do you call phd a doctor

Is a PhD a Doctor? [The full guide]

The term “Dr” is very prestigious and projects expertise and respect in those who use it. There is a long and complicated history with the doctor title and who should (and shouldn’t) use it. Medical doctors, lecturers, and other medical professionals use it, but where did it come from and is a PhD a doctor?

Yes, a person with a PhD is a Doctor and use the “Dr” title before their name. This is not to be confused with a medical doctor. There is a complex history with this term but is currently accepted for people who hold a PhD as well as a wide range of other professions.

I have a PhD in chemistry and I call myself Doctor Stapleton in professional settings and when I want to let certain entities know that I have been awarded a PhD. In my experience, other PhD holders mainly use their titles in a similar way.

This article will cover everything you need to know about the Dr title and who can and cannot use it.

There have been people who have argued that the term doctor should be reserved for people who have studied and are practising medicine so that there is little confusion about the people suitably qualified to make health care decisions for you.

However, as you will see through this article the doctor title has a very long history that has nothing to do with the medical field at all.

Where the term Doctor comes from

For those that love a little bit of word history:

The word doctor comes from the Latin verb ”docere” which means to teach or is used to refer to a scholar.

In history the doctor title was invented to signify that a person was an imminent scholar. The doctorates date as far back as the 1300s and those who were able to get the doctor title in front of their name were rewarded with a lot of respect and prestige.

These people were often the lecturers of their day and would therefore teach many students in their areas of expertise.

Therefore, I think it is reasonable to conclude that the original intended use of doctor was for academics and scholars.

As time went on, the doctor title was awarded to other professions that wanted to elicit the same level of respect and prestige.

Health professionals receive an undergraduate degree in medicine and can call themselves doctor. However, these are professional degrees (undergraduate qualifications) and not really considered doctorates in the true sense of the word – it is more of an honorary title.

I don’t think that anyone with a PhD really cares about who is using it and accept that the majority of the public think that anyone with a doctor title has a medical degree.

I know that I was very excited to receive my doctor title but the excitement soon wears off when you realise that it doesn’t really matter in everyday life – but it still makes you and your parents proud.

These days, the doctor title is used by a variety of non-academic professions and it can get a little bit confusing.

So let’s have a look at who can actually use the doctor title and where it came from.

Who can use “doctor”

Even though the original use of the doctor title was for imminent scholars, nowadays there are several different professional qualifications that can use the doctor title.

It’s no surprise that more professional qualifications want to use the doctor title as it indicates many years of study, status and makes parents very proud.

A 2016 peer-reviewed publication submitted to the Canadian Medical Association Journal asks who is entitled to the title of Doctor?

Exactly who can use this term is starting to get a little bit confusing for the public.

There are many honorific doctor titles, including those found in the table below.

The use of the doctor term for many healthcare-related qualifications can cause a fair bit of confusion about what qualification the person has achieved.

That is why the title of a person is only the second most important thing to look at.

If in doubt, have a look at the letters after their name to really understand what the doctor title is referring to.

There are some interesting deviations in the doctor title and interestingly, in the UK, surgeons do not refer to themselves as doctor but rather use the term Mr/Miss/Mrs/Ms etc. I had a family friend who was a brain surgeon who was a medical doctor and, after becoming a surgeon, changed back to Mr – a prestigious indicator in the medical field.

It’s strange to me how each field has its own customs to denote prestige.

There are arguments that in a professional and medical setting that the term doctor should be reserved for those who are medical doctors.

This can be difficult as many other healthcare professionals have also received doctorates in their specialisation and would want recognition for that effort and achievement.

In a 2011 article in the New York Times , physicians said that they were worried about losing control over the title of doctor because it could lead to a loss of control over the perception of the medical profession itself.

Anything that makes it more difficult for patients to make an informed decision about their healthcare could be very dangerous.

However, the fact that they are using this doctor title at all is a deviation from its original intention. Here is why the doctor title really is only meant for holders of a Doctor of Philosophy.

PhDs – the original doctors(?)

PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy and, arguably, accounts for the only true use of the doctor title.

Being awarded a PhD means that you have completed postgraduate original and/or applied research that adds a significant contribution to the knowledge in a particular field.

It could be a PhD gained at a university or a professional doctorate but should signify that the owner of the title has completed the highest qualification obtainable in their field.

I talk about this in my short YouTube video:

You don’t necessarily have to use your doctor title after you have your PhD.

I know that there are many people who only use their Dr title in professional settings or as a way to stand out in other settings.

I only use my PhD title when I am in a setting where it is traditionally used. For example, I use my doctor title if I am giving a talk at a university or I am applying for funding within my field of expertise.

Some PhD holders find it a little bit awkward using their Dr title in everyday life whilst others use it on everything from rental applications to restaurant bookings.

How people use their Dr title once they have one is completely up to personal and individual choice. Initially, I was very excited to use my doctor title in as many situations as possible but quickly became wary of using it when it wasn’t required.

However, one of my guilty pleasures is seeing my doctor title on a plane ticket – I’m not quite sure why that is!

What you should call a PhD holder/your lecturers

One of the most common questions that I get asked when I am lecturing at a university is what students should call their lecturers.

Students can get confused with all of the formalities – especially if they have never been in a university before.

Professors, associate professors, doctors, lecturers, researchers – what does it all mean and how should you refer to academics?

Ultimately, it depends on the person.

Some PhD holders who lecture in a university want to be called by their official title and surname during every interaction.

Other lecturers and PhD holders are happy with students calling them by their first name. I certainly didn’t mind people calling me Andy during my workshops or lectures.

Also, some cultures are much more formal than others and wish to show respect by always using the official title of an academic.

Feel free to use whichever mode of interaction you wish – but, as a general rule, always err on the side of caution and use the more formal term for safety. Quite often, I have seen academics prompt students to use their first name as they also feel a little bit awkward being called their professional titles.

Doctor vs professor

When you graduate from a PhD you are entitled to call yourself by the doctor title.

All PhD holders are called Doctor in their professional setting. This can be on business cards, newsletters, websites, and other official documentation.

Universities in some countries also have a graduated career progression title system which denotes the expertise and seniority of the academic.

For example, in Australia the academic system is graduated like this:

• Senior lecturer
• Associate Professor

Therefore, in Australia it is not always appropriate to call someone in a university professor. Even if they are teaching your subject.

Professor is reserved for those who have achieved demonstrated expertise and outcomes in a variety of academic areas such as administration, teaching, research, and community outreach.

In other countries, however, you are automatically deemed a professor if you are teaching at a university. For example, in America your students will refer to you as a professor no matter your seniority in your university.

One of the first things you should do if you want to talk to your lecturer in a university setting is ask what their preference would be to be called.

Ask your lecturer about their preference

Whenever I gave a lecture, I would always start by saying that people can call me by my name (Andy), or they can choose to use Dr Stapleton if they feel that is more appropriate.

In my experience, most academics will not mind if you call them by their first name and, in countries like Australia, it seems to be the most common way for students to interact with their teachers.

It is not uncommon for the opposite to be true – and, like I have mentioned above, always start with the formal interactions. It is likely that you will be invited to call the PhD holder by their first name.

Outside of a formal setting most PhD holders really don’t mind how you talk to them.

The things a PhD student needs to do to become a doctor

The reason a PhD can call themselves doctor is because they have been awarded the highest qualification possible in their field.

A PhD requires you to perform research and produce a thesis or dissertation. The new information must contribute significantly to the field and report novel and new findings.

The PhD thesis is examined by other experts in the field (known as peers) and these other experts are responsible for telling the university whether or not you have satisfied the criteria to become a PhD.

There are other, more modern, ways of reporting your findings including peer-reviewed journals and professional doctoral reports.

Either way, admission to a PhD requires many years of hard work and dedication to answering a unique and unanswered question in your field.

I think that this satisfies the original use of the term doctor and is a great accomplishment for anyone.

It’s hard work but with the right guidance and dedication it is achievable by almost anyone.

Wrapping up

This article has covered everything you need to know about whether a PhD is a doctor.

The original term was introduced in the 1300s to denote an imminent scholar. This scholar would teach and pass on information to their students.

In modern times, the term doctor has been used as an honorary title for other professional careers in recognition of the hard work that they have put in to achieve their position.

However, there are fears that the doctor title is slowly becoming used for too many health professional areas leading to confusion around who is a medical doctor and who has other health-related qualifications such as dentistry, naturopathy, and others.

Nonetheless, people without an understanding of the convention can still get confused between medical doctors and holders of a higher degree PhD.

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

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Who gets to be called ‘doctor’?

Go to med school, earn an m.d. and the “dr.” honorific gets tacked on to your last name. some women — and ph.d.s — say they get the courtesy title, and respect, less often..

We call physicians "doctor." Should we do the same for people with PhDs? (Credit: Bigstock)

This story is from The Pulse , a weekly health and science podcast.

Subscribe on Apple Podcasts , Stitcher or wherever you get your podcasts.

Molecular biologist Adam Ruben has a Ph.D.

There was one time when he made a conscious choice to refer to himself as Dr. Ruben — when he emailed an airline to complain about a messed up flight.

“We had to spend a night in some city and I was trying to get a refund for our hotel bill, so I signed the email Dr. Ruben,” he said. “And I know that’s kind of an icky thing to do but I have heard that you get better service when you use the term doctor.”

It kind of worked: He got his refund — after three months.

“It’s not outright wrong and the world should forgive me,” he said.

Ruben has been thinking about the doctor honorific for a while. He polled his friends and acquaintances with Ph.D.s on Facebook and Twitter about whether or not they call themselves doctor.

Some said they’ve earned it. Others said it seems a little pretentious.

“A surprising number of people all had the same concern about using the term doctor: if they were going to be on an airplane when somebody needs a doctor,” Ruben said.

This sort of happened to Ruben several years ago, but when he was on the ground.

Besides being a biologist, he’s also a writer and comedian. He was at a Story Collider storytelling event, performing for an audience of mostly graduate students.

“And somebody actually had a medical emergency in the middle of the show. He fainted and needed an ambulance,” Ruben recalled.

As he described it at the time, someone asked if there was a doctor in the room and about 200 people with Ph.D.s kind of looked around at each other frantically.

Some EMTs helped the guy.   He was okay in the end and the show went on .

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After checking in on social media, Ruben wrote about his informal poll for the journal Science. He heard from female engineers with Ph.D.s who said they are under-represented in their field, and feel like they need to put doctor in front of their names to get the same respect that male engineers get.

Epidemiologist Beth Linas also earned a Ph.D., and she wants media outlets to refer to people with Ph.D.s as doctor, especially if we’re interviewing them about their area of expertise.

“Someone comes up [to me] on the street and says hello to me, they can address me as Beth, but if I’m being called upon for my background in infectious disease, epidemiology or digital health which is the other area that I study, I think I should be recognized as Dr. Beth Linas.”

Linas has been thinking about this issue and wrote a commentary about the congressional hearings with Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh and research psychologist Christine Blasey Ford, who accused Kavanaugh of sexually assaulting her when they were in high school.

“There was a lot of chatter online and on Twitter about how in written media, she wasn’t being addressed as Doctor Ford, I started noticing it in other publications and other outlets,” said Linas.

Some NPR listeners complained about the “insidious bias” of the radio network calling Kavanaugh “Judge Kavanaugh” but not calling Ford “Dr. Ford.”

The NPR ombudsman explained that like many media outlets, NPR follows the Associated Press stylebook, which says if someone practices medicine, NPR calls them doctor. If it’s someone with a Ph.D., it’s up to the individual media outlet.

On the radio, we don’t have a lot of time, and every word counts. Saying someone is a doctor or saying they have a Ph.D. can be a little vague. Ultimately that doesn’t give the listener much information. So for clear and efficient communication, our policy at “The Pulse” is to introduce someone as an epidemiologist, or pediatrician — being specific about a person’s expertise when we can.

Linas said her concern comes from an issue of representation.

“There are a lot of women, and particularly women of color that really struggle to make their way in science and stay in science, and we face a lot of obstacles, and I think it’s important for women also to be recognized.”

There’s a study that backs her up: researchers found that male doctors introduce their male colleagues as “Dr.” around 70 percent of the time, but introduce their female colleagues as doctor a little less than half the time.

Linas says if media outlets refer to people with Ph.D.s as doctor, especially when we’re interviewing them about their area of expertise, then it shouldn’t be that hard to tell who is the kind of doctor who can help you when someone needs an ambulance — and who’s best suited to give you statistics on the next flu outbreak.

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“M.D.” vs. “Ph.D.” vs. “Dr.”: Are They Synonyms?

Quick: when you hear the word doctor , what do you picture?

Most would probably describe someone in a white lab coat with a stethoscope hanging around their neck or someone in medical scrubs—someone you would seek out if you have a deep cut that needed stitches.

That word doctor , however, is a title assigned to many who don’t come close to that description, many of whom you wouldn’t want stitching up that cut. Take your English professor, for instance. No offense, Dr. Barrett. 

It can all be a bit confusing, which is why it’s important to know who and why someone might be called a doctor , as well as what all those initials and abbreviations after their name mean. Here we break it all down.

What does Dr. mean?

Let’s start with doctor or D r . for short. While the first definition of the word is “ a person licensed to practice medicine,” that doesn’t mean you want to take medical advice from anyone who calls themselves a doctor . There are many looser definitions of the word that follow and, frankly, make things a bit confusing.

For example, the third definition is older slang for a “cook, as at a camp or on a ship,” while the seventh entry is “an eminent scholar and teacher.” Bugs Bunny didn’t help matters either by plying anyone and everyone with his famous greeting,“What’s up, doc?” 

The term doctor can be traced back to the late 1200s, and it stems from a Latin word meaning “to teach.” It wasn’t used to describe a licensed medical practitioner until about 1400, and it wasn’t used as such with regularity until the late 1600s. It replaced the former word used for medical doctors— leech , which is now considered archaic. 

WATCH: When Did The Word "Doctor" Become Medical?

Physician vs. doctor : are these synonyms.

While the term physician is a synonym for doctor , it’s typically used to refer to those who practice general medicine rather than those who perform surgery, aka surgeons . 

A quack , on the other hand, is defined as “ a fraudulent or ignorant pretender to medical skill.”

What does M.D. mean?

Moving on to initials that carry more weight than a nod from Bugs, let’s look at M.D.s .

M.D. , which can be used with or without the periods ( M.D. or MD )  is the designation for a medical doctor. This is earned by attending medical school (typically a four-year program after completing at least one undergraduate degree, plus a residency program), and learning to diagnose patients’ symptoms and offer treatment. 

The initials M and D stem from the Latin title  Medicīnae Doctor. There are many different types of doctors, with different specialties, but if you have a physical ailment, visiting a doctor with the initials M.D. is a good place to start.

Specialty doctors may add even more initials to their title, such as DCN (doctor of clinical nutrition), DDS (doctor of dental surgery), or countless others they acquire with additional training. To make things even more confusing, some may add abbreviations from medical associations they belong to, such as FAAEM (Fellow of the American Academy of Emergency Medicine). 

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What does Ph.D. mean?

As for Ph.D. , this stands for “doctor of philosophy.” It stems from the Latin term Philosophiae Doctor.

You can get a Ph.D. in any number of subjects, from anthropology to mythological studies. It’s not an easy feat, however, as to earn one, you must do original research and write a dissertation . 

Ph.D. vs. M.D .: are these synonyms?

There are two big differences between Ph.D. s and M.D .s. When it comes to medicine, M.D.s can prescribe medications, and Ph.D.s can’t. And yes, it’s possible to be both an M.D. and a Ph.D. In fact, some med schools offer programs in which you can achieve both simultaneously. 

You can also get a professional doctorate degree in a number of fields. For example, you might receive a doctorate of education, an  Ed.D . 

So, in a nutshell, both M.D.s and Ph.Ds can be referred to as doctors . If you’re looking for someone to treat what ails you physically, then you want at least an M.D. following their name. If you want to dig deep into a subject and get advice from someone who has done their own research and who likely knows the latest and greatest developments in a particular area, then you’re probably looking for a Ph.D. And if someone has both, even better—depending on your needs, it may be just what the doctor ordered.

Want more synonyms? Get Thesaurus.com’s sizzling synonyms right in your inbox! 

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Who gets to be called 'doctor?' Why the controversial question divides journalists, academics, and more.

Editor's note: This popular story from the Daily Briefing's archives was republished on Jul. 18, 2023.

Read Advisory Board's take: How this mirrors the debate over what to call APPs

The public's perception of who qualifies as a "doctor" can be heavily influenced by the media, but few news outlets apply the title to experts who hold doctoral degrees, such as Ph. D's in science—and one epidemiologist in blog for the Scientific American argues this oversight diminishes the authority of experts with advanced degrees.

Why news outlets do not refer to PhD holders as doctors

Several publications—such as NPR and Scientific American —follow the Associated Press (AP) Stylebook, which outlines English grammar, usage, and style and lays out standards for referring to experts who hold a doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.).

Elizabeth Jensen, NPR's ombudsman and public editor, in an opinion piece explained how NPR and many other publications apply the AP Stylebook's standards when referring to doctors and Ph.D. holders. Jensen wrote, "Longstanding NPR policy," based on the standards in the AP Stylebook, "is to reserve the title of 'Dr.' for an individual who holds a doctor of dental surgery, medicine, optometry, osteopathic medicine, podiatric medicine, or veterinary medicine."

Jensen noted the AP further clarifies, "If appropriate in the context, Dr.   also may be used on first reference before the names of individuals who hold other types of doctoral degrees. However, because the public frequently identifies Dr. only with physicians, care should be taken to ensure that the individual's specialty is stated in first or second reference. The only exception would be a story in which the context left no doubt that the person was a dentist, psychologist, chemist, [or] historian."

One epidemiologist's argument against AP Stylebook guidelines on doctors

However Beth Lina, an infectious disease scientist with a Ph.D. in epidemiology, in the Scientific American argues the AP Stylebook's standards for referring to doctors and Ph.D. holders are not appropriate.

Lina writes, "I was extremely disheartened and disappointed to learn that news organizations follow such a simplistic, flawed, and misguided recommendation, particularly as national sentiment suggests that experts are increasingly unnecessary." Lina argues, "By refusing to use the titles scientists have earned, news outlets contribute to the delegitimization of expertise."

According to Lina, NPR's use of the AP standard is at odds with the publication's mission "to create a more informed public, one challenged and invigorated by a deeper understanding and appreciation of events, ideas, and culture within the United States and across the globe," because the rule fails to inform the public.

In fact, Lina writes the AP rule "stand[s] to create potential harm to the scientific method and to the individuals who dedicate their lives to acquiring expertise and advancing science and policy." Lina notes "Dr." is not an "honorifi[c] or simple job descriptio[n]." She writes the title "is earned only upon demonstration of a deep independent understanding of a specific narrow topic."

Lina notes, "The academic credential is particularly important in the case of women in science, as many face extra obstacles to success that most men don't have to contend with."

"But this isn't just a feminist issue," Lina writes, adding, "It's an issue of recognizing achievement and knowledge." She concludes, "If news organizations strive to be leaders in creating a more informed public, it is incumbent upon them to lead by example. Though our titles are not why we continue to pursue scientific discovery, it is only appropriate to recognize us for the experts we are. We have doctorates of philosophy. Please call us 'Doctor'"(Linas, " Observations ,"  Scientific American , 10/22; Jensen,  NPR , 9/28).

Editor’s note: In case you’re curious, the Daily Briefing’s practice is not to use the title of ‘Dr.’ as an honorific, but rather to cite an individual’s degrees or training as appropriate to the story.

Advisory Board's take

Julie Riley , Practice Manager , Physician Practice Roundtable and Sarah Hostetter , Consultant , Physician Practice Roundtable

As this debate shows us, titles can have tremendous power—particularly in the health care field where expertise and trust are so important. When I think about titles in health care, I think about another important question that I often get from members: What should nurse practitioners (NPs) and physician assistants (PAs) be called in medical practices?

“Many of the alternative terms can belittle their important contribution to the care team”

We know that this group can be essential to expand access, improve quality, and offset physician workloads, and NPs and PAs are increasingly taking on more autonomous roles in practices.  So while they’re often taking on this provider role, they are not doctors by training—and we shouldn’t call them doctors. However, many of the alternative terms that are often used can belittle their important contribution to the care team.

For instance, terms like 'mid-level provider' and 'physician extender' seem tied to an outdated understanding of the role these practitioners actually play in care delivery. More specifically:

• 'Mid-level provider' suggests that they have either a lower hierarchical standing (relative to 'high-level' physicians) or offer lower quality care. But our research has shown that across the country, these practitioners are assuming greater autonomy and taking on their own panels , while evidence demonstrates that APPs offer care of  comparable quality  to that of physicians; and
• The term 'physician extender' is even less applicable, since it fails to capture the provider-level work that APPs frequently perform. Indeed, where medical groups use APPs to just "extend" the physician, they likely are underutilizing their APPs, and could task RNs, LPNs, or others with those assistant duties.

“While this nomenclature may seem inconsequential, we know that names have power”

While this nomenclature may seem inconsequential, we know that names have power—both over the existing culture and the culture that your practice wants to build. There's a clear rationale for choosing a more empowering term. Our research suggests that medical groups that use their APPs most extensively and effectively also bestow titles commensurate to their role and value. Indeed, groups that are working toward deploying APPs consistently at top-of-license consider a change in terminology as part of their broader effort.

In our research, we use the term 'advanced practice provider' (APP), though some organizations prefer 'advanced practice clinicians' or other variants on the theme. This helps convey the value of APPs and highlights their role within the organization—to themselves, their care teams, and patients.

Want to learn more about how to make the most of your advanced practice providers? If you're a Physician Practice Roundtable or Medical Group Strategy Council member, view our toolkit to access resources to help you develop a high-value, scalable, APP model.

Access the Toolkit

Not a part of those memberships? View our slide deck and on-demand presentation on How to Get the Most Value from Your Advanced Practice Providers.

Get the Slides

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Posted on November 30, 2018

Updated on July 18, 2023

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Should All Ph.D.'s Be Called 'Doctor'? Female Academics Say Yes

Please try again

On the first day of class, Debbie Gale Mitchell, a chemistry professor at the University of Denver, introduced herself to her students, telling them about her Ph.D. and her research. She told her students they could call her either “Dr. Mitchell” or “Debbie.” A male colleague had told her that he went by his first name and that students were friendlier as a result, so Mitchell decided to try it. Many students chose to call her “Debbie.”

Then one day a student asked if she thought she’d ever get a Ph.D.

“I discovered that for me, the use of my title is VITAL to remind students that I am qualified to be their professor,” Mitchell wrote on Twitter.

Mitchell’s story was just one among hundreds shared last summer on social media calling attention to the way gender affects how professionals are addressed, especially those who hold a doctorate.

The discussion comes at a time when research studies into gender bias are increasingly confirming that how a person is addressed is linked to perceptions of their status.

The Twitter conversation branched from multiple roots. On June 7, Eric Kelderman, reporter for the Chronicle of Higher Education, sent out a critical tweet of a female academic who responded to his media inquiry by suggesting that he should have used “Professor” or “Doctor” (the tweet has since been deleted). The next day, a doctor from the U.K., David Naumann, criticized doctors, medical or otherwise, who use their title in a nonprofessional setting. And a few days later the Globe and Mail, a Canadian newspaper, announced revised style guidelines wherein only medical doctors would be referred to using “Dr.”, a convention that is already used most of the time by the Associated Press and news outlets that follow AP Style  (including KQED). What followed was an explosion of opinions and experiences revolving around titles, expertise, and gender and racial bias.

Many Ph.D. holders are fine with reserving the title for medical doctors in common parlance, viewing insistence on the title as arrogant and elitist, and do not use their titles even in a scholarly setting. But for women and people of color, an academic title can be a tool to remind others of their expertise in a world that often undermines it.

Some Ph.D. holders who insist on titles say that they actually prefer their first names. But given the discrepancy in usage, some women feel they must use and defend their titles, especially where the alternative is a gendered title like “Ms.”, “Mrs.”, or “Miss”. Fern Riddell, a Ph.D.-holding historian, wrote:

My title is Dr Fern Riddell, not Ms or Miss Riddell. I have it because I am an expert, and my life and career consist of being that expert in as many different ways as possible. I worked hard to earned my authority, and I will not give it up to anyone. — Dr Fern Riddell (@FernRiddell) June 13, 2018

Following backlash to the tweet, which described her as “arrogant” and “immodest,” Riddell coined the hashtag #ImmodestWomen, encouraging hundreds of women to change their Twitter handles to include “Dr.” or share experiences of bias. Riddell later wrote about the rationale behind the hashtag, saying that “we define women by their ability to be well behaved.” #ImmodestWomen was “retaliation.”

The tweets show “Dr.” is preferred by many women because it is both unrelated to marital status and gender-neutral, unlike “Mrs.”, “Miss”, or “Ms”. Several tweets described situations where a woman’s husband or colleague was referred to as “Dr.” (whether or not he actually had a doctorate) while she got “Mrs.” or a first name.

My pastor has her PhD. She was interviewed by a local newspaper along with another male member of clergy, NOT a PhD.. HE was referred to as “Reverend Smith”, SHE was called “Paula”. Seriously. — Head To Toe Organizers (@HTTOrganizers) June 11, 2018

In other anecdotes, female doctors (M.D. and Ph.D. alike) were met with utter confusion when they answered the phone to a caller looking for “Dr.”, or presented an airline ticket bearing the title. Even in 2018, with women making up 34 percent of active physicians and more than half of medical school matriculants and doctorate recipients , many people assume that “Dr.” refers to a man.

Bias in forms of address and use of titles is not limited to gender, many participants in the Twitter discussion pointed out. People of color with doctorates are also often not given the courtesy of their title, which echoes a long history of racially biased uses of titles. History professor Charles W. McKinney wrote:

Wanna know why my students will always call me “Dr. McKinney”? Because one day in 1980 I went to the store with my 75 yr old Grandmother Melida Thomas. Clerk greeted two 20 yr old, white women in front of us with “Mrs” and said “Well, hello Melida” to my Grandmother. That’s why. — Charles W. McKinney (@kmt188) June 10, 2018

The bias reflected in these stories is backed up by data. Last year, a study from the Mayo Clinic found that female doctors were introduced by their first names, rather than a professional title, much more often than male doctors. And on June 25, researchers from Cornell University published results showing that female professionals are half as likely as their male colleagues to be referred to by their last names, a practice that is associated in the study with lower status.

“The way that we speak about others influences and is influenced by the way that we think about them,” wrote Stav Atir and Melissa J. Ferguson, authors of the recent paper.

Atir and Ferguson described eight different studies, covering forms of address in professor evaluations, talk radio and under experimental conditions. Across the board, female professionals were less likely to be referred to solely by their last name. They even found that fictional researchers who were described with last name only were perceived as better known, more eminent, higher status, and more deserving of awards.

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The researchers proposed several explanations for their results. It may be more culturally common to refer to men by their last names because they are thought to be more permanent, since women may change their last names when they marry. Alternatively, it could be that speakers use first names to identify a subject’s gender, and this is more common for women in male-dominated professions, where male is the assumed default. This type of bias could even result from attempts to highlight women’s participation by identifying their gender using first names.

“The consequences may be ironic,” wrote Atir and Ferguson, “leading to lower judgments of eminence, status, and deservingness.”

As Mitchell, the chemistry professor from the University of Denver, and other academics related on Twitter, one way of fighting this type of bias is to insist upon the title “Dr.”

But other Ph.D. holders question whether insisting on titles is the best strategy. Meena Kandasamy, a poet and writer with a Ph.D. in sociolinguistics, rarely uses her title and did not change her Twitter handle. She questioned the practice of elevating those who earned doctorates over those who have not had the opportunity to do so:

For every one of us who has managed to float up and breathe from that cesspool with a doctorate degree above our heads–we must remember our sisters sent home, their dreams crushed, their futures messed up, academia behaving like one petty thug-gang to have the backs of a few men — meena kandasamy (@meenakandasamy) June 14, 2018

Critics argue that titles do not necessarily reflect how hard one has worked or even level of expertise, and that the most equal solution is fewer titles, not more. But supporters say that claiming the titles is the best choice under the present circumstances. Elissa Harbert, a musicologist, wrote:

I support #ImmodestWomen . As a PhD and professor, I currently use Dr. as my title professionally. My relationships with students improved when I switched to Dr., even though in a perfect world I’d use my first name. It’s not a perfect world. — Dr. Elissa Harbert (@KyrieElissa) June 14, 2018

In some instances, women are less likely to exhibit bias in form of address. The Mayo Clinic study found female medical doctors introduced both men and women with a title more than 95 percent of the time. Men introduced their female colleagues with a title 49 percent of time, compared with 72 percent of the time for a male colleague. In the Atir and Ferguson study, male speakers on talk radio referred to women by last name less than half as often as they did for men, while female speakers did not have such a strong contrast. In other research on gender bias in academia and medicine, women were just as likely to treat men and women differently. As research epidemiologist Chelsea Polis related, implicit bias can extend to usage of titles for speakers and writers of any gender:

I was once quoted in a story where all men w/PhDs were “Dr. X” & all women w/PhDs were untitled. Writer (a woman) was mortified when I pointed it out. Claiming our titles publicly raises consciousness than women can/do have these credentials. I want young girls/women to see that. — Chelsea Polis, PhD (@cbpolis) June 10, 2018

While the evidence points to persistent bias in professional forms of address, the solution is not so clear. Highlighting women with doctorates, medical or otherwise, may provide an important reminder that woman are now earning nearly half of medical and research-based doctoral degrees. But bias in use of doctoral titles is just one example of the larger issue of gender bias, as Atir and Ferguson’s study demonstrates.

“We find evidence of a gender bias in the way that we speak about professionals in a variety of domains,” wrote Atir and Ferguson. Addressing the problem may require attention to bias in all arenas, from the classroom to the boardroom.

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Whom should we really call a “doctor”?

This is in response to the News article by Roger Collier. 1 These days many health professionals use the title “doctor.” Indeed, The Canadian Press Stylebook now decrees that the title of doctor should be reserved for physicians. Physicians, surgeons, dentists, chiropodists, university professors and, in some countries, pharmacists describe themselves as doctors. This raises the question — are they? To answer this question, one has to examine that title from both linguistic and historical standpoints.

The word doctor is derived from the Latin verb “docere,” meaning to teach, or a scholar. Only by special arrangement do any of the preceding professionals teach. Only university professors with a doctoral degree normally teach at a university. Historically speaking, the title doctor was invented in the Middle Ages to describe eminent scholars. These doctorates date back to the 1300s. Such people were accorded a lot of respect and prestige.

The PhD, or Doctor of Philosophy, is the highest graduate degree awarded by our universities.

Health professionals receive undergraduate degrees in medicine. These are professional degrees, and not really doctorates. The MD degree is not a part of graduate faculties at North American universities.

It has now become fashionable to award so-called Doctor of Law degrees to undergraduate law school graduates in the form of a Juris Doctor or JD degree, including at the University of Windsor. These, too, are merely undergraduate degrees.

Because of the respect and prestige, medical schools, particularly in Scotland, started to address their graduates as doctors in the 17th century. The argument was that graduates of such schools obtain a bachelor’s degree before joining medical school. There are problems with such logic, namely, a degree past a bachelor’s degree could potentially be a master’s degree, but not a doctoral degree.

A doctoral degree (PhD) is a degree that one earns after a master’s degree. A PhD entitles a person to use the title doctor. These are the social and physical scientists who conduct and evaluate published research. A PhD degree is normally obtained after six to eight years of hard work past the bachelor’s degree.

When we are asked in a physician’s or a dentist’s office what kind of doctor we are, we respond, “the real one.” We are the ones who teach the others.

We hope that this contribution helps in clearing up the confusion in the community about the title doctor.

The Canadian Press should change its policy and stylebook to reflect these facts and this history.

This contribution should not be construed as an attack on any professional or group of professionals. The main purpose here is to educate the public.

Competing interests: None declared.

How to Correctly Use the Titles Dr. & PhD With a Name

How to Reference a Person With a PhD

When someone has earned a Doctor of Philosophy, or Ph.D., degree, that person is subsequently referred to as “doctor” in formal speech. The same is true of a person who is a medical doctor, psychologist, dentist or veterinarian. In formal speech, that person should be referred to as “doctor.” However, the rules are different in written form when addressing someone who is called “doctor” in formal speech. In written form, the titles “Dr.” and “Ph.D.” are not interchangeable.

Determine the Type of Doctor

First, you should identify what type of doctor you are addressing. Doctors of medicine and psychology, doctors of dentistry and doctors of veterinary medicine must be addressed differently in comparison to academic doctors who have earned a Doctor of Philosophy doctoral degree. Be advised that there are different types of doctoral degrees. A Doctor of Philosophy degree is just one kind of doctoral degree. There’s also, for example, a Doctor of Education doctoral degree and a Doctor of Psychology doctoral degree. The titles associated with the various doctoral degrees are not interchangeable. Only a person who has earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree should be addressed as Ph.D.

Addressing a Doctor in Writing

Place the title of “Dr.” before the name of a person who is a doctor of medicine or psychology, doctor of dentistry, or doctor of veterinary medicine. For example Dr. George Ross. Always write the word “doctor” in its abbreviated form when it goes before the person’s name. Never write, for example, Doctor George Ross. Do not combine the title of “Dr.” with any other title even if the person could appropriately be addressed by a different title. Never write, for example, “Dr. George Ross, Ph.D.,” even if the person is a medical doctor who has also earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree. Pick one title. Do not use the “Dr.” title when referring to someone who is solely an academic doctor.

Put a comma followed by the title “Ph.D.” after the name of a person who has earned a Doctor of Philosophy doctoral degree. For example Stacey Childs, Ph.D. Do not combine the title of “Ph.D.” with any other title even if the person could appropriately be addressed by a different title. For instance, even if the person being addressed is a doctor of medicine who has also earned a Ph.D., never write, for example, Dr. Stacey Childs, Ph.D. Pick one title. Do not use the “Ph.D.” title when referring to someone who not earned a Doctor of Philosophy doctoral degree.

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Maya Austen began freelance writing in 2009. She has written for many online publications on a wide variety of topics ranging from physical fitness to amateur astronomy. She's also an author and e-book publisher. Austen has a Bachelor of Arts in communications from the New England Institute of Art and currently lives in Boston, Mass.

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What Do You Call A PhD Student?: Are They A Doctor?

When I started my PhD program, I did not know how to refer to other PhD students when addressing them at other universities. Also, it seems rather strange if you are a college student to address PhD students if they are your Teaching Assistant (TA) as professor. It just did not seem right. Over the years, I have learnt how to refer to PhD students under different roles. If you like this post, you might like our post on why life hacking and the importance of (not) life hacking.

If you are referring to PhD students, it is ok to address PhD students as Mr., Ms., or Mx. However, if they are your instructor, you might want to address them as professor as a way to show respect. If they are your Teaching Assistant, you can address them as Mr., Ms., or Mx., and, Sir or Madame. If they are more informal, you can use their first name, but ask their permission first. 

I am sure that you are much like me – not knowing what to do, but not wanting to mess up. We have all been there. Academia is often strange for those of us who did not grow up in an academic family, so don’t feel bad about knowing any of these issues. I did not grow up in an academic family, and I bumbled my way through.

Do not ask a PhD student these questions. Read this post to learn more.

By the way, I need to point out that if you make a mistake with anything, don’t worry about it. Mistakes with names and professional designations are common. I used to worry about this stuff a lot (I still do), but just cut yourself some slack. Mistakes happen, and its OK. It’s called being human. If and when I make mistakes with these kind of things, I just send a nice polite email apologizing for the mistake, or I make fun of myself, or both. 🙂

Oh, I just point out that I got my doctorate in Strategic Management back in 2011, and now an Associate Professor at a pretty well known school in the South Eastern States. If you like this post, you really should read this post on what are the differences between undergraduate and graduate education (there are some pretty big differences) .

Why do you want to address PhD students in a formal way?

Basically, you want to show respect to those that are just ahead of you in the academic system. They are not only a few years ahead of you, but it took a lot of work to get to where they are. They also had to pass several rights of passages, such as actually getting into the PhD Program, which is often difficult to do.

Many PhD students have professional degrees, particularly in Business Schools where I am, like engineering, economist, MDs, accountants, or an attorney. Indeed, it is extremely common to find PhD students with these professional degrees that would otherwise command respect in industry. Just as a way to be nice and show respect to others, you might want to error on be more formal first. Over time, as you get to know the PhD student, you can address them more informally by their first name, if that is OK with them.

Check out this blog post on must have software tools and apps that students and academics need. You might find it useful.

What is the typical age to get a PhD? Can you get one when you are younger (or older)? Read our blog post on when is it normal to get a doctorate.

Watch this video if you are confused about what is the difference between a PhD student and a PhD candidate:

Do you address PhD students as Dr (Doctor)? 

Generally, no. PhD students have not earned the terminal degree yet, so they are not technically suppose to be called Doctor. It’s kind of like putting on the marathon medal before you won the race. I even feel weird about wearing the race shirt during the race – you are just not quite finished yet. I would avoid doing that until they earned the degree. ( You might like this post on what is the PhD journey, and why it matters) .

Can a PhD candidate be called Doctor?

Again, no. I would just say

Sir or Madame.

Or, whatever they want to be called, but you should ask – it’s OK to ask.

To distinguish PhD candidates from PhD students, you can just say that they are ABD (all but dissertation). Many people will even put ABD on their academic resume (Vitae).

Have you had a bad PhD experience? Read this blog post for help!

What if you called a PhD student as Doctor or Professor by mistake?

Don’t worry about it. It’s kind of flattering for the PhD student. They will love the fact that you called them Professor or Doctor. I still remember when people started calling me that. 

Are you interested in doing a PhD? Find out about the average PhD Program acceptance rate.

It took me years to get used to the title of Professor or Doctor, and it still seems really weird to say that. To me, I am still the same boy that played in the sandbox when I was 5 years old. The only difference is that other people see me differently. At the end of the day, the only reason I use the term Dr. or Professor is to command a bit more respect, because people often mistake me for being really young. (This happened this year – I am 40 years old. It’s kinda like getting ‘carded’ when you buy a drink).

How do you refer to a PhD student in an email?

Like the question before, I would just say Mr., Ms., or Mx. So and So. I would definitely be polite and nice if you don’t know them. If they are your instructor, you might say “Dear Sir” or “Dear Madame” in the email. 

I would not write “Hey, Mr. X,” that just comes across way too informal. Instead, just write “Dear Sir/Madame.”

Here is a helpful video about emailing a Professor (or PhD Student) that you might want to see:

Here is another video that I did about PhD abbreviations:

In general though, I would just think about giving other people respect in these circumstances. Starting out formally is better than starting out informally. You can always come back to being more informal once you get to know someone a bit more. Just be nice, and good things will come.

Did you benefit from this post? Do you know of anyone at all that could use feedback on their writing or editing of their documents? I would be so grateful if you read this post on how to get feedback on your writing using R3ciprocity.com or let others know about the R3ciprocity Project. THANK YOU in advance! You are the bees knees.

The R3ciprocity Project started out as a side-project, where David Maslach created an App to help others get feedback on their work (r3ciprocity.com – it is seriously inexpensive and easy to use. You have to try it!) , but it is beginning to grow into a real movement. Check out the YouTube channel , or some of these posts if you want to understand more. You might want to read this helpful blog posts:

Thinking Of Grad School? Helpful Answers To “Do Professors…” Questions.

A Day in the Life of a Successful PhD Student (You Need To Know)

How Do You Get Feedback On Your Writing (During A PhD / In Grad School)?

Five Frustrating PhD Questions To (Never) Ask A PhD.

David Maslach

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How to Address a PhD in Email

Last Updated: August 17, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Shannon O'Brien, MA, EdM and by wikiHow staff writer, Eric McClure . Shannon O'Brien is the Founder and Principal Advisor of Whole U. (a career and life strategy consultancy based in Boston, MA). Through advising, workshops and e-learning Whole U. empowers people to pursue their life's work and live a balanced, purposeful life. Shannon has been ranked as the #1 Career Coach and #1 Life Coach in Boston, MA by Yelp reviewers. She has been featured on Boston.com, Boldfacers, and the UR Business Network. She received a Master's of Technology, Innovation, & Education from Harvard University. There are 8 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 51,277 times.

Writing an email to a college professor with a Ph.D.? Do you call someone with a Ph.D. a doctor? Figuring out the right way to address someone with a doctorate is a lot easier than it may seem, and we’re going to break this down so that you can get it right. In this article, we’ll walk you through everything you need to know about how to address someone with a Ph.D.

Do you address someone with a Ph.D. as a doctor?

How to Address an Email to Multiple Professors

• “Dear Professor Jones, Professor Smith, and Professor Ali.”
• “Dr. Jones, Dr. Smith, and Professor Ali,”
• “Dr. Jones and Professor Smith,”

What is the proper way to write a name with Ph.D.?

• You may have seen Ph.D. holders put “Ph.D.” at the end of their name. This is something authors do, but you shouldn’t need to write it this way.

Do you call a professor a doctor?

• You’re very unlikely to get into any trouble by referring to your college teacher as “professor,” even if they are a doctor. At worst, they’ll kindly correct you.
• In the United States, it is generally seen by most educators as socially acceptable to address a doctor who is also a professor as “professor.” It’s not technically correct, but you’re unlikely to offend any of your educators. As such, you can usually call a doctor a professor or Dr. in email. [3] X Research source

How do you address Ph.D. students?

• A Ph.D. student is not a doctor yet, but they may still be a professor.
• “Professor” traditionally refers to tenure-track educators at the collegiate level, but there’s no harm or risk of offense by calling an adjunct instructor, lecturer, or TA, “professor.” [5] X Research source
• “Miss” has historically been used to address unmarried women, while “Mrs.” has referred to married women. These titles are going out of style since many people find them offensive, so you’re best off skipping these. [6] X Research source

Do the rules for addressing Ph.D. holders ever change?

• For example, in Canada, you are not “officially” allowed to refer to non-medical doctors as “Dr.” You would address them as “Mr. Jones, Doctor of Mathematics.”
• This also applies to the “Jimmy Jones, Ph.D.” form, too. In the United Kingdom, for example, you don’t use any periods. Someone in the UK would write, “Jimmy Jones, PhD” without the punctuation.

Expert Q&A

• It doesn’t matter if someone has a Ph.D. is in philosophy, education, biology, math, or any other discipline. If a person has obtained a doctorate degree, they’re a doctor—even if they don’t see patients. [8] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Ph.D. is shorthand for doctor of philosophy. The word “doctor” comes from the Latin word “docere,” which means “to teach.” In ancient times, “Philosophy” was used to refer to any academic field. [9] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• The only exception, at least in the United States, are people with a law degree (they are technically “Juris Doctors”, or J.Ds). You do not use a special title or honorific to address someone with a law degree. [10] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://www.universityaffairs.ca/career-advice/career-advice-article/what-should-i-call-my-professor/
• ↑ https://www.purdue.edu/advisors/students/email.php
• ↑ https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/sending-email-to-faculty-and-administrators
• ↑ https://www.bbc.com/news/world-40530920
• ↑ https://healthenews.mcgill.ca/use-of-dr-doctor-in-quebec-and-updating-your-honorific-in-mcgills-systems/
• ↑ https://www.cmaj.ca/content/re-who-entitled-be-called-doctor
• ↑ https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialsciences/ppecorino/roark-textbook/Chapter-1.htm
• ↑ https://moviecultists.com/do-you-call-someone-with-a-jd-doctor

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Professional Title Etiquette: When to Use Your Dr. Title

Socially as well as professionally, medical doctors, dentists, and other professionals are addressed by, and introduced with, their titles. People who have earned a Ph.D. or any other academic, nonmedical doctoral degree have the choice of whether to use "Dr." both professionally and socially.  If, when meeting people with doctorates, you're unsure how to address them, "Dr." is always correct.  If they'd rather the title be dropped, they will let you know.

It's more common for women to use the title "Doctor" socially as well as professionally than in the past. When a married woman uses the title "Dr." (either medical or academic) socially, addressing social correspondence to the couple is a little trickier. If her husband is not a doctor, address letters to Dr. Sonia and Mr. Robert Harris. Her name comes first because her professional title "outranks" his social title. If her husband is also a doctor, the address is either The Drs. (Doctors) Harris or Drs. Sonia and Robert Harris (the order of the names doesn't matter).

The Reverend

In introductions and correspondence, many Protestant clergy are referred to as "The Reverend." While business correspondence is addressed to The Reverend James Norris, (D.D., if held), social correspondence is slightly different: The Reverend (Mr./Dr.) and Mrs. James Norris. In conversation, a clergyman or clergywoman is addressed as Dr./Mr./Mrs./Ms./Pastor/Rector/Reverend Norris.

Addressing a husband or wife who are both "Reverends" follows the same format as a husband and wife who are both doctors: The Reverends Norris or The Reverend Mrs./Ms. Patricia Norris and the Reverend Mr. James Norris. If either of the couple also has a doctorate degree, that person's name would go first: The Reverend Dr. James Norris and The Reverend Mrs./Ms. Patricia Norris.

Today "Esquire" is largely confined to business correspondence between attorneys and justices of the peace. An alternative is to write:

Mr. David Bowman

Attorney at Law

using two lines, no indent, and including the titles Mr. or Ms.

When "Esq." or "Esquire" is used, the name is never preceded by Mr., Ms., Mrs., or other titles such as Dr., and is written David Bowman, Esq. "Esquire" isn't used in introductions: "I'd like to introduce attorney David Bowman/Mr. David Bowman/David Bowman." It also isn't used for social correspondence, as when writing to a lawyer and his or her spouse or addressing a social invitation. Mr. and Mrs. David Bowman is the correct form.

Professional Designations

Professional designations such as CPA (Certified Public Accountant) or CLU (Certified Life Underwriter) are only used on business cards or business correspondence. They follow a person's name, and Mr. or Ms. isn't used: Martha Dawes, CPA; Phillip Olner, CLU. If a person has more than one designation, they're listed in the order received: Phillip Olner, CLU, CFP. Socially, use Mr., Ms., or Mrs. without the professional designation: Ms. Martha Dawes.

Other Titles

Every day we run into people who have an official title. The police officer at the desk is Sergeant Flynn; the head of the fire department is Chief Elmore; the club chef is Chef Rossi; the pilot on your plane is Captain Howe; and so forth. When on the job, such people are always addressed by their titles, just as they are when the matter at hand is related to their work. Socially, many don't use their titles, though they may. Sometimes a title sticks: A local judge, for example, who's been called by his title for a number of years, is usually addressed as "Judge" even after his retirement.

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Keep up-to-date on postgraduate related issues with our quick reads written by students, postdocs, professors and industry leaders.

What Should You Call a Professor?

• By Dr Harry Hothi
• August 18, 2020

As you progress through your higher education at university, you’re going to come across many different academic job titles. Most you’ll have heard of already, some you won’t have; our guide on this will help you better understand what each of these mean.

Another thing you’ll soon realise is that within STEM subjects at university, virtually all of the academics delivering lectures and supervising undergraduate, postgraduate and PhD projects have PhDs or similar research degrees such as a DPhil.

If you take a look at their university profile pages, some academics have Dr. in front of their names whilst others have Professor (sometimes shortened to Prof). This can start to get confusing, especially if you’re planning your first one-on-one meeting with the academic, perhaps to start a research project under their supervision; what do you call them? How do you address them?

Let’s say your supervisor’s name is James Bond and they have a PhD; should you call him Mr Bond, Dr Bond, Professor Bond or simply James? The easiest way to definitively answer that question would be to just ask your supervisor what he’d prefer (he’ll probably correct you if you get it completely wrong anyway!).

It is important though that you have an understanding of the significance of these different terms and why formally you might call someone with a PhD a Doctor, whilst someone else who also has a PhD could be a Professor.

To help you with this, I’ve written a list of answers to the most commonly asked questions I’ve heard around the subject.

If someone has a PhD, are they a Doctor?

PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy. If an individual holds a PhD degree, common terminology dictates that they have a doctorate, doctoral degree or a PhD in XXXX (fill in the blank here, e.g. PhD in Materials Science). PhD holders are entitled to write doctor (shortened to Dr) in front of their names and so may be called Dr. Surname. An individual with a PhD is not a Medical Doctor unless they also hold a medical degree, such as an MBBS in the UK.

How do you to address someone with a PhD?

Someone with a PhD can use the title Dr. Surname and your safest bet as a student would be to use this term when meeting a PhD holder within a formal academic or research setting; they may ask you to just use their first name or tell you that it’s actually Professor Surname! In job environments where a PhD is of less direct significance to the office environment (e.g. a Maths PhD working in banking), it’s less likely that an individual would use the doctor title in their name and you may not even know that they hold a PhD.

Do you call a Professor with a PhD a Doctor?

The distinction to be clear of here is that the title of Dr. is used to denote a PhD degree holder (or a similar doctoral degree) whilst the title of Professor is an academic job title given to an individual employed by the University as a Professor. If an academic uses the title Professor, then they should be called Professor Surname even if they have a PhD, which most STEM Professors will. It’s accepted that the title of Professor is higher than a Doctor.

Who can be called a Professor?

An academic should only be called Professor Surname if they hold the job title of professor at a university. Some universities in the UK and elsewhere also employ academics as associate professors, typically the equivalent to senior lecturers, in addition to full professors. However usually only full professors are addressed as Professor Surname.

Do you need a PhD to be a Professor?

In most STEM subjects, holding a PhD or equivalent doctoral degree is essentially a pre-requisite to becoming a professor. However, you do not always need a PhD to be a professor in other disciplines; there are certainly very successful professors within the area of modern languages, for example, that hold Master’s level degrees but not doctorates.

Is a Professor higher than a Doctor?

It is widely accepted that the academic title of Professor is higher than a Doctor, given that the job title of professor is the highest academic position possible at a university. Remember that the Doctor title here refers specially to a PhD (or equivalent doctoral degree) holder and not a medical doctor. There are certainly many examples of medical doctors holding both their medical degree (e.g. MBBS) and a PhD; these are clearly highly motivated, research minded doctors, many of whom balance their clinical work with work as a senior lecturer or even go on to become a professor themselves.

This post should answer most, if not all, of the questions you had about the use of Professor and Doctor titles within a university setting. Do check out our article on the hierarchy of academic job titles in the UK and feel free to get in touch if you have any more questions.

Thinking about applying to a PhD? Then don’t miss out on these 4 tips on how to best prepare your application.

Self-plagiarism is when you try and pass off work that you’ve previously done as something that is completely new.

Is it really possible to do a PhD while working? The answer is ‘yes’, but it comes with several ‘buts’. Read our post to find out if it’s for you.

Join thousands of other students and stay up to date with the latest PhD programmes, funding opportunities and advice.

Browse PhDs Now

Starting your PhD can feel like a daunting, exciting and special time. They’ll be so much to think about – here are a few tips to help you get started.

Learn 10 ways to impress a PhD supervisor for increasing your chances of securing a project, developing a great working relationship and more.

Bijou is a second year MD-PhD candidate, starting her second year of medical school. At the end of this academic year she’ll transition into doing a genetics PhD full time at Case Western Reserve University.

Dr Pujada obtained her PhD in Molecular Cell Biology at Georgia State University in 2019. She is now a biomedical faculty member, mentor, and science communicator with a particular interest in promoting STEM education.

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Types of Doctors and Medical Specialists: Which One Should You See?

Learn about the different types of primary care doctors and medical specialists.

This article is based on reporting that features expert sources.

Types of Medical Specialists

Getty Images

Navigating the health care system is daunting, especially when determining which type of doctors or medical specialists to see for specific health concerns. Understanding the role of your primary care physician and various medical specialists will help you make informed decisions about your health care needs.

Learn about the different types of medical specialists and when you may need a referral to visit a specialty doctor.

Key Takeaways

• There are various types of primary care doctors, including internal medicine doctors, family medicine doctors and pediatricians.
• Primary care physicians can generally take care of a majority of medical cases.
• You may need to see a specialist in certain circumstances, such as if you have a chronic or complex disease, lab results that need expert interpretation, an uncertain diagnosis or a need or want for a second opinion.
• There are various medical specialists and subspecialists who are specifically trained in the diagnosis and treatment of certain types of diseases and conditions.

Primary Care Doctors

Primary care doctors are the entry point to the medical system. They provide a comprehensive approach to care, including prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of health issues. Primary care doctors also help coordinate care when you need to see a specialist.

Having a primary care doctor allows for an ongoing patient-doctor relationship built on mutual trust.

There are different types of primary care doctors :

• Internal medicine doctors. Also called an internist , internal medicine doctors manage common and complex illnesses typically for adults and older adults.
• Family medicine doctors. Family medicine doctors provide continuous care for people of all ages, backgrounds and conditions, often caring for entire families from birth through the end of life.
• Pediatricians. Pediatricians are a type of primary care doctor specializing in the care of infants, children and adolescents. They provide primary and preventive care, including administering routine immunizations or providing acute care for common childhood illnesses , like ear infections, colds and flu and minor injuries.

Starting with a visit to your primary care physician is a great way to assess whether or not you need to see a specialist.

“Sometimes, I’ll say to the patient, ‘I can take care of that. You don’t need to go to the specialist at this point in time,’” says Dr. Theodore Strange, chair of medicine at Staten Island University Hospital, a division of Northwell Health, in New York City.

In fact, upwards of 95% of cases can be taken care of with good primary care , says Dr. David Cutler, a board-certified family medicine physician at Providence Saint John’s Health Center in Santa Monica, California. “The referral itself is the exception,” he adds.

When to See a Medical Specialist

However, there are a few reasons doctors may refer patients to a specialist, including:

• If the patient has a certain chronic or complex disease with symptoms that may need specialist testing. For example, someone with a cardiac condition may need a stress test, or an individual with a GI condition may need a specific type of endoscopy or colonoscopy.
• If you have the results of testing and need a more expert interpretation of the test to better treat the case.
• If there’s a patient with an uncertain diagnosis. A primary care physician may refer you to a specialist if they have run out of options and need an expert with more specialized medical knowledge to diagnose and treat you.
• If you need or want a second opinion .

Types of Medical Specialists You Might Need

Medical specialists have additional training and expertise in a specific area of medicine. Some even subspecialize, meaning they have even more specialized training within their specific field of medicine.

Below are several common medical specialists you might see.

Allergists-immunologist

• What is an allergist-immunologist? An allergist-immunologist diagnoses, treats and manages disorders related to the immune system, immune deficiency diseases and adverse reactions to triggers, such as drugs or food.

What do allergists-immunologists treat? Allergist-immunologists treat allergic rhinitis (hay fever), food allergies , asthma, eczema, immunodeficiency disorders and other conditions related to the immune system.

Cardiologist

• What is a cardiologist? Cardiologists deal with the prevention and treatment of disorders of the heart and vascular system.

What do cardiologists treat? Cardiologists treat cardiac issues, such as coronary artery disease , heart failure, arrhythmias and congenital heart defects.

Dermatologist

• What is a dermatologist? Dermatologists are medical specialists trained in the diagnosis and management of conditions related to the skin, hair and nails.

What do dermatologists treat? Dermatologists treat a wide range of issues, including acne, rashes, eczema, psoriasis , skin infections and skin cancer . They may also treat patients with cosmetic concerns, such as wrinkles or acne scarring.

Endocrinologist

• What is an endocrinologist? Endocrinologists are doctors who focus on disorders related to the endocrine system , which involves the glands and organs that make hormones.
• What do endocrinologists treat? Endocrinologists treat patients with endocrine conditions and disorders, such as diabetes, thyroid disorders, metabolic abnormalities and hormonal imbalances .

Gastroenterologist

• What is a gastroenterologist? Gastroenterologists , or GI doctors, manage diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, including your esophagus, stomach, bowels, liver, pancreas and gallbladder.

What do gastroenterologists treat? Gastroenterologists treat GI conditions, like cancer , hepatitis, irritable bowel syndrome, diarrhea or constipation, heartburn and ulcers.

Geriatric medicine specialist

• What is a geriatric medicine specialist? Also referred to as geriatricians , specialty doctors of geriatric medicine have specialized knowledge related to aging and training in diagnostic, therapeutic, preventive and rehabilitative care for older adults.
• What do geriatric medicine specialists treat? Geriatric physicians treat conditions that may commonly occur with aging , such as cognitive decline, mobility issues, chronic diseases and medication management. They often collaborate with other health care professionals, such as physical and occupational therapists, mental health professionals and social workers.

Hematologist

• What is a hematologist? Hematologists focus on disorders related to the blood and blood-forming tissues and organs.

What do hematologists treat? Hematologists treat blood-related conditions, such as anemia , bleeding or clotting disorders and blood cancers.

Hospice and palliative medicine specialist

• What is a hospice and palliative medicine specialist? Hospice and palliative medicine specialists provide care and support to patients and their families as the patient navigates living with a serious or terminal illness.
• What do hospice and palliative medicine specialists treat? Hospice and palliative medicine specialists aim to prevent and alleviate suffering and to focus on improving quality of life for those with serious illness. This may include addressing physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs, such as administering pain management or end-of-life care . Common conditions treated include cancer, cardiovascular diseases and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, or COPD .

Infectious disease specialist

• What is an infectious disease specialist? Infectious disease specialists diagnose and treat infections caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites.
• What do infectious disease specialists treat? This medical specialist treats a wide range of infectious diseases, including HIV/AIDS , antibiotic-resistant infections and tuberculosis.
• What is a geneticist? These medical specialists diagnose and treat genetic disorders or conditions. Geneticists have special training in the study of genes and heredity.
• What do geneticists treat? Clinical geneticists care for patients in a clinical or research-based setting, and many geneticists counsel patients at risk for particular genetic disorders or cancers, such as sickle cell disease or hereditary breast and ovarian cancer .

Nephrologist

• What is a nephrologist? Nephrologists are medical doctors who treat disorders of the kidney.

What do nephrologists treat? Nephrologists treat patients with kidney-related disorders , including kidney stones, chronic kidney disease and kidney failure. They often provide related medical management and may oversee dialysis, kidney transplantation and postoperative care, and managing diabetes or high blood pressure .

Neurologist

• What is a neurologist? Neurologists are specialty doctors who diagnose and treat disorders of the nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord and nerves.

What do neurologists treat? Neurologists treat a range of disorders affecting the nervous system, including epilepsy, stroke, Alzheimer’s disease and other memory disorders , Parkinson’s disease and migraines.

Obstetrician-gynecologist

• What is an OB-GYN? An obstetrician-gynecologist specializes in the medical and surgical care of women related to pregnancy and childbirth and disorders of the female reproductive system.

What do OB-GYNs treat? In addition to pregnancy and childbirth, OB-GYNs specialize in women’s health issues, such as menopause , contraception (birth control), infertility, endometriosis and polycystic ovarian syndrome, or PCOS.

• What is an oncologist? Oncologists specialize in diagnosing and treating cancer .

What do oncologists treat? Oncologists manage several aspects of cancer care throughout the course of the disease and often consult with other specialists, like surgical oncologists, to develop treatment plans and provide care. These medical doctors often subspecialize in a particular type of cancer, such as breast oncology , neuro-oncology and radiation oncologists.

Ophthalmologist

• What is an ophthalmologist? Ophthalmologists are eye doctors who are medically trained to manage all aspects of eye and vision care , including medical and surgical treatments.

What do ophthalmologists treat? General ophthalmologists treat diseases and disorders of the eye, such as cataracts, glaucoma, eye infections, diabetic retinopathy and refractive errors. They can also prescribe glasses and contact lenses.

Orthopedist

• What is an orthopedist? A general orthopedist , or orthopedic surgeon , specializes in disorders and injuries of the musculoskeletal system, including bones, joints, ligaments, tendons and muscles.

What do orthopedists treat? Orthopedists may treat congenital deformities, traumatic or sports injuries, spinal disorders and degenerative diseases, as well as perform other types of orthopedic surgery .

Otolaryngologist

• What is an otolaryngologist? Commonly referred to as ear, nose and throat doctors, or ENTs, otolaryngologists are medical and surgical specialty doctors who diagnose and treat diseases and disorders of the head and neck.

What do otolaryngologists treat? Conditions ENTs treat may include chronic sinusitis, allergic or non-allergic rhinitis, gastrointestinal reflux , tonsillitis and sleep apnea .

Physical medicine and rehabilitation physician

• What is a physical medicine and rehabilitation physician? Also referred to as physiatrists , these doctors focus on the functioning of the whole patient, rather than specific organs or systems, to manage pain and restore function.
• What do physical medicine and rehabilitation physicians treat? Physiatrists treat conditions which may limit a person’s ability to function, such as amputation, brain injury, cerebral palsy, Parkinson’s disease or a spinal cord injury.

Plastic surgeon

• What is a plastic surgeon? Plastic surgeons subspecialize in performing procedures that restore, reconstruct or replace physical defects or functions.
• What do plastic surgeons treat? Plastic surgeons handle reconstructive procedures, like cleft lip and palate repair or breast reconstruction after mastectomy, as well as cosmetic procedures, such as rhinoplasty or facelift.
• What is a podiatrist? Podiatrists treat issues of the foot, ankle and lower extremities.
• What do podiatrists treat? Podiatrists manage conditions or injuries related to the lower extremities, such as sprains and fractures, plantar fasciitis , bunions, hammertoes and foot and ankle arthritis.

Psychiatrist

• What is a psychiatrist? A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who specializes in the evaluation and treatment of mental health, emotional and behavioral health disorders. They can prescribe medication and use other medical approaches to disease.
• What do psychiatrists treat? Psychiatrists see patients with mental, addictive and emotional disorders, such as psychotic disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders and substance use disorders.

Psychologist

• What is a psychologist? A psychologist is a mental health professional who treats mental, emotional and behavioral issues through therapy and counseling. Unlike psychiatrists, they cannot prescribe medication in most states. (Only Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana and New Mexico allow psychologists with additional, specialized training to prescribe from an approved list of medications for certain emotional and mental health disorders, but they often collaborate with psychiatrists and other health providers.)
• What do psychologists treat? Similar to psychiatrists, psychologists work with patients with a variety of mental health disorders . They may also see people without clinical disorders who are feeling stressed or anxious to help them cope more effectively.

Pulmonologist

• What is a pulmonologist? Pulmonologists are medical specialists of the respiratory system.

What do pulmonologists treat? Pulmonologists manage serious or chronic diseases of the lungs and airways, such as emphysema, bronchitis , pneumonia, asthma and COPD.

Rheumatologist

• What is a rheumatologist? Rheumatologists are specialized medical doctors who diagnose and treat disorders related to your joints, muscles and connective tissues.

What do rheumatologists treat? Rheumatologists treat musculoskeletal diseases and systemic autoimmune conditions – referred to as rheumatic diseases – such as rheumatoid arthritis , osteoarthritis, lupus, fibromyalgia and gout .

Sleep medicine specialist

• What is a sleep medicine specialist? These medical specialists manage clinical sleep-related disorders and promote healthy sleeping habits. 

What do sleep medicine specialists treat? Sleep medicine specialists use clinical assessment and physiologic testing to diagnose, manage and prevent sleep disorders , such as insomnia, narcolepsy, parasomnias, circadian rhythm disorders and sleep-related breathing disorders, like obstructive sleep apnea.

General surgeon

What is a general surgeon? General surgeons are trained in diagnosis, preoperative, operative and postoperative management in the nine primary components of surgery, which consist of the:

• Abdominal and pelvic organs.
• Breasts, skin and soft tissues.
• Head and neck.
• Cardiovascular system.
• Endocrine system.
• Surgical oncology.
• Critical care and emergency surgery.

What do general surgeons treat? General surgeons can perform surgical procedures for a wide range of conditions, including appendectomies, hernia repairs and gallbladder removals.

• What is a urologist? Urologists are doctors who deal with diseases of the male reproductive organs and the male and female urinary tract.

What do urologists treat? Urologists may treat kidney stones , urinary incontinence and erectile dysfunction .

Do You Need a Referral to See Specialists?

Whether or not you need a referral to see a specialist depends on your health insurance plan , your doctor or the type of specialist you’re trying to see.

Point of service, or POS, plans and health maintenance organizations, or HMOs, often require a primary care physician to work with your insurer for pre-approval to visit a specialist. The referral also likely needs to be for a specialist within your insurance network. If you’re unsure whether or not you need a referral, check with your insurance company first. Otherwise, your plan may not cover the care and you’ll get stuck with high out-of-pocket costs.

In addition to the patient’s health insurance coverage, symptoms , medical history and diagnostic testing and results, primary care physicians will likely take these factors into consideration when making a referral:

• Accessibility . It's important for the specialist to be geographically accessible to the patient.
• Availability . Some specialists can take months to make an appointment with, so referring doctors take their availability into consideration.
• Coordination of care . When physicians are part of a broader health network, they’ll likely recommend a specialized doctor within the same network. One benefit is shared electronic medical records, which helps streamline follow-up coordination of care.

Patient preferences or needs . Doctors may discuss options with a patient, taking their particular values, personal preferences or individual needs into account to ensure the referral aligns with their goals.

The U.S. News Health team delivers accurate information about health, nutrition and fitness, as well as in-depth medical condition guides. All of our stories rely on multiple, independent sources and experts in the field, such as medical doctors and licensed nutritionists. To learn more about how we keep our content accurate and trustworthy, read our  editorial guidelines .

Cutler is a board-certified family medicine physician at Providence Saint John’s Health Center in Santa Monica, California.

Strange is the chair of medicine at Staten Island University Hospital, a division of Northwell Health, in New York City.

Tags: women's health , men's health , children's health , senior health , health care , family health , doctors , patient advice

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How to Properly Address a PhD

By: Author Dr. Patrick Capriola

Posted on Published: February 5, 2021

Honorifics play an important role in the English language. Not only do honorifics signify rank, but they help to convey courtesy and respect. In academia, honorifics are especially important, so it’s vital to address someone correctly. Many people wonder if they should address a PhD as doctor.

You should address a PhD with the honorific term “Doctor,” followed by their name in both spoken and written situations. The term strictly applies to anyone who has obtained a PhD degree, MD (Doctor of Medicine), or JD (Doctor of Law). English derives the honorific “Doctor” from the Latin word docere, which means “to teach,” and it applies to a PhD because they have reached a level where they can teach others.

Honorifics exist across all languages and cultures and are significant when using and understanding a language. Who should have the title of “Doctor” is widely debated by the academic world, revealing just how important honorifics are in modern-day English.

What Is a PhD?

A PhD is also known as a Doctor of Philosophy. A PhD is considered a terminal degree in the academic world, which means that the person has obtained the highest formal degree in a specific field ( source ). 

A Doctor of Philosophy is considered to be the traditional doctoral degree. However, over the years, many other types of doctoral degrees have been introduced. Examples of these include the EdD, a Doctor of Education, and DBA, a Doctor of Business ( source ).

Furthermore, a Doctor of Philosophy is considered an academic degree, while other types of doctorates are deemed professional degrees.

If you are considering pursuing a PhD, then you may be interested in exploring this article, “ How to Set and Follow Through on Academic Goals; Examples for Success .”

How and When to Use the Honorific “Dr.”

The honorific “Doctor” or “Dr.” should be used when addressing someone with a PhD, whether via written or verbal correspondence, and it applies to both males and females.

People working towards a PhD, also known as an ABD (All but Dissertation), should not be given the title of “Doctor.” Instead, you should refer to them as “Mr.” or “Ms.” until they have officially completed their PhD.

Undoubtedly, the candidate who has earned their doctorate has worked hard, so it is understandable why they deserve to be addressed correctly. 

The Prenominal and Postnominal

When discussing the subject of addressing someone with a PhD, it’s vital to consider the prenominal “Dr.” and the postnominal “PhD.”

Dr . Douglas Ferguson (Dr. is the pronominal)

Douglas Ferguson, PhD (PhD is the postnominal)

When someone earns the title of “Dr.,” they lose the previous honorifics they may have carried, such as “Mr.” or “Ms.”

A postnominal and pronominal are never used together at the same time.

Furthermore, when discussing these terms grammatically, the prenominal is used in the third person, while the postnominal is most often used in the first person. However, this may change depending on the context.

Written 

In academic circles, a considerable amount of correspondence is done via email and the written word. If you want to send a letter addressed to someone with a PhD, such as a cover letter, you use the prenominal “Dr.” 

When writing in a formal or professional context, you do not need to include the first name.

Dear Dr. Fergsuon, I hope this email finds you well.

In written correspondence, if you are receiving an email from someone with a PhD, they may choose to sign off with either the prenominal or the postnominal.

Regards, Dr . Douglas Ferguson

Regards, Douglas Ferguson, PhD

If you are uncertain, check your previous correspondence with them. Most people will have a footer at the end of their email, which tells you their qualifications. 

When addressing a person with a PhD verbally, you never use the postnominal.  

Good morning Dr . Ferguson

Dr . Ferguson, I have a question regarding the upcoming exams.

That was an interesting lecture today, Dr . Ferguson.

When Is It “Dr.” and When Is It “Professor?”

Whether to use the term “Dr.” or “Prof.” will depend on several factors. “Professor” is a higher rank than “Dr.”

However, the title only exists within a university context. Someone with a PhD will always hold the title of “Doctor”; however, they would still have to meet other commitments to become a Professor.

It is important to remember that not all those with the title “Professor” have a PhD, so the terms aren’t always exchangeable. 

Often the person lecturing you will indicate how they wish to be addressed. They may want you to call them “Dr.” or “Prof.” or even by their first names. However, it is not recommended to call someone by their first name unless requested to do so.

If a person has a doctorate, the general rule is to call them “Dr.,” whether they are lecturing you or not.

When it is appropriate to use the term ‘Professor’ differs from country to country. In America and Canada, anyone lecturing is generally granted the name “Professor” despite factors such as seniority and tenure.

However, in countries such as the UK and Germany, only full-time professors may be called “Professor.”

The list of academic ranks changes from country to country, but we can examine three examples to get a general idea.

United States

• Distinguished, Endowed, or University Professor
• Associate Professor
• Assistant Professor
• Master Instructor
• Senior Instructor
• Lecturer/Research Associate
• Part-time Lecturer

United Kingdom

• Distinguished Professor/Chair
• Full Professor/Reader
• Senior Lecturer/Associate Professor
• Assistant Lecturer/Clinical Lecturer 
• Associate Lecturer/Teaching Assistant/Departmental lecturer

South Africa

• Full Professor
• Senior Lecturer
• Junior Lecturer

Honorifics in English

An English honorific refers to a prefix that occurs before a person’s name ( source ). Honorifics are not considered to be positions or titles that can appear without the person’s name, for example, the Queen or the President.

In English, honorifics are also often used to distinguish between males and females. However, some honorifics, such as “Dr.” and “General,” apply to both males and females.

This is because when these honorifics were first used, only males were able to obtain said titles.

Honorifics are an essential part of the English Language and must be used when formally addressing people, whether it be verbal or written. 

Who Should Be Called “Doctor”?

In the Canadian Medical Association Journal, Dr. James P. Winter, a professor at the University of Windsor, argues that those with a PhD are the only ones who are entitled to be called “Doctor.”

In his argument, Winter poses some interesting questions concerning the evolution of the word “Doctor” and how it has changed over the last 700 years.

Winter argues that due to inappropriate use, the term “Doctor” has become overused and underappreciated.

Winters stated that in many countries, such as Canada, healthcare professionals who don’t have a medical degree, such as pharmacists, are allowed to call themselves “Doctor.”

Winters looks at the term from both a historical and linguistic point of view to support his argument. As the term “Doctor” is adopted from the Latin word docere, meaning “to teach,” those with the title should be teaching others. He argues that teaching others is not common practice outside of academia.

Furthermore, he argues that the title of “Doctor” originated in the 1300s when it was only used to describe distinguished scholars. 

Winter goes on to state that PhDs are the highest degree that anyone can obtain from a university, while many health professionals only achieve undergraduate degrees. He considers MDs to be professional degrees and not truly doctorates. 

He concludes that PhDs are the only “real” doctors as dictated by linguists and history. Many academics share Winter’s feelings, with many PhD holders feeling that they have earned the right to be called “Doctor.”

Dr. Fern Riddle, a historian and author, started a debate on Twitter in 2018 when she claimed she wanted only to be referred to only as “Doctor” rather than “Ms.” or “Miss” because she had earned her authority ( source ).

Her opinions received backlash when people called her arrogant and entitled. Yet, many female PhD holders prefer to be called “Doctor.”This is because it illustrates their achievement and status irrespective of whether they are married. 

Those in the medical field argue that the term “Doctor” is significant because it makes patients feel at ease. As such, any health professional who is helping someone should be allowed to bear the honorific ( source ). 

Who should rightfully be called “Doctor” is a topic that is continuously debated.

The reality is that the term “Doctor” has changed over the years to encompass a much wider circle of people. This includes not only professionals and academics but males and females. 

Whatever your perspective, it is clear that the title of “Doctor” is still much sought after and revered, and that is not likely to change anytime soon.

Final Thoughts

Those who have obtained a PhD have done so by working hard and dedicating years of their life to academia. As such, it is important when dealing with someone who has a PhD that you address them correctly.

The term “Doctor” and to whom it is applied is constantly changing from country to country. It remains to be seen who else will be awarded the title in the future and how those who hold the title will react to its evolution.

Universities vs. University’s: Understanding the Difference between Plural and Possessive

Sunday 21st of February 2021

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