grand social theory”, “overarching metanarratives”, “monocausal explanations”, to allow that the explanation of sexism in a particular historical context will rely on economic, political, legal, and cultural factors that are specific to that context which would prevent the account from being generalized to all instances of sexism (Fraser & Nicholson 1990). It is still compatible with pluralist methods to seek out patterns in women’s social positions and structural explanations within and across social contexts, but in doing so we must be highly sensitive to historical and cultural variation.

However, if we pursue a pluralist strategy in understanding sexist oppression, what unifies all the instances as instances of sexism? After all, we cannot assume that the oppression in question takes the same form in different contexts, and we cannot assume that there is an underlying explanation of the different ways it manifests itself. So can we even speak of there being a unified set of cases—something we can call “sexist oppression”—at all?

Some feminists would urge us to recognize that there isn’t a systematic way to unify the different instances of sexism, and correspondingly, there is no systematic unity in what counts as feminism: instead we should see the basis for feminist unity in coalition building (Reagon 1983). Different groups work to combat different forms of oppression; some groups take oppression against women (as women) as a primary concern. If there is a basis for cooperation between some subset of these groups in a given context, then finding that basis is an accomplishment, but should not be taken for granted.

An alternative, however, would be to grant that in practice unity among feminists cannot be taken for granted, but to begin with a theoretical common ground among feminist views that does not assume that sexism appears in the same form or for the same reasons in all contexts. We saw above that one promising strategy for distinguishing sexism from racism, classism, and other forms of injustice is to focus on the idea that if an individual is suffering sexist oppression, then an important part of the explanation why she is subject to the injustice is that she is or appears to be a woman. This includes cases in which women as a group are explicitly targeted by a policy or a practice, but also includes cases where the policy or practice affects women due to a history of sexism, even if they are not explicitly targeted. For example, in a scenario in which women are children’s primary caregivers and cannot travel for work as easily as men, then employment practices that reward those who can travel can be deemed sexist because the differential is due to sexist practices. The commonality among the cases is to be found in the role of gender in the explanation of the injustice rather than the specific form the injustice takes. Building on this we could unify a broad range of feminist views by seeing them as committed to the (very abstract) claims that:

• (Descriptive claim) Women, and those who appear to be women, are subjected to wrongs and/or injustice at least in part because they are or appear to be women.
• (Normative claim) The wrongs/injustices in question in (i) ought not to occur and should be stopped when and where they do.

We have so far been using the term “oppression” loosely to cover whatever form of wrong or injustice is at issue. Continuing with this intentional openness in the exact nature of the wrong, the question still remains what it means to say that women are subjected to injustice because they are women. To address this question, it may help to consider a familiar ambiguity in the notion “because”: are we concerned here with causal explanations or justifications? On one hand, the claim that someone is oppressed because she is a woman suggests that the best (causal) explanation of the subordination in question will make reference to her sex: e.g., Paula is subject to sexist oppression on the job because the best explanation of why she makes $10.00 less an hour for doing comparable work as Paul makes reference to her sex (possibly coupled with her race or other social classifications). On the other hand, the claim that someone is oppressed because she is a woman suggests that the rationale or basis for the oppressive structures requires that one be sensitive to someone’s sex in determining how they should be viewed and treated, i.e., that the justification for someone’s being subject to the structures in question depends on a representation of them as sexed male or female. For example, Paula is subject to sexist oppression on the job because the pay scale for her job classification is justified within a framework that distinguishes and devalues women’s work compared with men’s.

Note, however, that in both sorts of cases the fact that one is or appears to be a woman need not be the only factor relevant in explaining the injustice. It might be, for example, that one stands out in a group because of one’s race, or one’s class, or one’s sexuality, and because one stands out one becomes a target for injustice. But if the injustice takes a form that, e.g., is regarded as especially apt for a woman, then the injustice should be understood intersectionally, i.e., as a response to an intersectional category. For example, the practice of raping Bosnian women was an intersectional injustice: it targeted them both because they were Bosnian and because they were women.

Of course, these two understandings of being oppressed because you are a woman are not incompatible; in fact they typically support one another. Because human actions are often best explained by the framework employed for justifying them, one’s sex may play a large role in determining how one is treated because the background understandings for what’s appropriate treatment draw invidious distinctions between the sexes. In other words, the causal mechanism for sexism often passes through problematic representations of women and gender roles.

In each of the cases of being oppressed as a woman mentioned above, Paula suffers injustice, but a crucial factor in explaining the injustice is that Paula is a member of a particular group, viz., women. This, we think, is crucial in understanding why sexism (and racism, and other -isms) are most often understood as kinds of oppression. Oppression is injustice that, first and foremost, concerns groups; individuals are oppressed just in case they are subjected to injustice because of their group membership. On this view, to claim that women as women suffer injustice is to claim that women are oppressed.

Where does this leave us? “Feminism” is an umbrella term for a range of views about injustices against women. There are disagreements among feminists about the nature of justice in general and the nature of sexism, in particular, the specific kinds of injustice or wrong women suffer; and the group who should be the primary focus of feminist efforts. Nonetheless, feminists are committed to bringing about social change to end injustice against women, in particular, injustice against women as women.

Feminism brings many things to philosophy including not only a variety of particular moral and political claims, but ways of asking and answering questions, constructive and critical dialogue with mainstream philosophical views and methods, and new topics of inquiry. Feminist philosophers work within all the major traditions of philosophical scholarship including analytic philosophy, American pragmatist philosophy, and Continental philosophy. Entries in this Encyclopedia appearing under the heading “feminism, approaches” discuss the impact of these traditions on feminist scholarship and examine the possibility and desirability of work that makes links between two traditions. Feminist contributions to and interventions in mainstream philosophical debates are covered in entries in this encyclopedia under “feminism, interventions”. Entries covered under the rubric “feminism, topics” concern philosophical issues that arise as feminists articulate accounts of sexism, critique sexist social and cultural practices, and develop alternative visions of a just world. In short, they are philosophical topics that arise within feminism.

Approaches to feminist philosophy are almost as varied as approaches to philosophy itself, reflecting a variety of beliefs about what kinds of philosophy are both fruitful and meaningful. To spell out such differences, this section of the SEP provides overviews of the following dominant (at least in more developed societies) approaches to feminist philosophy. The following are links to essays in this section:

• Analytic Feminism
• Continental Feminism
• Pragmatist Feminism
• Intersections Between Pragmatist and Continental Feminism
• Intersections Between Analytic and Continental Feminism
• Psychoanalytic Feminism

All these approaches share a set of feminist commitments and an overarching criticism of institutions, presuppositions, and practices that have historically favored men over women. They also share a general critique of claims to universality and objectivity that ignore male-dominated theories’ own particularity and specificity. Feminist philosophies of most any philosophical orientation will be much more perspectival, historical, contextual, and focused on lived experience than their non-feminist counterparts. Unlike mainstream philosophers who can seriously consider the philosophical conundrums of brains in a vat, feminist philosophers always start by seeing people as embodied. Feminists have also argued for the reconfiguration of accepted structures and problematics of philosophy. For example, feminists have not only rejected the privileging of epistemological concerns over moral and political concerns common to much of philosophy, they have argued that these two areas of concern are inextricably intertwined. Part 2 of the entry on analytic feminism lays out other areas of commonality across these various approaches. For one, feminist philosophers generally agree that philosophy is a powerful tool for understanding

ourselves and our relations to each other, to our communities, and to the state; to appreciate the extent to which we are counted as knowers and moral agents; [and] to uncover the assumptions and methods of various bodies of knowledge.

For another, feminist philosophers all generally are keenly attuned to male biases at work in the history of philosophy, such as those regarding “the nature of woman” and supposed value neutrality, which on inspection is hardly neutral at all. Claims to universality, feminist philosophers have found, are usually made from a very specific and particular point of view, contrary to their manifest claims. Another orientation that feminist philosophers generally share is a commitment to normativity and social change; they are never content to analyze things just as they are but are instead looking for ways to overcome sexist practices and institutions.

Such questioning of the problematic of mainstream approaches to philosophy has often led to feminists using methods and approaches from more than one philosophical tradition. As Ann Garry notes in part three of the entry on Analytic Feminism (2017), it is not uncommon to find analytic feminists drawing on non-analytic figures such as Beauvoir, Foucault, or Butler; and because of their motivation to communicate with other feminists, they are more motivated than other philosophers “to search for methodological cross-fertilization”.

Even with their common and overlapping orientations, the differences between the various philosophical approaches to feminism are significant, especially in terms of styles of writing, influences, and overall expectations about what philosophy can and should achieve. Analytic feminist philosophy tends to value analysis and argumentation, Continental feminist theory values interpretation and deconstruction, and pragmatist feminism values lived experience and exploration. Coming out of a post-Hegelian tradition, both Continental and pragmatist philosophers usually suspect that “truth”, whatever that is, emerges and develops historically. They tend to share with Nietzsche the view that truth claims often mask power plays. Yet where Continental and pragmatist are generally wary about notions of truth, analytic feminists tend to argue that the way to

counter sexism and androcentrism is through forming a clear conception of and pursuing truth, logical consistency, objectivity, rationality, justice, and the good. (Cudd 1996: 20).

These differences and intersections play out in the ways that various feminists engage topics of common concern. One key area of intersection noted by Georgia Warnke is the appropriation of psychoanalytic theory, with Anglo-American feminists generally adopting object-relations theories and Continental feminists drawing more on Lacan and contemporary French psychoanalytic theory, though this is already beginning to change (entry on intersections between analytic and continental feminism ). The importance of psychoanalytic approaches is also underscored in Shannon Sullivan’s essay Intersections Between Pragmatist and Continental Feminism . Given the importance of psychoanalytic feminism for all three traditions, a separate essay on this approach to feminist theory is included in this section.

No topic is more central to feminist philosophy than sex and gender, but even here many variations on the theme flourish. Where analytic feminism, with its critique of essentialism, holds the sex/gender distinction practically as an article of faith (see the entry on feminist perspectives on sex and gender and Chanter 2009), Continental feminists tend to suspect either (1) that even the supposedly purely biological category of sex is itself socially constituted (Butler 1990 and 1993 or (2) that sexual difference itself needs to be valued and theorized (see especially Cixous 1976 and Irigaray 1974.

Despite the variety of different approaches, styles, societies, and orientations, feminist philosophers’ commonalities are greater than their differences. Many will borrow freely from each other and find that other orientations contribute to their own work. Even the differences over sex and gender add to a larger conversation about the impact of culture and society on bodies, experience, and pathways for change.

Philosophers who are feminists have, in their work in traditional fields of study, begun to change those very fields. The Encyclopedia includes a range of entries on how feminist philosophies have intervened in conventional areas of philosophical research, areas in which philosophers often tend to argue that they are operating from a neutral, universal point of view (notable exceptions are pragmatism, poststructuralism, and some phenomenology). Historically, philosophy has claimed that the norm is universal and the feminine is abnormal, that universality is not gendered, but that all things feminine are not universal. Not surprisingly, feminists have pointed out how in fact these supposed neutral enterprises are in fact quite gendered, namely, male gendered. For example, feminists working on environmental philosophy have uncovered how practices disproportionately affect women, children, and people of color. Liberal feminism has shown how supposed universal truths of liberalism are in fact quite biased and particular. Feminist epistemologists have called out “epistemologies of ignorance” that traffic in not knowing. Across the board, in fact, feminist philosophers are uncovering male biases and also pointing to the value of particularity, in general rejecting universality as a norm or goal.

Entries under the heading of feminist interventions include the following:

• feminist aesthetics
• feminist bioethics
• feminist environmental philosophy
• feminist epistemology and philosophy of science
• feminist ethics
• feminist history of philosophy
• liberal feminism
• feminist metaphysics
• feminist moral psychology
• feminist philosophy of biology
• feminist philosophy of language
• feminist philosophy of law
• feminist philosophy of religion
• feminist political philosophy
• feminist social epistemology

Feminist critical attention to philosophical practices has revealed the inadequacy of dominant philosophical tropes. For example, feminists working from the perspective of women’s lives have been influential in bringing philosophical attention to the phenomenon of care and care-giving (Ruddick 1989; Held 1995, 2007; Hamington 2006), dependency (Kittay 1999), disability (Wilkerson 2002; Carlson 2009) women’s labor (Waring 1999; Delphy 1984; Harley 2007), and scientific bias and objectivity (Longino 1990), and have revealed weaknesses in existing ethical, political, and epistemological theories. More generally, feminists have called for inquiry into what are typically considered “private” practices and personal concerns, such as the family, sexuality, and the body, in order to balance what has seemed to be a masculine pre-occupation with “public” and impersonal matters. Philosophy presupposes interpretive tools for understanding our everyday lives; feminist work in articulating additional dimensions of experience and aspects of our practices is invaluable in demonstrating the bias in existing tools, and in the search for better ones.

Feminist explanations of sexism and accounts of sexist practices also raise issues that are within the domain of traditional philosophical inquiry. For example, in thinking about care, feminists have asked questions about the nature of the self; in thinking about gender, feminists have asked what the relationship is between the natural and the social; in thinking about sexism in science, feminists have asked what should count as knowledge. In some such cases mainstream philosophical accounts provide useful tools; in other cases, alternative proposals have seemed more promising.

In the sub-entries included under “feminism (topics)” in the Table of Contents to this Encyclopedia , authors survey some of the recent feminist work on a topic, highlighting the issues that are of particular relevance to philosophy. These entries are:

• feminist perspectives on autonomy
• feminist perspectives on class and work
• feminist perspectives on disability
• feminist perspectives on globalization
• feminist perspectives on objectification
• feminist perspectives on power
• feminist perspectives on rape
• feminist perspectives on reproduction and the family
• feminist perspectives on science
• feminist perspectives on sex and gender
• feminist perspectives on sex markets
• feminist perspectives on the body
• feminist perspectives on the self
• feminist perspectives on trans issues

See also the entries in the Related Entries section below.

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• Pateman, Carole, 1988, The Sexual Contract , Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
• Postl, Gertrude, 2017, “Language, Writing, and Gender Differences”, in Garry et al. 2017: 293–302.
• Reagon, Bernice Johnson, 1983, “Coalition Politics: Turning the Century”, in Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology , Barbara Smith (ed.), New York: Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press, 356–368.
• Robinson, Fiona, 1999, Globalizing Care: Ethics, Feminist Theory, and International Affairs , Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Rowe, C., 2012, Plato, Republic , translated, with an introduction and notes, New York: Penguin Books.
• Rubin, Gayle, 1975, “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the ’Political Economy’ of Sex”, in Towards an Anthropology of Women , Rayna Rapp Reiter (ed.), New York: Monthly Review Press, 157–210.
• Ruddick, Sara, 1989, Maternal Thinking: Towards a Politics of Peace , Boston: Beacon Press.
• Salamon, Gayle, 2010, Assuming a Body: Transgender and Rhetorics of Mutuality , New York: Columbia University Press.
• Scheman, Naomi, 1993, Engenderings: Constructions of Knowledge, Authority, and Privilege , New York: Routledge.
• Schneir, Miriam, 1972, Feminism: The Essential Historical Writings , New York: Vintage Books.
• ––– (ed.), 1994, Feminism in Our Time: The Essential Writings, World War II to the Present , New York: Vintage Books.
• Schott, Robin May, 2003, Discovering Feminist Philosophy , Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Schwartzman, Lisa H., 2006, Challenging Liberalism: Feminism as Political Critique , University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.
• Scott, Joan W., 1988, “Deconstructing Equality-Versus-Difference: Or the Uses of Poststructuralist Theory for Feminism”. Feminist Studies , 14(1): 33–50. doi:10.2307/3177997
• Seigfried, Charlene Haddock, 1996, Feminism and Pragmatism: Reweaving the Social Fabric , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Shrage, Laurie J., 2009, You’ve Changed: Sex Reassignment and Personal Identity , New York: Oxford University Press.
• Silvers, Anita, David Wasserman, Mary Mahowald, 1999, Disability, Difference, Discrimination: Perspectives on Justice in Bioethics and Public Policy , Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Simpson, J. A. and E. S. C. Weiner (ed.), 1989, Oxford English Dictionary , second edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press. OED Online. Oxford University Press. “feminism, n1” (1851).
• Snitow, Ann, 1990, “A Gender Diary”, in Conflicts in Feminism , M. Hirsch and E. Fox Keller (eds), New York: Routledge, 9–43.
• Spelman, Elizabeth, 1988, Inessential Woman: Problems of Exclusion in Feminist Thought , Boston: Beacon Press.
• Springer, Kimberly, 2002, “Third Wave Black Feminism?” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society , 27(4): 1060–1082. doi:10.1086/339636
• Stone, Alison, 2005, Luce Irigaray and the Philosophy of Sexual Difference , New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511617287
• Sullivan, Shannon, 2006, Revealing Whiteness: The Unconscious Habits of Racial Privilege , Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
• Superson, Anita M., 2009, The Moral Skeptic , New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195376623.001.0001
• Tanner, Leslie B. 1970 Voices from Women’s Liberation , New York: New American Library (A Mentor Book).
• Taylor, Vesta and Leila J. Rupp, 1996, “Lesbian Existence and the Women’s Movement: Researching the ‘Lavender Herring’”, in Feminism and Social Change , Heidi Gottfried (ed.), Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.
• Tessman, Lisa, 2005, Burdened Virtues: Virtue Ethics for Liberatory Struggles , New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0195179145.001.0001
• Tong, Rosemarie, 1993, Feminine and Feminist Ethics , Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
• Tougas, Cecile T., and Sara Ebenrick (eds.), 2000, Presenting Women Philosophers , Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
• Tuana, Nancy (ed.), 1992, Woman and the History of Philosophy , New York: Paragon Press.
• Tuana, Nancy (ed.), 1994, Feminist Interpretations of Plato, University Park: Penn State Press.
• Tuana, Nancy and Rosemarie Tong (eds), 1995, Feminism and Philosophy , Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• 1987, Ancient Women Philosophers, 600 B.C.–500 A.D. , volume 1. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-3497-9
• 1989, Medieval, Renaissance, and Enlightenment Women Philosophers, 500–1600 , volume 2. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2551-9
• 1990, Modern Women Philosophers, 1600–1900 , volume 3. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-3790-4
• 1994, Contemporary Women Philosophers, 1900–Today , volume 4. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-1114-0
• Walker, Alice, 1990, “Definition of Womanist”, in Making Face, Making Soul: Haciendo Caras , Gloria Anzaldúa (ed.), San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books, 370.
• Walker, Margaret Urban, 1998, Moral Understandings: A Feminist Study in Ethics , New York: Routledge.
• ––– (ed), 1999, Mother Time: Women, Aging, and Ethics , Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
• Walker, Rebecca (ed.), 1995, To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism , New York: Random House (Anchor Books).
• Ward, Julia, 1996, Feminism and Ancient Philosophy , New York: Routledge.
• Ware, Cellestine, 1970, Woman Power: The Movement for Women’s Liberation , New York: Tower Publications.
• Waring, Marilyn, 1999, Counting for Nothing: What Men Value and What Women Are Worth , second edition, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
• Weisberg, D. Kelly (ed.) 1993. Feminist Legal Theory: Foundations , Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
• Wendell, Susan, 1996, The Rejected Body: Feminist Philosophical Reflections on Disability , New York and London: Routledge.
• Wilkerson, Abby L., 2002, “Disability, Sex Radicalism, and the Problem of Political Agency”. NWSA Journal , 14(3): 33–57. doi:10.1353/nwsa.2003.0018
• Whisnant, Rebecca, 2010, Global Feminist Ethics , Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Winnubst, Shannon, 2006, Queering Freedom , Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
• –––, 1985 [1990], “Humanism, Gynocentrism and Feminist Politics”, Women’s Studies International Forum , 8(3): 173–183. Reprinted in Young 1990a: 73–91. doi:10.1016/0277-5395(85)90040-8
• –––, 1990a, Throwing Like a Girl and Other Essays in Feminist Philosophy and Social Theory , Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
• –––, 1990b, Justice and the Politics of Difference , Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• –––, 2011, Responsibility for Justice , Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195392388.001.0001
• Zophy, Angela Howard, 1990, “Feminism”, in The Handbook of American Women’s History , Angela Howard Zophy and Frances M. Kavenik (eds), New York: Routledge (Garland Reference Library of the Humanities).

How to cite this entry . Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society . Look up this entry topic at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers , with links to its database.

Resources listed below have been chosen to provide only a springboard into the huge amount of feminist material available on the web. The emphasis here is on general resources useful for doing research in feminist philosophy or interdisciplinary feminist theory, e.g., the links connect to bibliographies and meta-sites, and resources concerning inclusion, exclusion, and feminist diversity. The list is incomplete and will be regularly revised and expanded. Further resources on topics in feminism such as popular culture, reproductive rights, sex work, are available within each sub-entry on that topic.

• Feminist Theory Website
• Women and Social Movements in the US: 1600–2000
• The Path of the Women’s Rights Movement: Detailed Timeline 1848–1997
• Documents from the Women’s Liberation Movement (Duke Univ. Archives)
• Documenting Difference: An Illustrated & Annotated Anthology of Documents on Race, Class, Gender & Ethnicity in the United States
• Race, Gender, and Affirmative Action Resource Page

Associations

• The Society for Women in Philosophy (SWIP)
• Association for Feminist Ethics and Social Theory (FEAST)
• Association for Feminist Epistemologies, Methodologies, Metaphysics, and Science Studies (FEMMSS)
• Feminist Theory Website (Introduction)
• philoSOPHIA: A Feminist Society
• Society for Analytical Feminism
• The Society for the Study of Women Philosophers

“Waves” of Feminism

• “Waves of Feminism” by Jo Freeman (1996).
• Winning the Vote (Western NY Suffragists).
• Amendments to the US Constitution: 13th, 14th, 15th, 18th, 19th, 21st
• NOW’s 1966 Statement of Purpose
• “The Women’s Liberation Movement: Its Origins, Structures, and Ideals” by Jo Freeman (1971).

Feminism and Class

Marxist, socialist, and materialist feminisms.

• WMST-L discussion of how to define “Marxist feminism” Aug 1994)
• Marxist/Materialist Feminism (Feminist Theory Website)
• A Marxist Feminist Critique
• Marxist Feminism

Feminist Economics

• Feminist Economics (Feminist Theory Website)
• International Association for Feminist Economics
• International Center for Research on Women

Women and Labor

• Rights for Working Women
• United States Department of Labor
• United States Department of Labor: Audience – Women , a shortcut to information and services the Department of Labor (DOL) offers for women.

Feminism and Disability

• Center for Research on Women with Disabilities (CROWD)

Feminism, Human Rights, Global Feminism, and Human Trafficking

• Global Feminism (Feminist Majority Foundation)
• NOW and Global Feminism
• Sisterhood is Global Institute (SIGI)
• Polaris Project
• Not For Sale Campaign
• Human Trafficking Search Website

Feminism and Race/Ethnicity

General resources.

• Office of the Gender and Women’s Studies Librarian (U. Wisconsin)
• Women of Color Web Sites (WMST-L)

African-American/Black Feminisms and Womanism

• Feminism and Black Womanist Identity Bibliography (Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library)
• Black Feminist/Womanist Works: A Beginning List (WMST-L)

Asian-American and Asian Feminisms

• American Women’s History: A Research Guide (Asian-American Women)
• South Asian Women’s Studies Bibliography (UC Berkeley)
• Journal of South Asia Women’s Studies

Chicana/Latina Feminisms

• Chicano/a Latino/a Movimientos

American Indian, Native, Indigenous Feminisms

• Native American Studies Program (Dartmouth College)

Feminism, Sex, Sexuality, Transgender, and Intersex

• Sallie Bingham Center for Women’s History and Culture (Duke Special Collections)

affirmative action | communitarianism | contractarianism | discrimination | egalitarianism | equality | equality: of opportunity | exploitation | feminist philosophy, interventions: epistemology and philosophy of science | feminist philosophy, interventions: ethics | feminist philosophy, interventions: history of philosophy | globalization | homosexuality | identity politics | justice: as a virtue | justice: distributive | legal rights | liberalism | Mill, Harriet Taylor | Mill, John Stuart | multiculturalism | parenthood and procreation | race

Acknowledgments

Over many revisions, thanks go to Elizabeth Harman, Elizabeth Hackett, Ishani Maitra, Ásta Sveinsdóttir, Leslee Mahoney, and Ann Garry.

Copyright © 2018 by Noëlle McAfee < noelle . c . mcafee @ emory . edu >

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Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Introduction to feminism, topics: what is feminism.

• Introduction
• What is Feminism?  
• Historical Context
• Normative and Descriptive Components
• Feminism and the Diversity of Women
• Feminism as Anti-Sexism
• Topics in Feminism: Overview of the Sub-Entries

Bibliography

Works cited.

• General Bibliography [under construction]
• Topical Bibliographies [under construction]

Other Internet Resources

Related entries, i.  introduction, ii.  what is feminism, a.  historical context, b.  normative and descriptive components.

i) (Normative) Men and women are entitled to equal rights and respect. ii) (Descriptive) Women are currently disadvantaged with respect to rights and respect, compared with men.

Feminism is grounded on the belief that women are oppressed or disadvantaged by comparison with men, and that their oppression is in some way illegitimate or unjustified. Under the umbrella of this general characterization there are, however, many interpretations of women and their oppression, so that it is a mistake to think of feminism as a single philosophical doctrine, or as implying an agreed political program. (James 2000, 576)

C.  Feminism and the Diversity of Women

Feminism, as liberation struggle, must exist apart from and as a part of the larger struggle to eradicate domination in all its forms. We must understand that patriarchal domination shares an ideological foundation with racism and other forms of group oppression, and that there is no hope that it can be eradicated while these systems remain intact. This knowledge should consistently inform the direction of feminist theory and practice. (hooks 1989, 22)

Unlike many feminist comrades, I believe women and men must share a common understanding--a basic knowledge of what feminism is--if it is ever to be a powerful mass-based political movement. In Feminist Theory: from margin to center, I suggest that defining feminism broadly as "a movement to end sexism and sexist oppression" would enable us to have a common political goal…Sharing a common goal does not imply that women and men will not have radically divergent perspectives on how that goal might be reached. (hooks 1989, 23)

…no woman is subject to any form of oppression simply because she is a woman; which forms of oppression she is subject to depend on what "kind" of woman she is. In a world in which a woman might be subject to racism, classism, homophobia, anti-Semitism, if she is not so subject it is because of her race, class, religion, sexual orientation. So it can never be the case that the treatment of a woman has only to do with her gender and nothing to do with her class or race. (Spelman 1988, 52-3)

D.  Feminism as Anti-Sexism

 i) (Descriptive claim) Women, and those who appear to be women, are subjected to wrongs and/or injustice at least in part because they are or appear to be women. ii) (Normative claim) The wrongs/injustices in question in (i) ought not to occur and should be stopped when and where they do.

III.  Topics in Feminism: Overview of the Sub-Entries

• Alexander, M. Jacqui and Lisa Albrecht, eds.  1998. The Third Wave: Feminist Perspectives on Racism.  New York: Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press.
• Anderson, Elizabeth.  1999a.  “What is the Point of Equality?”  Ethics 109(2): 287-337.
• ______.  1999b.  "Reply” Brown Electronic Article Review Service, Jamie Dreier and David Estlund, editors, World Wide Web, (http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Philosophy/bears/homepage.html), Posted 12/22/99.
• Anzaldúa, Gloria, ed. 1990. Making Face, Making Soul: Haciendo Caras.  San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books.
• Baier, Annette C.  1994.  Moral Prejudices: Essays on Ethics.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Barrett, Michèle.  1991. The Politics of Truth: From Marx to Foucault. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
• Bartky, Sandra. 1990.  “Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power.” In her Femininity and Domination. New York: Routledge, 63-82.
• Basu, Amrita. 1995. The Challenge of Local Feminisms: Women's Movements in Global Perspective.  Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Baumgardner, Jennifer and Amy Richards. 2000.  Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
• Beauvoir, Simone de. 1974 (1952).  The Second Sex. Trans. and Ed. H. M. Parshley.  New York: Vintage Books.
• Benhabib, Seyla.  1992.  Situating the Self: Gender, Community, and Postmodernism in Contemporary Ethics.   New York: Routledge.
• Calhoun, Cheshire. 2000.  Feminism, the Family, and the Politics of the Closet: Lesbian and Gay Displacement.  Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• ______.  1989.  “Responsibility and Reproach.”  Ethics 99(2): 389-406.
• Collins, Patricia Hill.  1990.  Black Feminist Thought. Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman.
• Cott, Nancy.  1987.  The Grounding of Modern Feminism.  New Haven: Yale University Press.
• Crenshaw, Kimberlé. 1991. “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color.“ Stanford Law Review , 43(6): 1241-1299.
• Crenshaw, Kimberlé, Neil Gotanda, Gary Peller and Kendall Thomas. 1995.  “Introduction.” In Critical Race Theory, ed., Kimberle Crenshaw, et al. New York: The New Press, xiii-xxxii.Davis, Angela. 1983. Women, Race and Class.  New York: Random House.
• Crow, Barbara.  2000.  Radical Feminism: A Documentary Reader.  New York: New York University Press.
• Delmar, Rosalind.  2001. "What is Feminism?” In Theorizing Feminism, ed., Anne C. Hermann and Abigail J. Stewart.  Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 5-28.
• Duplessis, Rachel Blau, and Ann Snitow, eds. 1998. The Feminist Memoir Project: Voices from Women's Liberation.  New York: Random House (Crown Publishing).
• Dutt, M.  1998.  "Reclaiming a Human Rights Culture: Feminism of Difference and Alliance." In Talking Visions: Multicultural Feminism in a Transnational Age , ed., Ella Shohat. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 225-246.
• Echols, Alice. 1990.  Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-75.   Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
• Engels, Friedrich.  1972 (1845).  The Origin of The Family, Private Property, and the State.   New York: International Publishers.
• Findlen, Barbara. 2001. Listen Up: Voices from the Next Feminist Generation, 2nd edition.  Seattle, WA: Seal Press.
• Fine, Michelle and Adrienne Asch, eds. 1988. Women with Disabilities: Essays in Psychology, Culture, and Politics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
• Fraser, Nancy and Linda Nicholson.  1990.  "Social Criticism Without Philosophy: An Encounter Between Feminism and Postmodernism." In Feminism/Postmodernism, ed., Linda Nicholson. New York: Routledge.
• Friedan, Betty.  1963. The Feminine Mystique.   New York: Norton.
• Frye, Marilyn.  1983. The Politics of Reality.  Freedom, CA: The Crossing Press.
• Garland-Thomson, Rosemarie. 1997.  Extraordinary Bodies: Figuring Physical Disability in American Culture and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Grewal, I. 1998.  "On the New Global Feminism and the Family of Nations: Dilemmas of Transnational Feminist Practice."  In Talking Visions: Multicultural Feminism in a Transnational Age, ed., Ella Shohat.  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 501-530.
• Hampton, Jean.  1993. “Feminist Contractarianism,” in Louise M. Antony and Charlotte Witt, eds. A Mind of One’s Own: Feminist Essays on Reason and Objectivity,  Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Haslanger, Sally. Forthcoming. “Oppressions: Racial and Other.”  In Racism, Philosophy and Mind: Philosophical Explanations of Racism and Its Implications, ed., Michael Levine and Tamas Pataki.  Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
• Held, Virginia. 1993. Feminist Morality: Transforming Culture, Society, and Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Herrman, Anne C. and Abigail J. Stewart, eds. 1994.  Theorizing Feminism: Parallel Trends in the Humanities and Social Sciences.  Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Heywood, Leslie and Jennifer Drake, eds. 1997.  Third Wave Agenda: Being Feminist, Doing Feminism. 
• Hillyer, Barbara. 1993.  Feminism and Disability. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
• Hoagland, Sarah L.  1989. Lesbian Ethics: Toward New Values.   Palo Alto, CA: Institute for Lesbian Studies.
• Hooks, bell. 1989. Talking Back: Thinking Feminist, Thinking Black.  Boston: South End Press.
• ______.  1984. Feminist Theory from Margin to Center.  Boston: South End Press.
• ______. 1981.  Ain't I A Woman: Black Women and Feminism.   Boston: South End Press.
• Hurtado, Aída.  1996.  The Color of Privilege: Three Blasphemies on Race and Feminism. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
• Jagger, Alison M.  1983.  Feminist Politics and Human Nature.  Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
• James, Susan. 2000.  “Feminism in Philosophy of Mind: The Question of Personal Identity.” In The Cambridge Companion to Feminism in Philosophy, ed., Miranda Fricker and Jennifer Hornsby.  Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Kiss, Elizabeth. 1995.  "Feminism and Rights." Dissent 42(3): 342-347
• Kittay, Eva Feder.  1999.  Love’s Labor: Essays on Women, Equality and Dependency. New York: Routledge.
• Kymlicka, Will.  1989. Liberalism, Community and Culture. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Mackenzie, Catriona and Natalie Stoljar, eds.  2000.  Relational Autonomy: Feminist perspectives on Autonomy, Agency and the Social Self.  Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• MacKinnon, Catharine.  1989.  Towards a Feminist Theory of the State.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• ______.  1987. Feminism Unmodified.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Mohanty, Chandra, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres, eds.  1991.  Third  World Women and the Politics of Feminism.    Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Molyneux, Maxine and Nikki Craske, eds. 2001. Gender and the Politics of Rights and Democracy in Latin America. Basingstoke: Palgrave McMillan.
• Moody-Adams, Michele. 1997.  Fieldwork in Familiar Places: Morality, Culture and Philosophy.  Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Moraga, Cherrie.  2000. "From a Long Line of Vendidas: Chicanas and Feminism." In her Loving in the War Years, 2nd edition.  Boston: South End Press.
• Moraga, Cherrie and Gloria Anzaldúa, eds. 1981.  This Bridge Called My Back: Writings of Radical Women of Color. Watertown, MA: Persephone Press.
• Narayan, Uma.  1997.  Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and Third World Feminism.   New York: Routledge.
• Nussbaum, Martha. 1995.  "Human Capabilities, Female Human Beings." In Women, Culture and Development : A Study of Human Capabilities, ed., Martha Nussbaum and Jonathan Glover.  Oxford: Oxford University Press, 61-104.
• _______.  1999.  Sex and Social Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• O’Brien, Mary.  1979.  “Reproducing Marxist Man.”  In The Sexism of Social and Political Theory: Women and Reproduction from Plato to Nietzsche, ed., Lorenne M. G. Clark and Lynda Lange.  Toronto: Toronto University Press, 99-116.  Reprinted in (Tuana and Tong 1995: 91-103).
• Ong, Aihwa.  1988. "Colonialism and Modernity: Feminist Re-presentation of Women in Non-Western Societies.” Inscriptions 3(4): 90. Also in (Herrman and Stewart 1994).
• Okin, Susan Moller. 1989.  Justice, Gender, and the Family.  New York: Basic Books.
• ______.  1979.  Women in Western Political Thought.   Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Pateman, Carole.  1988.  The Sexual Contract.    Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
• Reagon, Bernice Johnson. 1983. "Coalition Politics: Turning the Century." In: Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology, ed. Barbara Smith. New York: Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press, 356-368.
• Robinson, Fiona.  1999.  Globalizing Care: Ethics, Feminist Theory, and International Affairs. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Rubin, Gayle.  1975.  “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the “Political Economy” of Sex.”  In Towards an Anthropology of Women , ed., Rayna Rapp Reiter.  New York: Monthly Review Press, 157-210.
• Ruddick, Sara. 1989.  Maternal Thinking: Towards a Politics of Peace.  Boston: Beacon Press.
• Schneir, Miriam, ed. 1994. Feminism in Our Time: The Essential Writings, World War II to the Present.  New York: Vintage Books.
• ______.  1972.  Feminism: The Essential Historical Writings. New York: Vintage Books.
• Scott, Joan W. 1988.  “Deconstructing Equality-Versus-Difference: or The Uses of Poststructuralist Theory for Feminism.” Feminist Studies 14 (1):  33-50.
• Silvers, Anita, David Wasserman, Mary Mahowald. 1999.   Disability, Difference, Discrimination: Perspectives on Justice in Bioethics and Public Policy . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield.
• Simpson, J. A. and E. S. C. Weiner, ed., 1989. Oxford English Dictionary.   2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OED Online. Oxford University Press.  “feminism, n1” (1851).
• Snitow, Ann.  1990.  “A Gender Diary.”  In Conflicts in Feminism, ed. M. Hirsch and E. Fox Keller.  New York: Routledge, 9-43.
• Spelman, Elizabeth.  1988. The Inessential Woman.   Boston: Beacon Press.
• Tanner, Leslie B.  1970  Voices From Women's Liberation.   New York:  New American Library (A Mentor Book).
• Taylor, Vesta and Leila J. Rupp.  1996. "Lesbian Existence and the Women's Movement: Researching the 'Lavender Herring'."  In Feminism and Social Change , ed. Heidi Gottfried.  Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.
• Tong, Rosemarie.  1993.  Feminine and Feminist Ethics.   Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
• Tuana, Nancy and Rosemarie Tong, eds. 1995.  Feminism and Philosophy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Walker, Alice. 1990. “Definition of Womanist,” In Making Face, Making Soul: Haciendo Caras , ed., Gloria Anzaldúa.  San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books, 370.
• Walker, Margaret Urban.  1998. Moral Understandings: A Feminist Study in Ethics. New York: Routledge.
• ______, ed. 1999.  Mother Time: Women, Aging, and Ethics. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
• Walker, Rebecca, ed. 1995. To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism.   New York: Random House (Anchor Books).
• Ware, Cellestine.  1970.  Woman Power: The Movement for Women’s Liberation .  New York: Tower Publications.
• Weisberg, D. Kelly, ed.  1993.  Feminist Legal Theory: Foundations.  Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
• Wendell, Susan. 1996. The Rejected Body: Feminist Philosophical Reflections on Disability. New York and London: Routledge.
• Young, Iris. 1990a. "Humanism, Gynocentrism and Feminist Politics."  In Throwing Like A Girl. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 73-91.
• Young, Iris. 1990b.  “Socialist Feminism and the Limits of Dual Systems Theory.”  In her Throwing Like a Girl and Other Essays in Feminist Philosophy and Social Theory . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
• ______.  1990c.  Justice and the Politics of Difference.   Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Zophy, Angela Howard. 1990.  "Feminism."  In The Handbook of American Women's History , ed., Angela Howard Zophy and Frances M. Kavenik.  New York: Routledge (Garland Reference Library of the Humanities).

General Bibliography

Topical bibliographies.

• Feminist Theory Website
• Race, Gender, and Affirmative Action Resource Page
• Documents from the Women's Liberation Movement (Duke Univ. Archives)
• Core Reading Lists in Women's Studies (Assn of College and Research Libraries, WS Section)
• Feminist and Women's Journals
• Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy
• Feminist Internet Search Utilities
• National Council for Research on Women (including links to centers for research on women and affiliate organizations, organized by research specialties)
• Feminism and Class
• Marxist, Socialist, and Materialist Feminisms
• M-Fem (information page, discussion group, links, etc.)
• WMST-L discussion of how to define “marxist feminism” Aug 1994)
• Marxist/Materialist Feminism (Feminist Theory Website)
• MatFem   (Information page, discussion group)
• Feminist Economics
• Feminist Economics (Feminist Theory Website)
• International Association for Feminist Economics
• Feminist Political Economy and the Law (2001 Conference Proceedings, York Univ.)
• Journal for the International Association for Feminist Economics
• Feminism and Disability
• World Wide Web Review: Women and Disabilities Websites
• Disability and Feminism Resource Page
• Center for Research on Women with Disabilities (CROWD)
• Interdisciplinary Bibliography on Disability in the Humanities (Part of the American Studies Crossroads Project)
• Feminism and Human Rights, Global Feminism
• World Wide Web Review: Websites on Women and Human Rights
• International Gender Studies Resources (U.C. Berkeley)
• Global Feminisms Research Resources (Vassar Library)
• Global Feminism (Feminist Majority Foundation)
• NOW and Global Feminism
• United Nations Development Fund for Women
• Global Issues Resources
• Sisterhood is Global Institute (SIGI)
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The oxford handbook of feminist philosophy, ásta, kim q. hall.

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1 What Is Feminist Philosophy?

Kim Q. Hall is Professor of Philosophy and a faculty member of the Gender, Women’s, and Sexuality Studies Program at Appalachian State University. She is the guest editor of New Conversations in Feminist Disability Studies, a special issue of Hypatia: Journal of Feminist Philosophy (2015); editor of Feminist Disability Studies (Indiana University Press, 2011); and coeditor of Whiteness: Feminist Philosophical Reflections (Rowman and Littlefield, 1999). Her research focuses on topics at the intersections of feminist philosophy, disability studies, and queer theory. She is currently working on a book titled Queering Philosophy.

Ásta is Professor of Philosophy at San Francisco State University. She works in feminist philosophy, metaphysics, and social philosophy and on related topics in epistemology and philosophy of language. She is the author of Categories We Live By: The Construction of Sex, Gender, Race, and Other Social Categories (Oxford University Press, 2018). Her website is astaphilosophy.com.

• Published: 12 May 2021
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What is feminist philosophy? What are some major themes? This chapter is the editors’ introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Feminist Philosophy. It offers an introduction to feminist philosophy and discusses the field’s relation to both feminism and philosophy. Readers get a glimpse of some of the history of the field of feminist philosophy and its current state. Just as feminism is not monolithic, feminist philosophy is an extraordinarily diverse field. The authors reflect on some important themes in feminist philosophy, such as inclusion, exclusion, and power and describe their vision for the volume as a whole and its salient features.

Introduction

As this volume appears in print and digital form, feminist philosophy as a recognized field in academic philosophy in the United States is nearing fifty years old. What began as a desire to find both political and intellectual community with other women in philosophy has become one of the most dynamic and vibrant areas of philosophy. Feminist philosophers have made critical interventions in, and important contributions to, areas that have been deemed canonical in the mainstream of the field. While it is true that feminist philosophy and feminist philosophers continue to be dismissed and marginalized in some quarters of philosophy, it is nonetheless also true that feminist philosophy is no longer a marginal area. As we begin the third decade of the twenty-first century, feminist philosophy has, so to speak, arrived. But along with the fraught forms of institutional recognition that come with that arrival comes the risk of moving away from the core values and commitments, which, even when imperfectly realized, gave rise to the field in the first place. In this regard, feminist philosophy is like other areas previously excluded from the academy. Institutional inclusion risks a field’s radical edge, especially those fields, like feminist philosophy, that were admitted only as a result of political demands. The challenge is to remain open to transformation even as at least some parts of the field are beginning to be recognized and engaged by the mainstream.

Scholars whose work has contributed to feminist philosophy have different histories and relationships to both feminism and feminist philosophy, resulting in varying degrees of inclusion, alienation, and ambivalence (see Mann et al. 2019 , 395). In conceiving of this volume, we wanted the chapters to reflect differences, tensions, and even disagreements within feminist philosophy in its efforts to think about various sites of marginalization. We also wanted to do our best to reflect philosophical diversity within the field—that is, the influences of analytic, continental, and pragmatist traditions, as well as work outside Western philosophy, on feminist philosophy.

Even though the volume includes contributors based outside the United States, we want to acknowledge that the volume as a whole is situated in the kind of feminist philosophy that is largely written in English and largely written by writers situated in North America and the United Kingdom, Australia, or other global networks with ties to those areas. That is partly a reflection of our (the editors’) situatedness, as both of us are based in the United States, even though one of us was born outside of the United States (Iceland) and has a different language as a native tongue (Icelandic). But it is also partly a reflection of the fact that feminist philosophy in North America and the United Kingdom has had, and continues to have, hegemonic influence on feminist philosophy in other areas of the globe. We wanted the volume to reflect geographical diversity; nonetheless, most of the contributors work in US institutions, and it is important to acknowledge that limitation.

Feminist philosophy is an extraordinarily diverse field. Not all feminist philosophers agree with each other, even about what feminist philosophy is or should be. Some define feminist philosophy as philosophy that is informed by and seeks to address women’s experiences, perspectives, relationships, and oppression. Others define feminist philosophy as philosophical critique of power animated by hierarchies of gender, race, class, ability, sexuality, age, nationality, and other categories of socially salient differences that shape what gender is and how it is lived. Some feminist philosophers work with concepts and theories gleaned from canonical philosophical texts, while others strive to develop alternative concepts and theories that build on, and speak to, the histories, experiences, and perspectives of members of marginalized communities. And, of course, some feminist philosophers find important frameworks for feminist thinking across all these diverse conceptions of, and approaches to, work in the field. Whatever their particular approach or philosophical training (e.g., analytic or continental), feminist philosophers continue to make critical, transformative interventions in the philosophical mainstream, as well as develop new fields of inquiry.

Some History

Writing about the first meeting of the Society for Women in Philosophy (SWIP), an offshoot of the 1971 formation of the American Philosophical Association’s Women’s Caucus in Chicago in 1971, Sandra Lee Bartky (1935–2016) recounted the sense of shared excitement and wonder at being in a room with a group of rare, beautiful creatures—other women in philosophy: “We came together in joy and solidarity. We talked all day and most of the night. We stared at one another and even touched each other, as if we were fabulous beasts” (1990, 2). For most, if not all, attendees, it was the first time they had ever been in a room with other women in philosophy. There was no such thing as a course, let alone an area of specialization or concentration, in feminist philosophy. There was no journal for the publication of the work of feminist philosophers. As an academic field, feminist philosophy didn’t exist. But all shared a desire to know how their involvement in feminist, anti-racist, anti-war, and student movements might be more visibly integrated into their teaching and philosophical writing, a desire to use philosophy to think through and to forge a philosophy based on their sense of how “things came together”—things like US imperialism, racism, sexism, militarism, capitalism, ideology in the mainstream and in academic philosophy, internalized oppression, and experience in heteropatriarchal families and relationships (Bartky 2003 , 21). At those early meetings, attendees shared syllabi and teaching strategies, experiences in their graduate programs and departments, and papers. The founding of SWIP eventually led to the creation of the first journal dedicated to publishing work in feminist philosophy, Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy . The first full issue of Hypatia was published in 1986, and its mission statement expressed the commitment of its editorial collective to publishing feminist work in all areas of philosophy (Gruen and Wiley 2010 , 726). That mission statement positioned feminist philosophy as a field that was not bound by traditional divides (e.g., between analytic and continental philosophy) that characterize the profession in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia. The aim of feminist philosophy was not only the use of philosophical tools to make sense of feminist issues but also, even more, critique and transformation of the discipline of philosophy itself—from the white, Western European, Anglo, and male figures deemed central to the canon to the questions, methods, and topics deemed the province of “real” philosophy, as well as the demographics of philosophy departments, graduation programs, and undergraduate classrooms. Then, as now, feminist philosophy aims not simply for integration into philosophy but for transformation of philosophy itself.

Today, there are several societies dedicated to women in philosophy, including regional divisions of SWIP in the United States (Eastern, Midwest, Pacific, and New York), C-SWIP in Canada, and SWIP-UK. Others that either have sporadic meetings or are more recent include SWIP Analytic, NNWP (Nordic Network of Women in Philosophy), SWIP Ireland, SWIP Germany, SWIP Switzerland, SWIP NL (Netherlands), SWIP Turkey, and SWIP Analytic Mexico. An Australasian SWIP operated for some time starting in the 1980s but is not active at the time of writing. No association exists in France. The International Association of Women Philosophers (IAPh), an international organization of women in philosophy, was founded in 1976 and holds meetings biannually.

All of these organizations are friendly to feminist philosophy, although most of them are not exclusively focused on supporting work in feminist philosophy. There are, however, several other philosophy organizations and long-standing workshops that self-identify as feminist or as allied with feminist work in philosophy, including FEAST (Feminist Ethics and Social Theory), FEMMSS (Feminist Epistemology, Methodology, Metaphysics, and Science Studies), FAB (Feminism and Bioethics), Society for Analytic Feminism, the Roundtable in Latina/x Feminism, the Collegium of Black Women Philosophers, the Trans Philosophy Project, WOGAP (Workshop on Gender and Philosophy), and BayFAP (Bay Area Feminism and Philosophy workshop). And other feminist philosophy journals have emerged, including IJFAB ( International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics ), philoSOPHIA: Journal of Continental Feminism , and Feminist Philosophical Quarterly . This is not an exhaustive list.

The differences in how feminist philosophers understand and negotiate their relationship to the institutionalized mainstream of philosophy go beyond subfield specialization (e.g., history of philosophy, ethics, epistemology, etc.) or philosophical training and orientation (continental, analytic, pluralist). There are also important differences in how they understand the specifically feminist contributions of feminist philosophy. In describing these differences, we do not mean to suggest that there is one approach that is more feminist than another. Indeed, each approach plays an important part in historical and contemporary feminist efforts to transform philosophy. What follows is a general, nonexhaustive, brief overview of some of the transformative efforts of feminist philosophy. Whatever their differences in methodology, training, or focus, feminist philosophers strive for some form of field transformation.

One feminist philosophical approach to field transformation is through efforts to increase the visibility and recognition of philosophical contributions by people from underrepresented groups (see, e.g., UP Directory, n.d.). Examples of these efforts include recovery of figures who have been ignored and consequently omitted from philosophy’s history and canon (e.g., Project Vox, n.d.; History of Women Philosophers and Scientists, n.d.); critiques of citational erasure in articles and books (e.g., Healy 2015 ; Ahmed 2017 , 14–16); the creation of organizations that provide a forum for the development and presentation of work by philosophers from underrepresented groups regardless of whether or not their philosophical work itself is explicitly feminist; the mentoring of members of groups underrepresented in philosophy (e.g., Philosophy in an Inclusion Key, or PIKSI, Mentoring Workshop for Early-Career Women in Philosophy); and the generation of data to assess the climate in the field and address its “demographic challenges” (Alcoff 2013 ). Additional approaches to field transformation within feminist philosophy include challenging mainstream conceptions of philosophy and entrenched assumptions about what counts as philosophy (e.g., Dotson 2012 ). This latter approach aims to make visible the structures of power that are reinforced through disciplinary practices of boundary maintenance. Feminist interventions into institutionalized philosophy have created a vibrant ground from which to generate new philosophical concepts, methods, and questions. Furthermore, while much work remains to be done, feminist philosophers have played a crucial role in creating greater inclusion at undergraduate and graduate levels, in departments, on editorial boards and in policies, in works cited lists, and in textbooks. The American Philosophical Associations (APA’s) Committee on the Status of Women (CSW) engages in, and supports, many of the aforementioned efforts alongside other APA committees focused on issues of importance to marginalized groups in the profession (e.g., APA committees on the status of Asian and Asian American Philosophy and Philosophers, Hispanics, LGBTQ People in the Profession, Black Philosophers, Native American and Indigenous Philosophers, and Disabled People in the Profession).

Inclusion, Exclusion, Power

Even though some of its analyses may seem abstract to some, feminist philosophy is, in fact, forged in a context of ongoing gender-based oppression and its entanglement with racism, ableism, classism, cisnormativity, heteronormativity, Eurocentrism, and Anglocentrism. The creation of feminist philosophy as an academic area of inquiry cannot and should not be separated from feminist movements and other movements for social and economic justice. This fact has led some defenders of mainstream philosophy to deride feminist philosophy as too politicized and therefore not philosophical enough (see, e.g., Alcoff 2012 , 35). Such accusations cast philosophy as a rarefied field of abstract reflection that generates universal truths of experience, self, and the world. And yet, it is just this sort of universal pretense and posturing that has been critiqued as gendered by feminist philosophers (see, e.g., Bordo 1987 ). In making gender relevant for the doing of philosophy, feminist philosophers have transformed the field and demonstrated its relevance for thinking from, with, and about the messiness of reality, lived experience, and relationships. Far from detracting from its philosophical rigor, feminist philosophy’s rootedness in the political—understood here as normalized, often institutionalized, relations of power that structure society, institutions, lives, and relationships—grounds its relevance. The relevance of feminist and other similarly marginalized areas of philosophy such as Latinx, Black, Indigenous, Asian, Asian American, decolonial and postcolonial, non-Western, disability, queer, and trans philosophies has, as Judith Butler points out, resulted in the embarrassing (for institutionalized mainstream philosophy) fact that most of what scholars in other fields take to be the most relevant work in philosophy is produced by scholars outside philosophy departments or by those whose academic homes are in philosophy departments but whose work is nonetheless delegitimated within the mainstream (Butler 2004 , 233). As Butler puts it, “The term ‘philosophy’ has ceased to be in control of those who would define and protect its institutional parameters” (233).

It is no accident that Butler first became aware of this phenomenon when lecturing on feminist philosophy early in her career. As she puts it, “It was not a question of whether I was teaching bad philosophy, or not teaching philosophy well, but whether my classes were philosophy at all” (2004, 242). Efforts to discredit feminist philosophy as not “real philosophy” continue to shape the experience of students and faculty who are interested in feminist philosophy. In the face of pressures to continuously prove oneself to be a “real philosopher,” some feel forced to prioritize developing expertise and working in more traditional continental or analytic areas to succeed in graduate school and on the job market, some take the risk and pursue feminist philosophy and fight their way to jobs that are often at less prestigious institutions, some leave philosophy for more welcoming academic homes, and some leave academia altogether (see, e.g., Alcoff 2003 , 2012 ; Dotson 2012 ; Saul 2013 ; Schutte 2012 ). To be a feminist philosopher is to be a philosopher who can’t take the institution for granted. As a result, there has been a lot of feminist philosophical work that takes the tools of canonical white male figures and uses them in ways their originators might never have supported, let alone imagined, to create philosophy that reflects and speaks to those whose lives and perspectives are excluded from the mainstream and to create a philosophy in which, as Mariana Ortega puts it, “a love of wisdom [is no longer a love] of exclusion” (2016, 220).

For feminist philosophy, the personal is political is philosophical (see, e.g., Kittay 2010). As a result, while not every feminist philosopher specializes in ethics, the doing of feminist philosophy is nonetheless a profoundly ethical endeavor, in the broadest sense of “ethical.” As feminist, feminist philosophy has roots outside academic institutions and is, thus, accountable to those who are marginalized within and outside it. As a broadly ethical practice that is accountable to many constituencies, feminist philosophy seeks to make visible and address a wide range of exclusionary practices. For this reason, feminist philosophers are concerned about how citation has worked in exclusionary ways in the philosophical mainstream and in feminist philosophy itself. For example, feminist philosophers have critiqued the tendency in the mainstream to exclude relevant (even central) scholarship by women philosophers in articles and books (e.g., see Healy 2015 ); the tendency of work by white, Anglo feminist philosophers to be more seriously engaged than work by feminists of color and non-Anglo feminists (e.g., see Ortega 2009 , 62); the tendency of cisgender theorists, including feminist philosophers, to write about trans people or trans phenomena without citing, collaborating with, or seriously engaging work by trans scholars (e.g., see Stryker 2006 ; Bettcher 2019 ); the tendency of disability to be used as thought experiments without seriously engaging and citing work in disability studies or philosophy of disability (e.g., see Carlson 2010 , 10); or the tendency to ignore and fail to take seriously non-European and non-Euro-American philosophical histories, traditions, and work (e.g., see Schutte 2012 ). These are all citational issues, issues that reflect respect, attention, attunement, and regard. In a field that continues to ignore or discount feminist work and to marginalize contributions by theorists from underrepresented groups, citation is an ethical practice. “Citation,” Sara Ahmed writes, “is feminist memory. Citation is how we acknowledge our debt to those who came before; those who helped us find our way when the way was obscured because we deviated from the paths we were told to follow” (2017, 15–16). As feminist ethical practice, citation critically intervenes in the invisibilities created and sustained through mainstream philosophical erasures and other delegitimating practices. In her discussion of the meaning of a decolonial feminism, María Lugones asks, “How do we learn about each other? How do we do it without harming each other but with the courage to take up a weaving of the everyday that may reveal deep betrayals? How do we cross without taking over? With whom do we do this work? The theoretical here is immediately practical” (2010, 755). These questions are also about whom we cite, that is, to whom we are responsible and accountable when we write or find that we have been given a place at a decision-making table.

The ethical dimension of feminist philosophy also concerns the extent to which feminist analyses are intersectional, that is, the extent to which feminist philosophical work attends to the entanglement of gender with other systems of oppression. Just as feminist philosophers critique the gendered, racialized, and classed assumptions embedded in philosophical concepts, thought experiments, and positions, so too have some feminist philosophers critiqued the cisgendered, heteronormative, racialized, and classed assumptions within feminist philosophy itself. Important feminist philosophical work, especially by feminist philosophers of color, has critiqued exclusions and erasures within white/Anglo-centered feminist philosophy (e.g., Lugones and Spelman 1983 ). And there have been important feminist critiques of additive and analogical conceptions of difference (e.g., race and gender analogies) that ultimately erase women of color (e.g., see Spelman 1988 ; Gines 2010 ).

Thinking intersectionally, there is no single, unified voice or experience shared by all members of a social group. Assuming otherwise universalizes the experiences and perspectives of privileged members of the group (e.g., white/Anglo women) while ignoring and rendering invisible those of marginalized members of the group (e.g., women of color). As María Lugones and Elizabeth Spelman powerfully demonstrate in their classic essay “Have We Got a Theory for You! Feminist Theory, Cultural Imperialism and the Demand for ‘The Woman’s Voice’” (1983), the question of who speaks about, with, and to whom within feminism or any other theory is also a matter of language and the privilege of those for whom everything is translated and the marginalization of those who must always translate their experiences, work, and worlds to be taken seriously in dominant contexts. Grappling with the ethical and political significance of differences within and between social groups, as well as the inequitable conferral of epistemic authority and credibility, involves the difficult work of dialogue across differences. As a result, much important feminist work has engaged questions of epistemic injustice and the politics of who can speak, with whom, and about what (e.g., see Code 1987 ; Spivak 1988 ; Fricker 2007 ; Alcoff 1991   2018 , Medina 2013 ; Dotson 2011 ; Pohlhaus 2012 ).

Our Vision for the Volume

In putting together the volume, we were guided by the following commitments: We wanted the volume to showcase the rich diversity of subject matter, approaches, and method among feminist philosophers. Feminist philosophers want good tools, independent of the toolbox in which they are to be found. Not only did we want both analytic and continental approaches represented—and some chapters fit squarely on one side or the other—but we also wanted work that draws on both or engages concepts and theories that belong to many different philosophical traditions. It is, however, not only with regard to philosophical traditions that feminist philosophy is boundary bursting. Many feminist philosophers engage empirical and theoretical work in adjacent fields and produce truly interdisciplinary work. We wanted the volume to reflect all that richness.

In addition to giving the reader an overview of feminist work in a particular area or on a particular topic, we asked authors to address the relationship between feminist and mainstream work in the area. As there has been considerable uptake of feminist work in some subareas of philosophy while in others feminist work remains decidedly marginal, we wanted authors to give readers their take on that. We also asked authors to look toward the future: what topics and themes are on the horizon? The relationship to the mainstream of philosophy varies considerably by subfield and topic, and in some subfields of feminist philosophy there is a desire for more integration with the mainstream, whereas in others there is not. We wanted the volume to reflect those differences. While this volume does not present a comprehensive account of all work in feminist philosophy or even all feminist perspectives on a particular topic—an impossible feat for a single volume—we believe the volume offers a compelling, informative snapshot of transformative work in feminist philosophy and its ongoing relevance for understanding and addressing connections between theory, lived experience, oppression in the world, and the possibility of resistance—that is, how philosophy and feminism continue to matter.

The intended audience of the volume is broad: feminist philosophers and other philosophers interested in learning about feminist philosophy, undergraduate and graduate philosophy students interested in feminist approaches to a certain subject matter or tradition, and scholars and students in adjacent fields wanting an overview of feminist philosophical work on a topic. We hope all these populations will find material of use herein.

Our authors do not share a single vision of what feminist philosophy is or should be, nor do they agree on matters of method. But they all share the political commitment to end the oppression of women and work toward that goal through their writing and scholarship. While the tensions within the feminist philosophy community can be especially painful at times, we believe the tensions themselves also have transformative power. We believe that actively listening to each other is key to moving forward on difficult issues facing our community. This requires us to foster environments where active listening can take place and to nurture communities of trust where people can recognize each other across differences. Such engagement is transformative, not only for the individuals involved, but also for the discipline of philosophy and the many communities we are all part of and to whom we are accountable.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to our contributors for their excellent contributions to this volume and the field of feminist philosophy. We also thank our editor, Lucy Randall, and assistant editor, Hannah Doyle, for all their help throughout this long process. Kim: I thank Jill Ehnenn for her support and feedback and for being a source of joy in the deeply troubling political context in which this book was completed. And I thank Ásta for all the conversations and for her wisdom during this project. It has been wonderful to work on this book with you. Ásta: I thank Dore Bowen Solomon for her love and support as well as her presence and her vision. And I thank Kim for her thoughtfulness and her humor. I could not imagine a better collaborator.

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Critique of the 'Waves' of Feminism

Feminist philosophies.

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Feminism is the belief in the social, economic, and political equality of all genders.  

This feature covers some of the history and individual movements within feminism. Scroll down to learn more about the waves of feminism and several different philosophical movements.

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As with many of these national commemorations, one month is never enough to fully honor and celebrate the history and culture of marginalized communities, let alone heal the legacies (and ongoing reality) of harm and systemic oppression they've experienced. We recognize that resisting and rejecting misogyny and cisheteropatriarchy cannot be manifested simply through resource lists and guides, however important and well-intentioned, and that justice and liberation for women, expansively defined, and all who challenge and live outside of binary gender is the work of generations. We are, nevertheless, committed to doing what we can to work towards a different, more equitable and caring future.

If you'd like to engage more deeply with Women's History Month, units across the Libraries have created a number of interrelated resources and features to provide more holistic coverage of this commemoration. You'll find those, below:

• Feminist Media Studies (Media Studies)
• The Sounds of Women's History Month   (Media Studies)
• Transfeminine Worlds: Works by Trans Women (Gender Studies)
• Spotlight on Sex Work (Gender Studies)
• In Memoriam: bell hooks   (Philosophy)
• Spotlight on Victorian Women Writers Project   (English & American Literature)
• Women-led Architecture Firms (Art, Art History, & Architecture)
• Art & Gender (Gender Studies + Art, Art History, & Architecture)
• Women of Ukraine (Area Studies)
• Women's History Month Streaming and DVD Resources (Media Services)
• Primary Sources on Women in University Collections (Archives & Special Collections)
• Youth Materials on Women's History and Women’s Lives (Education Library)

Online Readings

• "Four Waves of Feminism"   (Martha Rampton,  Pacific Magazine )
• "Feminist Philosophy" ( Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy )
• "Transnational Women's Movements"   (Leila J. Rupp, European History Online)
• "The Waves of Feminism, and Why People Keep Fighting Over Them, Explained"   (Constance Grady,  Vox )

Online Resources

• Women's Liberation Movement Print Culture (Duke University)
• American Women    A Gateway to Library of Congress Resources for the Study of Women's History and Culture in the United States (LOC)
• Sisterhood and After   Oral history interviews featuring activists of the Women’s Liberation Movement (British Library)

Organizations

• Society for Women in Philosophy   The Society for Women in Philosophy was created in 1972 to support and promote women in philosophy. Since that time the Society for Women in Philosophy or "SWIP" has expanded to many branches around the world, including in the US, Canada, Ireland, the UK, the Netherlands, Flanders, and Germany.
• Society for Analytical Feminism   The Society for Analytical Feminism is an official society of the American Philosophical Association , and was founded at the Central Division APA meetings in 1991. The Society for Analytical Feminism provides a forum where issues concerning analytical feminism may be openly discussed and examined. Its purpose is to promote the study of issues in Feminism by methods broadly construed as analytic, to examine the use of analytic methods as applied to Feminist issues and to provide a means by which those interested in Analytical Feminism may meet and exchange ideas. The Society meets yearly at the Central Division meetings of the APA, and frequently organizes sessions for the Eastern Division and Pacific Division meetings.
• philoSOPHIA   philoSOPHIA exists to promote continental feminist scholarly and pedagogical development, and is committed to civic and community engagement.  Continental feminist philosophy is construed broadly to include feminist work on major figures and themes from the continental philosophical tradition, as well as feminist work inspired by continental philosophy more generally.
• Minorities and Philosophy   MAP’s mission is to address structural injustices in academic philosophy and to remove barriers that impede participation in academic philosophy for members of marginalized groups. Through our international organizing team and graduate student-led network of autonomous chapters around the world, we aim to examine and dismantle mechanisms that prevent students from marginalized groups from participating in academic philosophy, as well as to promote philosophical work done from marginalized perspectives, and help improve working conditions for scholars from marginalized backgrounds.
• International Association of Women Philosophers   The International Association of Women Philosophers is a professional association and network that provides a forum for discussion, interaction and cooperation among women engaged in teaching and research in all aspects of philosophy, with a particular emphasis on feminist philosophy. Founded in 1976 in Würzburg (Germany) as “Association of Women Philosophers” (APh), the IAPh has gradually grown into an international organization with members all over the world. Currently the IAPh has more than 380 members from more than 35 different countries.
• Association for Feminist Ethics and Social Theory   Feminist Ethics and Social Theory is a professional organization dedicated to promoting feminist ethical perspectives on philosophy, moral and political life, and public policy that centers decolonized, intersectional, and interdisciplinary approaches.  Our aim is to further the development and clarification of new understandings of ethical and political concepts and concerns, especially as they arise out of feminist concerns regarding underrepresented and marginalized women — including BIPOC, Third World, disabled, and LGBTQIA — as well as those arising from marginalized identities and marginalized issues. We will interrogate and address the philosophical and practical underpinnings of white privilege and racist violence in its many forms, including in feminist theory and practice.
• Second Wave
• Third and Fourth Waves
• Criticism of the Waves Metaphor

First Wave Feminism

Lasting from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the start of the feminist movement in the United States focused primarily on property rights and women's suffrage. Many feminists felt a connection between their cause and the abolitionist movement.

• 1848 - Seneca Falls Convention
• 1916 - Margaret Sanger opens America's first birth control clinic
• 1920 - 19th Amendment passed, granting women the right to vote

Influential Figures

• Susan B. Anthony
• Elizabeth Cady Stanton
• Lucretia Mott
• Carrie Chapman Catt
• "Declaration of Sentiments and Revolutions"   by Elizabeth Cady Stanton (Seneca Falls Convention, 1848)

Second Wave Feminism

Following a lull in feminist activism during the world wars, the second wave of feminism (1960s-90s) focused on gaining political equality and putting a stop to gender-based discrimination. Women began to seek greater participation in the workforce as well as equal pay. The movement also brought attention to issues of domestic violence and reproductive rights. Feminism was beginning to integrate itself with issues of patriarchy, capitalism, and class. 

• 1960 - The Food and Drug Administration approves the birth control pill
• 1963 - The Equal Pay Act is enacted
• 1966 - Founding of NOW (National Organization of Women)
• 1972 - Title IX is passed to protect people from sex discrimination in schools
• 1972 - Helen Reddy's song "I Am Woman" becomes an anthem of the movement
• 1972-79 - The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is approved by the U.S. Congress but fails to receive the required number of state ratifications
• 1973 - Roe v. Wade gives women the right to have an abortion
• Gloria Steinem
• Bella Abzug
• Judith Butler
• "The Second Feminist Wave"  by Martha Weinman Lear ( New York Times , 1968) [Requires IU login to view]

• "Prospects of Mankind with Eleanor Roosevelt: What Status for Women?" (1962) (GBH Archives)

Third and Fourth Wave Feminism

In the 1990s, a new wave of feminism emerged that challenged the perceived privileging of straight white women by the second wave movement. The movement also brought to the forefront sex positivity and issues of violence against women. The distinction between the third and fourth waves of feminism is unclear. While some believe we're still in the third wave, others argue that the newest fourth wave, starting in the 2010s, is defined by the fight against rape culture.

• 1991 - The riot grrrl punk subculture begins
• 1991 - Anita Hill accuses Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment
• 1992 - The "Year of the Woman" sees a significant number of women elected to U.S. Senate
• 2017-present - Me Too Movement
• 2017 - Women's March
• Audre Lorde
• Rebecca Walker

• "Feminism in 'Waves': Useful Metaphor or Not?"   (Linda Nicholson, New Politics)
• Laughlin, K. A., Gallagher, J., Cobble, D. S., Boris, E., Nadasen, P., Gilmore, S., & Zarnow, L. (2010). Is It Time to Jump Ship? Historians Rethink the Waves Metaphor. Feminist Formations , 22 (1), 76–135.
• Postcolonial
• Environmental

Liberal feminism, a term that widely overlaps with "mainstream feminism," is the movement to gain gender equality through political and legal reform. The first and second waves of feminism were mostly led by proponents of this movement. Issues that liberal feminism focuses on include voting rights, equal pay, reproductive rights, and access to education.

• Judith Sargent Murray
• Frances Wright
• Betty Friedan
• Martha Nussbaum

Socialist feminism considers the interconnectivity of patriarchy, capitalism, and women's oppression. This movement applies Karl Marx's ideology to feminism and argues that class oppression and gender oppression are fundamentally tied together.

• 1972 - The Wages for Housework campaign begins
• Clara Zetkin
• Eleanor Marx
• Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez
• Johanna Brenner
• Silvia Federici
• Selma James
• "Socialist Feminism: A Strategy for the Women's Movement" (Chicago Women's Liberation Union, 1972)
• "Socialist Feminism: What Is It and How Can It Replace Corporate 'Girl Boss' Feminism?"   (Sarah Leonard, T een Vogue )
• "Aren't Socialism and Feminism Sometimes in Conflict?"   (Nicole Aschoff, The ABCs of Socialism )
• "Trickle-Down Feminism"  (Sarah Jaffe,  Dissent Magazine )

Radical feminism is a more militant form of feminism which seeks to dismantle the capitalist patriarchy. Radical feminists argue that we must completely restructure society in order to fulfill feminism's goals.

Emerging as a challenge to radical feminism, transfeminism argues that transgender women deserve to be represented in mainstream feminist movements. Transfeminists use the term "terf" (trans-exclusive radical feminist) to call out and hold accountable radical feminists who only fight for the rights of cisgender women.

• 1969 - Redstockings, a radical feminist group, is founded
• Shulamith Firestone
• Kathie Sarachild
• Ti-Grace Atkinson
• Carol Hanisch
• Ellen Willis

Also called anarcha-feminism, this movement believes that women's oppression is bound together with the "involuntary hierarchy" of government. The removal of this hierarchy through anarchy is called the "feminization of society."

• 1896-99 - The anarcha-feminist newpaper La Voz de la Mujer is published in Argentina
• 1936-39 - Mujeres Libres, an anarcha-feminist group in Spain, sought recognition in the Spanish anarchist movement
• Emma Goldman
• Federica Montseny
• Voltairine de Cleyre
• Maria Lacerda de Moura
• Lucy Parsons
• L. Susan Brown
• "Anarchism: The Feminist Connection"   (Peggy Kornegger, 1975)
• Anarcho-Feminism: Two Statements (1971) ["Who we are: an Anarcho-Feminist Manifesto" (Chicago Anarcho-Feminists) and "Blood of the Flower: An Anarchist Feminist Statement" (Black Rose Anarcho-Feminists)]
• Quiet Rumours: An Anarcha-Feminist Reader (AK Press, 2012)

Many Black women felt alienated by second wave feminism. Black feminists argued that sexism, classism, and racism are part of the same hierarchical system (the "imperialist white supremacist capitalist patriarchy"), and that therefore Black women have a unique understanding of oppression.

• 1973 - National Black Feminist Organization (NBFO) is founded
• 1974 - Barbara Smith founds the Combahee River Collective
• 2013-present - #BlackGirlMagic movement celebrates the accomplishments of Black women
• Alice Walker
• Patricia Hill Collins
• Kimberlé Crenshaw
• The Combahee River Collective Statement (1977)
• "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color"   (Kimberlé Crenshaw, Stanford Law Review, 1991)

Emerging in the 1980s, postcolonial feminism moves the focus to nonwhite, nonwestern women and their experiences in the postcolonial world. This movement criticizes the ethnocentrism of mainstream feminism and sees parallels between colonization and women's oppression.

• Nawal el Saadawi
• Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
• "Feminist Perspectives on Globalization" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
• "Under Western Eyes" Revisited: Feminist Solidarity through Anticapitalist Struggles   (Chandra Talpade Mohanty,  Signs , 2003)
• "The Master's Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master's House"  (Audre Lorde, 1984, printed in Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches (2007)
• "Femen's obsession with nudity feeds a racist colonial feminism" (Chitra Nagarajan,  The Guardian , 2013)

Like Black feminism, Indigenous feminism(s) is an intersectional perspective and movement that centers the rights, needs, and experiences of Indigenous people, with a particular focus on human and civil rights for Indigenous women, legal and land-based sovereignty for all tribes and communities, environmental justice, and decolonization.

• 2012 - Idle No More protest movement is founded
• 2016 - Canadian government establishes the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls
• Myrna Cunningham
• Aileen Moreton-Robinson
• Leanne Betasamosake Simpson
• Haunani-Kay Trask
• Winona LaDuke
• Leslie Marmon Silko

Ecofeminism is a social movement and philosophy that looks at the connections between nature and women. As a social movement that centers on the protection of nature, it is a movement led by decolonial and indigenous movements, primarily by women of color activists ( Rai, 2022 ).

• 1973 - In India, in the state of Uttarakhand, women took part in the Chipko movement to protect forests from deforestation
• 1977 - In Kenya, the Green Belt Movement was initiated by environmental and political activist Professor Wangari Maathai
• 1978 - In New York, mother and environmentalist Lois Gibbs led her community in protest after discovering that their entire neighborhood, Love Canal, was built on the site of a toxic dump
• 1980-81 - Women like ecofeminist Ynestra King organized Women's Pentagon Actions
• 1985 - The Akwanese Mother's Milk Project was launched by Katsi Cook
• 1989 - Bernadette Cozart founded the Greening of Harlem Coalition 
• Françoise d'Eaubonne
• Greta Gaard
• Susan Griffin
• Carolyn Merchant
• Wangari Maathai
• Bernadette Cozart
• Vandana Shiva
• Feminist Environmental Philosophy ( Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy )
• Ecofeminism: toward global justice and planetary health ( Society and Nature )

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Feminism and the Future of Philosophy

By Gary Gutting

• Sept. 18, 2017

“There is a deep well of rage inside of me. Rage about how I as an individual have been treated in philosophy; rage about how others I know have been treated; and rage about the conditions that I’m sure affect many women and minorities in philosophy, and have caused many others to leave.” Those words, written a decade ago by Sally Haslanger , a distinguished professor of philosophy at M.I.T., well express the moral energy behind the feminist ferment currently shaking American philosophy.

This ferment has overturned the male dominance of our primary professional organization, the American Philosophical Association, with women (who make up about one-fourth of the members) holding over half of the seats on its governing board. This change correlates with the recent vigorous efforts of the A.P.A. to increase the proportion of women (and minorities) in philosophy and to root out all forms of bias and discrimination. The organization’s website lists a dozen projects and resources devoted to diversity, and its Committee on the Status of Women has established a site-visit program open to any department that wants advice on improving its climate for women.

This organizational shift, combined with supportive actions from many major philosophy departments, has decisively furthered philosophical feminism as a political cause. The discipline now seems committed in principle to gender equality, despite considerable disagreement about just what that means and how best to achieve it. We can still expect many intense and even rancorous disputes over these questions. Here, however, I want to put aside these unavoidable disputes and reflect on the importance of feminist philosophy for the future of philosophical thinking.

It’s easy to conclude that feminist philosophy is little more than the vehicle of a political movement. The editors of the recent “Routledge Companion to Feminist Philosophy” note that feminist philosophy “originated in feminist politics” and “included from the start discussion of feminist political issues and positions.”

Nowadays, major feminist philosophers often define their work in explicitly political terms. Elizabeth Anderson, for example, says that feminist epistemology and philosophy of science “identifies ways in which dominant conceptions and practices of knowledge attribution, acquisition, and justification systematically disadvantage women and other subordinated groups, and strives to reform these conceptions and practices so that they serve the interests of these groups.” And Sally Haslanger, in her seminal analysis of gender and race, says, “At the most general level, the task is to develop accounts of gender and race that will be effective tools in the fight against injustice.” She goes on to offer the following definition of “woman”: “S is a woman [if and only if] S is systematically subordinated along some dimension — economic, political, legal, social — and S is ‘marked’ as a target for this treatment by observed or imagined bodily features presumed to be evidence of a female’s biological role in reproduction.”

Philosophers uneasy with strong feminist claims about the current poor treatment of women — or who just think it’s wrong to presuppose such claims in philosophical discussions — may feel that feminist philosophy has nothing to offer them. Even sympathetic male philosophers may see such philosophy as the province of women, particularly since most writing on feminist topics is by women and feminists sometimes seem not to welcome male contributions. (The 56 essays in the “Routledge Companion” are all by women.)

In fact, however, feminist philosophy should be an essential resource for all philosophers, whatever their views about its political agenda. To see why, it will help to reflect on an earlier disruption to the philosophical establishment: the “pluralist revolt” against the dominant analytic philosophy of the 1970s and ’80s. The pluralists were a disparate group of philosophers: pragmatists in the tradition of Peirce, James and Dewey; metaphysicians following classical thinkers such as Aristotle and Aquinas or the process philosophy of Whitehead; and, most prominently, “continental philosophers” working out of recent European movements such as phenomenology (Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre); post-structuralism (Foucault, Derrida); and critical theory (Habermas and the Frankfurt School).

Pluralists challenged the dominance of the A.P.A. by the analytic philosophy that they saw as modeling itself on mathematics and natural science. This mode of thought, they said, imposed standards of conceptual clarity and logical rigor that restricted philosophical thinking to a narrow range of abstract and artificial questions. These restrictions, they argued, marginalized pluralist philosophers and, more important, excluded the great perennial questions that had defined philosophy from Plato to Hegel.

The pluralists gained a good deal of power within the A.P.A., made room for alternative voices and no doubt played a role in the broadening of analytic interests. Their efforts supported an increased interest in traditional questions, particularly in metaphysics and ethics, and a turn to pragmatic positions in epistemology. But the pluralists did not overcome the analytic hegemony, with analytic philosophers remaining a large majority in the most highly regarded departments.

Further, the pluralists did little to blunt the sharp division between analytic philosophy and so-called continental philosophy, which maintained its own (relatively marginalized) departments, national organization and journals. Indeed, we are now seeing a good deal of work on “continental” philosophers move from philosophy to other humanistic disciplines (for example, in language, communication and film studies departments) and to the softer social sciences.

Today, feminist philosophy has produced an awakening far beyond that of the pluralist revolt. It has already further broadened and deepened analytic philosophy and shows promise of promoting serious engagement with continental thinkers.

It’s interesting that the new feminist directions sometimes derive from the stereotypical roles that society has imposed on women. In ethics, as Rosemarie Tong and Nancy Williams note in their Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on feminist ethics, “proponents of feminist care ethics … stress that traditional moral theories … are deficient to the degree they lack, ignore, trivialize, or demean values and virtues culturally associated with women.”

So, for example, societies have often directed women toward subordinating their interests to others (husbands or children, for example). As a result, women tend to be particularly sensitive to “care” as an ethical value, and feminist philosophers (like Nel Nodding and Virginia Held) have developed various “ethics of care” that supplement or displace “masculine” ethical values such as autonomy and self-fulfillment. Even an other-directed principle such as “Act for the greatest happiness of all” takes on a deeper meaning when understood not as a duty toward generic humanity but as a call to personal engagement with those in need.

In a different vein, women live in a society that presents as “natural” what they experience as arbitrary constraints. This can provide them with a particular sensitivity to injustices that are due less to individual ill will than to the structures of established practices and institutions. Feminist social philosophers like Nancy Fraser have developed this line of thought in dialogue with the work of Marx, Foucault, Habermas and other continental thinkers.

Feminist epistemologists have developed the notion of situated knowledge to counter standard analytic approaches that treat knowledge as the goal of an isolated mind (à la Descartes), abstracted from concrete life situations such as the knower’s body, emotions, values and social roles. Continental traditions like Marxism and existential phenomenology have long emphasized such situated knowledge. But feminist philosophers like Louise Antony and Helen Longino have offered strong analytic arguments for enriching the “masculinist” view of knowledge with elements previously ignored, perhaps as signs of “feminine” cognitive weakness.

Similarly, feminist metaphysicians have argued that metaphysical distinctions between superior and inferior categories (mind/matter, essential/contingent, self/other) were often used to express male superiority. This has led to the suggestion that such dichotomies did not express eternal necessities but rather historically constructed social categories — a suggestion feminists found supported by the work of continental philosophers like Simone de Beauvoir and Michel Foucault.

Feminists’ personal and political rage against injustice (and parallel emotional reactions against their claims) could, of course, create an atmosphere inimical to fruitful philosophical reflection. But looking at the significant achievements of feminist philosophers, feminism promises to improve not only the climate for women but also philosophical thinking itself.

Gary Gutting is a professor of philosophy at the University of Notre Dame. His recent book, “ Talking God: Philosophers on Belief ,” is based on interviews published in The Stone .

Now in print : “ Modern Ethics in 77 Arguments ,” and “ The Stone Reader: Modern Philosophy in 133 Arguments ,” with essays from the series, edited by Peter Catapano and Simon Critchley, published by Liveright Books.

Follow The New York Times Opinion section on Facebook and Twitter , and sign up for the Opinion Today newsletter .

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Questions of Belonging: Living and Growing as a Feminist Philosopher

The political struggle then becomes: to find a better way of answering questions, ways of questioning the questions, so that the world that makes some beings into questions becomes what we question. – SARA AHMED ( LIVING A FEMINIST LIFE )

“Where are you from? And where are you from ?”

As a fourth-generation, biracial Asian American whose racial identity is frequently read as ambiguous, my answer to these questions is often met with perplexity. “I’m from Idaho.” “No, I mean, where are you from ?” “Idaho.” “But where are your parents from?” “They’re from Idaho, too.” And so it goes, quickly devolving into a frustrating and disappointing experience for everyone.

Typically defended as benign curiosity, the tendency to ask again, with emphasis , can be experienced as a microaggression that reveals a tacit assumption: you are not from here . Studying race as a visible identity has helped make sense of these experiences but being asked such questions over a lifetime can complicate a sense of belonging. Hence my surprise when, upon joining a newly formed equity and inclusion committee, these questions were posed as our first icebreaker.

I suppose context matters. The intent was to create space for committee members to share about their culture and background, what shapes their experiences and identities. Our facilitator offered an example, “I’m from Denver, but I’m from  a big family where the louder the gatherings, the more the love.” But even with the example, I felt strange and anxious to respond, suspecting my most authentic answer would still confound expectations. Uncomfortable, I shared it anyway: “I’m from Idaho, but I’m from  a long line of feminist writers and scholars who have shaped me. María Lugones , Audre Lorde , Gloria Anzaldúa , and many others. My teachers have been some of my greatest influences, and many of my students are among them. I’m a feminist philosopher, and like bell hooks , I found a sense of self, home, and healing through theory.”

Feminist theory came into my life at the exact right time in a completely unexpected way. Two years into college, frustrated and struggling to find an academic home, my advisor presented an alternative to dropping out that would allow me to still graduate on time. Leveraging credits from several courses on Eastern religions, I majored in philosophy with a concentration in religious studies. The next semester I registered for a course, “Meaning and Truth in Religion,” taught by a vibrant Catholic theologian in residence, David Deane , and my world cracked open.

The course spanned from St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas to post-modern theology. Generally lost on the foundations of western theism I was wholly captivated by diverse critiques of post-Enlightenment notions of Reason. Starting with Friedrich Nietzsche , we traced questions of what becomes reified as real, who says, by what means, and to what end, which included perspectives from feminist theory and queer theory that challenged dominant assumptions of power, materiality, and reason. Judith Butler’s notion of performativity explained how socially constructed realities, like gender, come to matter, materially, and for my first research paper, I took it upon myself to explore how Julia Kristeva’s murder mystery novels contained clues from her earlier scholarly writings on the symbolic and semiotic. Ruminating on form, style, and the affective dimensions of effective writing, I recall being particularly intrigued by David’s passing mention that many critical scholars we read did not hold traditional appointments in philosophy departments. Comparative Literature. Psychoanalysis. Philology. Unbeknownst to me, this is when and how I inherited my burning questions, meta-philosophical questions simultaneously about meaning and gatekeeping: “Who is the philosopher?” “What counts as philosophy?” “What can philosophy do ?” (These questions have since been brilliantly captured by philosophers like Kristie Dotson .)

The following spring, I attended my first conference, “Postmodernism, Culture and Religion, 2: Feminism, Sexuality and the Return of Religion,” held at Syracuse University in 2007 (the papers presented there were eventually published as a book ). A junior in college, enthusiastic, and remarkably naïve, I was giddy to see people whose articles I read in class. More than names for citations, they were real flesh-and-blood humans walking about the room!

After much persistence, I finally caught up with the person who gave my favorite talk. Like a student showing up to office hours without a well-formed question, I mentioned appreciating the implicit demonstrations of what could not be uttered in her paper, to which Hélène Cixous replied, “I am not trying to do anything with my writing. I am a poet, even if I am a philosophical poet. Derrida is a philosopher, although as a philosopher he is quite poetic. But that is not my project. Maybe it is your project.” Feeling quite embarrassed and confused about what I didn’t understand, nevertheless, Hélène Cixous suggested I had a project! I wondered if she might consider me a philosopher.

Identifying myself as a feminist philosopher has felt honest but become more complicated over time. Seven years ago, I earned a dual-title doctorate degree in philosophy and women’s studies. Technically, by training, I am a feminist philosopher. However, since then, by title and responsibilities, I am and have been an administrator, not a professional philosopher.  

Thus far, my career has kept me in higher education leading diversity and inclusion efforts, including gender equity initiatives. Through trainings, programs, consultations, and changing policies, the point is to improve the culture for people of diverse backgrounds. Feeling very much like a philosopher disguised as an administrator, I see how my background in feminist theory provides a critical lens for understanding the issues at hand; this work is fundamentally concerned with how our identities position us differently within institutions and systems of power with the goal of remedying inequities and ending oppression. As for most philosophers who approach philosophy as a matter of praxis, the challenge becomes one of translating theory into practice and grounding concrete practices in particular values.

Feminist epistemology is most instructive for how I move through life and work, but amongst colleagues who earned degrees in higher education leadership and social justice education, I am an anomaly. Whereas they were trained as scholar-practitioners, I’ve had to do a lot of my own “connecting the dots” to put theory into practice. While I know about things, at times I feel envious that I wasn’t taught how to navigate these systems, build community, and create programs that uplift and serve those most marginalized by dominant cultures. And whereas their studies provide models of identity development through cycles of socialization and cycles of liberation , it took me years (and conversations with practitioners) to recognize my investment in practicing philosophy in relevant and accessible ways as being about more than personal transformation – it’s part of a movement. What an important and humbling epiphany! Also, what a ridiculously obvious realization, that people in other disciplines do and value similar things, even when they go about them differently. What I learn from colleagues about their anti-racist and social justice frameworks makes me a better professional, which also makes me question if the kind of disciplinary arrogance many philosophers display is a condition for, or byproduct of, the culture and standards of professional philosophy.

Intellectual and personal spaces where I continue to develop a sense of self and understand my location in the world dramatically expanded once I was no longer strictly a philosophy student in a philosophy department. For years into my professional roles after graduate school, I taught in women’s studies and ethnic studies. I also created interdisciplinary first-year seminars that I hoped would connect with new college students in ways that might prevent them from soon wanting to drop out. While developing new courses, the texts in my syllabi began to shift. Rather than staying current with scholarship in feminist philosophy, I felt a deep sense of connection working through classic essays written by women of color, such as those in This Bridge Called My Back , particularly when exploring practices of what I call, feminist friendship. Many of my favorite philosophers were still included – after all, “Have We Got a Theory for You?” by María Lugones and Elizabeth Spelman inspired my interest in feminist friendship – but I felt a responsibility to introduce students to the type of foundational texts I wish had been assigned throughout my studies – personal essays, poems, and letters that, had I read them as I found a home for myself in feminist theory, would have made my philosophy richer and my feminism that much better from the start.

Back in the day, my advisor convinced me to major in philosophy because it would teach me how to read, write, and think. Whenever I teach, I elaborate by telling students they will also learn to listen and articulate their ideas when they speak. Clearly, yes. Critically, yes. And, I hope, with a decent amount of creativity, for as valuable as I know theory to be, we must also develop skillful practices for learning how to collaborate, organize, love, and be in relationship with each other differently. These remain my learning edges of choice, which I believe are very much in line with feminist theory and, one can hope, the purpose of philosophy.

As I lead diversity and inclusion efforts, hone practices for equity and social justice, and align myself more passionately for liberation as part of collective movements, my experiences resonate with Sara Ahmed’s articulations in Living a Feminist Life ­­­­­­ – questions of belonging, becoming, and being a feminist, and of complicity working within incongruent institutions that may eventually lead to a break, a snap. Because I am committed to feminist work, I am thrilled to encounter people working in sophisticated and inspiring ways beyond the boundaries of higher education. In addition to select feminist philosophers, my nightstand holds books on rotation from organizers, healers, spiritual leaders, and activists, a blueprint for how I seek to expand my own community. With influence of these perspectives, my work – personal and professional – feels more political than ever, and I have embraced the potency of a beginner’s mind for carving out ways to live a feminist life. I am excited knowing there is much to learn and many ways to keep growing. With gratitude, I reflect on how graduating with terminal degrees ushered in more of a beginning than an ending for me.  

I am often asked to explain what about feminist theory I find so compelling. Feminist theory offers a critical lens through which we can understand all our disciplines and systems and interrogate connections among multiple oppressions. When done well, it provides tools to shape the world and change our ways of being for our shared liberation. When people ask, “What can one do with a degree in feminist theory?” although the path may be ambiguous and those around you might change, the answer is simple, “Anything.”

Moments of surprise upon learning I’m from Idaho reveal assumptions about folks from Idaho that don’t neatly map on to me, and while feminist philosophy permeates my ways of being, I am similarly dis/connected to both locations where I am from but no longer live every day. It’s a unique feeling of strangeness and familiarity.

Walking through downtown Boise, I carry the faintest anticipation of running into someone I know, but for the most part, I don’t. I’m more the outsider who’s just visiting. Most connections I have to people with whom I grew up are limited to what I see on social media, and it’s much the same with respect to philosophy. Without attending conferences, what I tend to know these days about fellow philosophers is largely based on what gets shared through posts and status updates. I witness their art, plants, and projects develop from afar while vicariously appreciating photos of hikes and holidays. It’s not scholarly, but a little more personal, a little more flesh-and-blood. I kind of like it that way.

The Women in Philosophy series publishes posts on women in the history of philosophy, posts on issues of concern to women in the field of philosophy, and posts that put philosophy to work to address issues of concern to women in the wider world. If you are interested in writing for the series, please contact the Series Editor  Adriel M. Trott  or Associate Editor  Julinna Oxley .

Dr. Cori Wong is a speaker, writer, educator, and consultant with over 10 years of training and leadership experience related to intersectional feminism, anti-racism, social justice, and inclusive culture change. Dr. Wong leads diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts at Colorado State University. She earned a dual-title PhD in Philosophy and Women’s Studies from the Pennsylvania State University and a BA in Philosophy and Religious Studies from Colorado State University.

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Feminism Dissertation Topics – Choose The Best Topic For Your Dissertation

Published by Owen Ingram at January 2nd, 2023 , Revised On August 15, 2023

Feminist dissertation topics focus on the people who believe that women should have equal chances and rights as men. Feminism is a historical, social, and political movement founded by women to achieve gender equality and remove injustice. Feminism is an important topic that has been frequently debated in a male-dominated society since the nineteenth century. However, in recent years, the feminist voice has become louder, and feminist issues have grown in popularity.

An excellent feminist research topic is all you need to write a feminist dissertation. Feminism, in general, is a broad subject that examines the challenges women confront, such as sexual harassment, oppression, repression, stereotyping, sexual objectification, and other types of political and social oppression.

As the subject is vast, selecting a feminist topic for a dissertation or research paper is a difficult challenge. So, to assist you, we have compiled a list of relevant feminist research paper topics for your perusal.

You can also visit these links to get the best dissertation ideas for extensive research about   sexual harassment dissertation topics and human rights dissertation ideas .

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Topics on Feminist Issues

• Examine how the internet has transformed Feminism into a public source of mockery and praise.
• Investigate the theoretical conflict between gender and sex.
• Investigate the history of the #MeToo movement and the feminism victim challenge.
• Examine the views of several feminists who are still devout Muslims on Female Genital Mutilation.
• To make the feminist message, emphasize the feminist technique and means.
• According to five works of literature or important feminists/anti-feminists of your choosing, how does Feminism establish, dismantle, and reconstruct gender roles?
• Examine how feminists deal with societal injustice and violence.
• Investigate the employability of feminist women in the United States.
• What is the feminist critic’s stance on worldwide gender inequality?
• How modern beauty standards continue to limit what and who is considered beautiful online and offline.
• How the concept of beauty is also a radical social and political prejudice that denies women some basic rights.
• Examine gender disparity and equality in American politics.
• Investigate gender imbalance and equality in the UK government.
• Consider if religion, Feminism, and liberal morality can be reconciled.
• Examine the difficulties women confront in the face of violence in nations such as India and Pakistan.
• Examine feminist psychology about Middle Eastern women.
• Analyze the changing feminist thought in the academic and in the actual world.
• How governments use Feminism as a tool for social mobilization, resulting in the demise of their culture.
• Modern beauty standards continue to limit what and who is considered beautiful online and offline.
• The concept of beauty is also a radical social and political prejudice that denies women some basic rights.

Feminist Project Topics

• The contrast between the gender roles of women and the Feminist role in society
• Examining the benefits and drawbacks of identifying as a feminist
• Compare the benefits of being a feminist in rich and developing countries.
• Examine the future of Feminism in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. Examine the motivating elements of Feminism throughout history
• Highlight and explain how Feminism has contributed to increased rape education.
• Feminism and government assistance: How government assistance may put an end to all vices against women
• The careful examination of equity and equality in Feminism
• The modern world’s perspective on Feminism has shifted: debate
• Investigate the lives, times, and biographies of any male feminist.
• Justify the role of Middle Eastern women in the struggle for gender equality.
• Examine any European government’s activities in promoting feminist principles.
• Examine any Southern American government’s role in preserving women’s rights.
• Investigate the relationship between Feminism and lesbianism.
• Examine the link between Feminism and the increase of single women in America. Determine the relevance of the emergence of liberal ideals over conservative beliefs in promoting Feminism.
• Discuss how women in the United States military are still subjected to discrimination, sexual assault, and brutality.
• Discuss the methods for eliminating sexual assault and discrimination in the military of two nations of your choice.
• Analyze the role of women in your preferred UK election.
• Investigate the issue of gender equality in modern Britain.
• Provide an outline of the British monarchy and the restoration of female kings.
• Rebuild the Women’s Trade Union League’s fundamental ideals and principles.

Feminist Research Topics

• Give some instances of modern feminist manifestos and what they have contained in feminist thought.
• What is Feminism’s detrimental impact on teens, and how has it created hatred towards men?
• What is the public’s take on women’s influence over celebrities in the face of the law in the aftermath of R Kelly’s imprisonment?
• Speak with a self-identified feminist and discuss their views on Feminism.
• Discuss the contentious topics surrounding Feminism and provide solutions to unsolved problems.
• Examine Mona Eataly’s writings and compare her feminist beliefs to those of other black feminists.
• Investigate what bold Feminism entails.
• Should unisex restrooms be permitted in pubs, restaurants, and hotels in a world fraught with sexual violence?
• Examine the prejudices experienced by transgender women and how the feminist movement might be a sort of stereotyped freedom.
• Investigate the wide varieties of Feminism and how hairstyles can also be used to make political statements.

Feminist Topic Ideas for Discussion

• Is Feminism only a historical residue of a modern need?
• Is it possible for a female president to arise in America or the United Kingdom because Taiwan’s president is female?
• What are your opinions on female authorities serving in various roles worldwide?
• What do you think about the absence of female political representation?
• How does a lack of political representation for women influence women’s political participation?
• Could religion be claimed to be a contributing element to women’s current plight?
• The internet has been a driving factor in the pursuit of equality.
• The feminist movement is just a platform for women to gain more power.
• How have environmental and feminist issues influenced national policies?
• Have other movements swallowed Feminism?

Women Empowerment Topics

• What role does the shift from cash to digital payrolls have in empowering women in poor countries?
• Why is there such a disparity between corporate attempts to execute women’s empowerment?
• Initiatives and corporate commitments to furthering equality?
• Talk about what everyone can do to help women in their neighbourhood.
• Why is workplace health such an important issue for women’s empowerment?
• Examine the numerous advantages of women’s empowerment.
• How has the UAE’s feminist movement empowered Arab women?
• Women’s political representation, politics, and decision-making.
• Discuss the role of feminists in promoting women’s empowerment.
• Women’s empowerment in Asian countries has increased during the previous two decades.

Informative Feminism Dissertation Topics

• Is it feasible to distinguish the three major waves of Feminism while defining a cohesive philosophy?
• Why is the premise that ‘if you believe men and women are equal, you’re a feminist’ insufficient in the Feminist movement’s third wave?
• Can Feminism forge a coherent movement amid the shattered environment of 21st-century Feminist thought?
• An assessment of the third wave’s inadequacy as the final progression of Feminist thinking, as well as how the next wave will be characterized.
• What are the difficulties that Intersectional Feminism has in disentangling oppressive systems from one another, and how can the movement negotiate this complication?
• A feminist assessment of the relationship between police violence and patriarchal society.
• Where is the boundary between defending an oppressed ecology and imposing oppressive ideals?
• Investigating the relationship between authoritarian right anti-environmental and anti-feminist political thought.
• Priority or Privilege? A critical examination of the Ecofeminist movement’s inability to address class problems and the consequences for its efficacy.
• How does Feminist thought in emerging environments vary from Western Feminist philosophy?
• A critical examination of how Western Feminism fails to meet the issues of global women.
• Is it feasible for Western philosophy to accurately reflect women living in the aftermath of colonial domination in a postcolonial society?
• Is promoting gender equality in emerging countries a moral obligation or an imperialist endeavour?
• Investigate the gender difference in the pursuit of independence for any country.
• A critical examination of the role of identity politics in social justice movements in the twenty-first century.

It is possible to contribute to an ever-growing and complicated field of study by writing a dissertation or capstone on feminist philosophy and critique. In view of the complexity of the underlying issue of ‘Feminism’, there are a number of feminist dissertation topics to consider. There has never been a more important time to research culturally relevant topics for your dissertation than in 2022.

Please contact us immediately if you need assistance writing your feminist dissertation. Our writers have years of experience researching, writing, proofreading, and editing dissertations on the greatest feminist research topics. Upon receiving your specifications, we will provide you with a high-quality, plagiarism-free research paper on time and within your budget.

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How to find feminism dissertation topics.

To find feminism dissertation topics:

• Study feminist literature and theories.
• Analyze gender-related gaps or issues.
• Explore intersectionality with race, class, etc.
• Investigate historical and contemporary perspectives.
• Consider media, politics, arts for feminist angles.
• Choose a topic resonating with your passion and research goals.

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691 Philosophy Essay Topics & Good Ideas

18 January 2024

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Philosophy essay topics are vast, engaging, and intellectually stimulating, focusing on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, aesthetics, and more. They challenge students to ponder on fundamental questions, from the nature of reality and existence to the basis of morality, the meaning of life, and the intricacies of human knowledge. From exploring ancient philosophies to scrutinizing contemporary philosophical debates, various concepts are designed to ignite critical thinking, enhance argumentative skills, and deepen students’ understanding of the world, themselves, and their place within it. Thus, philosophical essay topics, by their nature, encourage students to develop and formulate their own unique perspectives, fostering a culture of intellectual curiosity and rigorous analysis.

Best Philosophy Topics

• Unraveling Kant’s Perspective on Moral Imperatives
• Analyzing the Concept of Existentialism in Sartre’s Works
• Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave”: A Modern Interpretation
• Ethical Implications of Artificial Intelligence: A Philosophical View
• Nihilism’s Influence on Contemporary Thought and Culture
• The Intersection of Eastern Philosophy and Modern Science
• Nietzsche’s “Will to Power”: Relevance in the 21st Century
• Stoicism and Resilience: Ancient Wisdom for Modern Life
• Deciphering the Notion of “Tabula Rasa” in Locke’s Philosophy
• Dialectical Materialism: The Backbone of Marxist Philosophy
• Heidegger’s “Being and Time”: A Deep-Dive Into Existential Analysis
• Conceptualizing the “Simulated Reality” Hypothesis From a Philosophical Perspective
• Philosophical Implications of Quantum Physics: Bridging the Gap
• Utilitarianism vs. Deontology: An Ethical Debate
• Contributions of Indian Philosophy to Global Philosophical Discourse
• Philosophical Roots of Feminist Theory
• Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics: Relevance in Modern Society
• Philosophy of Language: Wittgenstein’s Revolutionary Viewpoint
• Re-Examining Solipsism in the Digital Age
• The Notion of “Free Will”: Philosophical Perspectives
• Descartes’ Meditations: Rationalism and Skepticism
• Spinoza and Pantheism: An Intriguing Relation
• Causality and Hume: Breaking Down Empiricism
• The Role of Suffering in Buddhist Philosophy
• The Paradox of Time Travel: A Philosophical Enquiry

Easy Philosophy Topics

• Epicurus on Pleasure: Hedonism Redefined
• The “Butterfly Effect” Concept: Philosophical Underpinnings
• Schopenhauer’s Pessimism: Understanding the Philosophy of Suffering
• Transcendental Idealism: Unpacking Kant’s Epistemology
• Philosophical Investigations Into the Nature of Consciousness
• Probing Into the Ethics of Cloning: A Philosophical Examination
• Postmodernist Views on Objective Reality: A Critical Evaluation
• Analyzing Ethical Egoism: An Inquiry Into Self-Interest
• Ayn Rand’s Objectivism: A Philosophical Analysis
• The Concept of “The Other” in Existential Philosophy
• Philosophical Assumptions in Freud’s Theory of Psychoanalysis
• Taoist Philosophy and Its Relevance to Sustainable Living
• Rethinking the Philosophy of Death: Perspectives on Mortality
• Philosophy of Mathematics: Beyond Numbers and Equations
• Metaphysical Debates Surrounding the Existence of God
• Interpreting the Principle of “Ma” in Japanese Aesthetics
• Philosophical Perspectives on the Dichotomy of Good and Evil
• Assessing the Phenomenological Approach in Philosophy
• Heraclitus’ Philosophy of Change: A Dynamic View of Reality
• The Mind-Body Problem: Insights From Dualism and Monism
• Evaluating Zeno’s Paradoxes: A Philosophical Perspective
• The Notion of Justice in Rawls’ Theory of Fairness
• Pyrrhonian Skepticism: An Examination of Radical Doubt
• Impacts of Existential Crisis on Human Behavior: A Philosophical Investigation

Interesting Philosophy Paper Topics

• Rousseau and the “Noble Savage”: Revisiting Romanticism in Philosophy
• Debating the Ethics of War: A Philosophical Approach
• The Perception of Reality in Hindu Philosophy: Maya and Brahman
• Analyzing the Philosophy of Crime and Punishment: Dostoevsky’s Perspective
• The Golden Mean: Aristotle’s Take on Balance and Moderation
• Philosopher Kings: Plato’s Vision of Ideal Rulership
• A Deeper Look Into the Philosophy of Stoic Joy
• Exploring the Boundaries of Human Knowledge: An Epistemological Enquiry
• The Socratic Method: Its Philosophical Foundations and Educational Implications
• Understanding the Notion of “The Absurd” in Camus’ Works
• Critical Examination of Hobbes’ “State of Nature”
• Kierkegaard’s Leap of Faith: A Philosophical Analysis
• Transhumanism and Its Philosophical Implications: A Critical Study
• Philosophy of Art: Aesthetic Theory and Practice
• Evaluating the Existentialism of Nietzsche’s “Ubermensch”
• Jung’s Archetypes: Unveiling the Philosophical Underpinnings
• Moral Obligations Towards Future Generations: A Philosophical Perspective
• Zen Buddhism: Its Philosophy and Influence on Eastern Thought
• Philosophical Perspectives on Human Rights: Defining Dignity and Freedom
• Confucius’ Philosophy of Harmony: Relevance in Contemporary Society
• The Evolution of Social Contract Theory: From Hobbes to Rawls
• Tracing the Evolution of Moral Relativism in Philosophy
• The Philosophical Aspects of Happiness: A Comparative Study
• Platonic Love: Its Philosophical Underpinnings and Influence on Western Thought

Argumentative Philosophy Topics

• Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Modern Ethics
• Death Penalty: Deterrent for Crime or Infringement on Rights?
• Free Will vs. Determinism: Influence on Human Behavior
• Assisted Suicide: Compassionate Choice or Ethical Misstep?
• Objectivity in History: Fact or Interpretation?
• Truth of Absolutism: Unwavering Certainty or Egotistical Illusion?
• Validity of Censorship in Safeguarding Public Morality
• Role of Religion: Source of Morality or Cause of Conflict?
• Virtue Ethics: Ideal Moral Compass or Unrealistic Standard?
• Merit of Utilitarianism in Policy-Making Decisions
• Ethical Implications of Genetic Engineering in Humans
• Vegetarianism: Moral Obligation or Personal Preference?
• Pacifism: Cowardice or Bravery in the Face of Conflict?
• Cultural Relativism: Respect for Diversity or Excuse for Human Rights Violations?
• Existentialism: Path to Authenticity or Descent into Nihilism?
• Intellectual Property: Protection of Creativity or Hindrance to Progress?
• Aesthetic Judgements: Subjective Preference or Objective Criteria?
• Human Nature: Innately Good or Inherently Evil?
• Moral Responsibility of Multinational Corporations in Developing Countries
• Ethical Dimensions of Universal Basic Income
• Privacy in Digital Age: Fundamental Right or Sacrifice for Security?

Philosophy Proposal Essay Topics

• Exploration of Ethical Implications Surrounding Genetic Engineering
• Unveiling Truth: An Investigation Into Epistemological Theories
• Analyzing Moral Dilemmas: A Deep Dive Into Kantian Ethics
• Perspectives on Existentialism: Influences and Repercussions
• Rationality vs. Emotion: A Comparative Study in Decision-Making
• Dialectics of Master and Slave: Hegelian Theory Revisited
• Nature of Reality: Examination of Metaphysical Concepts
• Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics: Relevance in Contemporary Society
• Buddhist Philosophy and Its Impact on Modern Mindfulness Practices
• Nietzsche’s “Übermensch”: Interpretation and Implications for Modern Man
• Empathy’s Role in Ethical Decision-Making: A Philosophical Perspective
• Aesthetic Judgement: Kant’s Analysis in the Modern Context
• Phenomenology’s Evolution: Sartre and Husserl Comparative Analysis
• Postmodern Deconstruction: Derrida’s Influence on Contemporary Thought
• Quantum Mechanics and Philosophy: Revisiting Determinism and Indeterminism
• Platonist Views on Love: An In-Depth Review
• Mysticism and Rationalism: Contrasting Views on Human Experience
• Panpsychism Reconsidered: Consciousness in the Universe
• Multiverse Theory: Philosophical Discussions and Considerations
• Nihilism in the 21st Century: An Evaluative Study

Philosophy Research Paper Topics

• Ethical Conundrums of Genetic Engineering: A Philosophical Analysis
• Unraveling Hegel’s Dialectics: The Synthesis of Thesis and Antithesis
• Tracing the Origin and Development of Libertarianism
• Environmental Ethics: Gaia Theory and Deep Ecology
• The Trolley Problem: A Philosophical Conundrum
• Examining “The Myth of Progress” From a Philosophical Lens
• The Philosophical Basis of Humanism: Secular and Religious Perspectives
• The Enigma of Time in Philosophy: Exploring Different Theories
• The Moral Dimension of Veganism: A Philosophical Exploration
• Materialism vs. Idealism: An Enduring Philosophical Debate
• The Philosophy of Music: From Pythagoras to Nietzsche
• Understanding the Philosophy of Education: Teaching and Learning Deconstructed
• The Role of Doubt in Philosophy: A Discourse on Skepticism
• Insights Into the Philosophy of Love: From Plato to Fromm
• Unpacking the Concept of “Collective Consciousness” in Durkheim’s Works
• Revisiting “The Allegory of the Sun” in Plato’s Republic
• A Phenomenological Approach to Perception: Merleau-Ponty’s Perspective
• Philosophical Implications of the Multiverse Theory: An Analysis
• Exploring the Concept of Karma in Indian Philosophy
• Philosophy of Space and Time: Unveiling the Mysteries

Comparative Philosophy Essay Topics

• Exploring the Distinctions Between Eastern and Western Concepts of Justice
• Contrasting Confucianism and Platonism: Ethics and Education
• Buddhism vs. Stoicism: A Comparative Study of Approaches to Suffering
• Existentialism in West versus Absurdism in East: Differing Views on Meaning of Life
• A Comparative Analysis of Aristotle’s and Confucius’s Views on Friendship
• The Role of Intuition in Eastern Mysticism and Western Rationalism
• Daoism and Epicureanism: Different Paths to Tranquility
• Relevance of Kant’s Categorical Imperative in the Context of Buddhist Ethics
• The Influence of Taoist Philosophy on Western Environmental Ethics
• A Comparative Study: Greek Hedonism and Indian Philosophy of Ananda
• Comparative Evaluation of Duty in Kantian Ethics and Dharma in Hindu Philosophy
• Parallel Themes in Zoroastrianism and Platonism: A Comparative Analysis
• Comparative Examination of Eastern and Western Perspectives on Forgiveness
• Kierkegaard’s Leap of Faith and Zen Buddhism’s Sudden Enlightenment: A Comparative Study
• A Comparative Analysis of Schopenhauer’s Will and Buddhism’s Desire
• Comparing Hindu Karma and Aristotelian Virtue Ethics: A Study of Moral Responsibility
• Nietzsche’s Eternal Recurrence and the Buddhist Notion of Samsara: A Comparative Analysis
• Analyzing the Differences in Hegelian and Taoist Dialectics
• Examining Sufism and Christian Mysticism: Comparative Analysis of Divine Love
• Understanding Free Will: A Comparative Study Between Sartre’s Existentialism and Islamic Determinism

Practical Philosophical Topics for Philosophy Essays

• Altruism vs. Egoism: Which Guides Humanity?
• Happiness Pursuit: The Role of Virtue Ethics
• Consequentialism and Its Impact on Decision-Making Processes
• Existentialism: Understanding Our Purpose and Meaning
• Justice Examination: Balancing Equality and Fairness
• Animal Rights: Ethical Obligations Towards Non-Human Creatures
• Perception of Reality: An Analysis of Solipsism
• Morality Origin: Divine Command Theory or Secular Humanism?
• Feminist Philosophy: Promoting Gender Equality and Justice
• Dilemmas in Bioethics: Dealing With Life and Death Decisions
• Vegetarianism Advocacy: A Case of Moral Obligation
• Capital Punishment: Weighing Retribution Against Rehabilitation
• Personal Identity: Analyzing Persistence Over Time
• War Ethics: Deciphering Justified Conflict
• Environmental Ethics: Our Responsibility Toward Nature
• Kant’s Imperative: Its Application in Modern Ethics
• Stoicism Influence: Practical Philosophy for Modern Living
• Political Philosophy: Understanding Social Contract Theory
• Business Ethics: Corporate Responsibility and Stakeholder Theory
• Utilitarianism: Critiquing Its Feasibility as a Moral Framework
• Metaphysics of Mind: Analyzing Dualism vs. Physicalism

Philosophy Essay Questions

• How Does Plato’s Theory of Forms Influence Modern Philosophy?
• What Are the Ethical Dimensions of Nietzsche’s “Will to Power”?
• In What Ways Does Kant’s Transcendental Idealism Contribute to Epistemology?
• How Does Existentialism Manifest in Kierkegaard’s Philosophical Writings?
• Which Holds Greater Influence: Empiricism or Rationalism?
• What Role Does Phenomenology Play in Husserl’s Thought?
• Can Derrida’s “Of Grammatology” Be Deconstructed?
• How Can Philosophical Perspectives Shed Light on Artificial Intelligence Ethics?
• What Are the Philosophical Implications of Quantum Physics?
• How Does Epicurus’ Philosophy Contribute to the Art of Happiness?
• How Does Camus’ Concept of the Absurd Explore the Search for Meaning?
• How Does Hegel’s Dialectic Theory Influence His Phenomenology of Spirit?
• What Are Feminist Perspectives Presented in Simone de Beauvoir’s “The Second Sex”?
• How Does Postmodernism Reflect in Baudrillard’s “Simulacra”?
• How Does Leibniz’s Monadology Shape the Metaphysics of His Time?
• Does the Paradox of Free Will Undermine the Concept of Personal Autonomy?
• How Does Popper’s Falsification Theory Reinforce the Philosophy of Science?
• How Has Wittgenstein’s Linguistic Turn Shaped Analytic Philosophy?
• What Insights Does Heraclitus Provide on the Philosophy of Constant Change?
• How Does Sartre’s Phenomenological Ontology Emerge in Being and Nothingness?
• How Does Singer’s Utilitarian Ethics Shape the Argument for Animal Rights?

Aesthetics Philosophy Topics

• Significance of Form in Aesthetic Appreciation
• Relationship Between Aesthetics and Emotion
• Impacts of Culture on Judgments of Beauty
• Evolution of Aesthetic Taste Throughout History
• Aesthetic Philosophy and the Nature of Creativity
• Concept of the Sublime in Aesthetic Experience
• Philosophy of Aesthetics and the Perception of Art
• Roles of Imagination in Aesthetic Appreciation
• Aesthetic Judgment and Criteria for Beauty
• Philosophy of Aesthetic Experience and the Mind-Body Problem
• Aesthetics and the Interpretation of Art
• Connections Between Aesthetics and Ethical Values
• Aesthetic Education and Development of Artistic Taste
• Influence of Technology on Aesthetic Perception
• Authenticity in Art and the Philosophy of Aesthetics
• Aesthetics and the Concept of Artistic Intention
• Temporal Perception in Aesthetic Experience
• Philosophy of Art Restoration and Aesthetic Preservation
• Aesthetic Appreciation of Nature and the Environment
• Aesthetics and the Ethics of Environmental Responsibility
• Philosophy of Architecture and Aesthetic Design
• Aesthetic Pleasure and the Concept of Catharsis

Analytic Philosophy Essay Topics

• The Epistemological Significance of Conceptual Analysis
• Language’s Roles in Analytic Philosophy
• Exploring the Ontological Status of Abstract Objects
• Ethical Considerations in Language and Communication
• The Problematic Nature of Induction in Scientific Reasoning
• Mental States: Identity or Functionalism?
• Unveiling the Metaphysics of Causation and Determinism
• The Logical Structure Underlying Scientific Explanation
• Perception and Sense Data: Epistemological Insights
• Philosophical Perspectives on Mathematics: Platonism vs. Nominalism
• Exploring Consciousness: Physicalism or Dualism?
• The Epistemology of Testimony and Trustworthiness
• Philosophy of Time: Presentism or Eternalism?
• Understanding the Nature of Natural Laws
• Ethical Dimensions of Human Enhancement Technologies
• The Problem of Personal Identity and Continuity
• The Epistemology of Scientific Realism and Anti-Realism
• Philosophy of Language: Referentialism or Pragmatism?
• Analyzing the Concept of Analyticity in Language Philosophy
• Ethics of Animal Rights and Welfare

Ancient Philosophy Essay Topics

• Stoicism and the Pursuit of Apatheia: Examining Emotional Detachment
• Epicurus’ Hedonistic Philosophy and Its Critique of Pleasure
• The Significance of Reason in Seneca the Younger’s Philosophy
• Divine Providence in Stoic Metaphysics: Unraveling Its Meaning
• Pythagorean Ethics: The Interplay of Virtue and Mathematics
• Heraclitus’ Doctrine of Flux: A Paradigm Shift in Ancient Thought
• Pythagorean Philosophy: Exploring the Harmony of Body and Soul
• Aristotle’s Ethics: The Concept of Telos and Human Flourishing
• Parmenides’ Metaphysics and Its Influence on Pre-Socratic Philosophy
• Epictetus on the Integration of Reason and Passion in Moral Development
• Zeno’s Paradoxes: The Philosophy of Paradox in Ancient Greece
• Neoplatonism and the Anima Mundi: Unveiling the Cosmic Soul
• The Aesthetic Dimension in Ancient Greek Philosophical Thought
• Ethics and Politics: The Interconnectedness in Aristotle’s Philosophy
• The Influence of Sophists on Rhetoric and Philosophical Discourse
• The Logos: Stoic and Heraclitean Perspectives on Rationality
• Divine Retribution in Ancient Roman Philosophical Thought
• Skepticism and the Quest for Knowledge: An Ancient Philosophical Inquiry
• Marcus Aurelius: Reason and Virtue in Stoic Philosophy
• Stoicism and Epicureanism: Exploring the Concepts of Fate and Destiny
• The Interplay of Ethics and Metaphysics in Plato’s Philosophy
• Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave”: Political Philosophy and the Quest for Truth

Continental Philosophy Essay Topics

• Metaphysical Foundations of Existentialism
• Phenomenological Analysis of Perception and Reality
• Language and Interpretation in Hermeneutics
• Hegelian Dialectics: Freedom Unveiled
• Merleau-Ponty’s Embodied Phenomenology: Corporeality, Perception, and the World
• Ethics of Care: Feminist Perspective in Continental Philosophy
• Power’s Ontology: Foucault’s Discourse Analysis
• Deconstruction: Critiquing Binary Oppositions
• Emmanuel Levinas: Exploring the Notion of “Otherness”
• Hannah Arendt: Political Philosophy and the Power of Action
• Spirit’s Absolute Nature: Hegelian Philosophy
• Sartre’s Existentialism: Crisis of Meaning
• Heidegger’s Analysis of Being-in-the-World: Authentic Existence
• History’s Roles in Walter Benjamin’s Philosophy
• Bergson’s Philosophy of Duration: Time Unveiled
• Ethics of Alterity: Julia Kristeva’s Perspective
• Phenomenology of Love: Jean-Luc Marion’s Insights
• Alienation: Marx and Adorno’s Conceptual Framework
• Desire’s Philosophy: Gilles Deleuze’s Perspective
• Sublime Aesthetics: Immanuel Kant’s Notions
• Poststructuralist Critique: Challenging Essentialism and Identity

Eastern Philosophy Essay Topics

• Analyzing the Four Noble Truths in Buddhism
• Non-Attachment in Advaita Vedanta: A Transcendent Concept
• The Significance of Mindfulness in Eastern Philosophies
• Eco-Philosophy: Embracing the Way of Nature
• Karma Yoga: Selflessness in Hinduism
• Leadership and Daoism: The Way to Govern
• Exploring the Three Jewels of Buddhism
• The Paradox of Wu: Unveiling Daoist Mysteries
• Impermanence: A Key Tenet in Buddhist Philosophy
• Neo-Confucianism’s Influence on East Asian Societies
• The Bhagavad Gita: Self-Realization through Yoga
• Daoist Alchemy: Inner Transformation and Eternal Life
• Shintoism: Rituals and Their Significance
• Zen Koans: Illuminating Enigmatic Teachings
• Qi: Vital Energy in Traditional Chinese Medicine and Philosophy
• Laozi’s Teachings: Insights From “The Dao De Jing”
• Asceticism: Renunciation in Indian Philosophy
• Yogic Perspectives: Mind, Consciousness, and Beyond
• Tea Ceremony: Harmony and Zen Aesthetics
• Confucianism’s Ethical Teachings in Modern Society

Enlightenment Philosophy Essay Topics

• The Influence of Descartes’ Dualism on Enlightenment Thought
• Voltaire’s Critique of Religious Dogma and Superstition
• Kant’s Concept of Reason and Its Role in Enlightenment Thinking
• Empiricism in Hume’s Philosophy and Its Impact on Enlightenment
• Locke’s Theory of Natural Rights and Its Influence on Enlightenment Politics
• Rousseau’s Social Contract and the Idea of Popular Sovereignty
• The Enlightenment’s Impact on the American Revolution
• Montesquieu’s Theory of Separation of Powers and Its Influence on Modern Governments
• The Feminist Critique of Enlightenment Philosophy
• Diderot’s “Encyclopédie” and the Dissemination of Enlightenment Ideas
• Enlightenment’s Influence on the French Revolution
• Spinoza’s Pantheism and Its Relation to Enlightenment Metaphysics
• Skepticism’s Roles in Enlightenment Philosophy
• The Ethical Implications of Enlightenment Rationalism
• Enlightenment’s Impacts on Education and the Spread of Knowledge
• Critique of Colonialism in Enlightenment Philosophy
• Aesthetics in Enlightenment Thought and Its Significance
• Leibniz’s Monadology and Its Relation to Enlightenment Metaphysics
• Newtonian Physics’ Influence on Enlightenment Philosophy
• Freedom of Speech in Enlightenment Thinking and Its Importance
• The Concept of Happiness in Enlightenment Ethics

Epistemology Philosophy Topics

• The Nature of Knowledge: Exploring Epistemological Foundations
• Rationality and Reasoning: Investigating Logic in Knowledge Attainment
• Inductive Dilemma: Assessing Generalization Validity
• Skepticism and Certainty: Unveiling Limits to Human Understanding
• Empiricism vs. Rationalism: Contrasting Approaches to Epistemology
• Epistemic Relativism: Evaluating Subjectivity in Knowledge
• Warranted Belief: Examining Criteria for Epistemic Justification
• Intellectual Virtues: Identifying Knowledgeable Traits
• Foundationalism vs. Coherentism: Analyzing Knowledge Justification Theories
• Gettier’s Challenge: Critiquing Traditional Knowledge Definition
• Epistemic Authority: Investigating the Role of Experts
• Ethical Dimensions of Knowledge: Exploring Epistemic Responsibility
• Social Epistemology: Understanding Social Factors in Knowledge Acquisition
• Epistemic Norms: Evaluating Standards for Knowledge
• Testimony and Trustworthiness: Assessing Reliability in Second-Hand Knowledge
• Internalism and Externalism: Contrasting Perspectives on Justification
• Reliabilism: Analyzing Cognitive Processes in Knowledge Formation
• A Priori vs. A Posteriori Knowledge: Distinguishing Analytic and Synthetic Truths
• Epistemic Closure Principle: Assessing Knowledge Inference
• Pragmatic Epistemology: Considering Practical Consequences of Beliefs

Existentialism Philosophy Topics

• Existentialist Perspectives on Life’s Purpose
• Freedom and Authenticity in Existentialist Thought
• The Absurdity of Human Existence: An Existential Inquiry
• Existential Anxiety and Dread: Navigating the Uncertainty
• The Existential Crisis: Questioning the Fundamentals of Existence
• Reflecting on the Nature of Being in Existentialist Philosophy
• God and Existentialism: Exploring the Existential Dimension
• Mortality and Existentialism: Reflections on Life and Death
• Individualism and Authenticity in Existentialist Ideology
• Ethical Dilemmas and Freedom of Choice in Existentialism
• Human Condition: An Existentialist Perspective
• The Existential Hero: Embracing Freedom and Responsibility
• Existential Angst: Navigating the Depths of Existence
• The Search for Meaning: Existentialism and the Void
• The Quest for Authenticity in an Existentialist Framework
• Phenomenology of Existence: Exploring the Essence of Being
• Embracing Uncertainty: Existentialism and the Unknown
• Personal Fulfillment: Existentialist Insights and Perspectives
• The Paradox of Freedom: Choices and Limitations in Existentialism
• Existential Responsibility: The Weight of Our Choices
• Rejecting Objective Morality: Existentialist Perspectives

Feminist Philosophy Essay Topics

• Intersectional Feminism: Exploring the Interconnected Struggles of Gender, Race, and Class
• Agency and Autonomy: Reconceptualizing Women’s Empowerment in Feminist Thought
• Ethics of Care: Rethinking Relationships and Responsibilities in Feminist Philosophy
• Embodiment and Subjectivity: The Role of the Female Body in Feminist Philosophy
• Epistemology of Gender: Challenging Male-Centered Knowledge Systems
• Gender and Power: Analyzing Patriarchy’s Impact on Women’s Lives
• Feminist Perspectives on Sexuality and Desire: Embracing Pleasure and Liberation
• Reproductive Justice: Examining Women’s Rights Over Their Bodies and Reproduction
• Environmental Feminism: Valuing Women’s Contributions to Sustainability
• Language and Gender: Deconstructing Gendered Discourse and Linguistic Norms
• Capitalism and Feminism: Unveiling Gendered Exploitation and Economic Inequalities
• Sexual Violence and Consent: Reshaping Consent Culture in Feminist Philosophy
• Feminist Ethics in Healthcare: Redefining Medical Decision-Making
• Feminist Philosophy of Science: Challenging Biases in Scientific Research
• Gender Identity and Transgender Rights: Recognizing Diverse Experiences
• Feminist Perspectives on Marriage and Family: Reimagining Relationships and Roles
• Feminist Pedagogy: Transforming Education to Empower Women
• Body Politics: Exploring Appearance and Beauty Standards in Feminist Philosophy
• Feminist Perspectives on Globalization: Analyzing Neoliberal Policies’ Impact on Women
• Feminist Approaches to Political Theory: Reconceptualizing Power and Democracy

Metaphysics Philosophy Topics

• The Essence of Reality: Unveiling the Fundamentals of Existence
• Consciousness and Its Role in Metaphysics: Exploring the Mystery
• Causality and Determinism: Investigating the Link Between Cause and Effect
• Metaphysical Dualism: Examining the Mind-Body Connection
• Free Will and Determinism: Reconciling Human Choice With Universal Laws
• Ontological Arguments for the Existence of God: Unraveling Deity’s Nature
• The Problem of Evil: Addressing Suffering in a Perfect World
• Time and Temporality: Delving Into the Nature of Chronology
• Personal Identity and the Self: Defining Being’s Essence
• Metaphysics of Space: Exploring Universe’s Dimensions and Boundaries
• The Nature of Knowledge: Epistemological Considerations in Metaphysics
• Essentialism and Nominalism: Debating Universals’ Nature
• Teleological Arguments for God’s Existence: Examining Design in the Universe
• Metaphysics of Morality: Investigating Ethical Principles’ Foundation
• Substance and Attribute: Understanding Objects’ Fundamental Properties
• Identity and Individuation: Exploring Criteria for Personal Distinction
• Metaphysics of Language: Analyzing Words’ Relationship With Reality
• Idealism and Realism: Examining Diverse Views on the World’s Nature
• Metaphysical Paradoxes: Investigating Logical Inconsistencies in Reality
• The Problem of Induction: Evaluating Generalized Knowledge’s Validity
• Theories of Universals: Debating Abstract Concepts’ Existence

Modern Philosophy Essay Topics

• Ethical Implications of Technological Advancements
• Epistemological Challenges in the Digital Era
• Consciousness and Selfhood in Contemporary Metaphysics
• Impacts of Postmodernism on Art and Aesthetics
• Existentialist Perspectives on Freedom and Responsibility
• Power Dynamics and Oppression in Critical Theory
• Feminist Philosophy: Embodiment and Phenomenology
• Ethics in the Era of Artificial Intelligence
• Consumer Culture: The Paradox of Choice
• The Intersection of Philosophy and Science in the Mind
• Language, Communication, and Analytic Philosophy
• Environmental Ethics in the Anthropocene Era
• Exploring Evil: Contemporary Philosophy of Religion
• Temporal Concepts in Contemporary Metaphysics
• Cultural Diversity and Moral Relativism
• Animal Rights: Ethics and Contemporary Philosophy
• Transhumanism: Technology and Human Flourishing
• Quantum Philosophy: Understanding Reality
• Social Contract Theory and Political Legitimacy
• Philosophy of Education in a Globalized Context

Phenomenology Philosophy Topics

• Human Consciousness and the Lived Experience
• Intentionality in Phenomenological Analysis
• Embodiment and the Phenomenology of Perception
• Temporality and the Experience of Time in Phenomenology
• Social Interactions and Intersubjectivity in the Phenomenological Context
• Phenomenology of the Other: Encounter With Alterity
• Emotions and Their Role in Phenomenological Investigation
• Authenticity: Exploring the Phenomenology of Being
• Place and Space: Phenomenological Perspectives
• Selfhood and the Phenomenology of Identity
• Existential Inquiry: Unveiling Meaning Through Phenomenology
• Embodied Mind: Phenomenological Reflections on the Body-Mind Relationship
• Art and Aesthetics: Phenomenological Engagement
• Temporality: The Structuring Principle of Consciousness in Phenomenology
• Language and Its Significance in Phenomenological Discourse
• Ethics of Care: Phenomenological Considerations
• Objectivity and Intentionality in Phenomenology
• Perception and Its Role in Phenomenological Inquiry
• Technology and Its Impact on Phenomenological Reflection
• Lifeworld: Foundation of Phenomenology

Philosophy Ethics Topics

• Freedom, Responsibility, and Existential Ethical Inquiry
• Ethical Dilemmas in Medical Decision-Making
• Feminist Ethics: Gender, Equality, and Justice
• Moral Relativism and Cultural Diversity
• Capital Punishment: An Ethical Assessment
• Ethical Considerations in Artificial Reproduction
• Implications of Human Cloning: An Ethical Examination
• Ethics of War and Justifications for Violence
• Ethical Issues in Biomedical Research
• Ethical Dimensions of Privacy and Surveillance
• Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide: Ethical Perspectives
• Moral Realism vs. Subjectivism: A Philosophical Debate
• Ethical Challenges in Globalization and Trade
• Corporate Ethics: Responsibilities and Accountability
• Resource Allocation in Healthcare: Ethical Considerations
• Ethical Questions in Genetic Privacy and DNA Analysis
• Obligations Toward Future Generations: An Ethical Inquiry
• Artificial Intelligence in Warfare: Ethical Implications
• Criminal Justice Ethics: Balancing Punishment and Rehabilitation
• Ethical Considerations in Organ Transplantation
• Human Enhancement and Transhumanism: Ethical Perspectives

Philosophy of Education Essay Topics

• The Role of Ethics in Educational Practices: Cultivating Moral Responsibility
• Examining the Influence of Technology on Teaching and Learning: Enhancing Educational Approaches
• Philosophy of Inclusion: Embracing Diversity Within Educational Settings
• Constructivism and Its Impact on Education: Fostering Active Knowledge Construction
• The Importance of Critical Thinking in Educational Environments: Nurturing Analytical Minds
• Play-Based Learning in Early Childhood Education: Promoting Holistic Development
• Examining the Purpose of Education: Cultivating Lifelong Learners
• Ethics of Standardized Assessment: Balancing Accountability and Student Well-Being
• Existentialism in Education: Nurturing Authenticity and Personal Freedom
• The Significance of Emotional Intelligence in Educational Contexts: Fostering Social and Emotional Learning
• Promoting Creativity in Education: Unlocking the Potential of Imagination
• Exploring Cultural Education: Celebrating Diversity and Promoting Intercultural Understanding
• Examining Progressivism in Education: A Student-Centered Approach
• The Importance of Education for Sustainable Development: Fostering Environmental Responsibility
• Addressing Gender Equity in Education: Promoting Equality and Inclusivity
• Perennialism in Education: Cultivating Enduring Knowledge and Universal Truths
• Ethical Considerations in Classroom Management: Balancing Discipline and Empathy
• Philosophy’s Roles in Teacher Education: Shaping Educators’ Perspectives and Practices
• The Influence of Socioeconomic Factors on Education: Addressing Educational Disparities
• Philosophy of Epistemology in Education: Examining the Nature of Knowledge Acquisition

Philosophy of Language Topics

• Linguistic Constructs: Exploring the Role of Language in Shaping Reality
• Verbal Determinism: Examining the Influence of Language on Thought
• Expressive Boundaries: Unraveling the Ineffability of Linguistic Expression
• Intentional Communication: Understanding Meaning in Verbal Acts
• Referential Dynamics: Investigating the Relationship Between Words and the World
• Social Significance: Analyzing Power Dynamics in Linguistic Interactions
• Semantics and Truth: Exploring the Correspondence Between Language and Reality
• Contextual Meaning: Examining Pragmatics in Language Usage
• Language Acquisition: Unveiling the Process of Learning and Acquiring Verbal Skills
• The Challenge of Indeterminacy: Exploring Ambiguity and Vagueness in Language
• Figurative Language: Analyzing Metaphors and Metonymy in Linguistic Representation
• Linguistic Influence on Identity: Investigating Language’s Impact on Personal and Cultural Identities
• The Nature of Naming: Understanding the Significance of Lexical Representation
• Theories of Referentiality: Comparing Descriptive, Causal, and Direct Reference
• Linguistic Relativity Debate: Examining the Influence of Language on Thought and Perception
• Evolutionary Aspects of Language: Tracing the Origins and Development of Human Communication
• Meaning in Interpretation: Exploring Context, Intention, and Understanding
• Language and Power Structures: Investigating the Relationship between Linguistics and Social Hierarchies
• Translation Challenges: Unraveling the Philosophical Implications of Language Transfer
• Cognitive Representations: Examining the Connection Between Language and Thought
• Logical Structures: Analyzing the Formalism of Language and Reasoning
• Language and Technological Influence: Exploring the Impact of Digital Communication on Linguistic Practices

Philosophy of Law Essay Topics

• Ethical Dilemmas in Legal Punishment
• Reasoning and Decision-Making in Legal Systems
• Metaphysics of Rights and Legal Personhood
• Intersection of Morality and Legal Enforcement
• Epistemological Foundations of Legal Systems
• Ontological Status of Legal Norms and Obligations
• Concept of Justice in Legal Theory
• Hermeneutics of Legal Texts and Interpretation
• Relationship Between Law and Social Change
• Teleology of Legal Institutions and Systems
• Deontological Perspective on Legal Ethics
• Aesthetics of Law and Legal Systems
• Pragmatism in Legal Positivism
• Roles of Equality in Legal Rights and Obligations
• Existential Dimensions of Legal Responsibility
• Dialectics of Individual Liberty and Legal Constraints
• Precedents and Case Law: Hermeneutics and Interpretation
• Phenomenology of Legal Authority and Obedience
• Ethics of Civil Disobedience and Legal Reform
• Epistemological Challenges of Legal Realism

Philosophy of Mind Topics

• The Conceptualization of Consciousness: Exploring Self-Awareness Phenomena
• Dualism and Materialism: Examining Mind-Body Relationship Nature
• Embodied Cognition: Understanding Role of Body in Cognitive Processes
• Free Will and Determinism: Investigating Boundaries of Human Agency
• The Problem of Other Minds: Unveiling Understanding of Mental States in Others
• Intentionality and Mental Representation: Unraveling Nature of Cognitive Content
• Personal Identity: Analyzing Self-Continuity Over Time
• The Nature of Qualia: Discussing Subjective Experience of Sensations
• Artificial Intelligence and Consciousness: Exploring Potential Machine Sentience
• Epistemological Challenges of Perception: Examining Reliability of Senses
• Mental Causation: Investigating the Relationship Between Mental Events and Physical Events
• Panpsychism: Contemplating Mind Presence in All Things
• Reductionism and Emergence: Analyzing Explanation Levels in Mind-Body Problem
• Consciousness and Brain Activity: Linking Neural Processes to Subjective Experience
• Philosophy of Memory: Understanding the Nature of Remembering
• The Problem of Induction: Examining Justification for Generalizing From Experience
• The Nature of Belief: Investigating Epistemology of Mental States
• Philosophy of Emotion: Exploring Subjective Experience of Feelings
• Philosophy of Language: Analyzing the Relationship Between Language and Thought
• Introspection and Self-Knowledge: Reflecting on Inner Experience Nature
• Mental Imagery and Perception: Examining Role of Mental Images in Cognition

Philosophy of Religion Essay Topics

• The Existence of God: A Critical Examination
• The Problem of Evil: Reconciling Divine Omnipotence and the Presence of Suffering
• Religious Pluralism: Is There One Ultimate Faith?
• The Teleological Argument: Investigating Design and Purpose in the Cosmos
• The Cosmological Argument: Exploring the Origin of the Universe
• The Ontological Argument: Examining the Concept of a Necessary Existence
• Faith and Reason: Coexistence or Conflict?
• Mystical Encounters: Understanding the Significance of Spiritual Experiences
• The Euthyphro Dilemma: Does Morality Depend on Divine Commands?
• Divine Hiddenness: Why Does God Not Reveal Himself Universally?
• Supernatural Interventions: Exploring Miraculous Events
• Divine Foreknowledge and Human Free Will: A Philosophical Inquiry
• Religious Language: Expressing the Ineffable?
• Soul and Personal Identity: Investigating Immortality and the Self
• Theodicy: Justifying God’s Actions in the Face of Evil
• Religion and Science: Navigating the Relationship Between Two Ways of Knowing
• Pascal’s Wager: Rationality in Belief
• Ineffability: The Challenge of Describing the Divine
• Afterlife Beliefs: Exploring Concepts of Existence Beyond Death
• Divine Sovereignty and Human Freedom: A Paradoxical Connection

Philosophy of Science Essay Topics

• The Epistemological Significance of Experimentation in Scientific Inquiry
• The Role of Induction in Scientific Theory Formation
• Metaphysical Implications of Quantum Mechanics
• Ethical Considerations in Scientific Research
• The Nature of Causality in Scientific Explanations
• Time’s Concept in Philosophy of Science
• Observation-Theory Relationship in Scientific Practice
• Social Dimensions of Scientific Knowledge Production
• Underdetermination Problem in Scientific Theories
• Mathematics’ Roles in Scientific Understanding
• Exploring Life and Its Fundamental Principles in Philosophy of Biology
• Objectivity’s Concept in Scientific Inquiry
• Falsification Methodology in Science
• Models and Simulations in Scientific Explanation
• Space’s Philosophy: Examining the Nature of Physical Reality
• Epistemological Status of Scientific Laws
• Explanation’s Concept in Science
• Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Science
• Philosophy of Neuroscience: Understanding Mind and Brain
• Rationality in Scientific Reasoning
• Emergence Concept in Complex Systems Science

Plato Philosophy Essay Topics

• Metaphysical Concepts in Plato’s Philosophy
• Forms and Their Role in Plato’s Theory of Ideas
• Epistemological Foundations: Understanding Plato’s Philosophy
• Ethical Implications: Exploring Plato’s Allegory of the Cave
• Political Idealism: Plato’s Vision in the Republic
• Recollection and Knowledge: Unraveling Plato’s Theory
• The Philosopher-King Concept: Plato’s Ideal Ruler
• Reason and Knowledge: Key Elements in Plato’s Philosophy
• Dialectic Method: Examining Plato’s Dialogues
• Education in Plato’s Philosophy: Unlocking the Mind
• Justice: Plato’s Concept in the Republic
• The Dualistic Nature of the Soul: Plato’s Unique Perspective
• Love’s Philosophy: Analyzing Plato’s Symposium
• Immortality of the Soul: Plato’s View in the Phaedrus
• Beauty’s Essence: Plato’s Philosophical Reflection
• Poetry’s Significance: Exploring Plato’s Republic
• Critique of Democracy: Plato’s Examination of Governance
• Body and Soul Relationship: Plato’s Intriguing Connection
• Mathematics: Plato’s Philosophical Exploration
• Virtue’s Essence: Unpacking Plato’s Ethics

Political Philosophy Essay Topics

• The Role of Democracy in Modern Governance
• Ethical Implications of Political Authority
• Justice and Equality in Political Systems
• Examining the Nature of Political Obligation
• Conceptualizing Freedom in Political Philosophy
• Ethics Surrounding Political Violence
• The Interplay of Ethics and Politics
• State’s Responsibility in Safeguarding Individual Rights
• Justifying Political Authority Legitimacy
• Ethical Challenges in Political Campaigning
• Civil Disobedience as a Democratic Instrument
• Consent as the Basis of Political Legitimacy
• Ethics of Promoting Political Correctness
• Political Philosophy’s Roles in Policy Formation
• Balancing State Intervention in Economic Affairs
• Significance of Political Ideologies in Contemporary Politics
• Moral Foundations of Social Welfare Programs
• Moral Dilemma of Political Power
• Ethics in Global Political Governance
• Educational Influence on Political Philosophy
• Linking Political Stability to Economic Development

Postmodern Philosophy Essay Topics

• Deconstruction and Its Impact on Language
• The Influence of Postmodernism on Contemporary Art
• Identity Construction in the Postmodern Era
• Epistemological Challenges in Postmodern Philosophy
• Postmodern Ethics and the Question of Moral Relativism
• The Role of Power in Postmodern Political Thought
• Postmodernism and the Crisis of Metanarratives
• Language Games and Meaning in Postmodern Philosophy
• The Rejection of Objectivity in Postmodern Thought
• The Relationship Between Postmodernism and Postcolonial Theory
• Aesthetics in the Postmodern Era: The Collapse of Beauty Standards
• The Fragmentation of Self in Postmodern Philosophy
• Deconstructing Gender: Postmodern Feminist Perspectives
• Consumer Culture Critique in Postmodern Philosophy
• Enlightenment Dialectics: Postmodern Interpretations
• Challenging Traditional Design Principles: Postmodern Architecture
• Rethinking Authorship in Postmodernism
• The Critique of Modern Science in Postmodern Philosophy
• Postmodernism and Literary Theory: Influence and Implications
• The Crisis of Representation in Postmodern Visual Arts

Transcendentalism Essay Topics in Philosophy

• The Influence of Nature in Transcendentalist Philosophy
• Self-Reliance: A Core Tenet of Transcendentalism
• Intuition’s Roles in Transcendentalist Thought
• Transcendentalist Perspectives on Divinity
• Individualism vs. Society in Transcendentalism
• Transcendentalism’s Quest for Truth
• Imagination’s Significance in Transcendentalist Philosophy
• Nonconformity as an Ethical Principle in Transcendentalism
• Transcendentalism’s Oversoul Concept
• Transcendentalism’s Impacts on American Literature
• Mind-Body Connection in Transcendentalist Philosophy
• Transcendentalism’s Environmental Ethics
• Seeking Spiritual Enlightenment in Transcendentalism
• The Self in Transcendentalist Thought
• Transcendentalism’s Influence on Civil Disobedience
• Transcendentalism’s Embrace of Immediacy
• Transcendentalism’s Critique of Materialism and Consumerism
• Universal Truths in Transcendentalism
• Art and Spirituality in Transcendentalist Philosophy
• Transcendentalism’s Rejection of Traditional Institutions
• Nonviolence as an Ideal in Transcendentalism

Worldview Philosophy Topics

• Metaphysics of Reality: Exploring the Nature of Existence
• Ethical Dilemmas in a Globalized Society
• Technological Advancements: Ethical Implications and Considerations
• Aesthetics: The Philosophy of Art Appreciation
• Epistemology: Foundations of Scientific Inquiry
• Mind-Body Dualism: Understanding the Relationship
• Reason’s Roles in Ethical Decision-Making
• Identity Construction: Gender, Race, and Social Constructs
• Searching for Meaning in an Absurd Universe
• Free Will’s Significance in Human Action
• Environmental Ethics: Conservation and Sustainability
• Ontological Arguments for God’s Existence
• Philosophy of Language: Meaning and Communication
• Political Authority: Justification and Statehood
• The Problem of Evil: Philosophical Reflections
• Epistemology of Perception: The Limits of Knowledge
• Biomedical Research Ethics: Human Experimentation
• Philosophy of History: Understanding the Past’s Significance
• Temporal Metaphysics: Exploring the Nature of Time
• Authenticity and Personal Freedom: An Existentialist Perspective

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744 critical thinking essay topics & analysis ideas, 502 ethics essay topics & ideas.

380 Powerful Women’s Rights & Feminism Topics [2024]

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• Gender bias in driving
• Girls’ education in Afghanistan
• Women’s political rights in Syria
• Women’s land ownership rights
• Overincarceration of women in the US
• Resettlement of women refugees: risks
• Abortion rights in conservative countries
• Reproductive rights and HIV among women
• Honor killings as women’s rights violation
• Access to cervical cancer prevention for women of color
• Gender equity vs. gender equality
• Adverse effects of child marriage
• #Metoo movement’s impact on society
• Environmental crisis as a feminist issue
• The importance of women’s education
• Is gender equality a social justice issue?
• Why is teen pregnancy dangerous?
• How can gender biases be lessened?
• Ethics of artificial reproductive technologies
• Legacy of women’s suffrage movement

📜 History of Women’s Rights Topics

The history of women’s rights in America is long and full of struggles. The US is still far from having achieved complete equality. And in many developing countries, the situation is even worse. If you’re interested in the feminist movements and activists who paved the way thus far, this section is for you.

• The role of women in the first American settlements.
• Why weren’t women allowed to serve in combat positions in the US army until 2013?
• What happened at the Seneca Falls Convention?
• Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Women’s Suffrage in America.
• Discuss the impact of Sojourner Truth’s Ain’t I a Woman? speech.
• Explore gender equality in 20th century Britain.
• Trace the timeline of events that led to the 19th amendment.
• Why was the invention of the pill a milestone in the fight for equal rights ?
• The legacy of Amelia Earhart.
• What was The Bitch Manifesto ?
• Outline the history of women in American politics .
• The role of women in the Civil Rights Movement.
• How did the Comstock Laws affect the struggle for women’s rights?
• How did Ruth Bader Ginsburg fight against gender discrimination in the US?
• In what ways did the introduction of Islamic law improve women’s rights in Arabia?
• Artemisia Gentileschi: forerunner of feminism.
• In 2016, the first female president was nominated by a major US party. Why did it take so long?
• Explore the origins of witch trials in Europe.
• What did Molly Dewson achieve?
• The history of women’s rights in Russia vs. England.
• How did WWI influence the fight for equal rights ?
• What were the goals of the Women’s Trade Union League?
• The effects of the Equal Pay Act.

• Study the connection between women’s health and rights throughout history. 
• When did women receive the right to own property in America? Why was it important? 
• Debate the role of women in history of theater.  
• In the past, Russia was one of the first European countries to introduce women’s suffrage . In 2016, it decriminalized domestic violence. What led to this change? 
• Women in the workforce: the long road towards workplace equality . 
• Minna Canth: the history of women’s rights activism in Finland. 
• Who were “The Famous Five”? 
• Why was Japan quicker to enact equality laws than its European counterparts? 
• The role and visibility of women writers in the 19th century. 
• What problems did the National Organization for Women face? 
• Discuss the foundation and impact of the Redstockings. Did they reflect the general attitude of women towards liberation at the time? 
• Who or what was responsible for the failure of the ERA ? 
• The role of women in Ancient Greek communities.  
• Alice Paul and the Silent Sentinels: how did they contribute to establishing the right to vote for women? 
• Why was Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique critical to the progress of feminism in the 20th century? 
• The presidential candidacy of Victoria Woodhull. 
• What was the purpose of the Hull House? How did it advance women’s rights? 
• Why did Elizabeth Cady Stanton oppose the Fifteenth Amendment? 
• Lucy Stone’s influence on the abolitionist and women’s rights movements . 
• Discuss the significance of literature for the success of the suffragist movement in America. 
• Slavery: compare women’s and men’s narratives.  
• How Frances Ellen Watkins Harper’s speeches and poetry changed the world. 
• Emmeline Pankhurst as the central figure of the UK’s suffragette movement. 
• Why did it take so long for suffragette movements around the globe to gain traction? 
• From a historical perspective, why weren’t women’s rights the same as human rights? 
• Trace the development of women liberation in Morocco. 
• Investigate the founding of women’s day. 

👩👍 Feminism Topics to Research

Feminism is a global phenomenon. That’s why it’s not surprising that the term has many definitions. What to consider sexism? What can we do about it? How important is the concept of gender? Those are central questions feminists around the world seek to answer. Feminism’s areas of study include politics, sociology, and economics.

• Compare feminist issues on a global scale.
• What distinguishes radical feminists from liberal ones?
• Black feminism: is it a separate movement?
• When does “being a gentleman” become sexist?
• Is feminism always anti-racist?
• What do we need gender concepts for?
• Feminism oppression in Islamic countries.
• How do gender stereotypes form in children?
• Why are societies around the globe still struggling to achieve full equality?
• The effects of gender-oriented politics.
• Can men be feminists? (Consider Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s We Should All Be Feminists )
• How did the patriarchy develop?
• Would a matriarchal society be more peaceful than a patriarchal one? Draw your conclusions from real-life examples.
• Compare and contrast Judith Butler and Alice Schwarzer.
• Effectiveness of provocative methods in feminism.
• What’s the problem with unisex bathrooms in restaurants and bars?
• Discuss the prejudice transgender people face. What should we do about it?
• Why are reproductive rights a crucial issue on the way to equality?
• Describe various types of feminism.
• How can hairstyle function as a political statement?
• Which feminist movements are most prevalent in Asia?
• Trace the history of feminist ethics.
• What’s the “pink tax,” and why should it be abolished?
• Discuss Audre Lorde’s feminism.
• How does feminist research methodology influence education?
• Sexism in advertising : why is it still a problem?
• What are the goals of Girls Who Code?
• The role of literacy politics in achieving gender equality .
• Stay at home moms: are they a step back on the feminist agenda?
• Explore the origins of color-coding pink and blue as girl and boy colors, respectively.
• Are beauty pageants harmful to women’s positive body image?
• The problem of ableism in intersectional feminist movements.
• What is identity politics , and why is it important?
• New Zealand’s Prime Minister, Jacinda Ardern, recently introduced her new cabinet. Of the 20 people who serve in it, eight are women, five Maori, three belong to the minority Pasifika, and three are queer. Is it what all future cabinets should strive for?
• What makes racism a feminist issue?
• Describe how objectification works and why it is harmful.
• A history of women inventors who didn’t get credit for their innovations.
• Female circumcision as an example of women’s oppression disguised as a cultural tradition.
• The infantilization of women: origins and effects.

• Define how feminism influences science.
• How does one avoid gender bias when raising a child?
• What popular ideas about feminism are myths?
• Gender inequality in politics of India and Iran .
• What is the definition of ecofeminism? Describe its merits.
• How do men benefit from feminism?
• Why do we need gender equality in language?
• Problems of reconciling religion and the LGBTQ community.
• More and more fitness clubs introduce “women’s hours.” Some bars are only open for women. They claim to do this to create safe spaces. What’s your position on this development?
• Anti-feminism: is it a movement for the far-right?
• The impact of #metoo on work culture.

📚 Feminist Theory Topics to Look Into

Feminist theory criticizes how culture perpetuates misogyny. The best way to look at it is to divide feminism into three waves:

• First-wave feminism (the late 1700s – early 1900s). It includes the women’s suffrage movement.
• Second-wave feminism (the 1960s – ’70s.) Key points are equal working conditions and feminist political activism.
• Third-wave feminism (1990s – today). It encompasses not only women but all marginalized groups.

Take a look at culture from a feminist perspective with our topics:

• Discuss the concept of feminism in Barbie Doll by Marge Piercy.
• Explain the success of Gillian Armstrong’s Little Women.
• What inequalities between men and women does Mary Wollstonecraft mention in A Vindication of the Rights of Women ?
• Masculinity and femininity in William Somerset Maugham’s Of Human Bondage.
• An existentialist view: how Simone de Beauvoir influenced the feminist discourse.
• The role of women in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Americanah.
• Discuss the power dynamics between men and women in the Terminator series.
• How does rap music perpetuate traditional concepts of masculinity ?
• Daisy’s character in The Great Gatsby through a feminist lens.
• Write about the depiction of women and the patriarchy in Mad Men.
• What distinguishes the third wave of feminism from the other two?
• Women’s history and media in Susan Douglas’ Where the Girls Are .
• What is the goal of gynocriticism?
• Possibilities of sisterhood in Hulu’s TV show A Handmaid’s Tale .
• Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar : where does Esther Greenwood see her place in society?
• Early feminist perspectives in Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own.
• Compare and contrast how the characters in Mulan react to the protagonist as a woman vs. a man.
• Life stages of women in Alfonso Cuarón’s Roma .
• Why were feminists unhappy about Prado’s exhibition Uninvited Guests ?
• Sexuality and society in Céline Sciamma’s Portrait of a Lady on Fire .
• Gender expectations in The Little Mermaid .
• Feminist concepts and issues in Netflix’s Thirteen Reasons Why .
• Challenging traditional femininity: independence and rebellion in Thelma and Louise.
• The target audience of Mad Max: Fury Road is stated as male. Yet, the central character of the film Furiosa is a strong rebel woman. Does this make it a feminist movie?
• Persepolis : what it means to grow up as a liberal woman in Iran.
• Blockbuster movies have an enormous reach. Does it obligate them to support feminist issues?
• Marjorie Liu’s Monstress : what does it tell us about feminism?
• The Berlin Film Festival announced that they would no longer crown the best actor and actress. Instead, they honor the best performance in either a leading or supporting role. What are the consequences of this?
• What does it mean to criticize an art piece from a feminist point of view?
• Compare and contrast the portrayal of female characters in horror genre throughout the years.
• Analyze Donna Haraway’s A Cyborg Manifesto . Why does the author use the cyborg metaphor? What arguments does it help bring across?
• How do black women characters in Toni Morrison’s novels experience society?
• What makes various awards an important instrument of feminism?
• Analyze Katniss Everdeen archetype in Hunger Games.
• Many classic children’s stories include outdated depictions of women and people of color. Because of this, some people are demanding to ban or censor them. Do you think this is the right way to tackle the problem?
• What does the term “male gaze” mean, and why is it a problem?
• The role of the body in feminist aesthetics.
• Discuss the impact of women philosophers on renowned male scholars of their time.
• What distinguishes feminist art from other art forms?
• Debate the political dimension of using women in body art.
• Does the message in Lemonade make Beyoncé a feminist icon?
• Why are misogynist song lyrics still widely accepted?
• How did Aretha Franklin’s music impact the Civil Rights Movement in America?
• Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray from a queer theoretical perspective.
• Objectification in film: analyzing Rachel’s character in The Dark Knight.
• Investigate the Star Wars’ representation problem. How did the franchise develop into a battleground for diversity?
• Misogynist vs. psycho: feminist aspects of David Fincher’s Gone Girl.
• Was the diversity in Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse a good thing?
• The cultural significance of strong female characters.
• Examine the concept of femininity in William Golding’s Lord of the Flies.

👩‍💻 Women Empowerment Topics to Write About

Women were excluded from crucial work areas such as the military and politics for a long time. This situation is changing now. Empowerment programs encourage women to seek professions in typically male-dominated areas. Do you want to research ways of increasing women’s control over their choices? Check out the following topics:

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• Joan of Arc as a leadership idol.
• The role of She Should Run in encouraging women to run for political positions.
• What should we do about higher education barriers for African American women?
• Examine current trends in female empowerment .
• Importance of the women’s empowerment principles.

• How can businesses use the Gender Gap Analysis Tool to promote equality in their companies?
• Why is there such a big gap between committing to advancing equality and corporate efforts to implement women’s empowerment programs?
• What business practices need to change so that men and women benefit from work programs equally?
• Analyse the reasons behind poor body image among young women.
• How does the transition from cash to digital payrolls help empower women in developing countries?
• What challenges do large companies face when it comes to gender equality ?
• How does making fashion a circular economy impact women?
• Discuss what everyone can do to empower the women in their community.
• Why is it important to demand fair pay?
• The impact of Reese Witherspoon’s media company Hello Sunshine.
• What does it mean to be empowered?
• The influence of climate change on gender equality.
• Women in leadership positions: the rhetoric and the reality.
• Social stigma and family planning: the work of HER project in Kenya.
• CARE: why providing women with access to clean water is crucial for empowerment.
• How do you teach a girl that she can make a difference?
• Achievements of the global Women Deliver Conferences.
• How does Pro-Mujer help underprivileged women in Latin America?
• Why is workplace health a particular concern for women empowerment?
• What can businesses do to bridge the financial inclusion gender gap?
• Debate how strengthening women’s social position helps fight discrimination against all kinds of marginalized groups.
• Analyze the various benefits of women empowerment.
• Fighting gender stereotypes in the 21st century.
• The connection between a lack of women in politics and missing programs to support marginalized groups.
• What are patriarchal taboos that keep women from seeking power?
• How can a gender perspective on resilience activities assist businesses in finding ways to combat climate change?
• What methods does the #WithHer movement use to raise awareness of violence against women?
• The Spotlight Initiative: training sex workers to escape violence in Haiti.
• Define the gender digital divide.
• What’s the problem with the female gendering of AI assistants?
• Criticize the Gender Empowerment Measure.
• What role does the internet play in empowering girls?
• Compare the Gender Parity Index in the US and South Africa.
• How is Every Mother Counts working to decrease deaths related to pregnancies?
• Debate the reliability of the Gender Development Index.
• Child Marriage : the impact of Girls Not Brides.
• What are the political and social constraints that hamper women’s empowerment in Nigeria?
• How can you encourage women to give public speeches ?
• How does e-learning help women worldwide gain independence?
• Explore the influence of the women’s rights movement on anti-descrimination activities.
• Challenges of women business in Mauritius.
• Labibah Hashim as an inspirational figure for women empowerment in Lebanon.
• How did Malaka Saad’s magazine al-Jens al-Latif inspire women to educate themselves in the Arab world?
• The development of sexual harassment policies in East Africa.
• How does microfinance in South America help women to start businesses?

👩‍🎓 Interesting Women’s Studies Topics for an Essay

Women’s or gender studies is an interdisciplinary science. It combines research from many fields, such as economics, psychology, and the natural sciences. Key aspects are women’s experiences and cultural as well as social constructs surrounding gender.

• What is velvet rope discrimination?
• The IT sphere is comparatively modern. Why does it still have such a gender gap problem?
• Is paid maternity/ paternity leave a fundamental right for workers?
• How do we break the glass ceiling in today’s society?
• Discussing social taboos: postnatal depression.
• Women in religion: why shouldn’t women be priestesses?
• The queer of color critique: history and theory.
• Should feminists be against supporting care policies?
• Does foreign aid benefit women entrepreneurship in Sub-Saharan Africa?
• Gender bias in criminal justice.
• What does legalized prostitution mean for sex workers?
• Does “stealthing” make otherwise consensual sex nonconsensual? Should this practice have legal consequences?
• The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks : a gendered analysis.
• Rojava: give an overview of the egalitarian feminist society.
• The role of women in modern nation-building processes.
• How do we include transgender athletes into sex-segregated competitive sports?
• Discuss the significance of gender in the euthanasia debate .
• Chivalry and capital punishment : why are women who commit murders less likely to be sentenced to death?
• Why do men have less confidence in women’s abilities than in men’s?
• Are hijabs always a symbol of oppression?
• Write about the role of feminism in international relations.
• Universal basic income: changing perspectives for women.
• Gamergate: what does it tell us about some men’s view on the video game industry?
• Discuss the social construction of gender roles.
• What is benevolent sexism, and why is it a problem?
• The military seems to be especially notorious when it comes to discriminating against LGBT people. Where might this originate from?
• Many army officers don’t hide that they don’t want women to serve. Why do women still do it? Why should they?
• The Eurovision Song Contest gave drag queen Conchita Wurst an enormous audience. How did she use this opportunity?
• Why are men who wear typically female clothing stigmatized?
• How have The Guerilla Girls shaped the art world in the past 30 years?
• Healthcare: what challenges do transgender patients face?
• Femme invisibility: discrimination inside the LGBT community.
• How did the idea develop that gay men and lesbians have to act and look a certain way to be considered queer?
• The history of sodomy laws in the US.
• “The Squad” as an example of the current success of left-wing women in politics.
• Should women use their attractiveness to get what they want?
• Are the careers of women scientists more affected by turmoil than those of their male counterparts?

• Do children’s toys restrict gender criteria?
• Many drugs are only tested on male subjects. How does this affect women?
• Enumerate some qualities that are seen as positive in men and negative in women. Why do you think this happens?
• Discuss the significance of the “Transgender Tipping Point.”
• The meaning of “home” and home spaces for women over the centuries.
• How do gender issues influence lawmaking?
• Analyze queer narratives from post-soviet states. How do gender norms in these countries differ from those in your community?
• Transgender representation in media: views of Viviane Namaste and Julia Serano.
• Nuclear power between politics and culture: a feminist perspective.
• Women guards in national socialist concentration camps.
• What reasons do women have for sex tourism ?
• The problem of eurocentrism in European education.
• Explore the connection between citizenship and race.

🏥 Abortion Topics to Research

For some, abortion is a fundamental healthcare right. Others view it as a criminal act. Many conservative governments continue to restrict the access to this procedure. Because of this discrepancy, abortion remains a fiercely debated topic all around the globe. Consider one of these thought-provoking ideas:

• Why was Roe v. Wade such a landmark decision?
• Discuss why some CEOs step up against abortion bans .
• Abortion in transgender and intersex people.
• From a biological point of view, when does life begin?
• What signs should indicate that it is too late to terminate the pregnancy?
• Who influenced the abortion debate before Roe v. Wade?
• Is abortion morally wrong? If so, does that mean it’s always impermissible?
• Under what circumstances is terminating a life justified?
• Who or what defines if a being has the right to life or not?
• Analyse the access to abortion clinics as a policy issue.
• Reproductive rights and medical access in Sub-Saharan Africa.
• People terminate pregnancies, whether it’s illegal or not. Why would one still outlaw abortions?
• Investigate the occurrence of forced abortions during China’s one-child policy .
• Is the fetus’ right to life more important than the mother’s right to have control over her body?
• What rights are more essential than the right to life?
• Discuss women’s health as their integral right.
• Should there be restrictions on abortions?
• Can better access to contraceptives reduce the number of abortions?
• At what point does a fetus become a human being?
• Is selective abortion ethical?
• Germany’s paragraph 219a prohibits the display of information on abortion services. In 2019, the government decided to revise it, and now patients can consult a list provided by the department for health education. Is this compromise enough?
• What is the moral status of a human embryo?
• Should pregnancy terminations be free for low-income women?
• Is the criminalization of abortion discrimination?
• The social and psychological impact of pregnancy terminations on families.
• Should the man have a say in whether the woman has an abortion or not?
• What non-religious persuasive arguments against abortion are there?
• Are there good and bad reasons for ending a pregnancy?
• Should it be required for teenagers to have their parents’ consent for the abortion procedure?
• Examine the arguments of pro-life movement.
• Analyze how the public’s attitude towards abortion has changed over the past 50 years.
• Is withholding access to abortions a violation of human rights?
• After week-long strikes, the Polish government has delayed its proposed abortion ban. Is this a victory for the local feminist movement?
• Compare and contrast the various legal abortion methods.
• Analyze A Defense of Abortion by Judith Jarvis Thomson.
• How is abortion viewed in Eastern vs. Western countries?
• Describe potential health issues surrounding late-term pregnancy terminations.
• How can we prevent unsafe abortions ?
• What complications can occur during the abortion process?
• Debate the impact of the March for Life.
• Discuss whether women should have an abortion if diagnostics show fetal abnirmalities.
• What does Planned Parenthood do, and why is the organization important?
• Should Helms Amendment be repealed?
• How does the Hyde Amendment impact women of color in particular?
• Is forcing a woman to carry out an undesired pregnancy morally permissible?
• Mexican newspaper coverage on issues surrounding abortions.
• What are the possible health consequences of an abortion?
• Reproductive justice and women of color: the history of SisterSong.
• Compare organizations that offer information on abortions.
• How is the topic of abortion approached in Jason Reitman’s film Juno ?

🙅‍♀️ Domestic Violence Topics for a Paper

Domestic violence comes in many shapes, and it’s not always directed against women. It traumatizes not only the victim but the whole family. The long-term impacts on the victims are catastrophic, too. If you want to write a research paper on this topic, be sure to steel yourself before starting your reading.

• How did the COVID-19 lockdowns influence domestic violence cases?
• Domestic violence in closed religious communities.
• Does the type of abuse differ if the perpetrator is a man or a woman?
• Compare the problem of spousal abuse in the US, Asia, and Africa.
• Why do many victims choose not to report their cases of domestic violence?
• From a psychological perspective, why does domestic violence happen?
• Domestic violence prevention : the role of parental communication.
• Should a person with a history of abuse have custody over their child?
• Why are men more likely to resort to violence than women?
• Identify risk factors that can lead to elder abuse.
• Trace how the frequency of reports on domestic violence has changed in your community over the past 30 years.

• Why do some victims choose to stay with their abusive partners?
• What actions would you classify as domestic abuse?
• Domestic violence and feminism in Bell Hooks’ theory.
• Cultural perspectives on domestic violence : Saudi Arabia vs. Japan.
• What do different religions say about IPV ?
• If a victim kills its abuser to escape the violence, what legal consequences should they face?
• Examine the legislature of different states concerning marital rape .
• The social and legal concept of consent in marriage.
• Domestic violence and integrity among women of color.
• Abuse in teenage relationships.
• Common psychological characteristics of a person who commits parricide.
• Effects of emotional neglect on a child’s mental development .
• Discuss the effectiveness of art therapy for victims of domestic violence.
• The significance of Oregon v. Rideout.
• Explore the link between spousal and animal abuse.
• What is the Battered Woman Syndrome?
• Analyze different forms of domestic violence using case studies.
• Study the psychology behind victim blaming.
• How do mental illnesses and domestic violence affect each other?
• What are the signs of coercive control? How can one get out of it?
• The problem of control in gay relationships.
• How does one develop Stockholm Syndrome, and what does it entail?
• Analyze the discourse surrounding domestic violence in Hong Kong.
• The pseudo-family as a sociological concept.
• Compare cases of domestic violence in military and religious families.
• What is compassionate homicide, and how does the law deal with it?
• If a juvenile delinquent was abused as a child, should that lessen their sentence?
• Parental abduction: why do parents feel the need to kidnap their children?
• Domestic violence: new solutions.
• Is one sibling bullying the other a form of domestic abuse?
• How do communities typically respond to domestic violence ?
• Explore the link between women’s suicide and abuse.
• What can healthcare specialists do to identify victims of violence more effectively?
• What are the economic and social consequences of leaving an abusive relationship ?
• How does Netflix’s show You portray the relationship between a stalker and his victim?
• Treatment of perpetrators of domestic violence .
• Why do some people repeatedly end up in relationships with IPV ?
• What are the main motives for femicides ?
• Discuss the psychological aggression men and women suffer during separation processes.

With all these great ideas in mind, you’re ready to ace your assignment. Good luck!

Further reading:

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• 560 Unique Controversial Topics & Tips for a Great Essay
• 480 Sociology Questions & Topics with Bonus Tips
• 182 Free Ideas for Argumentative or Persuasive Essay Topics
• A List of 450 Powerful Social Issues Essay Topics
• 147 Social Studies Topics for Your Research Project
• 255 Unique Essay Topics for College Students [Update]
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• 150 Argumentative Research Paper Topics [Upd.]
• Feminism: Encyclopedia Britannica
• Picking a Topic: University of Michigan-Flint
• Women’s History Milestones: History.com
• Women Rising: Women’s Activism That Has Shaped the World as You Know It: UN Women
• Topics in Feminism: The University of Sydney
• Four Waves of Feminism: Pacific University
• Feminist Philosophy: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Women’s Empowerment: BSR
• Women Empowerment: United Nations Populations Fund
• Women’s & Gender Studies Research Network: SSRN
• Gender Studies: UCLA
• Key Facts on Abortion: Amnesty.org
• Abortion Ethics: NIH
• New Perspectives on Domestic Violence: Frontiers
• Domestic Violence against Women: Mayo Clinic
• What Is Domestic Abuse?: United Nations
• Feminist Research: SAGE Publications Inc
• Topic Guide: Feminism: Broward College
• Facts and Figures: Economic Empowerment: UN Women
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PHIL 406 A: Philosophical Topics in Feminism

How to Be a Feminist Philosopher

Instructor: Carina Fourie

Contact Details: Send me a message on  Canvas Inbox

Class Times & Location:  Tue & Thu 10.30am-12.20pm, Savery Hall 130

Office Hours: Wed 2-3pm on Zoom (Meeting ID: 460 391 6611); Thu 3-4pm in SAV 389 

Sonia Gechtoff "The Beginning"

Course Summary

We will analyze and assess how to do feminist philosophy and how to be a feminist philosopher. Analysis will center around two primary questions:

What theories, methods and practices should we use in order to do philosophy in a feminist way?

How can we live feminist lives?

We will identify and assess contemporary feminist thought and feminist critiques of philosophy to explore what kinds of philosophy, methods and practices are amenable to feminism or required by feminism. We will also approach the classic Socratic question of ethics – how should we live? – from a distinctly contemporary feminist perspective, considering how to be a feminist in practice. In exploring these two questions, we will also consider the role of metaphor, literature and film, transfeminist philosophy, ignorance, the experiences of Black and Asian-American women and men, being an ally and being a feminist killjoy, among other topics.

We will read texts by philosophers and critical theorists such as Sara Ahmed, Linda Martín Alcoff, Yoko Arisaka, Talia Mae Bettcher, Cora Diamond, Veronica Ivy, María Lugones, Serene Khader, and Jennifer Nash. 

Course Overview

Course Resources

Writing Resources

An Introduction to Feminisms through Metaphors & Film

Feminist Theorizing & Knowledge

"My Feminism Will Be Intersectional or It Will Be Bulls!%t"*

Living a Feminist Life (Part 1)

Problems with Philosophy

"My Feminism Will be Trans or It Will Be Bulls!%t"

Beyond Argument

Living a Feminist Life (Part 2)

Finals Week

Additional Readings - For Interest

All readings will be made available on Canvas under the relevant Module. Readings are preliminary; they may be added, removed, or replaced.

Learning Goals

The central goals for this seminar are that you should acquire the following:

• Content knowledge of key concepts that have been central to the formation of and debate about feminisms and feminist methodologies. (Reinforced and assessed through reading responses and essays)
• Skills of conceptual analysis relevant for disembedding and assessing assumptions that underpin popular and philosophical debate about oppression, sex and gender, girls, boys, women, men, and transgender children and adults. (Reinforced and assessed through reading responses, essays, and discussion)
• Skills of oral communication relevant for expressing and assessing philosophical perspectives in impromptu and informal settings. (Reinforced through discussion)
• Enhanced philosophical reading, analysis, argumentation and writing skills. (Reinforced and assessed through reading responses, essays, and discussion)

Course Materials

Materials for the course will be made available on Canvas (especially under “Modules”). Please ensure that you check Canvas regularly or set up notifications in such a way that you keep up-to-date with any announcements, readings, assignments, discussions, and so on.

Grading (Undergraduates)

The final grade you will receive depends on two aspects:

• The additive total: You will receive points that add up to 100.
• Essays & Writing Portfolio : Maximum points available, 70
• Annotations & Participation : Maximum points available, 28
• Syllabus & Assignments Quiz: 2 points

Your final score will be converted to a grade on a 4.0 scale, as long as you also fulfill the writing credit requirements.

• The writing credit requirements: 

As successfully completing this course automatically leads to a writing credit, additional writing requirements need to be achieved in order to receive a passing grade and one that matches the additive total. For full information on these requirements and more generally on grading, please read the additional information in the document entitled “Assignments and Grading” in the “Course Resources” Module, as well as the details under the “Assignments” sections in Canvas (as these become available).

Your grade will be made up of several components, including annotations, however, the majority of the grade will be made up of the points earned for your term paper. Please contact Carina to discuss grading and assignments further. 

Community Norms

We will develop these collaboratively.

Course Participation

This course requires in-depth discussion and engagement with the readings and with other students' experiences and perspectives. For this reason, you are expected to attend and participate in all classes , (unless you have a pressing reason not to, such as that you are feeling ill). Missing the occasional class will not make any difference to your grade; however, missing a number of classes could make a difference. If you are unable to attend regularly, e.g. due to caregiving responsibilities, a mental health condition, or prolonged illness, I can make accommodations and provide you with alternatives - please contact me as soon as you can to make these arrangements. I am very happy to provide accommodations, however, it is up to you to contact me to discuss the alternatives, or to arrange for me to be contacted by someone else, such as Disability Resources for Students (DRS). If you do not do so, and do not do so in a timely manner, your points for participation could be affected. For information on disabilities' access and accommodations, please see below, under “Access and Accommodations”.  See also, the “Assignments and Grading” document for information on participation points and "annotations".

Access & Accommodations

Your experience in this class is important to me. If you have already established accommodations with Disability Resources for Students (DRS), please communicate your approved accommodations to me at your earliest convenience so you can discuss your needs in this course.

If you have not yet established services through DRS, but have a temporary health condition or permanent disability that requires accommodations (conditions include but are not limited to: mental health, attention-related, learning, vision, hearing, physical or health impacts), you are welcome to contact DRS at 206-543-8924 (Voice & Relay) or [email protected] or disability.uw.edu. DRS offers resources and coordinates reasonable accommodations for students with disabilities and/or temporary health conditions. Reasonable accommodations are established through an interactive process between you, your instructor(s) and DRS. It is the policy and practice of the University of Washington to create inclusive and accessible learning environments consistent with federal and state law.

Undocumented students

Your instructors are committed to working with and for undocumented students. Resources and further information are available for you here . Please feel free to speak to Carina and/or your TA about any additional help you may need due to your undocumented status or its implications. 

Multilingual learners (MLL)

If you would like to improve your speaking, reading or writing in English, consult the English Department’s webpage for a list of resources. 

Health, wellbeing & COVID-19 protocols

For resources on health and well-being, including mental health and possibilities for counseling, please consult the UW’s website Husky Health and Wellbeing . For urgent support such as mental health crisis services, please consult the Urgent Help webpage . Call 911 in an emergency .

To prevent the spread of COVID-19 and other infectious diseases , follow this advice:

• If you’re sick, or develop COVID-19 related symptoms, stay home and follow the  UW COVID-19 public health flowchart .
• Masks are strongly recommended for (at least) the first two weeks of each quarter. When you wear a mask,  make sure it is a high-quality one .
• We strongly encourage all members of the UW community to  remain up to date on COVID-19 vaccination  and get an annual flu shot each fall.
• Take a coronavirus test  if you have symptoms or have been exposed, before and after travel, and before attending large indoor gatherings.
• Practice good hygiene, washing your hands often and avoiding touching your face.
• For more information on COVID-19, including vaccination and testing, please click on this link . 
• Let's work together to keep each other safe!

Use of plagiarism detection software notice

The University has a license agreement with SimCheck, an educational tool that helps prevent or identify plagiarism from Internet resources. I use this service by requiring that assignments are submitted electronically to be checked by SimCheck. The SimCheck Report will indicate the amount of original text in your work and whether all material that you quoted, paraphrased, summarized, or used from another source is appropriately referenced. 

Please consider submitting your essay well before the deadline so that, if needed, you are able to revise your essay taking account of the SimCheck report. I will not grade your paper until it is accompanied by a SimCheck report. 

Use of ChatGPT and other AI Tools

Your work in this course - homework, essays and any other written work - must be produced by you and you alone. You may not use ChatGPT or other AI Tools to generate written work for this course. Failure to comply may lead to grade penalization and disciplinary action. 

DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY POLICIES & RESOURCES 

Academic misconduct.

Academic misconduct, including plagiarism, is prohibited by the Student Conduct Code for the University of Washington and is taken very seriously by the UW. According to the student conduct code, academic misconduct includes: 1.    "Cheating" which includes, but is not limited to: a.    The use of unauthorized assistance in taking quizzes, tests, or examinations, or completing assignments; b.    The acquisition, use, or distribution of unpublished materials created by another student without the express permission of the original author(s); c.    Using online sources, such as solution manuals, without the permission of the instructor to complete assignments, exams, tests, or quizzes; or d.    Requesting, hiring, or otherwise encouraging someone to take a course, exam, test, or complete assignments for a student. 2.    "Falsification," which is the intentional use or submission of falsified data, records, or other information including, but not limited to, records of internship or practicum experiences or attendance at any required event(s), or scholarly research. 3.    "Plagiarism," which is the submission or presentation of someone else's words, composition, research, or expressed ideas, whether published or unpublished, without attribution. Plagiarism includes, but is not limited to: a.    The use, by paraphrase or direct quotation, of the published or unpublished work of another person without full and clear acknowledgment; or b.    The unacknowledged use of materials prepared by another person or acquired from an entity engaging in the selling of term papers or other academic materials. 4.    Unauthorized collaboration. 5.    Engaging in behavior specifically prohibited by an instructor in the course of class instruction or in a course syllabus. 6.    Multiple submissions of the same work in separate courses without the express permission of the instructor(s). 7.    Taking deliberate action to destroy or damage another's academic work in order to gain an advantage for oneself or another. 8.    The recording of instructional content without the express permission of the instructor(s), unless approved as a disability accommodation, and/or the dissemination or use of such unauthorized records. (Source: WAC 478-121 - Academic Misconduct) Plagiarism may lead to disciplinary action by the University against the student who submitted the work. Any student who is uncertain whether his or her use of the work of others constitutes plagiarism should consult the course instructor for guidance before formally submitting the course work involved.

INCOMPLETES 

Incomplete grades may only be awarded if a student is doing satisfactory work up until the last two weeks of the quarter and has furnished proof satisfactory to the instructor that the work cannot be completed because of illness or other circumstances beyond the student’s control. (Sources: Office of the Registrar – Incomplete Grades), UW General Catalog, Student Guide – Grading System) 

GRADE APPEAL PROCEDURE

A student who believes that the instructor erred in the assignment of a grade, or who believes a grade recoding error or omission has occurred, shall first discuss the matter with the instructor before the end of the following academic quarter (not including Summer Quarter). If the student is not satisfied with the instructor’s explanation, the student, no later than ten days after their discussion with the instructor, may submit a written appeal to the chair of the Department of Philosophy with a copy of the appeal also sent to the instructor. The chair consults with the instructor to ensure that the evaluation of the student’s performance has not been arbitrary or capricious. Should the chair believe the instructor’s conduct to be arbitrary or capricious and the instructor declines to revise the grade, the chair, with the approval of the voting members of his or her faculty, shall appoint an appropriate member, or members, of the faculty of the Department of Philosophy to evaluate the performance of the student and assign a grade. The Dean and Provost should be informed of this action. Once a student submits a written appeal, this document and all subsequent actions on this appeal are recorded in written form for deposit in a School file. (Source: UW General Catalog, Student Guide – Grading System)

CONCERNS ABOUT A COURSE, AN INSTRUCTOR, OR A TEACHING ASSISTANT

If you have any concerns about a philosophy course or your instructor, please see the instructor about these concerns as soon as possible. If you are not comfortable talking with the instructor or not satisfied with the response that you receive, you may contact the chair of the program offering the course (names available from the Department of Philosophy, 361 Savery Hall).

If you have any concerns about a teaching assistant, please see the teaching assistant about these concerns as soon as possible. If you are not comfortable talking with the teaching assistant or not satisfied with the response that you receive, you may contact the instructor in charge of the course. If you are still not satisfied with the response that you receive, you may contact the chair of the program offering the course (names available from the Department of Philosophy, 361 Savery Hall), or the Graduate School at G-1 Communications Building (543-5900).

EQUAL OPPORTUNITY

The University of Washington reaffirms its policy of equal opportunity regardless of race, color, creed, religion, national origin, sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, disability, or status as a disabled veteran or Vietnam-era veteran in accordance with University of Washington policy and applicable federal and state statutes and regulations.

SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Sexual harassment is defined as the use of one’s authority or power, either explicitly or implicitly, to coerce another into unwanted sexual relations or to punish another for his or her refusal, or as the creation by a member of the University community of an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working or educational environment through verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. 

If you believe that you are being harassed, seek help—the earlier the better. You may speak with your instructor, your teaching assistant, the undergraduate advisor (363 Savery Hall), graduate program advisor (366 Savery Hall), or the chair of the philosophy department (364 Savery Hall). In addition, you should be aware that the University has designated special people to help you. For assistance you may contact: SafeCampus; Office of the Ombud (339 HUB, 206-543-6028); Title IX Investigation Office (for complaints that a University student has violated the sexual misconduct provisions of the Student Conduct Code); University Complaint Investigation and Resolution Office (for complaints concerning the behavior of University employees, including faculty, teaching assistants, and other student employees).

The Office of Research Misconduct Proceedings (ORMP) coordinates the University’s handling of allegations of research misconduct against members of the University community, in consultations and cooperation with the University’s schools, colleges, and campuses.

University rules define scientific and scholarly misconduct to include the following forms of inappropriate activity: intentional misrepresentation of credentials; falsification of data; plagiarism; abuse of confidentiality; deliberate violation of regulations applicable to research.

Students can report cases of scientific or scholarly misconduct either to the ORMP, to their faculty adviser, or the department chair. The student should report such problems to whomever he or she feels most comfortable.  (Sources: Executive Order No. 61 – Research Misconduct Policy; Office of Research Misconduct Proceedings; minutes of Grad School Executive Staff and Division Heads meeting, 7/23/98.)

Preventing violence is everyone's responsibility. SafeCampus is the University of Washington’s Violence Prevention and Response Program. They support students, staff, faculty, and community members in preventing violence. SafeCampus staff will listen to your concerns and provide support and safety plans tailored to your situation. Caring, trained professionals will talk you through options and connect you with additional resources if you want them. If you're concerned, tell someone. •    Always call 911 if you or others may be in danger. •    Call 206-685-SAFE (7233) to report non-urgent threats of violence and for referrals to UW counseling and/or safety resources. TTY or VP callers, please call through your preferred relay service. •    Don't walk alone. Campus safety guards can walk with you on campus after dark. Call Husky NightWalk 206-685-WALK (9255). •    Stay connected in an emergency with UW Alert. Register your mobile number to receive instant notification of campus emergencies via text and voice messaging. Sign up for UW Alert online. •    For more information visit the SafeCampus website.

RELIGIOUS ACCOMMODATIONS

Washington state law requires that UW develop a policy for accommodation of student absences or significant hardship due to reasons of faith or conscience, or for organized religious activities. The UW’s policy, including more information about how to request an accommodation, is available at Religious Accommodations Policy ( https://registrar.washington.edu/staffandfaculty/religious-accommodations-policy/ ). Accommodations must be requested within the first two weeks of this course using the Religious Accommodations Request form ( https://registrar.washington.edu/students/religious-accommodations-request/ ).

FOOD INSECURITY AND HARDSHIP

Any student who has difficulty affording groceries or accessing sufficient food to eat every day, or who lacks a safe and stable place to live and believes this may affect their performance in the course, is urged to contact the UW Any Hungry Husky Program. Any Hungry Husky provides hunger relief free of judgment or stigma. Go to https://www.washington.edu/anyhungryhusky/  for information about the food pantry and food security grants. In addition, UW offers emergency aid for students experiencing unexpected financial hardships that may disrupt their education or get in the way of completing their degree. Go to https://www.washington.edu/emergencyaid/ for more information about how to apply.

GUIDANCE TO STUDENTS TAKING COURSES OUTSIDE THE U.S.

Faculty members at U.S. universities – including the University of Washington – have the right to academic freedom which includes presenting and exploring topics and content that other governments may consider to be illegal and, therefore, choose to censor. Examples may include topics and content involving religion, gender and sexuality, human rights, democracy and representative government, and historic events.

If, as a UW student, you are living outside of the United States while taking courses remotely, you are subject to the laws of your local jurisdiction. Local authorities may limit your access to course material and take punitive action towards you. Unfortunately, the University of Washington has no authority over the laws in your jurisdictions or how local authorities enforce those laws.

If you are taking UW courses outside of the United States, you have reason to exercise caution when enrolling in courses that cover topics and issues censored in your jurisdiction. If you have concerns regarding a course or courses that you have registered for, please contact your academic advisor who will assist you in exploring options.

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