conclusion on homophobia essay

Chapter 7: Prejudice and Discrimination against LGBTQ people

Sean g. massey, sarah r. young, & ann merriwether.

Although progress in terms of LGBTQ rights has been made, and attitudes towards LGBTQ+ people have changed in the past few decades, the implications of anti-LGBTQ prejudice and discrimination remain serious. It is critical that efforts to change these attitudes continue, and that LGBTQ-affirmative social scientists, educators, and practitioners continue to develop a robust knowledge base to guide these efforts. In addition, there is a related literature that highlights the strength and resilience found in the LGBTQ community, even in the face of this adversity.

LGBTQ historians and anthropologists like Chauncey (1995), D’Emilio (1983), Stryker (2008), and Kennedy and Davis (1993) have helped make visible the courage and perseverance of LGBTQ individuals and communities who faced legal risks, social stigma, overt discrimination, and violence across the 20th century. These are the voices and struggles of a resilient community: the Mattachine Society and Daughters of Bilitis who organized and built networks of LGBTQ people in the shadow of McCarthyism and anti-homosexual witch hunts; the transwomen and transmen, drag queens, queer youth of color, street hustlers, butch dykes, and gay men who took a stand at the Stonewall Inn, throwing pennies, nickels, high heeled shoes, and bricksin protest against police harassment; the LGBTQ people who, amid unimaginable death and sadness brought about by the AIDS epidemic, built organizations, took care of each other, acted up, and fought back against government disdain and neglect; the people with AIDS who, many in midst of the ravages of the disease, still found meaning in helping others. These stories of resilience aren’t meant to minimize the dangers or potential for harm. In the words of Harvey Milk, they are simply stories of hope:

“Hope for a better world, hope for a better tomorrow, hope for a better place to come to if the pressures at home are too great. Hope that all will be alright…. and you and you and you, you have to give people hope.” (Milk, 1973).

• Authored by : Sean G. Massey, Sarah R. Young, & Ann Merriwether. License : CC BY: Attribution

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The Harms of Homophobia

Ariane Resnick, CNC is a mental health writer, certified nutritionist, and wellness author who advocates for accessibility and inclusivity.

Aron Janssen, MD is board certified in child, adolescent, and adult psychiatry and is the vice chair of child and adolescent psychiatry Northwestern University.

Verywell / Laura Porter

• Homophobia, Heterosexism, and Transphobia
• Homophobia in Society
• Shifting Away From Homophobia

Homophobia is an irritational dislike of, or prejudice against, people who are LGBTQIA+ . The word " phobia " in the name conveys that fear of difference leads to hate; homophobic beliefs can be said to originate out of fear that the white supremacist and colonial status quo regarding gender and sexuality will be challenged, shattering the worldviews of many people, but homophobia manifests as actions that are anything but fearful.

Homophobic actions can include incidents of harassment, discrimination, and violence against people who identify as LGBQ+. The prefix of the word references same or similar gender attraction. Homophobia also affects people who are attracted to multiple genders, even as biphobia is also a relevant term for that community.

Transphobia—discrimination against transgender, nonbinary, and gender non-conforming people—intersects with homophobia and shares similar origins, but is a different form of oppression.

There are many people and institutions in our society that are homophobic, but that doesn't make homophobia an acceptable viewpoint to hold.

That's because it leads to harm against others and is rooted in anger and fear of difference. Being homophobic is similar to the concept of being  racist . Perpetuating either bias places you firmly on the wrong side of history and further away from a world in which all humans are equal.

Ahead, we will review the history of homophobia, the ways that it manifests, and the educational opportunities that can help a person shift from a stance of homophobia to one of acceptance.

History of Homophobia

George Weinberg coined the term homophobia in the 1960s. He wrote a book entitled "Society and the Healthy Homosexual" in 1972, in which he denounced homophobia as a sickness. Though the term wasn't introduced until the '60s, societies throughout history have discriminated against or held negative attitudes toward LGBQ+ people long before this time.

Examples of this include Ancient Greece, where many types of same-gender relationships were common but were not approved of by all people, and in the Middle Ages, when same-sex relationships were tolerated by society at some times but not others.

Our attitudes and understanding around LGBTQIA+ identities have continued to change over the years, especially due to the work of activists and advocates in the community. Due to the medicalization of same/similar-gender attraction, the scientific community has also played a role in destigmatization.

In 1992, the APA released the following statement:

"Whereas homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social or vocational capabilities, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) calls on all international health organizations, psychiatric organizations, and individual psychiatrists in other countries to urge the repeal in their own countries of legislation that penalizes homosexual acts by consenting adults in private. Further, APA calls on these organizations and individuals to do all that is possible to decrease the stigma related to homosexuality wherever and whenever it may occur."

Understanding Homophobia, Heterosexism, and Transphobia

Homophobia is often conflated with heterosexism and transphobia. There are some important differences between these prejudices.

Homophobia vs. Heterosexism

Homophobia is dislike or hate of LGBTQIA+ people, whereas heterosexism describes a society where heterosexual people are the dominant sexuality group. Homophobia operates on a personal and systemic level, while heterosexism operates primarily on a systemic level because it is both the societal belief that heterosexual people should be prioritized above all others as well as the real-world implications of that belief.

These may sound similar, but the difference is that homophobia is a personal feeling you hold, while heterosexism supports those feelings to be part of the systems of our institutions.

Heterosexism is the result of  heteronormativity , the belief that being heterosexual is the only "right" or "natural" way to be. Our society is heterosexist meaning that it is common for LGBQ+ people to have lower life expectancies than heterosexual people, and that it is most likely that our laws fail to protect LGBQ+ people or actively discriminate against their community concerning jobs, housing, marriage, and/or healthcare.

Homophobia vs. Transphobia

This is a little trickier because the "T" in LGBTQIA+ is for transgender and nonbinary people, which may lead you to believe that transphobia is just a part of homophobia. However, that isn't the case. Transphobia is a very specific dislike of and discrimination against people who are trans.

Transphobia depends on cisnormativity to exist. Cisnormativity is the idea that being cisgender is the “normal” or “right” way to exist. Transphobia manifests as actions such as violence and the denial of  gender-affirming  health care. It's possible to be homophobic and transphobic at the same time.

Transphobia is its own term because it is so prevalent in our culture and has led to countless acts of violence against trans people and  legislation  against their health care. While transphobia and homophobia have things in common like being related to misogyny and sexism, transgender and nonbinary people experience things that cisgender LGBQ+ people don’t, which calls for more specific language.

How Homophobia Manifests Itself

Homophobia can be blatant or subtle. It also presents as institutional as well as personal. Let's look at the ways that homophobia has existed in our society.

• Bullying and harassment of children and adults
• Microaggressions
• The belief that LGBTQIA+ people don't deserve equal rights
• Not socializing with people you suspect to be LGBTQIA+
• Making generalized statements about LGBTQIA+ people
• Thinking that LGBTQIA+ people have "an agenda"
• Thinking that LGBTQIA+ people want to "convert" children
• Rationalizing your dislike for LGBTQIA+ people as acceptable due to your religion or culture
• Acts of violence, up to and including murdering LGBTQIA+ people because of their identity
• Believing that LGBTQIA+ people are different from you or are less valuable to the world than you
• Worrying that an LGBTQIA+ person will try to "convert" you

Causes of Homophobia

There are many different reasons that homophobia has existed. These are some of the most common reasons.

• Colonialism : In conquering native societies around the world, colonialists enforced the belief and practice that monogamous, heterosexual relationships were the only acceptable type.
• Religion : Numerous monotheistic religions have texts that speak out against same-gender relationships, and followers of those religions sometimes use those texts as "proof" that their God does not accept LGBTQIA+ identities.
• Fear of the unknown : It's easy to be scared of something you aren't familiar with. Sometimes, people are homophobic because they have never interacted with an LGBTQIA+ individual and don't realize that they're far more similar than they are different from one another.
• Lack of acceptance of your own identity : Homophobia can be internalized if a person doesn't want to accept their own identity or seeks to protect themself from homophobia by targeting more visible LGBQ people
• Lack of education : Studies have shown that the more people are educated about LGBTQIA+ people, the less likely they are to fear or have negative attitudes toward them.

Impact of Homophobia

Homophobia has many negative impacts on LGBTQIA+ people. These can include:

• Reduced mental health
• Worsened physical health
• Stress and trauma
• Increased risk of suicide
• Internalized shame
• Increased risk of substance use disorder
• Lower quality of life

Signs of Homophobia

We all learn as we grow in life. Sometimes, we find ourselves realizing that the viewpoints we hold might not be the best ones. If you realize that you or someone you witness may, in fact, be homophobic, here are some ways to discern if that's the case.

• You avoid socializing with LGBTQIA+ people
• You think you're "better than" LGBTQIA+ people
• You've bullied or harassed LGBTQIA+ people
• You've discriminated against LGBTQIA+ people by not offering someone an opportunity because of their perceived orientation
• You think LGBTQIA+ people are going to hell
• You've physically harmed someone because of their identity
• You've told your children that being LGBTQIA+ is wrong
• You think God doesn't like or approve of LGBTQIA+ people

What to Do If You're a Victim of Homophobia

Unfortunately, occurrences of homophobia continue to be prevalent in our culture. Though your instinct might be to fight back against it, this can be dangerous. You should always ensure your own safety before you act.

If you have been the victim of homophobia, seeking help from others is generally your best bet. If the incident occurred at an institution, contact the administration or officials at the school or place of business. Explain the situation, and ask for their help in resolving it.

If the incident was a personal one that didn't occur at a place of business, calling the authorities can be a dangerous move, especially for trans people and other multi-marginalized people—but it may be the right one to make if you were violently harmed or threatened with violence. Standing up for yourself is ideal, but you should only do that if it is physically and emotionally safe for you to do. Otherwise, you should seek outside help to resolve the situation or entirely distance yourself from your assailant if feasible.

If you are seeking support for issues with coming out, relationships, bullying, self-harm, and more, contact the LGBT National Hotline at 1-888-843-4564 for one-to-one peer support.

For more mental health resources, see our National Helpline Database .

How to Shift Culture Away From Homophobia

Homophobia doesn't have to be part of our culture. There are actions we can all take to ensure that we don't behave homophobically.

Don't Make Assumptions

The world is full of all kinds of people, and you never know what any one individual is like until you get to know them. If you find yourself making assumptions about a person you believe to be LGBTQIA+, stop yourself in your tracks. Remember that you don't know them, and they don't deserve to have your negative feelings put on them.

In the same vein, remember that just because a person looks cishet doesn't mean they are. Ask for a person's pronouns rather than assuming you can tell what gender they are by looking.

Educate Yourself

Read books, watch TV shows or movies, and follow the social media accounts of LGBTQIA+ people. Additionally, you can attend workshops about homophobia to change your past viewpoints and to understand the harm they were causing.

Don't Kid About It

Never make jokes about LGBTQIA+ people, as they are genuinely harmful to many. This serious issue leads to people being harmed and, therefore, is not a joking matter. For example, phrases like, "that's so gay" are insulting and hurtful because they equate "gay" with something that is "bad" or inferior.

If You Have Questions, Ask

Without forcing anyone to take on emotional labor , if you are curious about an LGBTQIA+ person's identity, you can politely ask them about it. It's best to check in first and ensure your questions will be welcome.

Commit to Being an Ally

Whether you keep it to yourself or tell others, commit to becoming an ally to LGBTQIA+ people. You'll gain nothing by trying to keep people from having the same rights as you, whereas by advocating for them, you can help the lives of many.

A Word From Verywell

Gaining a better understanding of the individual lives and experiences of LGBTQIA+ people can help those who are homophobic understand why their behavior is wrong. Consider learning more about what others have experienced through LGBTQIA+ essays about homophobia such as this one .

Adams HE, Wright LW Jr, Lohr BA. Is homophobia associated with homosexual arousal ?.  J Abnorm Psychol . 1996;105(3):440-445.

Hubbard TK. Historical views of homosexuality: ancient greece . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics . doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1242

Medievalists.net. Same-sex relations in the middle ages .

Burton N. When Homosexuality Stopped Being a Mental Disorder .

Horton J, Senffner M, Schiffner K, Riveria E, Foy J. The effects of education on homophobic attitudes in college students .  Modern Psychological Studies . 1993;1(2).

CDC. Stigma and discrimination affects gay and bisexual men’s health .

Brown University. Homophobia .

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Stigma and Discrimination .

University of Houston. Homophobia .

By Ariane Resnick, CNC Ariane Resnick, CNC is a mental health writer, certified nutritionist, and wellness author who advocates for accessibility and inclusivity.

Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of The Anxiety Workbook and founder of the website About Social Anxiety. She has a Master's degree in clinical psychology.

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Homophobia and the Media: A Sample Critical Discourse Analysis

University of Botswana

• Published: 10 November 2020
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This chapter discusses homophobia as a global phenomenon by offering a comprehensive literature review of its construction across geographical and cultural boundaries. The chapter presents a critical discourse analysis of journalistic reports and online commentary regarding a gay wedding in the Botswana media. Labeling and rationalization strategies are approached as analytical tools that reveal how authors and readers ideologically position themselves in relation to homosexuality. It is argued that sexual identities are constructed in complex ways that simultaneously challenge and reinforce heteronormativity. In particular, homophobic discourses are interwoven with racism and nationalism in ways that attempt to separate so-called global and destructive cultures from “more acceptable” local ones.

Introduction

As geographic borders become blurred due to new communication technologies, with global discourses on homosexuality spreading through different media forms, the effects of homophobia are even more far reaching than could have been imagined a few decades ago. The role of the media in the dispersion of homophobic discourses cannot be overestimated. With the explosion of new media platforms, the battle lines are drawn between homophobic discourses and more inclusive ones. Homophobia is often directed at those who are perceived as not conforming to heteronormative (sexual) behavior. But it may also manifest as self-hatred or internalized homophobia. In its explicit forms, homophobia may take on (physically) violent forms such as hate crimes (Tomsen 2006 ), but very often it is circulated through implicit discourses. Whatever forms it takes, homophobia has the effect of marginalizing and violating those whom society perceives as a different and threatening “other.”

In this chapter, I provide an overview of the literature on homophobia in order for the reader to appreciate its spread in different geographic, political, and cultural spaces. After defining homophobia, I examine, from a global perspective, how homophobia is reported in the media. Homophobia may be explicitly violent but may also take on more hidden forms, which are nonetheless insidious. I then focus my critical lens on Africa, and in the analysis section, I use an example from Botswana to demonstrate how homophobia is contested in the media, especially in a context where homosexuality is an emerging sociopolitical issue. The chapter brings together a diversity of studies on homophobia and uses an example from a context where homosexuality has not been in the domain of public discourse until recently. The chapter represents my own personal journey as a heterosexual woman dealing with my own unconscious socialized prejudice.

What Is Homophobic Discourse?

While there are varied definitions of homophobia, it is generally viewed as the socially learned fear and/or denigration of those who identify as, or are suspected of being, gay or lesbian (Tomsen 2006 ; O’Brien 2008 ). Following the work of Gregory M. Herek ( 2004 ), Jodi O’Brien ( 2008 ) claims that the phobia targeting homosexual men and lesbian women is different from other phobias in that it is not an inherent fear based on an individualized psychological experience but is instead socially acquired. Herek ( 2004 ) argues that homophobia is dialectically and inextricably related to heterosexism , which he defines as a set of values or ideologies that demonize, deny, stigmatize, and otherwise discriminate against non-heterosexual practices, identities, and people. In an early work, Herek ( 1992 ) makes a further distinction between cultural heterosexism , which is based on sociocultural norms and values, religious beliefs, and legal practices, and psychological heterosexism , or “the attitudes and behavior of individuals” (cited in Tomsen 2006 ). Iain R. Williamson ( 2000 ), writing from a psychotherapeutic perspective, similarly suggests that scholarship on homophobia should distinguish between heterosexism , which he defines as the underlying belief system that takes heterosexuality as “the natural/normal/acceptable or superior form of sexuality” (98), and heteronegativism , which refers to “the belief and value systems of prejudiced individuals” (98). The pervasiveness of homophobia creates the phenomenon of closet homosexuality : those who do not fit heteronormative expectations are forced to hide who they are for fear of social sanctions.

Even if homophobia does not reflect the kind of mental condition that is conventionally associated with phobias, it does reflect the psychological tension caused by the daily experience of being subject to discriminatory sexual discourses (Tomsen 2006 ). These discourses are the focus of much current work in critical discourse analysis and allied fields. Scholars have shown that current homophobic discourses use an array of delegitimizing strategies, such as appealing to culture, religion, health, or nature to justify the exclusionary treatment of sexual minorities. As Lauren Mongie ( 2016 ) observes in her analysis of two editorials published in a South African news avenue, ordinary people and political leaders alike draw on cultural resources at their disposal to participate in the systemic erasure, stigmatization, and fear of homosexuality. Stephen Tomsen ( 2006 ) locates the source of homophobia in essentialist discourses of sexuality that position sexual desire as biologically determined. Many of the world’s religions likewise appeal to biological essentialism when they argue that procreation, and thus heterosexuality, is divinely sanctioned (Mongie 2016 ). These kinds of essentialist discourses hold that heterosexual relationships are “natural” while same-sex relationships are either a “choice” or the result of some biological or psychological malfunction (Tomsen 2006 ).

While it is commonly accepted that religious affiliation is directly related to homophobic attitudes (see, e.g., Thompson and Ivanova , this volume), nationalistic ideologies have also been found to be central to homophobia. Much of the research on homophobia and nationalism draws from the context of eastern Europe (e.g., Mole 2011 on Latvia; Stakić 2011 on Serbia). Richard Mole ( 2011 ), for instance, investigates why homophobic sentiments appear to be more prevalent in Latvia than in the rest of the European Union. In his view, the cause of homophobia in Latvia goes beyond the influence of religion, the legacy of communism, or postcommunism transition. Rather, he argues that homosexuality is viewed as a threat to the very existence of the nation, based on the biological argument that heterosexual sex is important for reproduction and hence national survival. The same nationalistic ideology holds that gay men lack the necessary qualities of courage and willpower, both of which are considered important resources for nation building.

Homophobia may also be motivated by cultural factors—that is, the generic sociopolitical structures that undergird heteronormativity. For instance, in many societies homosexuality is perceived as the antithesis of patriarchal heteronormative cultural values (see Weiss and Bosia 2013 ). In Africa, homosexuality is often treated as “foreign” to local African cultures, so much so that homophobia is seen as a crucial component of cultural heritage (Amory 1997 ). The deeply contextualized nature of homophobia has motivated many scholars to explore its manifestation in diverse sociocultural contexts, including Brazil (Junge 2011 ), Canada (Lillian 2005 ), France (Provencher 2011 ), Indonesia (Boellstorff 2004 ), Jamaica (West and Hewstone 2012 ), Jordan (El-Sharif 2017 ), Serbia (Stakić 2011 ), South Africa (Reddy 2002 ; Leap 2004 ; Vincent and Simon 2014 ), and the United States (Thurlow 2001 ). Perhaps not surprisingly, the research also suggests that different social groups within these broader contexts are affected by homophobia to varying degrees. For example, a study comparing experiences of homophobia across ethnic groups in the United States found that whites report much less homophobia than Hispanics (Barnes and Meyer 2012 ). This suggests that racial minorities may be more affected by homophobia than sexual minorities from the mainstream, even though this finding is often erased in the stereotyping of ethnic minorities as overly homophobic (Jones 2016 ; Cornelius , this volume). Similarly, members of the working class may be more likely to be victims of homophobia while also being stereotyped as homophobic (McCormack 2012 ; Barrett , this volume).

Other forms of homophobia are tied to issues of health, particularly HIV. Although the relationship among homosexuality, HIV, and homophobia is historically complex (Milani 2012 ; Venzo and Hess 2013 ), it is clear that the HIV epidemic intensified homophobic discourse by causing moral and health-related panic, a phenomenon discussed by Rory Magrath ( 2017 ) as “homohysteria.” Homosexual men were seen as carriers of the deadly virus, especially in the Western hemisphere (Clarke 2006 ), and as threats to the very survival of the family unit, if not humanity more generally. Mainstream films like Philadelphia (Demme 1993 ), while bringing visibility to the illness, also reinforced the idea of AIDS as a “gay plague” (Kitzinger and Peel 2005 ). Of course, the epidemiology of HIV shows that it is transmitted through both homosexual and heterosexual intimate contact. In developing countries such as Botswana, HIV is mainly transmitted through heterosexual contact, with women being disproportionally affected.

Given that ideologies about disease are distributed through the media, a number of critical discourse analysts have analyzed how homophobia manifests in media representations of HIV. For instance, Juanne Clarke ( 2006 ) asserts that the media consistently draws upon dominant and negative ideologies when portraying HIV/AIDS (as well as other diseases), especially when the provision of healthcare in the United States or Canada is at issue. Based on a ten-year study of popular print media magazines examined at five-year intervals, Clarke (1991, 1996, 2001) found that media portrayals of HIV/AIDS regularly distinguish between “innocent victims” and “guilty victims,” with gay men who have the disease represented as the latter. Although the phrase “guilty victims” seems to be a contradiction in terms, Clarke uncovers how people with HIV are portrayed as victims deserving the “punishment” of infection because of their nonconforming sexual behaviors. Sexual minorities are thus constructed as having brought the disease upon themselves by choosing “sinful sexual behaviors” (Clarke 2006 : 318). Clarke also investigated shifts in homophobic and heterosexist discourses over the ten years of her study. One of her main findings is that later representations do in fact include a few selective portrayals of people with HIV as innocent victims. Yet this selection is also discriminatory, applying only to members of society viewed as leading conforming normative lifestyles like “the rest of us.” In other words, innocent victims are individuals who fit the popular profile of a “normal” or “good” person, such as Magic Johnson, a celebrated U.S. basketball star.

This leads us to homonormativity , which O’Brien ( 2008 ) views as an underlying form of homophobia in the gay and lesbian community. Homonormativity draws on and appropriates normative ways of being gay or lesbian that closely approximate heteronormative ideals (e.g., white, heterosexual, American) for sexual behavior (see also Motschenbacher , this volume; Lazar , this volume). O’Brien ( 2008 ) attributes homonormativity to the mediatized construction and glamorization of certain ways of being gay: “Homophobia as a general construct denotes an overarching, culturally non-specific manifestation of social power that is presumed to operate invariably across contexts” (507). By excluding other ways of being gay, homonormativity reproduces the dominant ideologies on which homophobia is modeled.

A prominent direction in discourse analysis has been the investigation of how these diverse forms of homophobia are promoted and upheld in everyday interaction. Homophobic language, a central element in cases of bullying, has been central to this investigation (Thurlow 2001 ; Korobov 2004 ; Pascoe 2007 ; Blais et al. 2014 ). For instance, C. J. Pascoe ( 2007 ) found that U.S. adolescent boys use homophobic language to position other boys as insufficiently masculine even when there is no suggestion of homosexuality. That is, homophobic bullying in the United States is typically dissociated from those who actually self-identify as gay. Rather, displays of homophobia are used in the expression of masculinity and assertion of power over other boys (Pascoe 2007 ; Romeo et al. 2017 ; Rosenberg et al. 2017 ).

Nevertheless, boys subjected to homophobic bullying, whether or not they come to take on a gay identity, may suffer mental health issues, including a propensity toward violence (Kimmel and Mahler 2003 ; Collier, Bos, and Sandfort 2013 ). Martin Blais et al. ( 2014 ) conducted a study among 300 sexually marginalized youth in Quebec to determine the effects of homophobic bullying on self-esteem. They found that the psychological effects of homophobic bullying were widespread among Canadian youth. Verbal psychological bullying was the most common form of bullying reported; only a small number of youth reported physical or sexual forms of bullying (see also Tomsen 2006 on hate crimes; Russell, this volume, on hate speech). This particular study did not find gender-based differentiation with respect to the experience of homophobic bullying, but a more recent study by Lindsay Kahle ( 2020 ) suggests that females may experience more bullying than males, a claim that remains underexamined in the literature.

Finally, scholars have also tracked the ways that homophobia may be directed toward the self when heterosexist ideologies lead individuals to self-hate. This phenomenon is often discussed as internalized homophobia , a term used for the psychosocial effects of systemic and sustained discrimination, exclusion, rejection, and denigration of sexual minorities. Related to what other scholars have described as minority stress (Williamson 2000 ; Barnes and Meyer 2012 ), internalized homophobia has been found to correlate with the low self-esteem caused by homophobic bullying. For example, most of the Canadian youth in the Blais et al. ( 2014 ) study who experienced verbal bullying also reported feelings of self-hate. The role played by internalized homophobia in everyday discourse is thus ripe for study. Thabo Msibi ( 2013 ) found that men who have sex with men in a South African school negatively labeled other men as homosexual in order to draw attention away from their own sexuality and to “appear” heterosexual. Msibi views this kind of self-erasing behavior as a coping strategy used by men in the context of South Africa to defend themselves against hostile homophobia. Magrath ( 2017 ), in his study of British football, similarly characterizes the discursive and material effects of internalized homophobia: “Men, desiring to be thought straight, had to demonstrate their heterosexuality through repressing pain, concealing feminine and homo(sexual) desires and behaviors, while committing acts of violence against oneself and others” (412). Whatever the sociocultural context, it seems that homophobia, conditioned by broader heterosexist ideologies that circulate across discourses of religion, nationalism, and health, may have devastating consequences for those who internalize it, including suicide, mental illness, vulnerability to HIV infection, and alcoholism (Tomsen 2006 ; Barnes and Meyer 2012 ; Collier, Bos, and Sandfort 2013 ; Blais et al. 2014 ).

Homophobia in Southern Africa

This section explores homophobia in southern Africa, in order to contextualize the analysis that follows in the final section. Scant scholarship exists on sexual identity in Africa and even less on gay identity. Deborah Amory ( 1997 ) attributes the relative absence of gay studies in Africa to a heterosexual moral panic that is in her view promoted by denial: anti-gay rhetoric is characterized by “an insistence on the refrain: ‘there is no homosexuality in Africa’” (5) and by the idea that homosexuality is a “western perversion imposed upon and adopted by African populations” (5). But the picture is gradually changing, and the past decade in particular has seen growing academic interest in issues related to gender, sex, and sexuality in Africa (see, e.g., Epprecht 1998 , 2004 , 2005 ; Morrell 1998 ; Dlamini 2006 ; Motswapong 2010 ; Shoko 2010 ; Msibi 2011 , 2013 ; McAllister 2013 ). In Botswana, where I am from and currently hold an academic position, there are a few studies that focus on the prejudice suffered by LBGTQ communities as well as the success or failure of gay activism (Motswapong 2010 ; McAllister 2013 ). And in South Africa and Namibia, research on queer studies within linguistics is now also taking root (Leap 2004 ; Currier 2012 ; Milani 2012 , 2013 ; Lorway 2014 ).

Studies of homophobia in Africa indicate that attitudes toward homosexuality are more complex than Amory suggests, yet most research has reported mainstream understandings of homosexuality as a Western import. For instance, the research on sexuality in Zimbabwe supports Marc Epprecht’s ( 1998 ) observation that homosexuality in Zimbabwean society is considered an unspoken evil originating in the Western corruption of African values (see also McAllister 2013 ), even though (linguistic) evidence suggests that homosexual practices existed in the country before colonialism. Zimbabwe’s former president Robert Mugabe, whose presidential term lasted three decades (1987–2017), was notorious for his anti-homosexuality rhetoric, often referring to homosexuals as “lower than dogs and pigs” (Shoko 2010 ). Mugabe’s rhetoric was shared by African leaders in Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, and Uganda, who similarly saw homosexuality as a Western attack on African morality and traditional masculinities (Currier 2012 ).

However, in later work, Epprecht ( 2005 ) suggests that homophobia in Zimbabwe, as in the rest of Africa, is a legacy of its colonial history. Africans were more tolerant of same-sex relationships before European colonizers brought and enforced strict Christian (sexual) laws that included proscriptions on homosexuality. In this regard, Epprecht claims that it is the public display of romantic or sexual attraction that is the problem, not homosexuality per se. The public expression of sex remains taboo in many African cultures (Shoko 2010 ). In Zimbabwean society, the public expression of normative sexual attraction is looked down upon, making the expression of transgressive sexual behavior all the more abhorrent. In Epprecht’s view, the language associated with globalized sexuality discourses is alien to Africa and is thus viewed with suspicion. LGBTQ activists have brought in Western forms of activism that are at odds with local understandings of sexuality, leading to a backlash of anti-LGBTQ sentiments. The “passive tolerance of homosexuality,” as Epprecht ( 2005 ) describes it, is transforming into explicit homophobia as society reacts to the public openness regarding sexual identity that is expected in Western nations, regardless of context (O’Brien 2008 ). In his research in South Africa, Msibi ( 2013 ) found that gay identity is indeed linked, in some instances, to individuals who “lead gay lifestyles” or are publicly open about their sexual identity, but in other instances it is linked to the loss of manhood. Even men who were merely suspected of being gay suffered negative treatment from others, such as ridicule or violence. This threat led men who had relations with other men to use homophobic language as well, as a kind of self-preservation discourse (see also Williamson 2000 ; Barnes and Meyer 2012 ).

Several studies of homophobia in South Africa have focused more specifically on homophobic violence. Sexual violence against women who identify as (or are suspected to be) lesbians is now entrenched in Black townships. Often discussed as corrective rape in the literature, such deliberate violent sexual attacks are often committed with the intention of “curing” the woman in question from homosexuality by forcing her to have a “normal” sexual experience with a man (Mkhize et al. 2010 ; Strudwick 2014 ). Corrective rape is thus an example of the policing of women’s sexuality through brutal heterosexism. The crime is exacerbated by failures in the justice system as well as an entrenched culture of underreporting sexual violence due to the legacy of apartheid, which has engendered mistrust between the police and Black communities. In South Africa, as indeed across the world, homophobic violence is racialized as well as gendered, with the burden of homophobic violence borne by women from racial minorities (or marginalized majorities, in the case of South Africa). Similarly, the corrective rape of gay men, especially in prison contexts, is denied and grossly underreported, as victims who register such violence with authorities are likely to be subjected to additional forms of homophobia (Gear 2007 ).

This brings me to Botswana, the national context for my own research on homophobic discourse. Only a few studies have been conducted to date on homophobia in Botswana. Coming from a literary perspective, John McAllister ( 2013 ) observed a general backlash against homosexuality that he attributes to the Eurocentric approach taken by gay activism in Botswana. Gay and lesbian communities in Botswana do not face the same kind of persecution experienced by those in other parts of Africa (most notably, Uganda, Kenya, or South Africa), but there is nevertheless a very strong but quiet resistance to homosexuality (McAllister 2013 ). Indeed, Elizabeth Pulane Motswapong ( 2010 ) suggests that the gay community in Botswana exists “behind a mask”—with no dignity, no individual rights, no freedom, and institutionalized voicelessness. However, Motswapong also claims that ordinary Botswana citizens live in harmony with their gay neighbors. My analysis of news coverage surrounding a gay wedding in Botswana, which I turn to now, similarly suggests that discourses about homosexuality in Botswana are diverse and often oppositional, articulating tensions between conservative anti-homosexual commentators and those who are more tolerant.

Case Study: Homophobic Discourse in the Media in Botswana

This section presents a critical discourse analysis of newspaper articles and unsolicited reader responses about a gay marriage. In particular, I focus on five articles printed in the Botswana newspapers The Voice and Mmegi (“The Reporter”). News articles on homosexuality are not very common in Botswana, so these five articles constitute all articles published on the topic at the time of data collection. The reader response data come from the discussion boards associated with these same newspapers and from the Botswana-based online discussion board E-Dumela . Altogether, 100 response posts were selected for analysis: 40 from Mmegi; 40 from E-Dumela ; and 20 from The Voice . Utilizing critical discourse analysis (Fairclough 1995 , 2003 ; Koller , this volume), my study focuses on lexical choice and argumentation strategies, particularly instances of rationalization (Reisigl and Wodak 2001 ). I start with what in my view are negative representations of homosexuality and then move on to more positive representations, drawing attention to the fluidity of social meanings.

In January 2011, The Voice newspaper published a story of the wedding of Sedimo and Cakwebe that carried the headline: “This man is my wife” (Dipholo 2011 ). The picture accompanying the article showed the two men kissing, with the caption, “You may kiss the bride.” The article’s construction of the couple’s identities as “brides” subverts conventional understandings of masculinity and ruptures the view of marriage as a heterosexual institution (Ellece 2007 , 2010 ). Instead, it constructs a hybrid gender identity for the partners by using labels for women as well as men—the partners are brides as well as grooms —thus challenging traditional Botswana conceptions of marriage as constructed around a gender binary (Ellece 2012 ). Yet The Voice article also puts the phrase “his wife” in scare quotes, suggesting that the writer is distancing himself/herself ideologically from the identification (see Fairclough 1989 ). The roles of groom, wife, bride, and husband are of course all drawn from heterosexual ritual. I suggest that the article’s use of the words bride and wife are meant to be read ironically—as “proving” the “absurdity” of gay marriage through a kind of intentional misgendering (Milani 2013 ; see also Conrod , this volume; Zimman , this volume). And yet a second news item about this marriage—this time published in the Mmegi newspaper—implies faint traces of acceptance for unions of non-hegemonic sexual identities, even if only from a small minority. The way the gay couple is represented across these texts is thus fraught with contradiction. This contradiction is seen even in the opinions and feelings reported for the couple’s relatives: some “do not approve”; others give “their blessings.”

My analysis of online responses to reports on the Sedimo/Cakwebe marriage is organized around the main set of homophobic arguments found in the data—what I call discourses of homosexuality as a threat . This involves discourses that portray homosexuality as a threat to morality, a threat to religion, a threat to public health, and a threat to cultural heritage. The analysis focuses on a number of discourse strategies that construct same-sex desire as a threat to the moral fabric of Tswana society, such as the use of lexicalization via noun phrases, the use of pre-nominal and attributive value-laden adjective phrases, and argumentation (rationalization) strategies (Reisigl and Wodak 2001 ). These discourse strategies work together to constitute an example of “heterosexual panic” (Amory 1997 ) or “homohysteria” (Anderson 2011 ; Magrath 2017 ).

The discourse that positions homosexuality as a threat to morality is articulated through the labeling and predication of the social actors involved. The most vitriolic labels appearing in the data collected for this study include “bastards,” “fools,” “dogs with rabies,” “a complete disgrace,” “obscene lifestyles,” “acts of pervetion” ( sic ), “utter madness,” “ridiculous,” and “lower than mere animals.” This overtly denigrating language is illustrated in Examples 1–3:

(1) These men, are a complete disgrace to the human race, they have sunk even lower than mere animals, because we don’t see animals perform such ridiculous acts of pervetion ( sic ). They should not be allowed to live in our society, because their way of life is not comfortable to our normal existence, … lest they cause moral decay by corroding young people with their obscene lifestyles, better yet they should be locked behind bars in a mental hospital and their heads be checked by a shrink … because no one in their right mind will want to marry another man: what they are doing is utter madness. (logic #49) (original spelling and punctuation) (2) These guys are mad, that’s why it is said the world is coming to an end, it is because of such abominations. Until animals do the same thing I will not believe it’s normal. (emmax 40) (original spelling and punctuation) (3) well guys for sticking ur lebido (“libido”) in another man’s behind is just like sticking ur tounge mo draining (thefriendlyghost 20) (original spelling and punctuation)

These responses constitute a hostile moral panic discourse (Amory 1997 ; Anderson 2011 ; Magrath 2017 ). Indeed, in Example 2, the moral threat of homosexuality is portrayed as a sign of the “world […] coming to an end.” Each of the examples uses rationalization strategies in an attempt to justify homophobia (Reisigl and Wodak 2001 : 69). I suggest that this kind of moral panic stems from the perceived blurring of the line between two sexes that are viewed as polarized in Botswana society, with “sex” here understood in terms of biological essentialism. The respondent’s fear arises from the perception that the marriage disrupts “comfortable” heteronormativity; gay sexual practices metaphorically turn this “comfortable” heteronormative world upside down. Thus, homophobic discourse often relies heavily on stereotyped views of sex between men. This is overtly seen in a question posed by a respondent named tlhanyane, who writes, “Ba JANA yang” (How do they eat each other?), a Tswana metaphor for sexual intercourse. The respondent in Example 3, thefriendlyghost, articulates disgust for gay sex by saying that a man who puts his penis in another’s anus is like putting one’s tongue in a drain.

These comments constitute genital-centered (and androcentric) conceptualizations of sex. Sexual intercourse is seen as a function of the genitals, which are “designed” exclusively for a kind of penetrative sex that can lead to pregnancy (cf. Mole 2011 ). Sexual intercourse is constructed as utilitarian and clinical—as functioning primarily for reproduction to the exclusion of other considerations such as pleasure. Thus, nonreproductive sexual practices, including oral and anal sex, are constructed as counter-hegemonic threats to heteronormativity.

In portraying the couple as a threat to morality, the men’s identities are constructed almost exclusively through reference to their sexual practices—what I call a sexualizing discourse . This discourse has inspired the contrastive use of desexualizing discourses (see also Bucholtz and Hall, this volume) by LGBTQ proponents that define men’s identities through what they do in their communities rather than what they do in bed, as I discuss in the next section. In these cases, the moral panic associated with sex between men seems to arise from a perceived threat to the institution of marriage and society’s ability to renew itself through reproduction. This is, of course, contrary to evidence from the reality in Africa (and elsewhere) that marriage may be sustained by factors other than (hetero)sexuality. Indeed, in some parts of Africa, traditional marriage may exclude sexual intercourse or even involve same-sex participants (Amadiume 1987 ; Epprecht 1998 , 2004 ; Kitetu and Kioko 2013 ).

One of the most pervasive homophobic arguments in Botswana, as in many areas of the world, portrays homosexuality as a threat to religion (see Thompson and Ivanova , this volume). This discourse universalizes religion and represents it as a given, commonsensical practice. In Botswana, homophobic discourse appeals to the religious beliefs of an imagined Christian readership and excludes other religious affiliations. Some examples of this discourse are given in Example 4:

(4) THEY HAVE BECOME TOO BIG FOR GOD, THEY THINK DOING WRONG IS RIGHT, THEY SO MUCH RELY ON THEIR OWN UNDERSTANDING (PROV 3V5-8) THEY SHALL PERISH IN THE NAME OF CHOICE/FASHION (guidance 34) (original spelling and punctuation)

In this excerpt, homosexuality is likened, via intertextual reference, to the Biblical Sodom and Gomorrah, which are regarded as the embodiment of debauchery and moral chaos. For example, a 2013 article from The Voice (TheVoiceBW 2013 ) quotes a street vendor as saying, “This is why we have hunger and the climate has changed for the worst with no rains falling. God is punishing us for such practices. Soon we will be like Sodom and Gomorrah if we keep on tolerating such abominable behaviour.” In such statements, contributors display fundamentalist religious attitudes toward homosexuality. This supports Epprecht’s ( 2005 ) claim that religious-based homophobia in Africa developed from Christian beliefs brought by missionaries.

LGBTQ identities are additionally constructed as a threat to public health through pathologizing discourse , in which the gay subject is portrayed as diseased—that is, someone to be avoided, quarantined, or otherwise dealt with to protect the public. Specifically, gay identity is constructed as a mental illness, with intervention required to rid society of this “disease.” In contrast to other African nations that tie homophobia to HIV/AIDS, gay men in Botswana are not associated with any specific physical disease; being gay is disease enough. Homosexuality is thus construed as a dangerous mental health epidemic: many responses call for psychiatric intervention before the epidemic spreads (as if it were “learned” by impressionable people). This discourse is illustrated in Example 5:

(5) they should not be allowed to live in our societies, because their way of life is not conformable to our normal existence lest they cause moral decay by corroding the minds of young people with thir obscene lifestyle. better yet, these men should be locked behind bars in a mental hospital so that their minds can be assesed by a shrink (logic 49) (original spelling and punctuation)

In the perspective of this commentator, gay lives do not matter, so much so that the passage calls for removing “these men” from society and “lock[ing]” them behind bars as an urgent imperative. As another reader (Bampa Bampona 15) commented, “Why are we even talking about it—shoot the bastards. That’s what we do to dogs with rabies, right?” In this especially disturbing example, we see that being gay is not just a disease; those who “catch” it are additionally dehumanized via depersonalizing animal metaphors. This painfully reminds us of how, in Rwanda in 1994, human beings were dehumanized via the use of depersonalizing metaphors and reference terms like “cockroaches” to numb the human conscience against the horror of ethnic genocide. Examples such as these illustrate how easy it is for violent talk to degenerate into violent action.

As noted, homosexuality in Africa is often viewed as a Western-imposed perversion (Amory 1997 ; Epprecht 1998 ; McAllister 2013 ). Its existence is flatly denied, and when it is acknowledged, it is pathologized and blamed on “corrupt” Western morality. As one 17-year-old student told The Voice (TheVoiceBW 2013 ), “It’s not our culture and it is not acceptable at all.” The effect of such a discourse on sexual minorities is that they are likely to feel isolated and alienated, without a sense of belonging (see van Zyl 2011 ). The culture supposedly threatened by homosexuality is constructed as monolithic and all-encompassing, most notably through the use of inclusive/exclusive pronouns such as we and our . Such responses construct an “in-group” of us (heterosexuals) in opposition to them (homosexuals), making frequent use of exclusionary phrases such as “our culture” and “our society.”

Positive Homosexuality Discourses

A news article in Mmegi titled “Mocks: gay, stable, and god loving,” articulates a marginal discourse of homosexual normalcy (Gaotlhobogwe 2011 ). Mocks is a shortened and Anglicized version of Mooketsi Sedimo’s first name, one of the two men whose same-sex marriage captured the attention of the Botswana media. The use of labels in this article frames the man in a positive light within the Botswana context, indicated by the use of a nickname and the positive attributive adjectives “stable” and “god loving.” In the longer article from which this quotation is taken, Sedimo is further described as an active member of his church and a devoted Christian, challenging the idea that gay people are anti-religion because of their sexual orientation. The writer of the article describes him as “a highly talented and dedicated member of [the church’s] brass band” and “full of love which radiates throughout the church.” This discourse strategy has the effect of normalizing Sedimo, constructing him as the guy next door, an ordinary member of society whose life revolves around normal day-to-day rituals of going to church and devoting time to serving his community.

Significantly, and in contrast to the homophobic representations examined earlier, the article does not question Sedimo’s gender identity or discuss specifics of sexual practice. Instead, it deliberately backgrounds these issues, highlighting Sedimo’s contributions to the wellbeing of his community and his family and portraying him as a well-balanced and healthy individual. This desexualizing discourse challenges sexualizing discourses that exclude the sociopolitical contributions of LGBTQ individuals and their spiritual well-being. “Mooketsi” is reported as “accepted” by his fellow church members and “sure of moral support” from his relatives; he is surrounded by a strong Christian community in which he enjoys a sense of belonging. This positive representation is a response to the negative heterosexist discourses discussed in the previous section. As Mikki van Zyl ( 2011 , citing Yuval-Davis 2006 ) observes, “When belonging is threatened through discrimination and oppression, people become engaged in the politics of belonging, attempting to shift the boundaries of ‘acceptability’” (56). The counter-discourse in this instance frames Sedimo appreciatively as an honest, productive, and agentive member of his community, thereby subverting heterosexism and homophobia.

Online responses from sympathetic readers, which comprise roughly 10 percent of the comments on the article, likewise articulate an egalitarian discourse of inclusiveness that resists normative heterosexual and religious/cultural discourses. For instance, some of the contributions contest the universalization of Christianity and the use of religion as a rationale for the rejection of persons with non-normative sexual orientation. Other contributions reject the authority of the Bible as a moral compass and exclusive guardian of religious wisdom. Still others point to the double standards applied by those who profess Christianity. A respondent named Chris M, for example, challenges those who are anti-gay by arguing that the Bible, as a religious text, is fraught with contradictions and rules that no longer apply in modern society:

(6) “… many Christians don’t use the bible at all … [it has] no role in our time. Should your sister be stoned for fornication? Some rules were used then, not now, like eating pork and shellfish. How do you know that being gay is a sin?” (Chris M 38)

Such contributions constitute a progressive discourse that subscribes to the idea that social meanings are impossible to fix, and any discourses, however dominant, must contend with other competing discourses (see Jørgensen and Phillips 2002 ). Similarly, Example 7 that follows shows how one contributor asserts gay rights and calls for the acceptance of gay people:

(7) There is no point losing sleep over it [the gay marriage]! You can’t do much about a society in flux with ever changing norms! It’s inevitable! Just picture Sedimo looking at the other guy and going, “look at him, a nkonyana, a molomonyana, a ditedunyana [that little nose, that little mouth, that little beard]… .I’m going to marry him, my soul mate!” Wouldn’t you consider that love? Ya all jealous!

The contributions articulate a positive discourse of tolerance, understanding, and even acceptance of gay relationships. They assert that gay relationships are loving and healthy through the use of diminutive expressions such as “a nkonyana” (the little nose), “a molomonyana” (the little mouth), and “a ditedunayana” (the little beard) and markers of affection such as “soul mate.” They also imply that society is changing and cannot sustainably hold on to old values, challenging the hegemonic homophobia reflected in the majority of reader comments.

This analysis of homophobic discourses speaks to my own childhood prejudices and represents my journey toward acceptance of my fellow human beings. When I was a child growing up in a tiny rural village in Botswana, my whole world was probably ten square miles in size. I had no knowledge of homosexuality until I went to the university and read about it in my English literature books. As a heterosexual Christian, I was first amazed, then amused, then confused. How could men love each other? And, like many people in my cultural context, I thought, “How do they navigate issues of intimacy when they have the same biological make up?” In sum, I had the same feelings of disbelief and even anger toward sexual minorities that I review in this chapter. The concept of homosexuality deeply disturbed my fundamental understanding of the way the human world works. Yet I felt it was my responsibility to reflect on my Christian beliefs and follow an informed principle to love others in all their racial, cultural, and sexual diversity.

I owe my ability to be receptive to different worldviews to my education as a discourse analyst. In particular, I have utilized the anti-discrimination approach of critical discourse analysis (Reisigl and Wodak 2001 ) to analyze the complexity of the discourses articulated in Botswana media outlets. I have never seen any physical violence related to sexual orientation, yet my own reactions to homosexuality when younger made me aware of the silent intolerance that surrounds me. The strength of CDA lies in its ability to uncover how this kind of intolerance is not so silent after all; rather, it is supported and sustained by discourses such as those analyzed in this chapter. My research findings suggest that most of the contributors to these outlets have very strong homophobic attitudes that appeal to religion, nature, culture, and concerns for public health. Being gay is constructed as anti-religion, as counter to nature and Botswana culture, and as a threat to public health.

My suggestion is that hegemonic discourses, including those related to homophobia, are never fixed and always evolving, so that change is inevitable. Homophobic discourses are therefore in a state of flux. For example, in March 2016 the High Court of Botswana ruled in favor of the LGBTQ of Botswana that they had the right to form an association. They had previously been denied the right to register their organization with the Registrar of Societies. Perhaps the discourses articulated earlier are symptomatic of what Botswana is today, as some suggest that “Botswana is battling with her very own identity; with what it means to have Botswana values, to be a Motswana” (Disepo 2016 ). More studies are required to examine the extent to which the experiences of the LGBTQ community in the country are dealing with homophobia. Further studies of homophobic discourse should show how the competing discourses of homosexuality interact in ways that transform social phenomena, especially considering recent developments in Botswana legal institutions concerning the proposal to decriminalize same-sex relationships.

Acknowledgments

This chapter was originally presented as a plenary paper sponsored by the University of Witwatersrand’s Department of Linguistics. I am grateful to Tommaso Milano, who invited me and organized my sponsorship. The paper was then submitted for publication to the guest editors of a special issue of the Journal of Sociolinguistics . However, due to ill health, I was not able to effect the changes needed for the paper to proceed to the publication stage. Even though the paper has significantly changed its focus since, the input of the original reviewers is acknowledged and greatly appreciated. I am also grateful to the readers of the new revised chapter. I take responsibility for any and all flaws that may be contained in this chapter.

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47 Homophobia Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best homophobia topic ideas & essay examples, ✅ simple & easy homophobia essay titles, 📌 interesting topics to write about homophobia.

• Homosexuality and Homophobia in the Movie “Cat on a Hot Tin Roof” Of particular importance to the work and the study’s topic is Brick’s life story. To the understanding and designation of the main character of Brick as a homosexual contributes the fact of what strong feelings […]
• Homophobia: “The Straight State” Book by M. Canady The central argument of Canaday’s writing is that homophobia is rooted in the development of the American state over the course of the 20th century. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Homophobia in Modern Society: Empirical Study The hypothesis of the proposed study is that raising the level of education of the population on issues of gender and gender identity will help reduce the level of homophobia in the communities.
• Homophobia in Social Workers: Gay Affirmative Practice Scale The obvious limitation of the study is the extremely low response rate. The sample size is the key strength of the study.
• Homophobia in Sports: History and Factors Sociologists attribute the prevalence of homophobia in sports to the recurrent patterns of socialization in the sporting fraternity. There is a need for sensitization on the issue of homophobia and how it affects cohesion and […]
• Misogyny and Homophobia as Oppression Tools In the US, Black Americans are exemplified by relatively high levels of misogyny and homophobia for the reason that they promote their own oppression, which is mainly attributed to their failure to study their history.
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• Homophobia, Moral Norms, and Censorship in Critical Evaluation of Poetry
• The Battle Against Homophobia and Objectification
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• Discrimination and Homophobia in Football: Sports Journalists’ Discussions
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• How the Media Fuelled the Homophobic Response to the HIV Crisis
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• Punk Rock and Homophobia: The Word ‘Faggot’ in Songs and Accepting Everyone
• Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Issues: Homophobia and Self-Hatred
• Difference Between Sex and Gender and the Ugly Issue of Homophobia in Today’s Society
• The Cultural Exploitation, Homophobia, and Ethnocentrism in Disney
• How the Reggae Dancehall Culture of Jamaica Views Homosexuals
• Psychology’s Four-Decade Fight Against Homophobia
• Perspectives on Understanding Homosexuality and Homophobia in Africa
• The Declining Significance of Homophobia: How Teenage Boys Are Redefining Masculinity and Heterosexuality
• Homophobia in Hollywood: Why Gay Movie Stars Still Can’t Come Out of the Closet
• The Etymology of Homophobia: Real Phobia or Not
• Why Black Church People Are More Homophobic Than Other Populations of Society
• Internalized Homophobia: Extreme Repression and Denial
• Severity and Influencing Factors of Homophobia in Korean Nursing Students
• Social Homophobia: Fear of Being Identified as Gay
• How Religiosity Shapes Rejection of Homosexuality Across the Globe
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Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Sociology of Gender — Homosexuality

Essays on Homosexuality

The importance of writing an essay on Homosexuality lies in the need to educate and raise awareness about the LGBTQ+ community. By writing about this topic, we can help to break down stigma and discrimination, and promote acceptance and understanding.

When writing an essay on Homosexuality, it's important to approach the topic with sensitivity and empathy. It's essential to use inclusive language and to avoid stereotypes or assumptions. Researching and citing credible sources is also crucial to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information presented.

Here are some tips for writing an essay on Homosexuality:

• Start by defining the terms and concepts related to homosexuality, such as sexual orientation, gender identity, and LGBTQ+.
• Provide historical and cultural context to help readers understand the experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals throughout history and in different societies.
• Discuss the challenges and discrimination faced by LGBTQ+ individuals, including legal, social, and psychological barriers.
• Highlight the importance of LGBTQ+ representation in media, politics, and other areas of society, and the impact of visibility on acceptance and equality.
• Share personal stories and experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals to humanize the topic and illustrate the diversity within the community.
• Offer resources and support for LGBTQ+ individuals, including organizations, hotlines, and advocacy groups.

By writing an essay on Homosexuality, we can contribute to a more inclusive and accepting society. It's a way to stand in solidarity with the LGBTQ+ community and to promote understanding and empathy.

What Makes a Good Homosexuality Essay Topics

When it comes to writing an essay on homosexuality, choosing the right topic is crucial. A good essay topic should be thought-provoking, relevant, and engaging. To brainstorm and choose a strong essay topic, consider the current social and political climate, personal experiences or observations, and controversial issues within the LGBTQ+ community. A good essay topic should also be specific, focused, and able to be thoroughly explored within the confines of the essay.

Best Homosexuality Essay Topics

• The portrayal of homosexuality in contemporary literature
• The impact of LGBTQ+ representation in media
• The history of homosexuality in ancient civilizations
• The intersectionality of race and sexuality within the LGBTQ+ community
• The portrayal of homosexuality in religious texts
• The effects of conversion therapy on LGBTQ+ individuals
• The role of LGBTQ+ activism in modern society
• The impact of social media on LGBTQ+ identity
• The representation of homosexuality in art and film
• The challenges of coming out in different cultural contexts
• The psychological effects of discrimination on LGBTQ+ individuals
• The portrayal of bisexuality in popular culture
• The history and impact of Pride parades
• The portrayal of transgender individuals in the media
• The impact of LGBTQ+ inclusive sex education
• The portrayal of homosexuality in popular music
• The impact of LGBTQ+ representation in politics
• The challenges of LGBTQ+ parenting
• The portrayal of homosexuality in fairy tales and folklore
• The impact of LGBTQ+ youth homelessness

Homosexuality Essay Topics Prompts

• Imagine a world where heterosexuality is the minority sexual orientation. How would society be different?
• Write a letter to your younger self about coming to terms with your own sexuality.
• Create a fictional story that explores the challenges and triumphs of a LGBTQ+ individual in a conservative community.
• Interview someone from a different generation about their experiences with LGBTQ+ rights and representation.
• Write a persuasive essay arguing for the importance of LGBTQ+ inclusive education in schools.

When choosing a topic for your homosexuality essay, remember to choose something that is both personally meaningful and academically relevant. With the right topic, your essay can make a powerful impact and contribute to important conversations about LGBTQ+ rights and representation.

Homosexuality in M Butterfly

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Is Homosexuality a Choice

Homosexuality and modern society, research and discussion on homosexuality nowadays, homosexuality: debating issues in the light of indian legal and social system, let us write you an essay from scratch.

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Discussion on The Theme of Homosexuality and Religion

Homosexuality and the bible: interpretation and understanding, homosexuality and evolution: analyzing homosexuality as an adaptive strategy, the link between homosexuality and genetics, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

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Homosexuality and Same Sex Marriage in India

Homosexuality and same sex marriages in india, homosexuality and the holocaust, review on sexuality: what can cause homosexuality, conformity, equal rights, and same-sex attraction as depicted in f. scott fitzgerald's book the great gatsby, do gay parents have an affect on their children, same-sex relationships as depicted in free love by a. smith and hemingway’s mr. and mrs. elliot, discussion of the issue of gay marriages in america, why i am against banning same-sex marriages, the concealed homosexuality in a streetcar named desire, whether european union should legalize same-sex marriages, the poetics of sex analysis, prisoners of conscience in nigeria, sex talk: an analysis of the relationship between gatsby and nick, the issue of the legalization of gay adoption at the national level in mexico, biography and gay orientation of thomas sanders, on a muggy night in mumbai by mahesh dattani: representation of same-sex relationships and love, discussion on the importance of gay marriage legalization, adoption and gay adoption in the united states, a study of homosexuality and same-sex marriage around the world, relevant topics.

• Sex, Gender and Sexuality
• Gender Criticism
• Gender Stereotypes
• Gender Roles
• Bisexuality
• Masculinity
• Sexual Orientation

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Essay on Homosexuality

Students are often asked to write an essay on Homosexuality in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Homosexuality

Understanding homosexuality.

Homosexuality is when a person is attracted to people of the same sex. It’s a part of human diversity, like being left-handed.

Acceptance and Rights

Many societies now accept homosexuality, and many countries have laws protecting the rights of homosexuals.

Homosexuality in Nature

Homosexuality is not just human behavior; many animal species also show same-sex behavior.

Homophobia is the fear or hatred of homosexuals. It’s important to respect everyone’s identities and choices.

Everyone has the right to love and be loved, irrespective of their sexual orientation. Understanding and acceptance are key.

250 Words Essay on Homosexuality

Introduction.

Homosexuality, a subject of immense contention and debate, refers to the romantic or sexual attraction or behavior between individuals of the same sex. While homosexuality has been observed in various forms across different cultures and epochs, it has often been stigmatized or suppressed due to religious, societal, and cultural norms.

Historical Context

Historically, homosexuality has been interpreted in diverse ways. Ancient civilizations like the Greeks and Romans exhibited acceptance, even celebration of same-sex relationships. However, the advent of monotheistic religions marked a shift in this perception, leading to widespread criminalization and persecution.

Modern Perspectives

In the 20th century, homosexuality began to be understood from a psychological and biological perspective. The American Psychiatric Association, in 1973, declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder, marking a significant shift in societal attitudes. Today, many societies are becoming more accepting, with numerous countries legalizing same-sex marriage and adopting anti-discrimination laws.

Challenges and Controversies

Despite progress, homosexuality still faces severe challenges. Homophobic attitudes persist, leading to discrimination, violence, and mental health issues among the LGBTQ+ community. Controversies also arise from the debate between nature and nurture, with some arguing homosexuality is a choice, despite scientific evidence suggesting inherent biological factors.

In conclusion, homosexuality, while still a contentious issue, is increasingly recognized and accepted in modern societies. It is crucial to continue advocating for the rights and acceptance of the LGBTQ+ community, promoting a society where everyone is respected and valued, regardless of their sexual orientation.

500 Words Essay on Homosexuality

Homosexuality, a term often loaded with cultural, religious, and personal bias, refers to the romantic or sexual attraction that individuals of the same sex have for each other. It is a natural variation of human sexuality that has been present across cultures and throughout history. Yet, it is a topic that continues to elicit controversy and debate. The understanding and acceptance of homosexuality have evolved over the years, but it remains a subject of discrimination and misunderstanding in many societies.

The Biological Basis of Homosexuality

Scientific research suggests that homosexuality is not a choice but rather an inherent aspect of an individual’s identity. Studies have found genetic and hormonal influences on sexual orientation, indicating a biological basis for homosexuality. A significant piece of evidence comes from twin studies, which show a higher concordance rate of homosexuality in identical twins compared to fraternal twins. This suggests that genes play a role in determining sexual orientation.

Societal Attitudes and Legal Perspectives

Attitudes towards homosexuality vary greatly across different cultures and societies. In some regions, homosexuality is accepted and celebrated as a natural part of human diversity. In others, it is stigmatized, criminalized, or even punished with death. These attitudes are often shaped by religious beliefs, cultural norms, and legal structures.

In recent years, there has been significant progress in terms of legal rights for homosexual individuals. Many countries have decriminalized homosexuality and legalized same-sex marriage. However, in some parts of the world, homosexuality remains illegal and is harshly penalized.

The Importance of Acceptance and Understanding

Understanding and accepting homosexuality is crucial for numerous reasons. First, it promotes mental health and well-being among homosexual individuals. Homophobia and discrimination can lead to serious mental health issues, including depression and suicide. Acceptance, on the other hand, can foster self-esteem and resilience.

Second, acceptance of homosexuality contributes to societal progress. It challenges traditional norms and broadens our understanding of human diversity. It also promotes equality and human rights, principles that are fundamental to any democratic society.

Homosexuality is an inherent aspect of human diversity, shaped by biological factors and expressed differently across cultures and societies. Despite the progress made in recent years, it remains a controversial subject, often met with misunderstanding and discrimination. As we move forward, it is essential to promote acceptance and understanding of homosexuality, both to protect the mental health of homosexual individuals and to foster a more inclusive and equitable society.

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Homophobia - List of Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

Homophobia refers to the fear, hatred, or discrimination directed against homosexuals or the LGBTQ+ community. Essays on homophobia might explore its societal origins, its manifestations in various social institutions, or the impact on LGBTQ+ individuals and communities. Discussions could also revolve around the legislative measures to combat homophobia, the intersectionality of homophobia with other forms of discrimination, or the portrayal of homophobia in media and literature. This topic holds significance in discussions on social justice and equality. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Homophobia you can find in Papersowl database. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Faces of Homophobia

Perhaps the greatest insult one man could give another is by degrading his manhood, and, as Michael Dyson says, "to assume that he's less than a man and to assign him to the very derogatory terms that one usually associates with women." From California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger dissing his opponents as "economic girlie men" to rappers insulting each other as "bitch niggas", this double-edged insult not only disrespects women, but also supports a stereotypical view of masculinity. Homophobia is often […]

Homophobia, Biphobia & Transphobia

I am a woman and I am gay, and I say gay as a general blanket term. I was fortunate enough to find myself in a situation where I did not really know I was pansexual until high school and by then, the friends I had knew me well enough and cared about who I was as a person and not how I identified. My dad had already passed away at that point (not that he would have particularly disowned […]

Mini Extended Essay

Critical theorist, feminist, and Professor of Political and Social Science and professor of philosophy, Nancy Fraser, has a scheme for defining social justice that she refers to as the ""Participatory Parity."" She presents that social justice “requires a social arrangement that allows all [people] to participate as peers.” In other words, she calls for the deconstruction of power hierarchies that currently prevent marginalized peoples from realizing their human rights. She also identifies three barriers to explain the causes of this phenomenon: […]

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An Introduction to the Issue of Racism, Sexism, Homophobia and Ethnocentrism in Disney World

Welcome to Disneyls World Disneyland, Disney World, and Euro Disney sound like magical places, places that conjure up only fond memories and images of the true IAmericani culture. Disney has taken this culture to all corners of the world showing the wonders of our great society, right? Disneyis movies are some of the top grossing films, the toys are selling off the shelves, and if you look at bus full of preschoolers, a large number of them are bound to […]

Inclusive Sex Education for Lgbt in Schools

As a person of color and sister of two gay brothers, I have been deeply concerned of the topic of inclusion of all type of minority groups, especially those in the LGBT community. For many years they have been treated as outsiders of societal standards and living with constant fear that they will be next in line to being stoned to death. We hear and see in the news of LGBT individuals who have been physically attacked or killed for […]

Bullying and Discrimination of Gays in Society

Social repression and discrimination against gays occur in many forms such as verbal abuse, ridicule, rape of gays or lesbians by individuals of the opposite gender, and forced marriage. These crimes are perpetrated with or without state involvement. Forced medication and criminalization of homosexuality lead to these evils, which in turn damage and disrupt the social life and psyche of gays. The author voices and articulates the struggles of gays in this novel at various points. The acceptance of homosexuality […]

Human Growth and Development

After taking this Human Growth and Development course online, three theories that were discussed stood out to me. Those theories were the racial identity development theory, gender and sexual (orientation) identity development theory, and the learning theory. These theories stood out to me because I believe they are a very important aspect of human growth and development. These theories shape the external world in which we live. They also have a large impact on the way individuals view themselves in […]

AIDS in America: One Nation’s Homophobic History

The 1980s in the United States of America was a decade filled with extravagant fashion, electronic synthesizer-based music, and the tail ends of the Cold War. Lurking beneath the surface was an epidemic that would change the course of the LGBTQ community in and out of America. By the end of the ‘80s, thousands of people had died from a variety of diseases that were originally all combined under the umbrella term of ‘gay cancer’ or gay-related immune deficiency (GRID). […]

Sexuality and Christianity

Homosexuality By now in society, it is clear to say that we have accepted homosexuality as a sexual orientation of choice by a person but not so much as heterosexuality. Homosexuality, meaning the sexual attraction or the tendency to direct sexual desire towards another of the same sex. Or the more literal definition of sexual activity with another of the same sex. But homosexuals have not been accepted wholly by society or the church in today’s world like heterosexual people. […]

Gender and Sexuality in World History

Queerness as Hope: Moving from Identity to Ideality Given the current popular and political discourse regarding homosexuality, transsexuality, gender confusion, gender blurring, and queerness, one might be surprised to read James Penney’s claim that “queer discourse has run its course, its project made obsolete by the full elaboration of its own logic” (1). Penney’s claim is based on the idea that queer theory has run its course because the hegemonic assumptions upon which it is premised cannot be reunited with […]

LGBTQ-Centered Programming on Television

According to Ng, gaystreaming refers to the inclusion of LGBTQ-centered programming on television. This has proven to be a viable industry practice in the aspect with which it taps simultaneously into the expanding homosexual and heterosexual consumer markets. For instance, LGBT channels such as Logo network has attracted many gay viewers interested in shows that feature gay characters (Duggan, 2002). This has featured in shows such as “Noah’s Arc” and “A-List”. The audience has increased profits for Logo as well […]

Jamaica is such a Beautiful Place

"It’s mostly known for its soulful music, sandy beaches, and it's clear skies; who wouldn’t want to live there? People believe that Jamaica is one big beach, and everyone lives near it. In reality, its not. Jamaica seems to be a dream destination for many, but if you are openly gay, this may not be the place for you. No one knows what it’s like to be gay and live in jamaica. On several occasions, i've witnessed the harsh treatment […]

Homophobic Bullying in Schools

Bullying is defined as hostile behavior due to power variation. A motivation of bullying is prejudice, which can originate from a belief about a certain religion, race, or sexual orientation. Similar to cyberbullying, homophobic bullying has become more prominent in schools in recent years. In a 2016 study conducted by Toomey and Russell, 16.5% of homosexuals aged between 13 and 21 had been physically assaulted because of their sexuality. Strikingly, 49% of these students had experienced cyberbullying. In a 2006 […]

Sexual Prejudice Towards LGBTQ and Gender Differences

Sexual Prejudice Towards LGBTQ and Gender Differences: Literature Review Social Psychology Ana Esther Paulino Sanchez SUNY Geneseo Abstract There is a difference between the prejudice and attitude towards LGBTQ according to gender. Studies like Gregory M. Hereck (2000), Sarlo and Buodo (2017), Glotfelter and Anderson (2012), and Kiebel et al (2017) further explore these differences. In each study, the difference in sexual prejudice according to gender is analyzed differently. All of the results came to a similar conclusion that men […]

Mentoring LGBT Youth

Abstract Mentoring LGBT youth is especially important due to the incredibly high rate of suicide in the LGBT community. According to the Human Rights Campaign around twenty-six percent of LGBT youth stated that they “always feel safe in their school classrooms” which is nearly a quarter of all LGBT reported youth. It was only five percent that stated that they felt that “all of their teachers and school staff are supportive of LGBT individuals” (hrc.org). Moving on to the home […]

Ethics of Gay – Scientific and Ethical Criticism

"In this previously untapped field, it also received its share of both scientific and ethical criticism. Before noting the discovery’s ethical concerns, it is important to acknowledge that scientists have located several technical problems with Hamer's study. His finding is often misinterpreted as showing that all 66 men from these 33 pairs shared the same Xq28 sequence. In fact, all he showed was that each member of the 33 concordant pairs shared his Xq28 region with his brother but not with […]

LGBTQ Parents: their Hardships and Heteronormativity Essay

"In this paper, Fairtlough analyzes the perspective of children with same-sex parents in order to dispel certain biases or assumptions. Fairtlough used 67 different cases throughout the USA, New Zealand, and the UK. The majority of the cases were categorized as “predominantly positive (31 accounts),” and “ambivalent (27).” The leftover eight cases were “somewhat negative (3),” and “neutral (6).” Hearing their stories, she writes that “many of these young people expressed respect for their lesbian or gay parent.” Many of […]

Contesting Gender Stereotyping in my Amendment

"In the opinion editorial, “My Amendment,” George Saunders brings attention to the controversial opinions regarding same sex marriage during the year of 2004, in which the ban on gay marriage was heavily disputed. He advocates as a person against same sex marriage in order to humorously mock those opposed to sex marriage’s entitled attitudes towards the matter. According to the David Stout article, “Bush Backs Ban in Constitution on Gay Marriage,” that was published in The New Yorker, in 2004, […]

Gender and Sexualities

Everyone has an opinion on what the word gender means to them. Some believe male and female are the only two genders, with strict beliefs on each of these genders’ rightful roles in society. Others believe gender is just a social construct, with each individual having the right to identify as either masculine, feminine, or in some cases, neither. Because of this long-standing debate between definitions of gender and the contexts of sexuality, this remains a sensitive subject while the […]

Tools of Persuasion in an Open Letter to my Christian Friends

Christians have rejected homosexuals in their community for many years. Among the outcasts, author Ed Madden writes “An Open Letter to My Christian Friends”, where he appeals to Christians for acceptance for the gay community. Ed Madden illustrates the oppression gays have suffered because of Christians’ rejection of homosexuality with his personal experience, and he requests that Christians stop denying homosexuals. He establishes credibility about this topic with his own personal story while he kindles compassion from his readers and […]

Queer in Latin America Luz Robinson Final Paper

Race, gender, and sexuality play important roles in structuring queer identities in Latin America. Queer studies are a new field, and the majority of the knowledge that exists has been developed by Western scholars in the U.S. and Europe. Since the existing literature on queer studies relies heavily on a Eurocentic lens, it fails to capture the complexities of queer gender and sexual identity in Latin America. Latinx and Black scholars have begun to introduce a different lens through which […]

Medical Law & Ethics

Safe Haven Law The Save Haven laws which are also called the Baby Moses laws began in Texas in 1999. Since this time this law has expanded to other states; however, not all states have the same guidelines. The purpose of this law is to allow parents to surrender their newborn infant to a safe location, thus decreasing the number of abandoned infant deaths. Within this law, parents can stay anonymous and gives up their parental rights to the state […]

Interpersonal Trauma and Sexual Minorities

In recent years LGBT initials have been used to refer to all individuals and communities that identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender or those who have doubts about their sexuality or gender identity. In the United States of America, the term "sexual minorities" is commonly used. The word '' lesbian '' is used to call a woman who has an emotional, romantic and sexual attraction to other women. The term '' gay '' is used to describe a man […]

Homosexual Marriage is Legal

Gay rights has been a very popular topic for who knows how long, and are now being addressed. It is becoming a bigger topic to discuss about everyday. A lot of individuals don’t approve it, but some may. There is so much diversity when it comes to gay rights. It’s said that gay marriage is on its way to becoming legal and legally recognized as a legitimate marriage in all states, giving homosexual men and women equal rights as heterosexual […]

Archaic and Barbaric Laws against Gay People

Introduction An article came out 2 weeks ago on The Guardian’s website, called “It’s dangerous to go out now’: young, gay and scared in Brunei.” The article says that in South-east Asia, on the island of Borneo, in Brunei harsh new sharia laws have been introduced, including death by stoning for adultery and gay sex, and amputation of limbs for theft. These grievous penalties leaded to international condemnation and calls from celebrities to boycott hotels owned by sultan of Brunei. […]

Psychology of Personality Topic Paper Dr. Larsen

My first article, "The Relationship Between Self-Esteem and Lesbian Identity During Adolescence," covers a study done by Stephanie K. Swann and Christina A. Spivey (2004), which is included in the Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. Though this journal does not focus specifically on personality-related topics, the issue of self-esteem is one that is covered by personality psychologists. This article is pertinent to my research topic and effectively sheds light on how different stages of sexual identity development shape self-esteem […]

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• Copy URL https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/united-methodists-prepare-for-votes-on-ending-bans-on-same-sex-marriage-lgbtq-clergy

United Methodists prepare for votes on ending bans on same-sex marriage, LGBTQ clergy

CHARLOTTE, N.C. (AP) — United Methodist delegates are heading into the homestretch of their first legislative gathering in five years — one that appears on track to make historic changes in lifting their church’s longstanding bans on same-sex marriage and the ordination of LGBTQ clergy.

READ MORE: A lifetime in the United Methodist Church, and the complicated process of breaking away

After a day off on Sunday, delegates to the General Conference of the United Methodist Church resumed their work Monday and will be meeting all this week before wrapping up their 11-day session on Friday

They’ve already begun making historic changes: On Thursday, delegates overwhelmingly endorsed a policy shift that would restructure the worldwide denomination into regional conferences and give the U.S. region, for the first time, the same right as international bodies to modify church rules to fit local situations.

That measure — subject to local ratification votes — is seen as a way the U.S. churches could have LGBTQ ordination and same-sex marriage while the more conservative overseas areas, particularly the large and fast-growing churches of Africa, could maintain those bans.

But whether that measure maintains church unity remains to be seen. The General Conference comes as the American portion of the United Methodist Church, long the nation’s third-largest denomination, has shrunk considerably. One-quarter of its U.S. churches left between 2019 and 2023 amid conservative dismay over the church’s failure to enforce its LGBTQ bans amid widespread defiance.

A proposal to overturn those bans is headed to the delegates this week, and progressives are optimistic that they have the votes to realize their long-held dream.

“It will say to the world about us that we really stand behind our statement that we are a church of open hearts, open minds, and open doors,” said Tracy Merrick, a delegate and member of First United Methodist Church of Pittsburgh, which has committed to ministry with LGBTQ people.

The denomination has debated homosexuality for more than half a century. Its Book of Discipline bans “self-avowed practicing homosexuals” from the clergy and forbids clergy from presiding at same-sex marriages. It also forbids church funding of any advocacy for the “acceptance of homosexuality.”

The delegates will also vote on a new set of Social Principles — a wholesale revision of an existing set of non-binding statements — which received a committee approval last week. The new version omits the previous version’s declaration that homosexuality is “incompatible with Christian teaching.” And it defines marriage as a sacred covenant between “two people of faith,” without specifying gender.

Such changes could portend a further fragmentation of the international church. Delegates last week approved the departure of a small but notable part of the body — about 30 churches in Russia and other former Soviet countries, where conservative views on LGBTQ issues are strong.

Some are proposing that African and other churches be given the same chance that U.S. churches recently had to disaffiliate under favorable terms.

Opponents say they already have mechanisms to depart, as some have recently done, but proponents say existing rules are burdensome.

READ MORE: What to know about United Methodists’ first major meeting since its breakup over LGBTQ inclusion

Jerry Kulah of the advocacy group Africa Initiative said that while it will be up to individual conferences in Africa to decide whether to stay or leave the denomination, he believes it’s time to leave.

“We cannot remain in this marriage,” he said. “We can’t be one church preaching different gospels.”

A large majority of African bishops, while affirming their opposition to LGBTQ ordination or marriage, have said in a joint statement they are committed to remaining in the United Methodist Church.

The denomination had until recently been the third largest in the United States, present in almost every county. But its 5.4 million U.S. membership in 2022 is expected to drop once the 2023 departures are factored in.

The denomination also counts 4.6 million members in other countries, mainly in Africa, though earlier estimates have been higher.

Conservative advocacy groups say U.S. churches that didn’t meet the 2023 deadline should have the option of disaffiliating, too — along with the more than 7,000 that have already done so.

The denomination also will be debating policy stances regarding fossil fuels and other issues as well as voting on major budget cuts to denominational programs, reflective of losing thousands of congregations.

The Rev. Tracy Cox, lead pastor of First United Methodist Church in Pittsburgh, said she’s cautiously hopeful for changes to the rules on ordination and marriage. The congregation, which has long been LGBTQ-affirming, held a commissioning service on April 14 for those attending the General Conference.

“If you are called by God to be an ordained elder or deacon, no church, no institution should step in that way,” Cox said. “And as far as marriage goes, when somebody falls in love with someone, we need to be able to help them to raise a family or to be a family in the community where they’re going to serve.”

Associated Press religion coverage receives support through the AP’s collaboration with The Conversation US, with funding from Lilly Endowment Inc. The AP is solely responsible for this content.

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A Culture Warrior Takes a Late Swing

The editor and essayist Joseph Epstein looks back on his life and career in two new books.

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By Dwight Garner

NEVER SAY YOU’VE HAD A LUCKY LIFE: Especially If You’ve Had a Lucky Life , by Joseph Epstein

FAMILIARITY BREEDS CONTENT: New and Selected Essays , by Joseph Epstein

When Tammy Wynette was asked to write a memoir in her mid-30s, she initially declined, she said in an interview, because “I didn’t think my life was over yet.” The publisher responded: Has it occurred to you that in 15 years no one might care? She wrote the book. “Stand by Your Man: An Autobiography” (1979) was a hit.

The essayist and editor Joseph Epstein — whose memoir “Never Say You’ve Had a Lucky Life,” is out now, alongside a greatest-hits collection titled “Familiarity Breeds Content” — has probably never heard Wynette sing except by accident. (In a 1993 essay, he wrote that he wished he didn’t know who Willie Nelson was, because it was a sign of a compromised intellect.) But his memoir illustrates another reason not to wait too long to commit your life to print.

There is no indication that Epstein, who is in his late 80s, has lost a step. His prose is as genial and bland, if comparison to his earlier work is any indication, as it ever was. But there’s a softness to his memories of people, perhaps because it was all so long ago. This is the sort of memoir that insists someone was funny, or erudite, or charismatic, while rarely providing the crucial details.

Epstein aw-shucks his way into “Never Say You’ve Had a Lucky Life” — pretending to be self-effacing while not being so in the least is one of his salient qualities as a writer — by warning readers, “I may not have had a sufficiently interesting life to merit an autobiography.” This is because he “did little, saw nothing notably historic, and endured not much out of the ordinary of anguish or trouble or exaltation.” Quickly, however, he concludes that his life is indeed worth relating, in part because “over the years I have acquired the literary skill to recount that life well.”

Here he is wrong in both directions. His story is interesting enough to warrant this memoir. His personal life has taken complicated turns. And as the longtime editor of the quarterly magazine The American Scholar, and a notably literate conservative culture warrior, he’s been in the thick of things.

He does lack the skill to tell his own story, though, if by “skill” we mean not well-scrubbed Strunk and White sentences but close and penetrating observation. Epstein favors tasseled loafers and bow ties, and most of his sentences read as if they were written by a sentient tasseled loafer and edited by a sentient bow tie.

He grew up in Chicago, where his father manufactured costume jewelry. The young Epstein was popular and, in high school, lettered in tennis. His title refers to being lucky, and a big part of that luck, in his estimation, was to grow up back when kids could be kids, before “the therapeutic culture” took over.

This complaint sets the tone of the book. His own story is set next to a rolling series of cultural grievances. He’s against casual dress, the prohibition of the word “Negro,” grade inflation, the Beat Generation, most of what occurred during the 1960s, standards slipping everywhere, de-Westernizing college curriculums, D.E.I. programs, you name it. His politics aren’t the problem. We can argue about those. American culture needs more well-read conservatives. The problem is that in his search for teachable moments, his memoir acquires the cardboard tone of a middling opinion column.

His youth was not all tennis lessons and root beer floats. He and his friends regularly visited brothels because, he writes, sex was not as easy to come by in the 1950s. He was kicked out of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign for his role in the selling of a stolen accounting exam to other students.

He was lucky to find a place at the University of Chicago, a place of high seriousness. The school changed him. He began to reassess his values. He began to read writers like Irving Howe, Sidney Hook, Midge Decter and Norman Podhoretz, and felt his politics pull to the right.

After college, he was drafted into the Army and ended up in Little Rock, Ark., where he met his first wife. At the time, she was a waitress at a bar and restaurant called the Gar Hole. Here Epstein’s memoir briefly threatens to acquire genuine weight.

She had lost custody of her two sons after a divorce. Together they got them back, and she and Epstein had two sons of their own. After their divorce, Epstein took all four of the boys. This is grist for an entire memoir, but Epstein passes over it quickly. One never gets much of a sense of what his boys were like, or what it was like to raise them. He later tells us that he has all but lost touch with his stepsons and has not seen them for decades.

He worked for the magazine The New Leader and the Encyclopaedia Britannica before becoming the editor of The American Scholar in 1975. It was a position he would hold for 22 years. He also taught at Northwestern University for nearly three decades.

At The American Scholar he began to write a long personal essay in each issue, under the pseudonym Aristides. He wrote 92 of these, on topics such as smoking and envy and reading and height. Most ran to 6,500 words, or about 4,000 words longer than they should have been.

Many magazine editors like to write every so often, to keep a hand in. But there is something unseemly about an editor chewing up acres of space in his own publication on a regular basis. Editorially, it’s a droit du seigneur imposition.

A selection of these essays, as well as some new ones, can now be found in “Familiarity Breeds Content.” In his introduction to this book, Christopher Buckley overpraises Epstein, leaving the reader no choice but to start mentally pushing back.

Buckley calls Epstein “the most entertaining living essayist in the English language.” (Not while Michael Kinsley, Lorrie Moore, Calvin Trillin, Sloane Crosley and Geoff Dyer, among many others, walk the earth.) He repurposes Martin Amis’s comment about Saul Bellow: “One doesn’t read Saul Bellow. One can only reread him.” To this he adds, “Ditto Epstein.” (Epstein is no Saul Bellow.) Buckley says, “Joe Epstein is incapable of writing a boring sentence.”

Well. How about this one, from an essay about cats?

A cat, I realize, cannot be everyone’s cup of fur.

Or this one, from an essay about sports and other obsessions:

I have been told there are people who wig out on pasta.

Or this one, about … guess:

When I was a boy, it occurs to me now, I always had one or another kind of hat.

Juggling today appears to be undergoing a small renaissance.

If one is looking to save on fuel bills, politics is likely to heat up a room quicker than just about anything else.

In tennis I was most notable for flipping and catching my racket in various snappy routines.

The essays are, by and large, as tweedy and self-satisfied as these lines make them sound. There are no wild hairs in them, no sudden deepenings of tone. Nothing is at stake. We are stranded with him on the putt-putt course.

Epstein fills his essays with quotation after quotation, as ballast. I am a fan of well-deployed, free-range quotations. So many of Epstein’s are musty and reek of Bartlett’s. They are from figures like Lord Chesterfield and Lady Mary Montagu and Sir Herbert Grierson and Tocqueville and Walpole and Carlyle. You can feel the moths escaping from the display case in real time.

To be fair, I circled a few sentences in “Familiarity Breeds Content” happily. I’m with him on his distrust of “fun couples.” He writes, “A cowboy without a hat is suitable only for bartending.” I liked his observation, which he borrowed from someone else, that a career has five stages:

(1) Who is Joseph Epstein? (2) Get me Joseph Epstein. (3) We need someone like Joseph Epstein. (4) What we need is a young Joseph Epstein. (5) Who is Joseph Epstein?

It’s no fun to trip up a writer on what might have been a late-career victory lap. Epstein doesn’t need me to like his work. He’s published more than 30 books, and you can’t do that unless you’ve made a lot of readers happy.

NEVER SAY YOU’VE HAD A LUCKY LIFE : Especially If You’ve Had a Lucky Life | By Joseph Epstein | Free Press | 287 pp. | $29.99

FAMILIARITY BREEDS CONTENT : New and Selected Essays | By Joseph Epstein | Simon & Schuster | 441 pp. | Paperback, $20.99

Dwight Garner has been a book critic for The Times since 2008, and before that was an editor at the Book Review for a decade. More about Dwight Garner

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