essay on self determination theory

Self-Determination Theory: How It Explains Motivation

Gabriel Lopez-Garrido

Undergraduate at Harvard University

Political Science and Psychology

Gabriel Lopez-Garrido is currently in his final year at Harvard University. He is pursuing a Bachelor's degree with a primary focus on Political Science (Government) and a minor in Psychology.

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Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Key Takeaways

• Self-determination refers to the ability of individuals to make choices and determine their own actions.
• Self-determination is a theory of human motivation and personality that suggests that people can become self-determined when their needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy are fulfilled.
• The presence versus absence of environmental conditions that allow satisfaction of these basic needs (in people’s immediate situations and in their developmental histories) is a key predictor of whether or not people will display vitality and mental health.
• People tend to become happier when pursuing things that are intrinsically motivated and aligned with their own goals – it not only makes them feel more responsible about the outcomes, it also helps them to really focus their time on what they want to be doing.
• Self-determination theory itself can be helpful in understanding the things that might motivate a given individual’s behavior. Feeling like one has both the autonomy and the capabilities required to make choices on their own is something that most, if not every, individual would want to have.

What is Self-Determination?

The term self-determination was first introduced by Deci and Ryan in their 1985 book Self-Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Human Behavior .

The term self-determination refers to a person’s own ability to manage themselves, to make confident choices, and to think on their own (Deci, 1971).

Self-determination is a macro theory of human motivation and personality. It is a theory that deals with two huge factors: people’s inherent growth tendencies and the innate psychological needs of these same individuals.

Given how self-determination can help with achieving independence, this concept plays an essential role not only in the overall well-being of the individual, but also their overall psychological health.

Because self-determination puts the individual in the driving seat, it makes the person both responsible and potentially culpable for whatever happens.

Given this, self-determination also has a large impact on motivation. If the individual themselves believe they can manage themselves properly, they would more than likely find more motivation in whatever task they wish to carry out.

Theoretical Assumptions

The need for growth drives behavior.

The first assumption of self-determination theory is that a need for growth as a human being drives behavior. People are always actively seeking to grow and improve (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Gaining mastery over challenges (both new and old) is essential for developing a sense of self or, at the very least, a cohesive one.

Autonomous motivation is important.

Self-determination theory focuses on the interplay between the extrinsic forces acting on persons and the intrinsic motive and needs of human beings. People can generally be motivated by outside factors such as money, acclaim, and fame, and this type of motivation is known as extrinsic . 

Self-determination theory focuses primarily on internal sources of motivation (known as intrinsic motivation), such as learning to gain independence and wanting to prove yourself.

According to Lepper et al. (1973), if the behavior is purely self-determined, there is a very high chance that it will be both intrinsically driven and that the behavior is done not for the reward or the prize, but rather for self-satisfaction, interest, and enjoyment for the behavior itself.

Non-self-determined behaviors are only performed only because they have to get done – not out of enjoyment or because it fulfills the individual, rather because the individual has little to no choice on whether they want to partake in said behavior. This leads to a lack of control given that this behavior is not done willingly.

Basic Needs

Self-determination theory posits that people are driven by three innate and universal psychological needs, and that personal well-being is a direct function of the satisfaction of these basic psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 1991;Ryan, 1995),

Competence (need to be effective in dealing with the environment)

Competence is a term utilized to describe someone who has sufficient qualities to perform a given task or to describe the state of having sufficient intellect, judgment, skill, and/or strength.

When an individual feels competent, they feel able to interact effectively within their environment, and they have the skills needed for success to ensure that their goals are achieved. A competent person feels a sense of mastery over their environment.

If tasks are too challenging or a person receives negative feedback, feelings of competence can decrease. Alternatively, feelings of competence are enhanced when the demands of a task are optimally matched to a person’s skills, or positive feedback is received.

Relatedness (need to have close, affectionate relationships)

Relatedness is the ability to feel a sense of both attachment to other people and a sense of belonging amongst other people.

Relatedness involves feelings of closeness and belonging to a social group.

Without connections, self-determination is harder to achieve because the individual would lack access to both help and support.

Feelings of relatedness are enhanced when individuals are respected and cared for by others, and are part of an inclusive environment. Alternatively, feelings of relatedness are undermined by competition with others, cliques, and criticism from others.

Autonomy (need to feel self-governing and independent)

Autonomy is the ability to feel in control of one’s behavior and destiny, and involves self-initiation and self-regulation of one’s own behavior.

Autonomy involves being able to make your own decisions and is associated with feelings of independence.

Feelings of autonomy are enhanced when individuals are given choice and are able to govern their own behavior, and when other people acknowledge their feelings.

Alternatively, the individual lacks autonomy if they feel controlled or threatened by others, or have to operate according to deadlines.

Tangible rewards can also reduce feelings of autonomy. If one were to give someone an extrinsic reward for already intrinsically motivated behavior, then the likelihood that autonomy is undermined (given that the extrinsic reward is likely to draw attention away from autonomy) is fairly large.

It gets even worse if the behavior is repeated: as the behavior becomes increasingly controlled by external rewards rather than by autonomy. Thus, intrinsic motivation is diminished, and people start to feel both a different source for their motivation and less belief in their own personal qualities.

Research on self-determination theory has shown the importance of the three basic needs in real-world settings, such as the workplace, education, and sports.

In the Classroom

• Researchers have found that students show a greater intrinsic motivation towards learning when teachers encourage a culture of autonomy in the classroom (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). Students experience autonomy when they feel supported to explore, take initiative and develop and implement solutions for their problems.
• Teachers should provide prompt feedback and stretch and challenge students to promote a sense of competence. If done correctly, feedback not only works because it provides an insight into how that student is doing, but because when students perform well and they are given positive feedback, it makes them feel good about the work they have achieved.
• Students experience relatedness when they perceive others listening and responding to them. When these three needs are met,
• It is fine to reward a student for their success, but avoiding excessive external rewards for actions students already enjoy is essential if one wants to improve their internal desire for motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999) Students who are more involved in setting educational goals are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation, and are more likely to reach their goals.

In the Workplace

People who feel that they can have a positive effect at work tend to feel more engaged and motivated. How else can employers build self-determination in their workers?

• Organizations should encourage autonomy in the workplace as this can enhances employees’ well-being, productivity, and personal growth, and contributes to organizational effectiveness (Strauss & Parker, 2014).
• One way that managers and leaders can help their employees with developing self-determination is by putting them in leadership roles. For example, let’s say that the company needs to prepare a presentation for a huge client.
• A manager who wants to build his employer’s sense of self-determination will take steps to ensure that the each of the team members working on the presentation take an active role. One could be in charge of designing the graphs, while the other is in charge of the marketing strategy.
• Constructive feedback works wonders for building self-determined behaviors like competence.Feedback helps individuals understand what they are doing wrong and how they can improve doing said task. It helps people feel as if their work has actual value, which is key in trying to build motivation.
• Employers should be careful not to offer one too many extrinsic rewards as this can diminish a sense of autonomy. If extrinsic rewards are in the picture, it is likely to become the case that – at some point – the work will stop being about loving what one does and become about simply obtaining the reward.

In Competition

Fostering a sense of self-determination is one of the many things that can inspire certain individuals to excel – this is especially true in competitive settings -such as sports and athletics – where the stakes are sometimes so high.

• It surely is a given that athletes are driven to perform better in their designated sport if they themselves believe that they are capable of overcoming the hurdles that may arise along the way (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2008).

In a Social Setting

If an individual attempts to forge close, and affectionate relationships with other people – the likelihood that self-determination behaviors improve (or are seen more often) is high. What are some specific ways that people can build self-determination in social settings?

• One specific way to build self-determination in these types of settings is by actively seeking positive relationships with people that promote a positive environment.
• When seeking social relationships, an individual who wants to work on their self-determination should look for individuals who will support them in the pursuit of their goals.

How to Improve Self-Determination

People who are high in self-determination tend to believe in their own innate ability and that they have control over their own lives.

People who practice self-determined behaviors have an internal locus of control , and this makes them feel that their behaviors will have an influence on outcomes.

More importantly, it makes them understand that in order for other people to start believing in this individual’s abilities, the same individual must first believe in themselves.

People who believe in themselves- when faced with a difficult scenario feel that they can overcome anything they set their minds on through the use of diligence, good choices, and hard work.

Without an individual believing in themselves, chances are that individual is likely less to give 100% of his effort when trying to achieve any task (after all, why would said individual give so much time and effort to a cause they think they are bound to already fail)?

People who are high in self-determination tend to have high self-motivation.

People who demonstrate self-determined behaviors tend not to rely on external rewards as a means for them to do a task. Often, times completing the task properly is its own reward.

To improve motivation, it is essential to remove external rewards and punishments as a reason for completing a task. Self-determined individuals set goals and work to reach them because they feel enough motivation to know that their effort will produce a finished product.

People who are high in self-determination tend to take responsibility for their behaviors.

The biggest difference between someone who is self-determined and someone who isn’t is that highly self-determined people take credit for their success but also hold their heads high up in the face of failure. They have no problem with taking responsibility, because they know they can do better.

Conversely, individuals who lack self-determination will attempt to put the blame on someone or something else in an attempt to take of the pressure from themselves.

Taking responsibility is important for learning how to become self-determined as it helps the individual accept that they are human (meaning, that they are capable of failure) and also that they are capable of owning up to their mistakes (which is a sign of confidence).

It puts the individual in a situation where they appreciate that things happen to them even more because – at the end of the day – the person who is responsible for putting the individual in that situation is the individual themselves.

Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105–115.

Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation . Psychological Bulletin, 125 (6), 627.

Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality”. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Vol. 38. Perspectives on motivation (pp. 237–288). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Motivation, personality, and development within embedded social contexts: An overview of self-determination theory. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), Oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 85-107). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Hagger, M., & Chatzisarantis, N. (2008). Self-determination theory and the psychology of exercise . International review of sport and exercise psychology, 1 (1), 79-103.

Lepper, M. K., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. (1973). Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “over justification” hypothesis . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28 (1), 129–137.

Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice . Theory and research in Education, 7 (2), 133-144.

Pritchard, R.; Campbell, K.; Campbell, D. (1977). Effects of extrinsic financial rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62 (1), 9.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being . American Psychologist, 55 (1), 68–78.

Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness . New York: Guilford Publishing.

Strauss, K., & Parker, S. K. (2014). Effective and sustained proactivity in the workplace: A self‐determination theory perspective . In M. Gagné (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of work engagement, motivation, and self‐determination theory (pp. 50–72). Oxford: Oxford University Press .

Further Reading

• Deci, E. L., La Guardia, J. G., Moller, A. C., Scheiner, M. J., & Ryan, R. M. (2006). On the benefits of giving as well as receiving autonomy support: Mutuality in close friendships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32 (3), 313–327.
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The” what” and” why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11 (4), 227-268.
• Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26 (4), 419–435.
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55 , 68-78.

Which psychological need in the self-determination theory (sdt) is described as the basic need to feel effective and capable in one’s actions?

In Self-Determination Theory (SDT), the psychological need described as the basic desire to feel effective and capable in one’s actions is referred to as ‘Competence.’ This need represents an individual’s inherent desire to engage in challenges and to experience mastery or proficiency in their endeavors.

According to self-determination theory, people’s behavior and well-being are influenced by what three innate needs?

According to Self-Determination Theory, people’s behavior and well-being are influenced by three innate needs: Autonomy, the need to be in control of one’s actions and choices; Competence, the need to be effective and master tasks; and Relatedness, the need to have meaningful relationships and feel connected with others.

These needs are universal, innate, and psychological, and are essential for an individual’s optimal function and growth.

What is self-determination?

Self-determination refers to the process by which a person controls their own life. It involves making choices and decisions based on personal preferences and interests, the freedom to pursue goals, and the ability to be independent and autonomous.

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What Is Self-Determination Theory?

How Self-Determination Influences Motivation

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

• How It Works
• Self-Determined vs. Non-Self-Determined
• How to Improve

Self-determination refers to a person's ability to make choices and manage their own life . Being self-determined means that you feel in greater control, as opposed to being non-self-determined, which can leave you feeling that your life is controlled by others.

It states that people are motivated to grow and change by three innate (and universal) psychological needs. The concept of intrinsic motivation , or engaging in activities for the inherent reward of the behavior itself, plays an important role in this theory.

Self-determination is an important concept in psychology since it plays a role in psychological health and well-being . Promoting self-determination is also an emerging best practice when working with certain populations, such as individuals with intellectual disabilities .

Self-determination theory seeks to explain how being self-determined impacts motivation—that people feel more motivated to take action when they think that what they do will have an effect on the outcome. Learn more about how this theory works, as well as what you can do to improve your self-determination skills.

Self-determination theory suggests that people can become self-determined when their needs for competence, connection, and autonomy are fulfilled.

Self-determination theory grew out of the work of psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, who first introduced their ideas in their 1985 book Self-Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Human Behavior . They developed a theory of motivation that suggests people tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain fulfillment.

Assumptions of Self-Determination

Self-determination theory makes two key assumptions:

The need for growth drives behavior. The first assumption of self-determination theory is that people are actively directed toward growth. Gaining mastery over challenges and taking in new experiences are essential for developing a cohesive sense of self .

Autonomous motivation is important. While people are often motivated to act by external rewards such as money, prizes, and acclaim (known as  extrinsic motivation ), self-determination theory focuses primarily on internal sources of motivation such as a need to gain knowledge or independence (intrinsic motivation).

Components of Self-Determination

According to self-determination theory, people need to feel the following to achieve psychological growth:

• Autonomy : People need to feel in control of their own behaviors and goals. This sense of being able to take direct action that will result in real change plays a major part in helping people feel self-determined.
• Competence : People need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills . When people feel that they have the skills needed for success, they are more likely to take actions that will help them achieve their goals.
• Connection or relatedness : People need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to other people.

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How Self-Determination Theory Works

It's important to realize that the psychological growth described by self-determination theory does not happen automatically. While people might be oriented toward such growth, it requires continual sustenance.

Ryan and Deci have suggested that the tendency to be either proactive or passive is largely influenced by the social conditions in which we are raised.  Social support is key. Through our relationships and interactions with others, we can foster or thwart well-being and personal growth.

Other factors that also help or hinder the three elements needed for growth include:

• Extrinsic motivators can sometimes lower self-determination. According to Deci, giving people extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior can undermine autonomy. As the behavior becomes increasingly controlled by external rewards, people begin to feel less in control of their behavior and intrinsic motivation is diminished.
• Positive feedback can boost self-determination. Deci also suggests that offering unexpected positive encouragement and feedback on a person's task performance can increase intrinsic motivation. This type of feedback helps people feel more competent, which is a key need for personal growth.

Example of Self-Determination

Imagine a person who fails to complete an important project at work. If this person is high in self-determination, they will admit their fault, believe that they can do something to fix the problem, and take action to correct the mistake .

If that same person was low in self-determination, they might instead look for other things that they can blame. They might make excuses, assign blame elsewhere, or refuse to admit their own role in not completing the project on time.

Most importantly, perhaps, is that the person low in self-determination won't feel motivated to fix the mistake. Instead, they might feel helpless to control the situation and believe that nothing that they do will have any real effect.

Self-Determined vs. Non-Self-Determined Behaviors

Motivated by intrinsic rewards

Driven by enjoyment, interest, or satisfaction

Feel in control

Motivated by extrinsic rewards

Driven by obligation or responsibility

Feel a lack of control

Rather than thinking of motivation as being driven by either extrinsic or intrinsic rewards, it is often helpful to view it as a continuum between self-determined and non-self-determined behaviors.

• On one end of the continuum are purely self-determined behaviors that tend to be intrinsically driven and done for the enjoyment of, interest in, and inherent satisfaction for the action itself.
• On the other end are non-self-determined behaviors, which are performed only because they must be done. There is a complete lack of control on this extreme end of the scale.

If you are training to compete in a marathon, for example, you might be extrinsically motivated by a desire to gain approval from others. At the same time, you may also be intrinsically motivated by the satisfaction you gain from the activity itself. In most cases, behaviors tend to lie in the middle of the continuum.

There is also often a varying amount of external motivation, which can fuel the degree of internal motivation. People may engage in actions because they feel they have some level of personal control and the behaviors ultimately align with something that is important for their self-concept.

Most actions are not purely self-determined or non-self-determined. Instead, actions often rely on a certain degree of self-determination that may also be influenced by extrinsic motivations.

Impact of Self-Determination

The concept of self-determination has been applied to a wide variety of areas including education, work, parenting, exercise, and health. Research suggests that having high self-determination can foster success in many different domains of life.

In the Workplace

People with self-determination feel more satisfied at work while also playing a key role in that organization's success. How can employers build self-determination in their workers?

• By allowing team members to take an active role
• Not overusing extrinsic rewards since this can undercut intrinsic motivation, a phenomenon known as the overjustification effect
• Offering employees greater responsibilities
• Offering support and encouragement
• Providing employees with meaningful feedback

In Competition

In competitive settings, such as sports and athletics, fostering a sense of self-determination can motivate people to excel. Some suggest that it works, at least in part, by increasing a person's level of mental toughness .

Athletes who feel that they are capable of achieving their goals and overcoming challenges are often driven to perform better. Excelling allows them to gain a sense of competence and build mastery in skills that are enjoyable and important to them.

Researchers have also found that people with an internal sense of control are more likely to stick to a healthy diet and regular exercise regimen .  

In Social Settings

Self-determination can also play an important role in social relationships. For instance, when people are new to an online group , if their needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence (the three components of self-determination) are fulfilled, it impacts their social identity which, in turn, affects their participation behaviors.

To forge close, affectionate relationships with others, thus potentially improving self-determination:

• Seek positive relationships with people who will support you in the pursuit of your goals.
• Offer support and feedback to people who are part of your social circle.

In School Settings

Self-determined students are more likely to feel motivated to achieve. They also tend to feel greater levels of competence and satisfaction. Educators can help students foster a sense of self-determination and intrinsic motivation by:

• Providing unexpected positive feedback when students perform well to help improve their feelings of competence
• Avoiding excessive external rewards for actions students already enjoy, which helps improve their internal motivation

Self-determination can play an important role in how people function in many different areas of their lives. Feeling in control and intrinsically motivated can help people feel more committed, passionate, interested, and satisfied with the things that they do.

Traits of Self-Determined People

If you are interested in strengthening your self-determination, it is helpful to think about what a highly self-determined individual might look like. People high in self-determination tend to:

• Believe that they have control over their own lives . Self-determined people have an internal locus of control and feel that their behaviors will have an influence on outcomes. When confronted with challenges, they feel that they can overcome them through diligence, good choices, and hard work.
• Have high self-motivation . Someone with high self-determination doesn't rely on external rewards or punishments to motivate them to take action. Instead, they engage in behaviors because they are motivated intrinsically. They have an internal desire to set goals and work toward them.
• Base their actions on their own goals and behaviors . In other words, people with self-motivation intentionally engage in actions that they know will bring them closer to their goals.
• Take responsibility for their behaviors . Highly self-determined people take credit for their success but they also accept the blame for their failures. They know that they are responsible for their actions and don't shift blame elsewhere.

How to Improve Your Self-Determination

Do you want to be more self-determined? There are a few steps you can take to improve your own self-determination skills.

Improve Your Self-Awareness

Self-awareness is associated with self-determination and can even help prepare you to make more purposeful decisions. Meditation, seeking regular feedback, and writing down your thoughts and feelings are all ways to improve self-awareness.

Engage in Self-Regulation

Developing a higher level of self-determination involves also working on your self-regulation skills. Strategies that can help you better regulate yourself include being more mindful of how you feel mentally and physically, along with practicing cognitive reframing to better regulate your emotional responses.

Find Social Support

Strong social relationships can foster motivation and well-being. Seek people who make you feel welcome and cared for. This may be a family member or friend, or it could be a member of your church, a counselor, or anyone else who provides a sense of support and belonging.

Gain Mastery

Becoming skilled in areas that are important to you can help build your sense of self-determination. Whether you have a strong interest in a hobby , sport, academic subject, or another area, learning as much as you can about it and improving your skills can help you feel more competent.

The more you learn and practice, the more skilled and self-determined you will likely feel.

A Word From Verywell

Self-determination theory can be helpful in understanding what might motivate your behaviors. Being self-determined, feeling like you have the autonomy and freedom to make choices that shape your destiny, is important for each person's well-being.

When you pursue things that are intrinsically motivated and aligned with your goals, you will feel happier and more capable of making good choices.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Self Determination Theory and How It Explains Motivation

Traditionally, self-determination has been more used in this diplomatic and political context to describe the process a country undergoes to assert its independence.

However, self-determination also has a more personal and psychology-relevant meaning today: the ability or process of making one’s own choices and controlling one’s own life.

Self-determination is a vital piece of psychological wellbeing; as you may expect, people like to feel control of their own lives.

In addition to this idea of controlling one’s own destiny, the theory of self-determination is relevant to anyone hoping to guide their live more.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients create actionable goals and master techniques to create lasting behavior change.

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Self-Determination Theory, or SDT, links personality, human motivation, and optimal functioning. It posits that there are two main types of motivation—intrinsic and extrinsic—and that both are powerful forces in shaping who we are and how we behave (Deci & Ryan, 2008).

It is a theory that grew out of researchers Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan’s work on motivation in the 1970s and 1980s. Although it has grown and expanded since then, the basic tenets of the theory come from Deci and Ryan’s seminal 1985 book on the topic.

Relevant reading: Intrinsic Coaching: What Is It and How to Apply It?

Deci and Ryan’s Theory of Motivation (1985)

According to Deci and Ryan, extrinsic motivation is a drive to behave in certain ways based on external sources and it results in external rewards (1985). Such sources include grading systems, employee evaluations, awards and accolades, and the respect and admiration of others.

On the other hand, intrinsic motivation comes from within. There are internal drives that inspire us to behave in certain ways, including our core values, our interests, and our personal sense of morality.

It might seem like intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are diametrically opposed—with intrinsic driving behavior in keeping with our “ideal self” and extrinsic leading us to conform with the standards of others—but there is another important distinction in the types of motivation. SDT differentiates between autonomous motivation and controlled motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2008).

Autonomous motivation includes motivation that comes from internal sources and includes motivation from extrinsic sources for individuals who identify with an activity’s value and how it aligns with their sense of self. Controlled motivation is comprised of external regulation —a type of motivation where an individual acts out of the desire for external rewards or fear of punishment.

On the other hand, introjected regulation is motivation from “partially internalized activities and values” such as avoiding shame , seeking approval, and protecting the ego.

When an individual is driven by autonomous motivation, they may feel self-directed and autonomous; when the individual is driven by controlled motivation, they may feel pressure to behave in a certain way, and thus, experience little to no autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2008).

The Self-Determination Model, Scale, and Continuum

We are complex beings who are rarely driven by only one type of motivation. Different goals, desires, and ideas inform us what we want and need. Thus, it is useful to think of motivation on a continuum ranging from “non-self-determined to self-determined.”

At the left end of the spectrum, we have amotivation , in which an individual is completely non-autonomous, has no drive to speak of, and is struggling to have any of their needs met. In the middle, we have several levels of extrinsic motivation.

One step to the right of amotivation is external regulation , in which motivation is exclusively external and regulated by compliance, conformity, and external rewards and punishments.

The next level of extrinsic motivation is termed introjected regulation , in which the motivation is somewhat external and is driven by self-control, efforts to protect the ego, and internal rewards and punishments.

In identified regulation , the motivation is somewhat internal and based on conscious values and that which is personally important to the individual.

The final step of extrinsic motivation is integrated regulation , in which intrinsic sources and the desire to be self-aware are guiding an individual’s behavior.

The right end of the continuum shows an individual entirely motivated by intrinsic sources. In intrinsic regulation , the individual is self-motivated and self-determined, and driven by interest, enjoyment, and the satisfaction inherent in the behavior or activity he or she is engaging in.

Although self-determination is generally the goal for individuals, we can’t help but be motivated by external sources—and that’s not necessarily a bad thing. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are highly influential determinants of our behavior, and both drive us to meet the three basic needs identified by the SDT model:

• Autonomy : people have a need to feel that they are the masters of their own destiny and that they have at least some control over their lives; most importantly, people have a need to feel that they are in control of their own behavior.
• Competence : another need concerns our achievements, knowledge, and skills; people have a need to build their competence and develop mastery over tasks that are important to them.
• Relatedness (also called Connection): people need to have a sense of belonging and connectedness with others; each of us needs other people to some degree (Deci & Ryan, 2008).

According to the developers of SDT, Deci and Richard M. Ryan, individual differences in personality result from the varying degrees to which each need has been satisfied—or thwarted (2008). The two main aspects on which individuals differ include causality orientations and aspirations or life goals .

Causality orientations refer to how people adapt and orient themselves to their environment and their degree of self-determination in general, across many different contexts. The three causality orientations are:

• Autonomous : all three basic needs are satisfied.
• Controlled : competence and relatedness are somewhat satisfied but autonomy is not.
• Impersonal : none of the three needs are satisfied.

Aspirations or life goals are what people use to guide their own behavior. They generally fall into one of the two categories of motivation mentioned earlier: intrinsic or extrinsic. Deci and Ryan provide affiliation, generativity, and personal development as examples of intrinsic life goals, while they list wealth, fame, and attractiveness as examples of extrinsic life goals (2008).

Aspirations and life goals drive us, but they are considered learned desires instead of basic needs like autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

SDT presents two sub-theories for a more nuanced understanding of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. These sub-theories are Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) and Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) which help explain intrinsic motivation with regards to its social factors and the various degrees of contextual factors that influence extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Let’s take a deeper look:

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)

According to CET intrinsic motivation can be facilitating or undermining , depending on the social and environmental factors in play. Referring to the Needs Theory, Deci & Ryan (1985,2000) argue that interpersonal events, rewards, communication and feedback that gear towards feelings of competence when performing an activity will enhance intrinsic motivation for that particular activity.

However, this level of intrinsic motivation is not attained if the individual doesn’t feel that the performance itself is self-determined or that they had the autonomous choice to perform this activity.

So, for a high level of intrinsic motivation two psychological needs have to be fulfilled:

• The first is competence so that the activity results in feelings of self-development and efficacy .
• The second is the need for autonomy that the performance of the chosen activity was self-initiated or self-determined.

Thus for CET theory to hold true, motivation needs to be intrinsic and have an appeal to the individual. It also implies that intrinsic motivation will be enhanced or undermined depending on whether the needs for autonomy and competence are supported or thwarted respectively.

It is believed that the use of the needs for autonomy and competence are linked to our motivations. Deci conducted a study on the effects of extrinsic rewards on people’s intrinsic motivation.

Results showed that when people received extrinsic rewards (e.g., money) for doing something, eventually they were less interested and less likely to do it later, compared to people who did the same activity without receiving the reward.

The results were interpreted as the participants’ behavior, which was initially intrinsically motivated, became controlled by the rewards which lead to an undermined sense of autonomy. This concept is beautifully explained in this video by RSA Animate.

Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)

The second sub-theory is Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) that argues that extrinsic motivation depends on the extent to which autonomy is present.

In other words, extrinsic motivation varies according to the internalization and integration of the value of the activity. Internalization is how well the value of an activity is felt while integration explains the process of individual transformation from external regulation to their own self-regulated version (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

For instance, school assignments are externally regulated activities. Internalization here could be if the child sees the value and importance of the assignment; integration in this situation is the degree to which the child perceives performing the assignment as their own choice.

The OIT thus offers us a greater perspective on the different levels of extrinsic motivation that exist and the processes of internalization and integration, which could eventually result in the autonomous choice of performing the activity for its intrinsic perceived joy and value.

Examples of SDT in Psychology

To understand self-determination theory, it can be useful to see some examples of people who are high in self-determination, or thinking and acting in an autonomous and intrinsically motivated fashion.

The best description of a self-determined individual is someone who:

• Believes she is in control of her own life.
• Takes responsibility for her own behavior (taking credit and blame when either is warranted).
• Is self-motivated instead of driven by others’ standards or external sources.
• Determines her actions based on her own internal values and goals.

For example, imagine a high school student who fails an important test. If she is high in self-determination—feels responsible for her actions, believes she is in control of her behavior, etc.—she might tell her parents that she could have spent more time studying and that she plans to carve out some extra time to study.

Her plan of action would be the same whether her parents were upset or apathetic, because she herself is motivated by an internal desire to be competent and knowledgeable.

If this same student is low in self-determination—feels that she is not in control of her life and that she is a victim of circumstance—she might blame the teacher for giving a tough test that students were not ready for. She may blame her parents for not helping her study or her friends for distracting her.

If she does care about her grade, it is not due to an internal desire to do well, but a desire to win her parents’ approval, or perhaps bolster her self-image by getting the best grade in the class or impressing her teacher with her knowledge.

The man who decides to start a new hobby because he thinks he’ll enjoy it is exhibiting self-determination, while the man who begins a new hobby because it seems prestigious or impressive, is not.

Similarly, the woman who blames all of her ex-lovers for ruining their relationships is not displaying self-determination; the woman who takes responsibility for her part in contributing to unhappy past relationships is showing self-determination.

You may have spotted the theme here: those who take responsibility for their actions and do things because they align with their own personal values and goals are self-determined. Those who blame others, see themselves as constant victims and do things solely for external approval or recognition, are not.

Self-Determination Theory Questionnaires

Feel free to use any of them for academic or research purposes, but please note that to use any of the scales for commercial purposes, you will need to seek permission from Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan.

They list 17 questionnaires that are either directly or indirectly related to self-determination theory. These questionnaires are listed below.

Aspiration Index

This scale measures the extent to which seven broad goal domains motivate the individual, including wealth, fame, image, personal growth, relationships, community contribution, and health. Respondents rate the importance of each aspiration, their beliefs about the likelihood they will attain each, and the degree to which they have already attained each. You can find the complete packet for this scale here .

Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale (BPNSS)

This scale was developed to assess the extent to which the individual feels each of the three basic needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—have been satisfied in his or her life. This scale has been developed for several contexts, like work and relationships, but there is a more general form as well. You can learn more about this scale or download a version for your own use here .

Christian Religious Internalization Scale (CRIS)

The CRIS, also known as the Religion Self-Regulation Questionnaire or SRQ-R, can determine the reasons why an individual engages in religious behavior. The scale is divided into two subscales: Introjected Regulation, representing the more externally motivating factors, and Identified Regulation, representing the more internally motivation factors.

There is a long form version with 48 items and a shorter, psychometrically sound 12-item version. Click here to learn more about the CRIS.

General Causality Orientations Scale

The General Causality Orientations Scale, or GCOS, can determine the degree to which the respondent embodies the three orientations: the autonomy orientation, the controlled orientation, and the impersonal orientation. The GCOS presents vignettes, or descriptions of common social or achievement-oriented situations, and asks respondents to indicate how typical each of three responses is for them on a 7-point Likert scale.

It is also available in a long form (17 vignettes and 51 items) and a short form (12 vignettes and 36 items). You can learn more about the GCOS or download it at this link .

Health-Care SDT Packet (HC-SDT)

The HC-SDT is comprised of three scales that measure self-regulation (SRQ), perceived competence (PCS), and perceived autonomy supportiveness of healthcare climate (HCCQ), three self-determination constructs related to health behaviors. The scales target four health behaviors: smoking cessation, diet improvement, exercising regularly and drinking responsibly. Click here to learn more about the HC-SDT.

Index of Autonomous Functioning (IAF)

The IAF measures trait autonomy based on three subscales: authorship/self-congruence, interest-taking, and low susceptibility to control. The first subscale assesses the degree to which the individual views his behavior as under his control and the consistency among his behaviors, attitudes, and traits .

The second assesses his ongoing insight into himself and his experiences in an open-minded manner, and the third assesses the absence of internal and external pressures as motivators for his behavior. You can download the scale at this link .

Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI)

This scale was developed for use in experiments, and measures the extent to which respondents found an activity interesting or enjoyable, their perceived competence at the task, the effort they put into the task, how valuable or useful they found it, how much tension or pressure they felt, and how much choice they felt they had while completing it.

The interest/enjoyment subscale is considered the individual’s self-reported level of intrinsic motivation in the experiment. Click here to download the scale and learn more.

Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)

The MAAS may be familiar to you if you’ve read any of our pieces on mindfulness. It provides a measure of “receptive awareness and attention to present-moment events and experience.” It consists of 15 items, all of which comprise a single factor. SDT co-developer Richard M. Ryan developed this scale with another colleague in 2003. Click here to learn more about the MAAS scale and see suggested reading on mindfulness .

Motivators’ Orientation

The Motivators’ Orientation set of questionnaires measures the extent to which an individual in a supervisory capacity tends to be autonomy-supportive versus controlling. There are two questionnaires designed for specific contexts: the Problems in Schools Questionnaire (PIS) is designed for teachers, while the Problems at Work Questionnaire (PAW) is designed for managers in a work environment.

Each questionnaire requires respondents to read eight vignettes and rate four behavioral options on appropriateness for the situation. The four options represent four tendencies: Highly Autonomy Supportive (HA), Moderately Autonomy Supportive (MA), Moderately Controlling (MC), and Highly Controlling, (HC). You can learn more about these scales here .

Motives for Physical Activity Measure (MPAM-R)

The MPAM-R assesses the strength of five different motivations for participating in a physical activity like team sports, aerobics, or weight lifting: (1) fitness, (2) appearance, (3) competence/challenge, (4) social, and (5) enjoyment. The results of this scale can reliably predict behavioral outcomes like attendance, persistence, and maintained participation, as well as constructs like mental health and wellbeing. You can find more information on this scale at this link .

Perceived Autonomy Support

This is a set of scales that measures the individual’s perceptions of the extent to which a particular social context is autonomy-supportive or controlling. It includes the aforementioned health care climate questionnaire (HCCQ) as well as scales on the learning climate (LCQ), the work climate (WCQ), the sports climate (SCQ), and the parental autonomy support climate (P-PASS).

Respondents rate the autonomy supportiveness of the context on a 7-point scale, with higher scores indicating greater autonomy support. There are two versions for each scale: a long, 15-item version and a short, 5-item version. Click here to learn more about these scales.

Perceived Choice and Awareness of Self Scale (formerly the Self-Determination Scale [SDS])

This scale, which was previously known as simply the Self-Determination Scale (SDS), measures individual differences in perceived choice, or the feeling that one has choices in how to behave, and awareness of self, or the awareness of one’s own feelings and sense of self. The PCASS is only 10 items long and is composed of two 5-item scales (one for each construct). Follow this link to learn more about the PCASS.

Perceived Competence Scale (PCS)

The PCS is a short questionnaire that measures perceived competence in a specific behavior or area. It is only 4 items long, and it is intended to be adapted for the specific behavior or area being studied. Click here to learn more about the PCS.

Perceptions of Parents

This scale for children was designed to measure how autonomy-supportive or controlling they perceive their parents to be. There are two versions of this scale: a 22-item version for children 8 years or older, and a 42-item version for college students. You can learn more about this scale and the two versions here .

Self-Regulation Questionnaires (SRQ)

The SRQ scales measure individual differences in regulation or motivation of behavior. There are seven self-regulation questionnaires listed on the website: the Academic Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-A) and the Prosocial Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-P), both of which are intended for children, and the Treatment Self-Regulation Questionnaire (TSRQ), the Learning Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-L), the Exercise Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-E), the Religion Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-R), and the Friendship Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-F), which are all intended for adults.

You can find these questionnaires at this link .

Subjective Vitality Scale (VS)

The Subjective Vitality Scale, or VS, assesses the extent to which an individual feels alive, alert, and energetic—a vital aspect of wellbeing. There are two versions, one of which considers individual differences (vitality as a trait or characteristic), while the other measures vitality as a more transitory experience (vitality as a state).

The items are generally the same, only the timeframe differs (long-term and stable for the trait version vs. short-term and fluctuating for the state version). The original scale consisted of 7 items, but a shorter, 6-item version has proven to be even more sound than the original. You can learn more about the scale here .

Treatment Motivation Questionnaire (TMQ)

Finally, the TMQ is used to assess motivation for receiving treatment. It measures the strength of four types of motivation on treatment attendance and compliance behaviors: intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, and external regulation. You can download the scale or learn more about it here .

If you’re interested in assessing more traits and behaviors, please see our piece on mindfulness scales and questionnaires .

SDT has a lot to say about goals and goal striving.

The theory proposes that not only is the content of our goals (i.e., what we strive for) important for our need satisfaction and wellbeing, the process of our goals (i.e., why we strive for them) is just as influential on our wellbeing.

The degree to which behavioral regulation of goal striving is autonomous (or self-directed) versus controlled is a significant predictor of wellbeing outcomes.

In other words, we are more satisfied and successful when we can pursue goals in “our own way” rather than according to a strict, external system of regulation. Even when pursuing extrinsic rewards like wealth or fame, we are more satisfied and self-actualized when we pursue them autonomously, for our own reasons and with our own methods (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Further research on SDT and goals has confirmed the connection between success and autonomy and supported the idea that success is also more likely when our goals are intrinsic and intended to satisfy our basic needs. Success in goal-striving is more likely when we are supported by empathetic and supportive people, rather than controlling or directive people (Koestner & Hope, 2014).

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It’s easy to see how SDT applies to education: students are more likely to learn and succeed in school when they are intrinsically motivated by their need for competence than when they are extrinsically motivated by teachers, parents, or the grading system.

SDT is doubly important for children in special education and those with disabilities. These students are often struggling with meeting their need for autonomy, as many decisions are made for them and they may not have the physical or intellectual ability to be truly autonomous.

Their disability may interfere with their need for competence, as it can hamper their efforts to master tasks and develop their knowledge. Finally, those with disabilities—physical, mental, or both—often find it difficult to connect with their peers. All of these extra struggles explain why it’s vital for students with disabilities to have a sense of self-determination.

Although they may not be able to satisfy their needs in the most straightforward or common ways, special education students can gain a sense of self-determination in other ways. For example, research has suggested that programs designed to improve the following skills and abilities can boost a student’s self-determination:

• Self-awareness
• Decision-making
• Goal-setting
• Goal attainment
• Communication and relationship skills
• Ability to celebrate success and learn from mistakes
• Reflection on experiences (Field & Hoffman, 1994).

Enhancing the self-determination of students with disabilities has been shown to result in many positive outcomes, including a greater likelihood of gainful employment and a higher chance of living independently in the community (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).

While there are many theories about work motivation and engagement, SDT is unique in its focus on the “relative strength of autonomous versus controlled motivation, rather than on the total amount of motivation” (Gagné & Deci, 2005).

Although the overall amount of motivation is certainly a factor, it’s important not to lose sight of the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators; for example, SDT is correct in its assumption that extrinsic rewards are related to reduced intrinsic motivation.

There is also evidence for a positive relationship between a manager’s autonomy support and their employees’ work outcomes. A manager’s autonomy leads to greater levels of need satisfaction for their employees, which in turn boosts job satisfaction , performance evaluations, persistence, acceptance of organizational change, and psychological adjustment.

Finally, there is a link between managerial autonomy and subordinate autonomy, performance, and organizational commitment, as well as a link between transformational or visionary leadership and followers’ autonomous (vs. controlled) goals (Gagné & Deci, 2005).

Clearly, SDT has some vital applications in the workplace, namely:

• Extrinsic rewards should be considered with caution; too few can lead to a sense that employees are not appreciated or fairly compensated and recognized, but too many can inhibit intrinsic motivation.
• Managers should support their employees’ need for satisfaction, especially autonomy; this can lead to happier and more competent employees as well as better organizational outcomes.
• When managers are themselves high in autonomy, their subordinates are likely to be high in autonomy as well, leading to better performance and higher organizational commitment.
• Good leadership encourages employees to set their own, autonomously conceived and regulated goals, which are more motivating and more likely to end in success than goals assigned to them by management.

SDT is a foundational idea in social work: the idea that every person has a right to determine his or her own direction and make her or her own decisions in life. Although every person has a right to self-determination, marginalized, disadvantaged, and disenfranchised people may struggle with finding their own self-determination (Furlong, 2003).

Hence, it is vital for those in the social work profession to incorporate the principle of self-determination into their work.

The National Association of Social Workers holds this principle as a central tenet to the profession:

“Social workers respect and promote the right of clients to self-determination and assist clients in their efforts to identify and clarify their goals. Social workers may limit clients’ right to self-determination when, in the social workers’ professional judgment, clients’ actions or potential actions pose a serious, foreseeable, and imminent risk to themselves or others.”

Guidelines related to self-determination require a constant commitment to allow clients to make their own decisions, with ample support and information from the social worker rather than direction and control. It also requires that a social worker be aware of their own values and beliefs to ensure that they are not influencing clients towards a direction they did not choose for themselves (Fanning, 2015).

It’s a fine line to walk between looking out for the client’s best interests and allowing them to find their own way, which is one reason why social work is a challenging and demanding profession!

Unsurprisingly, intrinsic motivation is a far more impactful driver of behavior in terms of goal attainment than extrinsic rewards, and in no context is this fact easier to see than in sports.

Research has shown that:

• Those who are amotivated (not motivated by intrinsic or extrinsic factors) or motivated by external regulation and meeting external standards are more likely to drop out of sports teams or leagues.
• Those who are amotivated or externally motivated are generally lower in need satisfaction, specifically the needs of relatedness and autonomy (Calvo, Cervelló, Jiménez, Iglesias, & Murcia, 2010).

Further, in work on SDT and general exercise or physical activity, findings have included:

• Those who are autonomously motivated are more likely to adhere to exercise over time and enter the state of flow (a la Csikszentmihalyi’s theory of flow).
• Those who are autonomously motivated have a higher perceived competence and psychological wellbeing.
• Autonomous support from others encourages individuals’ autonomous motivation related to exercise.
• An internal locus of causality (versus external) promotes greater success in exercise endeavors (Hagger, & Chatzisarantis, 2008).

As with self-determination in many other contexts, those with a high sense of it are more likely to stick with their goals and eventually achieve them.

Likewise, self-determination theory can explain trends in nursing and healthcare. For example, intrinsic motivation and autonomy drive patient compliance with medical instructions, but motivation to comply with standards is also significant for patients (Kofi, 2017).

Another recent study provided support for the hypothesis that a health care practitioner’s autonomy support encourages patients to engage in healthier behavior, boosts their perceived competence in those behaviors, and can even enhance their sense of mindfulness in addition to helping them meet the three basic needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness; Martin, Byrd, Wooster, & Kulik, 2017).

Just as self-determination is vital for students in educational settings, it is vital for patients in healthcare settings. When patients feel they have little control over their lives and they are not supported in their decision-making by healthcare professionals, they will likely struggle to get their needs met and have worse health outcomes.

Healthcare professionals should keep these findings in mind when interacting with their patients if they have an interest in encouraging healthy behavior outside of the examination room.

It may be difficult to think about how self-determination skills can be taught or encouraged in others. This might feel like a trick question, since self-determination is, by definition, not directed by others!

However, there are some things you can do to help children and young adults develop self-determination.

Specifically, it can help to enhance and encourage their:

• Self-awareness and self-knowledge
• Goal-setting ability
• Problem-solving skills
• Decision-making skills
• Ability to self-advocate
• Ability to create action plans to achieve their goals
• Self-regulation and self-management skills (Wehmeyer, 2002).

For some practical suggestions on how to go about encouraging self-determination, check out our Self-Determination Skills and Activities article .

If you’re interested in learning more about SDT, you’re in luck! There are many resources out there that can help you become more familiar with this theory, including some great books. Some of the most popular and influential books on SDT include:

• Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness by Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci ( Amazon )
• Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation by Edward L. Deci and Richard Flaste ( Amazon )
• Self-Determination Theory in the Clinic: Motivating Physical and Mental Health by Kennon M. Sheldon, Geoffrey Williams, and Thomas Joiner ( Amazon )
• Handbook of Self-Determination Research by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan ( Amazon )
• The Oxford Handbook of Work Engagement, Motivation, and Self-Determination Theory by Marylene Gagne ( Amazon )
• Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan ( Amazon link )
• The Theory of Self-Determination by Fernando R. Tesón ( Amazon )
• Self-Determination Theory in Practice: How to Create an Optimally Supportive Health Care Environment by Jennifer G. La Guardia ( Amazon )

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If you’re the type of person that loves a good quote, we’ve got some great ones related to self-determination for you. See if any resonate with your personal view on self-determination.

“Stay focused and stay determined. Don’t look to anyone else to be your determination—have self-determination. It will take you very far.”

Justice Smith

“My idea of feminism is self-determination, and it’s very open-ended: every woman has the right to become herself, and do whatever she needs to do.”

Ani DiFranco

“America was born out of a desire for self-determination, a longing for the human dignity that only independence can bring.”

Maurice Saatchi

“Equality and self-determination should never be divided in the name of religious or ideological fervor.”

“Know what you want and reach out eagerly for it.”

Lailah Gifty Akita

“We each possess the capacity for self-development. We also possess the capacity for self-destruction. The path that we chose to take—to pursue lightness or darkness—is the story that we take to our graves.”

Kilroy J. Oldster

“We are condemned to be free people, liberated people who must make life-defining decisions. Freedom requires choices and all choices entail value decisions.”

“Above all, be the heroine of your life, not the victim.”

Nora Ephron

“Let every man be master of his time.”

William Shakespeare

“Self-determination is not a mere phrase. It is an imperative principle of action, which statesmen will henceforth ignore at their peril.”

Woodrow Wilson

“Control your own destiny or someone else will.”

I hope you enjoyed this piece on Self-Determination Theory. It’s a great theory if you plan to have any career in the helping industry (e.g., counselor, coach, teacher, healthcare professional), and it’s also a great theory to understand regardless.

Although this theory has the impressive ability to predict outcomes of behavior based on motivations for that behavior (at least in part), the real value for the individual comes in the form of understanding the self better. When we know our core values and the intrinsic goals aligned with those values, we may be happier.

This method may even help people make better choices that satisfy their own needs rather than strive towards extrinsic goals.

If you take one thing away from the piece, let it be that you—like all people—are fully capable of making choices and finding your own way. As long as you pursue goals guided by your authentic values and desires, you have a great chance of success.

What do you think about self-determination theory? Do you think intrinsic motivation is always more effective than extrinsic motivation? Which do you find drives you more? Please let us know in the comments section below.

Thanks for reading!

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free .

Self-Determination Theory proposes that there are three fundamental psychological needs that are essential for human flourishing:

• autonomy – to feel in control of one’s own life and choices
• competence – to feel capable and effective in one’s actions
• relatedness – to feel connected to and cared for by others.

These needs are considered universal and innate, and fulfilling them promotes wellbeing and optimal functioning in individuals.

Self-Determination Theory was defined by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, two psychologists who proposed the theory in the 1980s as a framework for understanding human motivation and personality.

Self-Determination Theory is based on two key assumptions:

First – humans have innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Second – individuals who satisfy these needs will experience greater wellbeing, personal growth, and optimal functioning.

• Calvo, T. G., Cervelló, E., Jiménez, R., Iglesias, D., & Murcia, J. A. M. (2010). Using self-determination theory to explain sport persistence and dropout in adolescent athletes. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 13, 677-684.
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268.
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-Determination Theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49, 182-185.
• Fanning, J. (2015). If I were my client I would… (Social work and self-determination). MSW Online Programs. Retrieved from https://mswonlineprograms.org/2015/if-i-were-my-client-i-would-social-work-and-self-determination/
• Field, S. & Hoffman, A. (1994). Development of a model for self-determination. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 17, 159-169.
• Furlong, M. A. (2003). Self-determination and a critical perspective in casework: Promoting a balance between interdependence and autonomy. Qualitative Social Work, 2, 177-196.
• Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 331-362.
• Hagger, M., & Chatzisarantis, N. (2008). Self-determination theory and the psychology of exercise. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1 , 79-103.
• Koestern, R., & Hope, N. (2014). A self-determination theory approach to goals. In M. Gagne (Ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Work Engagement, Motivation, and Self-Determination Theory.
• Kofi, O. (2017). Patient participatory behaviours in healthcare service delivery: Self-determination theory (SDT) perspective. Journal of Service Theory and Practice, 27, 453-474.
• Martin, J. J., Byrd, B., Wooster, S., & Kulik, N. (2017). Self-determination theory: The role of the health care professional in promoting mindfulness and perceived competence. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research [Online first posting].
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY, US: Plenum Press.
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being .
• Wehmeyer, M. L. (2002). Self0determination and the education of students with disabilities. ERIC EC Digest #E632. Retrieved from http://www.hoagiesgifted.org/eric/e632.html
• Wehmeyer, M. L. & Schwartz, M. (1997). Self-determination and positive adult outcomes: A follow-up study of youth with mental retardation or learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 63, 245-255.
• Wehmeyer, M. L. & Palmer, S.B. (2003). Adult outcomes for students with cognitive disabilities three years after high school: The impact of self-determination. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 38 , 131-144.

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What our readers think.

I’m delighted to read your article which seems to very helpful. Appreciate your hard work and clear way of defining the points.

Thank you for this article on SDT. Reading how this is viewed differently according to situations, people, and careers has been very much enlightening to me and I found myself looking forward to reading more on this theory. Again, thank you.

Very much appreciated. Thank you for this excellent article.

Hi, I enjoyed reading this article. how to cite this article?

Glad you enjoyed it! Here’s how you’d cite it in APA 7th:

Ackerman, C. E. (2018, June 21). Self-determination theory of motivation: Why intrinsic motivation matters. PositivePsychology.com. https://positivepsychology.com/self-determination-theory/

Hope this helps!

– Nicole | Community Manager

Very Interesting! When was the article published? I would like to reference some information from this article and it’s necessary to put the year!

Glad you liked the article. It was published the 21st of June, 2018.

Can SDT be applied into fields such as shopping and consumer decision making? If so is there any existing research within these fields you could suggest? Many thanks

Yes, there is a wealth of research looking at SDT in the domains of marketing and consumer behavior. It’s therefore hard to recommend a starting point, but perhaps this review by Gilal et al., (2019) would be one.

Do you have an survey instrument to evaluate mission motivation of seminary students? or to evaluate the work motivation of an organization? Could you please guide me to that.

I’m afraid I’m not aware of any scales for measuring mission motivation of the type I assume you’re interested in. You might need to custom-develop something for this purpose. As for work motivation, are you interested in organization-level motivation? Or like the motivation of a team or workgroup or department (as opposed to the individual)? Let me know and I should be able to point you in the right direction 🙂

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The Oxford Handbook of Self-Determination Theory

Richard M. Ryan, Institute for Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic University, College of Education, Ewha Womans University

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Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a broad theory of psychological growth and wellness that has revolutionized how we think about human motivation and the driving forces behind personality development. SDT focuses on people’s basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness and how social environments that support these needs foster more volition, vitality, and full functioning. SDT has supplied the basis for new and more effective practices in parenting, education, business, sport, healthcare, and other areas of life, fostering higher-quality motivation, engagement, and satisfaction. Drawing on over four decades of evidence-based research and application, The Oxford Handbook of Self-Determination Theory delivers a truly integrative volume by the top researchers and experts within the field of SDT. Edited by SDT co-founder Richard M. Ryan, this Handbook not only provides the theory’s historical and scientific underpinnings but also draws together the latest research and insights, covering topics from the social and biological underpinnings of motivation and wellness to practical applications in all aspects of life. This volume will be an invaluable resource for both researchers and practitioners, as well as any student of human nature, with practical research and guidance.

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The Role of Self-Determination in Well-Being

Learn about what self-determination is and how it can affect your well-being..

Updated December 3, 2023 | Reviewed by Devon Frye

• What Is Motivation?
• Find a therapist near me
• Self-determination theory says that we have three psychological needs for optimal well-being.
• Autonomous regulation is linked with greater overall well-being,
• Autonomous motivation is associated with greater creativity and improved problem-solving.

Cowritten by Tchiki Davis and Sarah Sperber

Why do you do the things you do? Why did you brush your teeth this morning, go to work, or click on this post? And is it possible to change the way you behave?

Motivation underlies all of our behavior. Self-determination theory is a widely recognized framework for understanding motivation and the impact that different types of motivation can have on different aspects of well-being . Read on to learn the fundamental principles of self-determination theory and how to live a more self-determined life.

What Self-Determination Is

The psychologists who developed self-determination theory defined self-determination as follows: “Self‐determination means acting with a sense of choice, volition, and commitment, and it is based on intrinsic motivation and integrated extrinsic motivation ” (Deci & Ryan, 2010).

Psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan first presented self-determination theory (referred to as SDT for short) in their 1985 book, Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior . They suggest that there are four different types of behavior regulation or motivation, two of which are autonomous and two of which are controlled. In this theory, autonomous regulation is the basis for self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 2010).

• Autonomous motivation or regulation refers to acting out of a sense of willingness, volition, and choice (Deci, 2017).
• Controlled motivation or regulation refers to acting out of a sense of pressure, demand, or obligation (Deci, 2017).

Self-Determination Examples

Here are some examples of self-determined behaviors:

• A child playing with toys for enjoyment
• Exercising because you value the health benefits
• Quitting smoking because you value living a longer life with your children
• A child completing their chores because they understand the value of responsibility
• Creating art for the inherent joy of it
• Choosing a career path with a complete sense of willingness

Principles of Self-Determination

Self-determination theory states that humans have three psychological needs for optimal well-being and performance: relatedness, competence, and autonomy. When someone feels related to others, competent, and like they are acting with a sense of volition, they will be autonomously motivated or self-determined (Deci, 2017; Deci & Ryan, 2012).

• Relatedness refers to the need to be cared for and caring for others.
• Competence refers to the need to feel effective in one’s behavior.
• Autonomy refers to the need to feel that one is acting out of a sense of volition and self-endorsement (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013).

The research suggests that to foster self-determination in oneself or others, it is important to create a supportive environment that satisfies all three of the above needs (Deci & Ryan, 2012).

How Self-Determination May Affect Well-Being

So why do these different types of motivation or regulation matter? If you end up with the same behaviors, then does it make a difference what is motivating them? Well, your own experience might tell you that the type of motivation you have can influence how you feel while you engage in a behavior.

Research surrounding self-determination theory​ has found that autonomous regulation is linked with greater overall well-being. “Those behaviors that are more self‐determined and less controlled are associated with a stronger sense of personal commitment, greater persistence, more positive feelings, higher quality performance, and better mental health ” (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Studies have found that autonomous motivation is also associated with greater creativity and improved problem-solving (Deci, 2012).

With this in mind, it is likely helpful to learn how to increase the amount of autonomous regulation in your life. To do this, you can work on creating a supportive environment for yourself based on the above principles of relatedness, competence, and autonomy.

A version of this post also appears as an article on The Berkeley Well-Being Institute Web site.

​Deci, E. L. (2012, August). Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci at TEDxFlourCity. TED Conferences.

Deci, E. L. (2017, October). Edward Deci - Self-Determination Theory. The Brainwaves Video Anthology

Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. United States: Springer US.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry , 11(4), 227-268.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). Self‐determination. The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology, 1-2.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Self-determination theory. In P. A. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology: Volume 1 (Vol. 1, pp. 416-437). SAGE Publications Ltd, https://www.doi.org/10.4135/9781446249215.n21

Vansteenkiste, M., & Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: Basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration , 23(3), 263.

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Self-Determination Theory: Evaluation, comparisons and future research

Theories store and condense knowledge, offer practical applications and guide research (Shoemaker et al., 2004). To study individual differences in motivation therefore requires knowledge of motivation theories. This essay will provide a short introduction to the Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2017) and critically reflect its strength and weaknesses.

Self-Determination Theory

The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a broad human motivation and personality theory, employing an organismic meta-theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000). It is primarily concerned with how social and environmental conditions can satisfy their basic psychological needs (competence, relatedness, autonomy) and therefore promote or hinder their thriving and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2017). SDT proposes that humans are inherently self-motivated, eager to learn, and willing to put in the effort to extend themselves. However, these tendencies need support by (social) contexts, else humans turn to apathy and irresponsibility (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

SDT comprises six mini theories, each covering a different aspect of motivation. This essay will focus on one of these theories, Organismic Integration Theory .

An introduction to Self-Determination Theory

Motivation is the process that gives both energy and direction to people’s behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Energy refers to the (relative) strength and persistence of the behaviour, while direction implies the behaviour is driven towards a goal by intention (Reeve, 2009). A behaviour that lacks either strength or direction (e.g., unintentionally closing the eyes when sneezing) does not fall under motivation.

SDT proposes two basic types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. A be- haviour is intrinsically motivated if it is performed “for its own sake”, because the action it- self is perceived as interesting or enjoyable. An extrinsically motivated behaviour on the other hand is performed to achieve an outome that is separable from the action itself, e.g. to earn a reward or avoid punishment (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017). Research provided evidence that intrinsic motivation is associated with more positive outcomes (e.g., performance or well-being) than extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2008).

According to Organismic Integration Theory, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are not dichotomous. Instead, extrinsic motivation is divided into four subtypes (called regulatory styles, see Fig. 1). These subtypes differ in their extent of internalization , the integration of external regulation into one’s self, and their perceived locus of causality (if the behaviour is perceived as internally or externally caused). The more a behaviour is internalized, the less controlled it is perceived and the more autonomous it becomes (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2020).

Internalization can be facilitated by the satisfaction of the three basic psychological need, that is, experiences of relatedness, competence and autonomy. However, the opposite is also true: an environment that does not support basic need satisfaction can quickly turn intrinsic motivation into extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). It is also suggested that extrinsic re- wards, such as monetary incentives, can undermine and “crowd out” intrinsic motivation (Frey & Jegen, 2001).

A critical reflection of Self-Determination Theory

Shoemaker et al. (2004) name 10 evaluation criteria for social sciences theories: testability, falsifiability, parsimony, explanatory power, predictive power, scope, cumulative nature, de- gree of formal development, and heuristic value.

The Self-Determination Theory is a very broad theory and has been applied to various topics such as education (e.g., Katz et al., 2014), sports (e.g., Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2007), and health care (e.g., Li et al., 2020). Since SDT can be used to explain human behaviour in nearly every situation, it has a very large scope . The large amount of research that has been sparked by it (see Ryan & Deci, 2019) also indicates its high heuristic value . Research based on SDT is supported by the large amount of measurements for SDT constructs that were de- veloped, such as the Revised Sport Motivation Scale (Pelletier et al., 2013), the Intrinsic Mo- tivation Inventory (Tsigilis & Theodosiou, 2003), or the Self-Regulation Questionnaires for various contexts, e.g. health behaviour (Levesque et al., 2007). These instruments also con- tribute to the testability of SDT: key variables of the theory can be measured using validated and well-tried questionnaires.

The large scope of SDT however comes with a drawback: low parsimony . In its decades of development (see Ryan & Deci, 2019), the SDT framework was constantly extended and the six mini theories (Ryan & Deci, 2017) emerged, resulting in a quite complex theory.

While the main points of the theory can be summarized quickly, it takes some time and effort to grasp all its aspects and the connections between the mini theories. The broad framework also leads to only moderate falsifiability . It is hard to disprove the whole theory with evidence due to its complexity and the various constructs included in the framework. For example, hu- man behaviour can be influenced by multiple regulations at the same time (Ryan & Deci, 2020), which makes it hard to pin-point the association between regulatory styles and well- being that is proposed by Organismic Integration Theory.

The cumulative nature of SDT is very high, as it has generated a lot of research and the theory has grown constantly since its inception in 1980 (Ryan & Deci, 2019). The theory has also been discussed in regards to neuopsychological correlates and connections to other theories, e.g. the Big Five personality traits (Ryan et al., 2019). Overall, it has been shown that the regulatory styles follow a simplex-like pattern, where regulatory styles close to each other show a higher correlation than those farther away (Ryan & Connell, 1989), which lends credibility to the structure displayed in Figure 1 above. There is also a lot of evidence that in- trinsic motivation as well as highly internalized forms of extrinsic motivation are associated with more positive outcomes, compared to rather controlled regulatory styles (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 2008). However, there are also reviews pointing to inconsistencies in research results of SDT in certain topics, e.g. physical activity and exercise (Teixeira et al., 2012).

SDT has a moderate degree of formal development . While it is an exhaustive theory integrating different aspects of human motivation, there are no mathematical models and pre- cise path diagrams that allow the formulation of precise hypotheses. It is also not presented at a “finished” theory, as the authors emphasize its organic growth (Ryan et al., 2019).

Given how broad the framework of SDT is, its predictions are not precise, which leads to low predictive power : The theory makes no assumptions about the strength of associations between e.g. intrinsic motivation and well-being. On the other hand, it has a high explanatory power by taking both internal (e.g., motives and goals) and external (social relationships, context) variables into account when explaining human motivation and behaviour.

In summary, it can be stated that the main strengths of Self-Determination Theory are the range of topics it can be applied to and a large amount of research it has generated in the last decades. Its main weaknesses are its complexity and low predictive power.

A look ahead: Future directions in Self-Determination Theory research

“Theory building is an ongoing process. It doesn’t come to an end” (Shoemaker et al., 2004, p. 2). Since its inception, Self-Determination Theory constantly grew, has been revisited and partitioned into six mini theories. However, there is still much that remains to be done.

The Self-Determination Theory is very broad and covers a lot of aspects of human motivation and behaviour. This, in turn, leaves the theory very complex: for example, the book by Ryan and Deci (2017) on SDT comprises over 700 pages. The construction of pathway models, similar to the one Sheldon and Elliot (1999) present for their Self-Concordance Model, might help make the theory more concise and easier to grasp. This would also offer the opportunity to increase falsifiability by formulating more mathematical relationships between the different constructs which can then be empirically tested.

Most of research on SDT until today took place on a psychological level (Reeve & Lee, 2019). Utilizing research methods of neuroscience might offer a new perspective on SDT and help researchers understand motivational constructs more thoroughly. Methods like EEG or fMRI may be especially useful in uncovering non-conscious processes (which cannot be assessed by traditional questionnaires), as well as measuring motivation in real time, not in retrospect (Reeve & Lee, 2019). If motivational processes can be tracked to neural correlates, this might also help understanding individual differences in motivation.

An aspect of SDT that needs more clarification is the process of internalization. Internalization is the process of integrating a goal or regulation into one’s self, leading to more autonomous motivation. It depends on the satisfaction of the three basic needs. However, it is not clear how this process works: Is it conscious or unconscious? Is it something that just “happens”, or can a human proactively drive it forward? How long does it take to go through the regulatory styles from extrinsic to integrated regulation? Does this depend on the nature of the goal that is being internalized? And is it possible to skip regulatory styles? Answering these questions would also indicate opportunities to design training programs, e.g. for teachers or sports coaches, to help their students attain the more autonomous motivation and benefit from its positive effects.

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Conceptualizing the moderating effects between work from home and individual performance – Developing a conceptual framework using the self-determination theory

Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, (ISM), Dhanbad, Jharkhand India

Saumya Singh

Associated data.

Data sharing does not apply to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

The working systems of organizations/institutions have undergone continuous transformations over the years for various reasons. Researchers have continually strived to find effective solutions/appropriate work systems to sustain an individual's performance in spite of the challenging working/business environment. The global pandemic Covid-19 prompted a rethinking of organizational work practices across sectors. Work from home (WFH) became a key component of continuing the organization's working system. This paper specifies the following six factors that may moderate the effectiveness of a work-from-home setting on individual performance such as dedication, disposition, determination, configuration, collaboration, and coordination. The paper uses self-determination theory (SDT) to develop a conceptual framework for WFH-individual performance, which specifies dedication, disposition, and determination as intrinsic motivators, while configuration, collaboration, and coordination as extrinsic motivators. Moreover, it provides implications and future research directions for theory development and practice.

In today's volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) business climate/working environment, the performance of a company relies mainly on its ability to acclimatize to the turbulent business/working environment, make strategies to deal with the changes, and determine how to implement the changes (Rimita et al., 2020 ). Previously, the business environment had changed on most occasions’ consequent to economic turbulence, climate change, political instability, firm’s competitiveness, strategic decisions, social cause, and many other factors (Chertkovskaya & Paulsson, 2021 ). As a result of changes in the business/working environment for any causes, workers' mobility and office settings did not change preferably (Hassanain, 2010 ). The global pandemic of Covid-19 prompted organizations of all sizes/types for redesigning their working systems (Amis & Janz, 2020 ). Literature on work culture suggests that organizations restructure their working systems to address challenges (Correll et al., 2014 ). Organizations redefine their working systems in order to sustain their operations and ensure their employees' safety. The WFH emerged as an alternative option for performing organizational activities (Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021 ).

The performance outcome differs reasonably between WFH and working at the workplace (WAW) (Gibbs et al., 2021 ). These differences occur due to decreased collaboration, coordination, and communication with superiors, subordinates, and coworkers while working from home (Gibbs et al., 2021 ). Literature on performance management systems in the workplace is extensive. However, in light of the introduction of WFH, what are the factors that organizations should specify that may moderate an individual's performance while working from home? To address the above research gap, the paper conceptualizes the moderating effects between WFH and individual performance. This conceptual paper aims to specify the key intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors of individuals that may moderate the relationship between WFH and individual performance. To show the relationship between WFH and individual performance, we propose a conceptual framework that presents the specified factors as moderating variables.

Telework, telecommuting, virtual work, home-based teleworking, mobile teleworking, and remote work are all examples of official activities carried out from locations other than traditional office spaces. Over the years, researchers defined the concept of teleworking in many dimensions. Teleworking comprises several formats, i.e., work from home, teleworking from remote offices, mobile telework, etc. A little research has been conducted to show the moderating effect of teleworkers' level of accountability and level of manager's supervision over teleworkers' in defining the relationship between telework, work-life balance, and performance (Solís, 2017 ). Several organizations adopt the flexible work setup for their employees and WFH is one of the main telework options as flexible working arrangements. Research shows that telework factors such as collaboration, coordination, and configuration (home as a working place), etc., impact the productivity/performance of individuals and ultimately overall organizational outcomes (Nakrošienė et al., 2019 ). We propose these factors as moderating variables between WFH and individual performance. This paper mainly focuses on explaining specified moderating variables and how they moderate the WFH setting-individual performance relationship.

Literature review

Several works of literature argued the factors of WFH settings in the context of its outcome, advantages and disadvantages (Nakrošienė et al., 2019 ). Research reveals that individuals who execute work from home can have higher performance/productivity due to lesser engagement in physical office meetings, more autonomy and flexi time, more work freedom and increased work life balance, no interruption and more empowerment etc. (Patanjali & Bhatta, 2022 ). On the other hand, some researchers presented an opposing argument. The WFH setting reduces organizational visibility, teamwork and management support, and interpersonal interaction, and is unconnected from organizational core values, goals, ethos, and culture (Nakrošienė et al., 2019 ). Research suggests that this isolation may lead to less professional development and career growth opportunities. Some researchers suggested that WFH setting is as an initiative to balance life obligations, performance, and associated factors. The WFH concept was primarily discussed in terms of its advantages and disadvantages in the literature. To the best of our knowledge, scholars have not paid much attention to how to maintain individual performance in the context of WFH.

Employee performance depends on several factors. Many theories and research papers in the management literature discuss various performance measurement systems (Boyle, 2013 ). Previous literature, however, reveals that negotiation between superiors and subordinates happens on goal setting, performance metrics, and key performance indicators in the context of face-to-face discussions and joint agreements in a four-wall enclosed physical office environment. Working from home became an alternative option for organizations to run office activities remotely using disruptive technology post-pandemic (Kaushik & Guleria, 2020 ). Thus, WFH has proven to be a future-oriented organizational working system using technology applications. In addition to technology applications, behavioral and environmental factors play a crucial role in determining employee performance (Kaushik & Guleria, 2020 ). Several researchers argue that these factors contribute significantly to predicting an individual's performance, which in turn predicts a firm's performance (Diamantidis & Chatzoglou, 2019 ). Behavioral, environmental, and family atmospheres are more critical than technology applications in order to determine an individual's performance in the WFH system. (Ruppanner & Huffman, 2014 ). WFH affects behavioral factors such as employee motivation, commitment to shared goals, and mutual trust (Nakrošienė et al., 2019 ). Overstay at home can increase mental boredom, lethargy, and anxiety (Xiao et al., 2021 ). Technological factors like high-speed internet, communication tools (Vaara & Langley, 2021 ), and office-like arrangements (i.e., laptop/computer, printers, scanner, etc.) play critical factors to make WFH more viable (Rigotti et al., 2021 ). Environmental factors include a proper arrangement of workspace at home, avoiding distractions, work-life balance, and maintaining social interaction are also key characteristics of WFH for which an individual has to manage in WFH setup (Rigotti et al., 2021 ). Diamantidis and Chatzoglou ( 2019 ) suggests that face-to-face continuous observance and monitoring system makes an individual more inclined towards work accomplishments and improves a sense of commitment, culture, and competence through interaction with others at the workplace. Renkema et al. (2017) proposed a concept of integration and evaluation of various levels in organizations. Specifically, they explained that effective measurement and management of multilevel analysis would lead to optimum results. WFH is an emerging research area to identify the critical factors for unbiased, objective, and unambiguous individual performance measurement. This paper attempts to highlight certain behavioral and environmental factors that could be critical to deciding an individual's performance in WFH settings.

Individual performance contributes substantially to broad organizational performance. It is imperative to manage and measure the performance of individuals with objectivity (Boyle, 2013 ). Research shows that evaluating individual performance in the physical workplace through face-to-face conversation between reporting manager and subordinate makes it more rational and logical (Boyle, 2013 ). Diamantidis and Chatzoglou ( 2019 ) recommended that a reporting manager observes an individual’s behavioral traits consistently in the physical workplace and subsequently discusses, suggests, and communicates their developmental needs. A constant face-to-face dialogue between reporting manager and subordinate helps improve the subordinate's dedication, disposition, and determination (Diamantidis & Chatzoglou, 2019 ), configuration, collaboration, and coordination (Kaushik & Guleria, 2020 ). Perlow and Kelly ( 2014 ) suggests that all these factors contribute significantly to improving an individual's efficiency and positive behavioral traits that make an individual effective, productive, and proactive in the workplace. This paper is an attempt to argue that do these factors have similar importance in WFH-individual performance? Further, if significant how does it integrate to improve an individual's performance for inclusive firm performance? This paper presents a conceptual model using these factors as moderating variables to link WFH-individual performance. Moreover, this paper presents WFH as a future working arrangement and how WFH-individual performance would be significant to achieving overall organizational goals?

As a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, numerous papers were published on the pros and cons of remote working/working from home. Researchers and practitioners have deliberated several factors of remote working/working from home, including how to maintain employee productivity/performance. An attempt is made in this paper to conceptualize the effects of moderating variables on WFH-individual performance in a broader context. For an individual to achieve higher performance, even while working from home, dedication, disposition, and determination are essential (Gagné & Deci, 2005 ). These three factors belong to a person's characteristics usually appear in an individual committed to performing. On the other hand, organizational characteristics are similarly essential to ensure individual performance. The presence of collaboration and coordination among the coworkers enhances work engagement, which leads to higher individual performance (Osifo, 2013 ).

Moreover, the ergonomically configured office settings enhance employees’ health and well-being to ensure the systematic advancement in work settings, which energizes the execution of work to meet the targets on time (Meijer et al., 2009 ). Building such synergy is easier in a physical workplace and group working environment. However, this is an area of research for academicians and practitioners that how these variables act in the WFH—individual performance relationship. In our conceptual model, we propose these variables as moderating variables to moderate the relationship between WFH settings and individual performance. Several authors have taken these variables as moderating variables in other areas of study like business research, employee engagement, and behavioral studies (Farooq & Vij, 2017 ; Jain et al., 2013 ). In future empirical research, it would be interesting to investigate the moderating effects of specified moderating variables on WFH-individual performance relationships. We propose a conceptual framework that how these variables function in the WFH-individual performance relationship.

Methodology

We primarily reviewed existing literature that highlights the impact of individual characteristics and group dynamics on work performance. Moreover, the design of the conceptual model is based on the self-determination theory that how an individual's characteristics/behavior influence job performance in a work from home setup. The outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic led organizations to rethink/redesign their working systems. As a result, working from home became a popular option for a remote working system and it was adopted by several organizations for the execution of official works using technology applications (Kaushik & Guleria, 2020 ). WFH will remain an option for the remote working system in the future for several organizations. While adopting the WFH culture, an individual's performance matters to sustain the overall organizational performance. Researchers have mainly focused on studying an individual's contribution to organizational performance when working in physical office arrangements (Markman, 2009 ). A collective working environment enables coworkers to easily coordinate and collaborate, which boosts an individual's performance (Audrey & Patrice, 2012 ). Several factors influence an individual performance while working in a physical office setup (Audrey & Patrice, 2012 ). However, researchers have given more attention to the following six factors, i.e., dedication (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008 ), disposition (Alvarez, 2017 ), determination (Gagné & Deci, 2005 ), configuration (Haapakangas et al., 2018 ), collaboration (Markman, 2009 ) and coordination (Okhuysen & Bechky, 2009 ) that encourages an individual to give his/her optimum efforts for increasing performance. Some researchers have also interrelated these factors with the characteristics of self-determination theory (Deci et al., 2017 ; Gagné & Deci, 2005 ). They recommend that these six factors enhance an individual commitment towards the fulfillment of timely completion of jobs that ultimately makes a big impact on the overall improvement of organizational performance. In other words, these factors act as moderating variables between individual performance (dependent variable) and working environment (independent variable) (Farooq & Vij, 2017 ). Research has shown that these factors directly or indirectly affect the positive relationship between individual performance and physical workplace design (Osborne & Hammoud, 2017 ; Osifo, 2013 ). This conceptual paper introduces propositions to address the relationship between WFH and individual performance by hypothesizing moderating effects of specified moderating variables. Literature suggests that the role of the moderating variable is critical in determining the direction and/or strength of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables (Glavin & Schieman, 2012 ). In this paper, we present WFH as an independent variable and individual performance as a dependent variable.

A moderator variable determines the direction and/or strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables that affect, strengthen, and assess the causal relationships among variables/constructs (Farooq & Vij, 2017 ). In other words, moderating effects occur when moderating variables influence the relationship between independent and dependent variables (Farooq & Vij, 2017 ). Depending on the type of moderating variable, such variables may either be categorical or situational independent variables (Farooq & Vij, 2017 ). This paper also hypothesizes the role of moderating variables between WFH and individual performance. Even in the physical workplace, certain characteristics of moderating variables are evident to determine performance (Wu & Zumbo, 2008 ). However, WFH is altogether a different setup of working system, and the role of moderating variables becomes critical to sustaining the performance of an employee. This paper hypothesizes the role of six key moderating variables that may be significant factors to determine the relationship between WFH and individual performance.

The type of moderators can either be qualitative or quantitative. In this paper, we present three of the study moderating variables (i.e., dedication, disposition, and determination) in the qualitative category and the other three (i.e., configuration, collaboration, and coordination) in a quantitative category. We posit these moderating variables as qualitative and quantitative for further empirical research to prove their theoretical relevance, statistical significance, and practical acceptance between the predictor variable (work from home) and a criterion variable (individual performance). In a correlation analysis model, specified moderating variables play critical functions to determine the relationship between WFH setting and individual performance. The study of moderating variables has conceptual importance in the theory-building of WFH settings. Moreover, specified moderating variables have strategic and statistical importance in the association between WFH settings and individual performance.

SDT is a theory of motivation that mainly relates to the manifestation of an individual behavior either from within or influenced by an external factor in a particular context (Ryan & Deci, 2017 ). Researchers have expanded the use of SDT in several areas of study like work motivation (Ryan et al., 2018 ), organizational psychology (Deci et al., 2017 ), social psychology (Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2005 ), performance management (Kuvaas, 2008 ) and so on. Several authors defined SDT, but Deci and Ryan’s work in the areas of SDT theory conceptualization, enlargement, and its application is exemplary. This paper attempts to apply SDT in proposing a conceptual framework that connects the WFH-individual performance relationship. Many researchers have used SDT to predict an individual's performance in physical working environments (Landry and Whillans, 2018 ; Deci et al., 2017 ). Despite its importance, SDT has received less research attention in the context of WFH and individual performance. It is an ideal time to introduce SDT to the context of WFH, which is an emerging scope for the future of the working system. By using SDT in the WFH context, we have attempted to identify likely intrinsic and extrinsic motivators that may serve as moderating variables between WFH and individual performance.

While applying SDT in practice, researchers have identified several factors as intrinsic and extrinsic motivators based on areas of study. Similarly, this paper considers three factors (i.e., dedication, disposition & determination) as intrinsic motivators and the other three (i.e., configuration, collaboration & coordination) as extrinsic motivators. In the proposed conceptual model, these factors have been hypothesized as moderating variables between WFH-individual performance. In this paper, we discuss how to make WFH settings more like an organizational workplace environment, where well-designed and ergonomic office infrastructure maximizes individual performance. In this paper, moderator variables are those that theoretically exert a positive influence between WFH settings and the performance of individuals working from home, much like HPWS examines aspects of the physical workplace environment to optimize productivity levels.

Developing conceptual framework

We propose a conceptual model of the relationship between independent, dependent, and moderating variables as depicted below:

Figure ​ Figure1 shows 1  shows six specified moderating variables that strengthen the relationship between WFH settings and individual performance. This model attempts to outline the moderating variables of how it affects the direction and/or relationship between WFH settings and individual performance. The arrangement of a systematized synergy of specified moderating variables by both key stakeholders, i.e., employee and employer, can prove WFH settings as performance-driven, result-oriented, and HPWS in the future of working culture. Previous research largely focused on the contribution of specified moderating variables to enhance an individual's performance in the conventional workplace (Bakker & van Woerkom, 2017 ). In the physical workplace, an individual gets a conducive work environment and cooperation of colleagues to portray the characteristics of six specified moderating variables. The working conditions of WFH are comparatively different from the working environment of the physical office setup. The proposed conceptual framework intends to conceptualize the WFH-individual performance and how these six factors moderate the relationship? It has been empirically and statistically proven that these moderating variables have a strong impact to enhance an individual performance that augments collective organizational performance significantly (Deci et al., 2017 ; Diamantidis & Chatzoglou, 2019 ). The WFH setting is an emerging research area for researchers that how WFH could be more beneficial for diverse organizations? This paper specifically focuses to identify the moderating factors that influence an individual's performance as shown in the proposed conceptual framework. Individual performance matters in the broader context of organizational outcomes. Dedication, disposition, and determination is an autonomous intrinsic motivator that comes from within and self-driven (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010 ). On the other hand, configuration, collaboration, and coordination is an extrinsic controlled motivator that influences an individual through external interventions (Ryan & Deci, 2017 ).

A proposed conceptual framework linking independent variable (WFH), moderating variables (3Cs & 3Ds), and dependent variable (IP). The model hypothesizes that the strength of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable depends on the effects of the moderating variables.

Literature review of moderating variables

Dedication is one of the prominent decisive factors to predict the success of the work. It is directly associated with the characteristics of an individual. In other words, showing dedication in work indicates the type of personality an individual has in a workplace environment. Arora and Adhikari ( 2013 ) associated the dedication of employees to work engagement. They suggest that if employees have higher dedication towards work, they will have a higher engagement at the workplace, increasing their performance. Work engagement has mainly three dimensions, i.e., dedication, vigor, and absorption. Of these three dimensions, the definition of dedication is theoretically too broad. Dedication refers to an employee’s firm connection, involvement, and engagement with their work and having a sense of responsibility, relevance, passion, and challenge to execute the given task (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008 ). Dedication can be described as a strong emotional attachment, involvement, and acquaintance with one’s work. Yongxing et al. ( 2017 ) defines dedication as a sign of firm willingness or willpower to engage oneself in an activity or work with a sense of responsibility, significance, ownership, and passion. In other words, it can be defined as a strong positive mindset aiming to finish the organizational activities in an appropriate and timely manner.

Several scholarly articles narrated the impact of the character of dedication on significant results in personal and professional aspects (Yongxing et al., 2017 ). Dedication is the most preferred behavioral outcome. An organization expects its employees to perform tasks for continuous performance improvement. A spirit of dedication, however, is more of an intrinsic motivation factor present in people that is manifested in extrinsic behaviors. Yongxing et al. ( 2017 ) explained that a character of dedication grows in an individual while working in a group or a workplace by manifesting other colleagues' dedication towards work. In a physical office environment, supervisor-subordinate interact frequently, and the supervisor can influence subordinate’s dedication through continuous monitoring, mentoring and counselling (Tunk & Kumar, 2022 ). Individuals who work from home may have multiple responsibilities outside of official work, and therefore, it is imperative that they manage their choices and cognition prudently while managing their responsibilities. Thus, a lack of face-to-face interaction between supervisors and subordinates may lead to subordinates varying levels of dedication. The majority of research focused on the demonstration of workforce dedication in the context of a physical office arrangement (Yongxing et al., 2017 ). This paper explores the degree of dedication shown by employees while working from home.

• Proposition 1: WFH and individual performance are significantly moderated by employee dedication.

Disposition

Disposition is an exhibition of the intrinsic characteristic of a person (Choi, 2009 ). Disposition refers to the usual tendency of one's state of mind, psychological or emotional outlook or temperament, characteristics, traits, beliefs, and attitude to specific situations (Alvarez, 2017 ). Many scholarly articles defined the meaning of disposition in a broader context, but this paper presents disposition as a state of an individual's temperament, particularly in the organizational context. Employee satisfaction is one of the critical areas where researchers have given more attention to study the dispositional effect. Job satisfaction has a direct link with employees' emotions and cognition. The outcome of this relationship is driven by the affective dispositional model. The affective dispositional theory posits that disposition comprises two outcomes—positive affectivity and negative affectivity (Watson & Slack, 1993 ). If employees enjoy their work and have high satisfaction, passion, vigor, and enjoyable engagement at the workplace signify a positive dispositional effect. On the other hand, the appearance of lowness, lethargy, anxiety, stress, tension, and unpleasant involvement in an employee’s behavior illustrates the negative dispositional effect.

Several researchers have studied the impact of the dispositional effect on an individual’s job satisfaction, motivation, and engagement with organizational work. Positive affectivity creates a positive disposition that leads to an employee’s job satisfaction (Watson & Slack, 1993 ). Researchers also correlated job satisfaction with employee performance. In other words, dispositional effects contribute a critical significance in determining workforce productivity. A well-arranged physical office environment is positively significant to the workforce's positive dispositional effect and vice versa. Literature suggests that the outcome of the dispositional effect varies from individual to individual and from situation to situation based on the circumstances. Several factors influence an individual's mood. This paper refers to disposition as how employees respond to work-from-home situational factors. WFH situational factors may include family engagement, work-family conflict, absence of colleagues, and office environment.

• Proposition 2: Individual performance and WFH are significantly moderated by employee disposition.

Determination

The concept of determination has broadly been defined, deliberated, and discussed in organizational behavior, industrial psychology, and organizational performance literature. This paper conceptualizes determination as one of the moderating variables between WFH settings and individual performance. Several authors expanded the scope of self-determination theory (SDT) to define the determination of an employee in the organizational context (Gagné & Deci, 2005 ). Bakker and van Woerkom ( 2017 ) defined self-determination as an employee’s inherent motivation, willingness, drive, proactiveness, and initiative towards work intending to perform efficiently and appropriately. Behavioral outcomes are the result of an individual's internal and cognitive characteristics. The flow at work is another indicator that reveals the behavioral approach of a determined employee (Bakker & van Woerkom, 2017 ). A sense of emotional attachment, commitment, and excitement is generated through it, leading individuals to become more engaged and involved in their work. An individual who is determined creates intrinsic motivation to assimilate into various responsibilities as a means of expressing their passion for work.

Several researchers argued the significance of determination in organizational psychology and management literature. Many psychological authors linked the self-determination approach with employees' imagination, innovation, employee learning and development, self-respect, and overall well-being (Gagné & Deci, 2005 ). Empirical research reveals that in a physical office environment, a subordinate’s self-determination is reinforced by the manager's interactive orientation and face-to-face supervision, which is directly related to the perception, motivation, and satisfaction level of a subordinate.

• Proposition 3: Individual performance and WFH are significantly moderated by employee determination.

Configuration

Configuration in this paper refers to the overall physical office settings and arrangement. In corporate culture, having state-of-the-art office infrastructure plays a crucial role in making the office atmosphere productive, supportive, and cooperative (Haapakangas et al., 2018 ). An office is a place where the secretarial/clerical/administrative functions are executed. An office setting has multiple elements that need to firm up for the effective execution of organizational operations and business. The proper office configuration creates a positive workplace environment.

Several authors described the significance of planned office configuration in the office management literature (Blok et al., 2012 ; Haapakangas et al., 2018 ). Kamarulzaman et al. ( 2011 ) theoretically hypothesized a significant relationship between employee performance and factors of the physical office settings. These factors include office layout, amenities, systems, and infrastructure. Some researchers extended the scope of Herzberg's two-factor motivation theory ( 1959 ) in studying the arrangement of physical office settings. They argued that working conditions are hygiene factors that affect the degree of motivation level of employees in organizations. The hygienic working conditions mean that office design requires proper setup of equipment, ergonomic sitting arrangement, safe and clean office environment. The study shows that making such a workplace leads to higher employee performance. Employees spend a larger portion of their time on office campuses, the workplace arrangement and atmosphere affect their well-being, which directly affects employees' contribution and overall productivity (Kamarulzaman et al., 2011 ). Several authors have shown theoretically and empirically that if employees are more pleased with the arrangement of physical office settings, they perform better, and organizations yield more (Kamarulzaman et al., 2011 ). It is evident from the literature review that proper office design, arrangement, adjustment, and formation of the workplace environment provide a meaningful contribution to the enhancement of employee performance.

• Proposition 4: The configuration of the workplace significantly moderates WFH and individual performance.

Collaboration

Evan Rosen ( 2007 )'s best-selling book, The Culture of Collaboration , outlined collaboration as a process of people working together towards a common goal while sharing physical spaces or virtual ones. The online Oxford English dictionary defines collaboration as the process of working jointly on an activity or a project. In an organizational context, the term collaboration has strategic significance in team building, group dynamics, and business development. In other words, collaboration is an association of various groups of employees, functional verticals, and hierarchies working together to achieve a common goal. Several types of collaboration exist in organizations that are identified by their features, purpose, and nature of work (Bennett & Gadlin, 2012 ). Collaborative culture builds a conducive work environment and helps organizations achieve their intended objectives.

Office environments with a collaborative approach play an instrumental role in safeguarding individual performance. As reported in several studies, a collaborative approach, practices, processes, policies, plans, and strategies enabled multiple organizations to foster a culture of collaboration, which ultimately contributed to increased individual productivity, as well as profitability for the organization as a whole (Kouzes & Posner, 2007 ; Rosen, 2007 ). According to Kouzes and Posner ( 2007 ), collaborative approaches require five methods (i.e., modeling the way, inspiring a shared vision, challenging the process, empowering others to act, and encouraging the heart). They emphasized that these five ingredients play a critical stimulus to set up a culture of collaboration, innovation, and integration, which help organizations work in synergy with one another. Collaborative processes help organizations promote a shared vision. The sharing of organizational vision at the workplace produces team spirit among the workforce, which is more feasible in physical office settings (Markman, 2009 ). From a literature review, it can be concluded that collaboration has significant moderating effects on the relationship between a physical office setting and individual performance. However, it would be interesting to investigate the role of collaboration as a moderating variable between WFH and individual performance in future empirical research.

• Proposition 5: Collaboration between coworkers significantly moderates WFH and individual performance.

Coordination

Coordination is one of the central processes that connect one another at the various organizational level to strengthen the flow of work smoothly and incessantly (Hilbolling et al., 2022 ). It is the communication channel, intervention, and interaction that assimilates a shared set of interdependent organizational functions (Okhuysen & Bechky, 2009 ). Malone and Crowston ( 1994 , p.90) defined coordination as the “ management of dependencies among independent activities ”. The organizational working culture is a vivid example of the coordination theory developed by Malone and Crowston ( 1994 ). Each vertical has a set of autonomous activities in organizations, but every vertical is interconnected to achieve the results. The coordination theory conceptualized by Malone and Crowston ( 1994 ) contributed to the extension of theoretical applications in various disciplines/fields and suggested that coordination is the core process to summarize works/activities executed by different verticals/departments. They considered coordination as a stimulus that controls the interdependent connections/associations/relationships between various activities/works/departments with joint objectives. They further explained that coordination is machinery that wheels the dependent relationships between different activities effectively and efficiently. Coordination acts as a catalyst in an organizational context. In the proposed conceptual framework, coordination denotes uninterrupted communication of an individual working from home with reporting managers /supervisors and other members of a unit/team.

Several authors described the significance of coordination in a physical office setting. Crowston et al. ( 2004 ) explained that in a traditional office setting, different team members carry the understanding of needs between the tasks, and they attempt to coordinate their work so that it goes on smoothly. However, scholars define dependencies and coordination systems between the tasks in standard terms (Crowston et al., 2004 ). Literature does not describe the differences between dependencies and associated interruptions or how the coordination system addresses those interruptions. This gap led researchers and practitioners to look for a useful alternative system to solve it in a given condition. Research suggests that each group has a unique set of activities and related dependencies, it is challenging to uniform it and/or how the information communication and technology (ICT) can be used to moderate a process between the various tasks. Malone and Crowston's ( 1994 ) coordination theory development described a new concept of dealing with such interruptions. The emergence of coordination theory brought a new revolution to deal with complicated, strangled, and intertwined tasks within multiple functions/verticals in organizations (Crowston et al., 2004 ). Apart from internal solutions, coordination helps organizations make things feasible to deal with external agents such as stakeholders, suppliers, contractors, and other associated entities. The proper coordination channel application drives effective solutions to remove obstacles, resistances, and hindrances to execute organizational activities internally and externally. As evident from previous research, coordination is a critical factor in executing organizational activities. Accordingly, this paper shows that coordination plays an instrumental role in the WFH setting-individual performance relationship and proper coordination between the manager and a person working from home would help to ensure the smooth execution of tasks.

• Proposition 6: Coordination among teammates and colleagues significantly moderates WFH and individual performance.

It is evident from the literature review that specified moderating variables have been proven both theoretically and empirically to play an instrumental role in predicting individual performance. Multiple studies have shown the phenomenon of the moderating effects of specified variables on employee performance and physical office settings. In the wake of the global pandemic of Covid-19, it is evident that a large number of organizations are allowing their employees to work from home, and WFH has become an appropriate alternative for future working systems to perform organizational activities. As a result, it is imperative for organizations to specify those factors that moderate individual performance while working from home. Several studies have shown that all specified moderating variables have a certain level of moderating effects on individual performance and physical office settings. To optimize individual performance while working from home, it is posited that the moderating behavior of specified moderating variables needs to be positively controlled. A physical office setting provides a more convenient working environment for creating synergy because all team members/supervisors typically work together under the same roof (Wohlers & Hertel, 2018 ). In the WFH setting, all team members/supervisors/subordinates work from home or in remote locations. A combination of specified moderating variables will strengthen the relationship between WFH and individual performance in such a context. Thus, an individual working from home remains engaged with colleagues, supervisors, and other team members. As a result, employees will remain motivated to complete their assigned tasks and targets while working from home regardless of home-based nuisances and distractions. A further empirical study is called for in this paper to explain the moderating effect of moderating variables in WFH-individual performance.

The moderating effects of moderating variables vary and it depends on individual, group, and organizational work settings (Solís, 2017 ). Furthermore, some moderating variables have a higher influence over group members, and consequently, no interruption from other team members produces the phenomenon of moderating effects in the work-performance relationship (Solís, 2017 ). In contrast, face-to-face interaction between supervisors and subordinates sort out things easily and solve problems aptly (Solís, 2017 ). In a physical office setting, the behavior of the specified moderating variable is ideally controlled collectively. Empirical research on the moderating effects of specified moderating variables shows that they all moderate work-performance differently (Farooq & Vij, 2017 ). As well, we hypothesize that individual specified moderating variable has specific moderating effects on the WFH-individual performance relationship. Further, the moderating effects of each specified moderating variable may vary depending on the frequency and nature of telecommunications, online interactions, and real-time availability from both supervisors and subordinates (Allen et al., 2015 ; Tunk & Kumar, 2022 ).

When employees work in physical office settings, they work with the team and other coworkers, creating an environment of collaboration. As a result, work becomes fun, exciting, and more enjoyable (Gorgievski et al., 2010 ). The presence of other coworkers increases an employee's physical, emotional, and cognitive engagement at work, and his/her dedication inevitably increases to meet targets. Moreover, the absence of such a workplace environment in WFH settings may hinder professional performance and distract the individual's dedication. Employees' tendency towards adaptability to organizational changes depends on various workplace environmental factors (Tunk & Kumar, 2022 ). These factors contribute to an employee's personality development, which drives their disposition in a work-performance relationship (Tunk & Kumar, 2022 ). In physical office settings, the affective dispositional theory helps an individual observe his/her job importance and its characteristics, whether it is more desirable or unwanted in organizational perspectives (Woods et al., 2013 ). Moreover, it is logical to perceive developmental opportunities, including having a sense of performance motive, self-assessment, and positive predispositions, leading to cumulative outcomes over professional and career development (Woods et al., 2013 ). Generally, two types of affective disposition, i.e., positive affectivity (PA) and negative affectivity (NA) influence an individual's job satisfaction level in the workplace. The positive affectivity symbolizes high interest in work engagement and negative affectivity indicates employee burnout wherein individuals appear stressed physically and emotionally. Many factors make employees encounter such situations (Moen et al., 2013 ). As evident from the previous research, the dispositional effect influences the job satisfaction of an individual in a traditional office set up and it has a bigger impact on his/her performance. Moreover, the working environment and conditions in WFH are different from physical office design and this paper argues that how disposition impacts an individual's job satisfaction in WFH settings because it has direct relations with individual performance.

Several researchers used the self-determination theory (SDT) to understand workforce motivation and their psychological beliefs, which drive employees' self-determination and initiative towards displaying a commitment to perform (Landry & Whillans, 2018 ; Deci et al., 2017 ). SDT suggests that an individual’s intrinsic motivation is influenced by various professional development activities initiated around them. If an individual feels comfortable with these activities and perceives them as a source of well-being and happiness and finds it exciting to achieve aspirations, goals, and ambitions, his/her intrinsic motivation increases in association with those activities. Deci et al. ( 2017 ) suggests that intrinsic motivation directs employees' determination for higher performance, contribution, and involvement at work in the conventional workplace. The ability to identify the factors that increase employees' intrinsic motivation to display determination while working from home is an essential factor to sustain individual performance. It would be an interesting area of further research for scholars and practitioners to study the factors that drive an individual's determination towards performance in WFH settings. More specifically, the application of self-determination theory in WFH settings has yet to be empirically investigated. In this paper, a conceptual framework is proposed to explain how a self-deterministic approach might moderate the relationship between the WFH setting and individual performance in the context of other engagements at home. Continuous coordination and collaboration by reporting managers and other coworkers make an individual more engaged toward assigned tasks and targets (Diamantidis & Chatzoglou, 2019 ; Lammi, 2021 ). Empirically, the degree of engagement of an individual in a WFH setting is an area of continuous study for researchers and practitioners that how WFH could be made more engaged, fun and performance-based.

Similarly, the configuration of a favorable physical office design contributes to an employee’s performance (Kamarulzaman et al., 2011 ). A conducive office design includes appropriate sitting arrangements, office space, lighting, building outlook, and IT/ITes infrastructure (Kamarulzaman et al., 2011 ). These factors encourage the workforce to do more at the workplace, ultimately increasing individual performance. Vischer’s ( 1989 ) research proved that the arrangement of a conducive working environment resulted in 5–15% growth in employee performance. They further showed that the availability of basic amenities motivates employees to focus more on work. However, in WFH settings, an individual’s home is a workplace, and it is up to him/her to make the home similar to the conventional workplace environment for upholding performance. The collaborative work culture drives employees’ performance through team synergy, continuous interaction, and face-to-face communication (Peter & Marshall, 2015 ). While working from home, it is imperative that the reporting manager/supervisor creates a synergistic and collaborative work culture among the team members. This will enable the team to achieve high performance even though its members are far apart. The process of coordination across verticals/departments is one of the critical functions in organizations. Systematic coordination makes the process smoother and ensures every critical network, system, and stakeholder's availability and accessibility to get things done appropriately. The identification of critical factors associated with WFH can aid organizations in identifying bottlenecks and how to resolve them before adopting and implementing WFH. This can prevent interruptions in communication during WFH settings. Coordination between team members plays a significant role in maintaining continuous connections and optimizing individual performance in WFH settings.

Theoretical implications

This conceptual paper possesses specific theoretical implications that deserve further research. In this paper, we highlight only the key moderating variables that may influence the WFH-individual performance relationship, which implies limitations in the applicability of the proposed conceptual model. However, it is necessary to identify, summarize, and measure latent variables associated with WFH in order to understand how they affect both WFH and individual performance relationship. To address these inferences, researchers would benefit from future research into the WFH-individual performance relationship. Technology applications can also be used in WFH settings to control specified moderating variables, just as they are controlled in physical offices. Nevertheless, these assumptions can only be modified by empirical research and further practical investigation of our conceptual model by researchers in a subsequent study.

Research shows that in remote working cultures, the 3Cs (configuration, collaboration, & coordination) are relevant to communicating goal setting, performance measures, and evaluation systems between superiors and subordinates (Bennet & Gadlin, 2013; Crowston et al, 2004 ). Working from home is a remote working concept, and the 3Cs have a direct relationship with interpersonal communication regardless of other commitments at home. Specifically, these research findings led us to focus on only the three quantitative moderating variables (3Cs) which are presented in our proposed conceptual framework. Further, the 3Ds (dedication, disposition & determination) are decisive factors for an individual to pursue desired targets, tasks, and goals (Alvarez, 2017 ; Bakker & Woerkom, 2017 ). In particular, these three variables play an influential role in an individual's performance in WFH settings. The individual working from home is solely responsible for executing tasks despite several constraints, and demonstrating a commitment to achieving goals requires strong 3Ds. The paper highlights the 3Cs and 3Ds linking individual performance and WFH settings and offers future research directions for the investigation of the proposed conceptual framework in more detail.

While the WFH may be an example of the future work culture, researchers and management practitioners can explore how the characteristics of specified moderating variables moderate individual performance in the WFH setting. Several scholarly articles posit that technology disruption has led modern work culture to the next level. It is evident that technological advancement revolutionized the work culture and changed the concept of work and business practices from manual to digital, and local to global. However, the specified moderating variable may play a significant role in moderating the individual performance-WFH setting. Virtual and remote working cultures are becoming increasingly popular in several organizations. It would be interesting to examine empirically how moderating variables influence the relationship between WFH and individual performance. Besides, we also hypothesize how the specified moderating variables affect the supervisor-subordinate relationship in WFH settings. The feasibility of WFH in diverse organizations remains an emerging field of study/research for practitioners, researchers, and academicians despite advances in technology applications.

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript.

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Contributor Information

Binay Tudu, Email: [email protected] .

Saumya Singh, Email: ni.ca.msitii@aymuas , Email: [email protected] .

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“Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being” Essay

Human beings can be divided into two main categories. Firstly, there are those who are considered to be fully engaged because they tend to be proactive. On the other hand, there are those who have been alienated by the world because they have passive characteristics (Ryan and Deci 77).

The authors of the article note that the main influencing factor that leads to grouping of human being is the social aspect of life which they face on a daily basis. In addition, the social contextual conditions have been studied in most researches that dwell on self determination theory.

The latter theory attempts to describe how self motivation and self determination can be established in the character of an individual. It is also imperative to mention that self motivation often lead to self determination even though both processes are independent of each other.

In addition, these processes are natural and largely emanate from the genetic makeup of an individual. Needless to say, a healthy psychological development is a major attribute that underlines self determination.

Persons who are intrinsically motivated tend to be brave enough and can go through several odds with much ease (Ryan and Deci 69).

In spite of the invaluable role played by personal wellbeing, self-regulation and intrinsic motivation, there are myriads of factors that often work for and against the aforementioned attributes. In other words, there are setbacks and enhancing factors that influence the strength of these attributes in human beings.

Moreover, there are three key and intrinsic psychological needs according to findings obtained from various research studies. These needs include relatedness, autonomy and competence. When these three psychological needs are satisfied, they lead to improved mental health and enhanced self-motivation.

On the other hand, poor mental wellbeing and diminished motivation are the main negative effects when the aforementioned needs are thwarted (Ryan and Deci 75).

In addition, it is worth to mention that these psychological needs play integral roles in various human domains. This implies that all the domains of life are influenced by one or more of the psychological needs stated in the article. Nonetheless, the authors are quite categorical on the type of each influence.

It is also quite phenomenal to mention that there may be other localized or environmental factors that may affect self-determination of an individual. The authors of the article are apparently insinuating that self-determination is determined by innate traits per se.

Although this claim may be authentic to some extent, it is justified to explore other environmental factors that are equally instrumental in affecting personal determination towards challenges in life.

Hence, it is highly recommendable that future research studies should broaden the scope of this study to include non-genetic factors that influence self-determination.

From the above summary, the following discussion questions are vital in understanding the discourse on human psychology as elaborated in the article:

• Discuss the human nature of motivation. Can motivation be activated or intended?
• How intrinsic motivation does influences the potential of human nature?
• State and discuss the various types of self-determined motivation. Which one do you think is the most innate or influential in the wellbeing of an individual?
• The article has elaborated various types of psychological needs and how they can be met. Which need do you identify with the most? How has it affected your personal life? Do you agree with the theoretical perspectives advanced by the authors? Why or why not?

Works Cited

Ryan, Richard and Edward, Deci. Self-determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being. Am Psychol 55.1 (2000):68-78. Print.

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being." February 28, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/self-determination-theory-and-the-facilitation-of-intrinsic-motivation-social-development-and-well-being/.

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Self Determination Theory Essay Sample

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Social Issues , Choice , Thinking , Politics , Crime , Motivation , Criminal Justice , Theory

Published: 02/14/2020

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Self-determination theory is a motivational theory that is premised on human feelings. The theory seeks to examine factors that motivate an individual from within. It is concerned with internal motivators. Under self-determination, a person would arrive at a decision or make a choice based on the internal motivators rather than extrinsic consequences. Self-determination theory was propounded by Ryan and Deci. According to the two professors, intrinsic determinants should be divorced from extrinsic determinants. The former would fall under the self-determination theory. Self-determination theory influences human being in arriving at decisions and conclusions. First, a person would consider the overall effect an approach would occasion on internal needs. A person would be motivated to work if the overall effect would positively contribute to internal needs. On the other hand, a person would be less active towards work if results have little to no bearing on the internal needs. An exposition of the theory can be used to explain why persons engage or disengage in crime. A criminal activity that tends to excite the criminal by satisfying the internal needs would attract him (criminal) while the activities that do not satisfy internal needs would fail to attract him or her. In the same vein self-determination theory has a bearing on the intimacy the criminal would show towards crime. A criminal whose internal needs are most satisfied would be more motivated and hence participate deeply in criminal activities. Self-determination theory can, therefore, be compared to the rational choice theory of crime. In the latter, the criminal engages in crime for purposes of satisfying a need that is pressing. He or she makes a rational decision to undertake criminal activities so as to achieve some eventual objective. This can be compared to the self-determination theory where individual engages in the activity with the hope that it shall be able to meet ones` internal needs. However, while the rational choice theory is wide, self-determination is limited and relates specifically to the motivation one gets from an activity. However, according to Deci and Ryan, self-determination theory is intended to encourage persons to behave in effective and healthy ways. The person is expected to pursue activities that bring positive motivation. This approach assumes that the person would only employ his or her energies in the pursuit of positivity. This would lead to a positive result in the sense that the behavior is healthy. This approach cannot pass without criticism. Indeed, the instance above where rational choice is paralleled to self-determination in itself is sufficient confirmation of the shortsighted nature of this view. In addition, since self-determination is based on the internal needs, no bar exist as to what needs are being addressed. Ultimately, the main determinant is the person. In other words, self-determination theory explains the internal working of an individual. It sheds light as to the contribution of internal needs towards overall decision making. It is the best case for the pursuit of internal motivation by persons. In the absence of self-determination, persons would be influenced with only external motivations. They would merely consider what external consequences their actions would have. In that breadth, therefore, it can be argued that self-determination puts a strong case for a selfish approach to life as the person is informed by his or her internal needs as opposed to external consequences.

Herring, J. (2011). Criminal Law. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Higgins, T. E. (2007). Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles. New York: Guilford Press. Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. (2011). Social Psychology. New York: Cengage Learning. Nevid, J. S. (2008). Psychology: Concepts and Applications. New York: Cengage Learning. Weigend, T. (2006). Criminal Law and Criminal Procedure. Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, 2(1), 214-227.

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