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• Review Article
• Published: 02 August 2022

The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice

• Shana K. Carpenter   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0784-9026 1 ,
• Steven C. Pan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9080-5651 2 &
• Andrew C. Butler   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6367-0795 3 , 4  

Nature Reviews Psychology volume  1 ,  pages 496–511 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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• Learning and memory

Research on the psychology of learning has highlighted straightforward ways of enhancing learning. However, effective learning strategies are underused by learners. In this Review, we discuss key research findings on two specific learning strategies: spacing and retrieval practice. We focus on how these strategies enhance learning in various domains across the lifespan, with an emphasis on research in applied educational settings. We also discuss key findings from research on metacognition — learners’ awareness and regulation of their own learning. The underuse of effective learning strategies by learners could stem from false beliefs about learning, lack of awareness of effective learning strategies or the counter-intuitive nature of these strategies. Findings in learner metacognition highlight the need to improve learners’ subjective mental models of how to learn effectively. Overall, the research discussed in this Review has important implications for the increasingly common situations in which learners must effectively monitor and regulate their own learning.

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This material is based upon work supported by the James S. McDonnell Foundation 21st Century Science Initiative in Understanding Human Cognition, Collaborative Grant 220020483. The authors thank C. Phua for assistance with verifying references.

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Carpenter, S.K., Pan, S.C. & Butler, A.C. The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice. Nat Rev Psychol 1 , 496–511 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00089-1

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How the Psychology of Education Contributes to Research With a Social Impact on the Education of Students With Special Needs: The Case of Successful Educational Actions

Elena duque.

1 Department of Theory and History of Education, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

Regina Gairal

2 Department of Pedagogy, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain

Silvia Molina

Esther roca.

3 Departament of Comparative Education and Education History, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Associated Data

The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

One current challenge in the psychology of education is identifying the teaching strategies and learning contexts that best contribute to the learning of all students, especially those whose individual characteristics make their learning process more difficult, as is the case for students with special needs. One main theory in the psychology of education is the sociocultural approach to learning, which highlights the key role of interaction in children’s learning. In the case of students with disabilities, this interactive understanding of learning is aligned with a social model of disability, which looks beyond individual students’ limitations or potentialities and focuses on contextual aspects that can enhance their learning experience and results. In recent years, the interactive view of learning based on this theory has led to the development of educational actions, such as interactive groups and dialogic literary gatherings, that have improved the learning results of diverse children, including those with disabilities. The aim of this paper is to analyze the social impact achieved by a line of research that has explored the benefits of such successful educational actions for the education of students with special needs. National and European research projects based on the communicative methodology of research have been conducted. This methodology entails drawing on egalitarian dialogue with the end-users of research – including teachers, students with and without disabilities, students’ relatives and other community members – to allow an intersubjective creation of knowledge that enables a deeper and more accurate understanding of the studied reality and its transformative potential. This line of research first allowed the identification of the benefits of interactive learning environments for students with disabilities educated in mainstream schools; later, it allowed the spreading of these actions to a greater number of mainstream schools; and more recently, it made it possible to transfer these actions to special schools and use these actions to create shared learning spaces between mainstream and special schools. The improvement of the educational opportunities for a greater number and greater diversity of students with special needs evidences the social impact of research based on key contributions of the psychology of education.

Introduction

Access to mainstream, inclusive and quality education for children with disabilities has not yet been fully achieved. Children with disabilities are still being educated in special schools in most countries, with varying percentages depending on the country, and therefore these schools attend diverse special needs ( World Health Organization, 2011 ). In addition, students with disabilities and special needs tend to leave school without adequate qualifications ( European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2017 ). Therefore, the appropriate inclusion of children with disabilities into the general education system is part of the European Disability Strategy 2010–2020 ( European Commission, 2010 ). In this context, one current challenge of the psychology of education is to identify the teaching strategies and learning contexts that best contribute to the education of students with special needs. In this endeavor, research in the psychology of education is focused on the strategies, actions and practices that enhance the learning of these students, taking into account their individual characteristics, however, importantly, research is also focused on the strategies, actions and programs that benefit the learning of all students, including those whose individual characteristics make the learning process more difficult, so that shared learning environments that promote successful learning for all can be created.

Instrumental learning, especially in regards to difficulties in reading and literacy, is one of the main concerns of research on the psychology of education ( Lloyd et al., 2009 ; Alanazi, 2017 ; Alenizi, 2019 ; Auphan et al., 2019 ; Hughes et al., 2018 ). Numerous programs for improving reading and/or reading difficulty prevention have emerged from research on reading and literacy from the perspective of the psychology of education, and their impact on improving children’s learning has been analyzed ( Vellutino and Scanlon, 2002 ; Papadopoulos et al., 2004 ; Hatcher et al., 2006 ). There are also specific studies about reading and literacy programs and their success with students with special needs ( Holliman and Hurry, 2013 ) and/or with students at risk for reading disabilities ( Lovett et al., 2017 ). Strategies to promote the learning of mathematics in children with special educational needs and disabilities have also been studied ( Pitchford et al., 2018 ), and programs based on these strategies have been developed ( Montague et al., 2014 ).

Research has also explored the association between learning difficulties and behavior problems ( Roberts et al., 2019 ), showing that lower academic achievement is a risk factor for developing behavior difficulties among students with special educational needs and disabilities ( Oldfield et al., 2017 ). The study of the learning context and the school environment, which facilitates or hinders learning, has shown that the expectations from teachers and their attitudes toward children with special needs are some of the most influential elements ( Anderson et al., 2014 ; Wilson et al., 2016 ; Bowles et al., 2018 ). Research has also found that teachers can have an important influence on the social acceptance of peers with special needs ( Schwab et al., 2016 ), which is important because the social exclusion of children can affect their learning difficulties and behavior problems ( Krull et al., 2018 ). The efficacy of peer network interventions for improving the social connections of students with severe disabilities has been highlighted ( Asmus et al., 2017 ), and programs and educational actions based on peer interaction, such as cooperative learning ( Velázquez Callado, 2012 ), have been developed to improve the school climate. Importantly, there are effective programs for improving peer acceptance and a positive coexistence related to curricular learning ( Law et al., 2017 ; Vuorinen et al., 2019 ), which is a key issue in facilitating inclusive education.

This body of research on effective actions and programs to enhance the learning and inclusion of students with disabilities and special needs shows the capacity that research in the psychology of education has for improving the education of these students. It also shows the importance that the learning context has, regarding both instruction and social relations, on the academic and social performance of students with special needs. This resonates with the social model of disability, an approach that has been claimed, from the perspective of human rights, to shift the focus from non-disabled centrism and to transcend the traditional and individualistic perspective of disabilities to focus on the improvement of educational experiences for these students ( Chun Sik Min, 2010 ; Park, 2015 ). This perspective assumes not only that children with disabilities should be included in mainstream education but also that inclusive education can be more effective ( Lindsay, 2007 ). This interactive understanding of learning allows seeing beyond individual students’ limitations or potentialities and focusing on contextual aspects that can enhance their learning experience and results ( Goodley, 2001 ; Haegele and Hodge, 2016 ).

The classical psychology of education already emphasized the importance of the social context for children’s learning. In particular, the sociocultural approach of learning developed by Vygotsky and Bruner highlighted the key role of interaction in children’s learning and development. Both authors agreed that what a child learns has been shared with other persons first, emphasizing the social construction of knowledge. While Vygotsky (1980) stated that in children’s development, higher psychological functions appear first on the interpsychological level and then on the intrapsychological level, Bruner (1996) refers to a social moment where there is interaction and then an individual moment when interiorization occurs.

Bruner evolved from a more cognitivist perspective of learning centered on individuals’ information processing ( Bruner, 1973 ) to a more sociocultural and interactive perspective ( Bruner, 1996 ) within the framework of which he conceptualized the idea of “scaffolding,” which enables novice learning in interaction with an expert, and “subcommunities of mutual learners,” where “learners help each other learn” and “scaffold for each other” ( Bruner, 1996 , p. 21). For Bruner, “It is principally through interacting with others that children find out what the culture is about and how it conceives of the world” (1996, p. 20); therefore, learning occurs through interaction within a community.

Vygotsky stated that learning precedes development, not the other way around, and he conceptualized the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which represents the opportunity that learning interactions with adults and more capable peers have to advance children’s development ( Vygotsky, 1980 ); beyond the actual level of development, the ZPD emphasizes the importance of interactions with others to solve problems and learn. He emphasized that this interaction is especially important for children with disabilities: “Precisely because retarded children, when left to themselves, will never achieve well elaborated forms of abstract thought, the school should make every effort to push them in that direction and to develop in them what is intrinsically lacking in their own development” ( Vygotsky, 1980 , p. 89). In this regard, he warned of the risks of working with children with disabilities from a perspective centered on biological processes and basic dysfunctions instead of working with higher psychological functions ( Vygotsky, 2018 ). Vygotsky’s focus on interaction provides new opportunities for learning and development for children with special needs to develop these higher psychological processes.

The sociocultural approach of learning developed by Vygotsky and Bruner has continued inspiring theory and research in the psychology of education to today. According to Dainez and Smolka (2014) , Vygotsky’s concept of compensation in relation to children with disabilities implies a social formation of mind and therefore the social responsibility of organizing an appropriate educational environment for these children. Vygotsky’s approach has been taken into account in studies about how peer mediation increases learning, especially when peers have different cognitive levels ( Tzuriel and Shamir, 2007 ), and research on children with disabilities, for instance, cerebral palsy, has been conducted based on Vygotsky’s contributions and showed improvements in these children’s spatial abilities, social interaction, autonomy, and participation in class activities ( Akhutina et al., 2003 ; Heidrich and Bassani, 2012 ).

In recent years, the interactive view of learning has led to the development of educational actions that have improved the learning results of diverse children, including those with disabilities. INCLUD-ED ( Flecha, 2006-2011 ) was an integrated project funded by the European Union under its 6th Framework Programme with the main objective of achieving both academic success and social cohesion for all children and communities in Europe, regardless of their socioeconomic status and/or ethnic background. INCLUD-ED identified successful educational actions (SEAs), that is, actions that can improve school success and contribute to social cohesion in every context where they are implemented ( Flecha, 2015 ). Some of the SEAs that have demonstrated improvements in reading, mathematics and peer relationships include interactive groups (IG) and dialogic literary gatherings (DLG). IG ( Valls and Kyriakides, 2013 ) consists of organizing classrooms in small heterogeneous groups that work on instrumental learning activities drawing on mutual support and dynamized by adult volunteers from the community; DLG ( Soler, 2015 ; Lopez de Aguileta, 2019 ) consists of reading and discussing classical works of literature based on the principles of dialogic learning, reaching deeper understanding of the texts as a result of sharing the participants’ interpretations and meanings. In both actions, learning interactions, as the main tool to promote learning, are facilitated among diverse persons in accordance with the contributions of the sociocultural theory of learning. In this regard, previous research has identified that Vygotsky’s and Bruner’s contributions are at the basis of these SEAs ( Elboj and Niemelä, 2010 ; Garcia et al., 2010 ).

Materials and Methods

The objective of this paper is to analyze the social impact achieved by a line of research that has explored the benefits of SEAs on the improvement of the education of students with special needs. For this purpose, the following data collection methods were used. First, existing data from case studies conducted within the four projects that compose this line of research have been analyzed to identify the impact of SEAs on students with special needs. These projects studied the benefits of SEAs for diverse students at different specific levels (i.e., school and classroom organization, community participation, interactions). In this paper, we aim to go beyond these specific aspects to understand in a more integrated and comprehensive manner how these different levels contribute to the impact that SEAs have, specifically on students with special needs. Second, new data were collected through in-depth interviews with teachers involved in the implementation of these actions in their schools as a consequence of this line of research. These interviews allowed the analysis of the subsequent impacts achieved as a result of conducting research on this topic from the perspective of the agents involved in the implementation of the results of this line of research.

All participants (teachers, volunteers, families, and children) agreed to provide researchers access to relevant data for the purpose of the study. Prior to data collection, they were informed of the nature of the research, and written informed consent was obtained. In the case of minors, informed consent was obtained from their parents or guardians. All participants were informed that their participation was anonymous and voluntary and that data would be treated confidentially and used solely for research purposes. Ethical requirements were addressed following the Ethics Review Procedure established by the European Commission (2013) for EU research, the Data Protection Directive 95/46/EC and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000/C 364/01). The study was fully approved by the Ethics Board of the Community of Researchers on Excellence for All (CREA) 1 .

Case Studies

The line of research that we analyze in terms of social impact is composed of four national and European research projects in which the authors have participated in the last 15 years. In these projects, a total of 36 case studies were conducted. Of these cases, 10 included data on the participation of students with special needs in SEAs (see Table 1 ), and these were analyzed for the purposes of this paper. These cases fulfilled two criteria: (1) the schools were implementing SEAs and (2) students with special needs participated in SEAs with their classmates. Overall, 60 data collection techniques were used in the 10 case studies. These included 36 interviews, 14 with class teachers (3 of them were also special education teachers), 4 with special education teachers, 3 with volunteers, 8 with students, and 7 with students’ relatives; 13 focus groups, 5 with teachers, 8 with students, and 1 with students’ relatives; and 10 observations, 9 in classrooms and 1 in a teachers’ meeting (see more details in Table 1 ).

Summary of the data collection instruments and participants in the project case studies.

The different projects focused on different aspects of the SEAs and therefore entailed different layers of analysis throughout this line of research, which has allowed a comprehensive view of the benefits of SEAs for diverse students and specifically for students with special needs.

The doctoral project funded by the Catalan Government ( Molina, 2003-2007 ) was the first research to specifically focus on the inclusion of students with special needs in SEAs, and particularly analyzed the type of classroom interactions that facilitate students’ inclusion when classrooms are organized in IG. The project’s main objective was to analyze the influence that students’ participation in IG has on their educational inclusion. The main categories of analysis were peer interactions and community participation as components of IG and learning , participation and social inclusion as components of educational inclusion.

INCLUD-ED ( Flecha, 2006-2011 ) aimed to identify educational actions that contributed to overcoming segregation and promoted the inclusion of all students in schools across Europe, with a special focus on vulnerable groups of students. INCLUD-ED clarified the distinction between mixture, streaming and inclusion ( INCLUD-ED Consortium, 2009 ) as different ways of organizing student diversity and human resources with different consequences on students; distinguished different forms of family and community participation; identified educative, decisive, and evaluative forms of participation as those that had more impact on students’ success; and identified successful educational actions. The contribution of this project to this line of research was an analysis of SEAs at the level of school organization, resource management and community engagement. The main objective of the case studies within this project was to analyze components from educational practices that decrease the rates of school failure and those of the practices that increase them. The main categories of analysis were inclusive practices and community participation .

MIXSTRIN ( Valls, 2008-2011 ), as a continuation of the INCLUD-ED research in the Spanish context, deepened the analysis of the different forms and consequences of mixture, streaming and inclusion from a mixed methods approach. Thus, this project focused on analyzing SEAs at the level of classroom organization. The main objective of the case studies was to identify how different ways of grouping students are related to students’ learning results. The main categories of analysis were practices of mixture, streaming , and inclusion .

Finally, INTER-ACT ( Garcia-Carrion, 2018-2020 ) analyzes how SEAs are being implemented with students with disabilities in both mainstream schools and special schools, with the aim of transferring these actions and their benefits to new schools. The project’s focus of analysis is the interactions that occur in IG and DLG in both types of schools. The main objective of the case study conducted was to analyze in depth successful cases of schools implementing IG and DLG with students with disabilities to identify the best conditions for increasing the impact on the improvement of learning, development and relationships. The main categories of analysis were characteristics of the interactive learning environment and improvements achieved.

Within the different research projects, using the case study as a methodological approach has allowed understanding the reality of the object of study in context. Following Stake (2006) , case studies were selected based on what information they could provide about the issue explored, in this case, the increase in the educational quality provided to students in SEAs, especially to those with special needs. In this regard, case studies were instrumental in providing insight into this issue. As a sum of individual research projects, the line of research presented here constitutes multicase research ( Stake, 2006 ), where cases share similarities – e.g., data collection techniques, the population object of study and purpose – and allow understanding from the singularity of each case of the broader phenomenon that all of them are part of.

In-Depth Interviews

Five interviews were conducted with teachers who fulfilled two criteria: (1) they were implementing SEAs with their students, including students with special needs, and (2) they had started to implement these actions as a consequence of the research line on SEAs and special needs, that is, after becoming aware of the evidence obtained on the benefits of SEAs for these students. Two of the interviewees were teachers at one school where one of the case studies was conducted while the other interviews were not related to the case studies. The interviews were conducted by one of the researchers at the end of the 2018–2019 school year, and at that time, the participants had been implementing SEAs for a period of 4–6 years (see Table 2 ). The interviews lasted between 20 and 55 min and were conducted at times and in places that were convenient for the participants. We introduced the interviews as follows: “In the last 15 years, a line of research has been conducted on the educational inclusion of students with special needs through SEAs. We are interested in gathering information on the social impact of this line of research.” Sample questions were as follows: “Can you identify some of those impacts (e.g., improvements in the learning of students with special needs or improvements in the schools’ approach to responding to students’ diversity)?”; “How has the line of research led/contributed to such impacts?”; “Have these impacts been transferred to different contexts or students with different characteristics?”; and “Have the impacts been sustained over time?” All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim for subsequent analysis.

Profiles of the participants in the in-depth interviews.

Communicative Methodology

This line of research has been conducted based on the communicative methodology ( Gómez et al., 2011 ). The data collection and analysis of the social impact achieved has also been conducted based on this methodology. The communicative methodology entails drawing on egalitarian dialogue with the end-users of the research – including teachers, students with and without disabilities, students’ relatives and other community members – to allow an intersubjective creation of knowledge that enables a deeper and more accurate understanding of the studied reality and its transformative potential ( Gómez et al., 2012 ), therefore enabling greater social impact. Different studies have demonstrated the suitability of this methodology when researching vulnerable groups ( Puigvert et al., 2012 ; Gómez et al., 2019 ), as well as the social impact that this methodology produces.

Following the communicative methodology, in this line of research, data collection techniques were aimed not only at gathering the individuals’ experiences and perceptions but also to discussing these experiences and perceptions with them in light of previous scientific knowledge on the issue and with the purpose of identifying both the exclusionary and transformative components of the reality studied. While exclusionary components refer to the barriers encountered by certain persons or collectives, for instance, educational barriers encountered by persons with disabilities, transformative components are those elements that contribute to overcoming these barriers, for instance, certain types of classroom organization or learning interactions. The objective of the dialogues held with end-users and other stakeholders in the research process is to agree upon these exclusionary and transformative components, which strengthens the validity of the research results and its potential social impact.

Data Analysis

For this paper, the different case studies have been analyzed together to understand in an integrated manner how the different layers analyzed previously (school and classroom organization, community participation, interactions) contribute to the social impact of the implementation of SEAs with students with special needs. For this purpose, the existing data of the case studies were analyzed with a new set of categories that was created to examine this social impact. Taking into account that the main challenges in the education of children with special needs are their limited participation in normalized learning environments ( World Health Organization, 2011 ), their lower educational levels achieved ( European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2017 ) and their higher risk of being socially marginalized and bullied ( UNESCO, 2017 ), the improvements in these domains constitute the social impact of the educational intervention aimed at students with special needs; therefore, the following were the basis for creating the categories for the analysis of the social impact of SEAs:

• (1) Impact on students’ participation: characteristics of the successful educational actions that enable the participation of students with special needs.
• (2) Impact on the cognitive dimension: improvements achieved in instrumental learning and cognitive development.
• (3) Impact on the socioemotional dimension: improvements achieved in social cohesion and emotional/affective development.

The newly conducted interviews on the social impact of the line of research were analyzed with categories that take into account the social impact criteria identified by IMPACT-EV (European Commission FP7, 2014-2017) and used in SIOR ( Flecha et al., 2015 ) regarding improvements, sustainability and transference. The fourth category emerged inductively from the data:

• (1) Impact on students with special needs: improvements and sustainability,
• (2) Impact on schools: improvements and sustainability,
• (3) Transference to new contexts, and
• (4) Factors supporting social impact.

The themes present in the transcripts were coded by the researchers on a line-by-line basis. A deductive, flexible approach was used for the coding to identify subthemes within the categories. Categories of analysis were applied to the transcripts by two independent coders to enhance the validity of the results. Consensus for the coding was achieved through discussion.

In the following, the social impact of the line of research is presented, which includes evidence on the benefits of SEAs for students with special needs and how such SEAs led to a new social impact on different schools, students, teachers and contexts. Three types of social impact are presented: (1) impact on students with special needs and their opportunities to participate, learn and have positive relationships in SEAs; (2) impact on schools’ and teachers’ approaches to meeting students’ special needs; and (3) the replicability of SEAs to new types of educational contexts and student populations. The factors that have enabled the achievement of these impacts are also reported.

Social Impact 1: Enhanced Participation, Learning Opportunities, and Group Cohesion for Students With Special Needs in Successful Educational Actions

The social impact of seas.

Previous analyses of the case studies showed that SEAs entail a more efficient organization of classrooms and schools, allowing a more inclusive education for a diverse student body, including students with special needs, who can benefit from enhanced access to the content of the general curriculum in a shared learning environment ( Christou and Molina, 2009 ; Molina and Ríos, 2010 ). A key feature of the inclusive learning environments promoted in the SEAs is the diverse interactions promoted around learning among, on the one hand, students, as they are organized in heterogeneous groups and, on the other hand, relatives and other members of the community, who are welcome to participate in the students’ learning activities. These interactions are key components of the SEAs that have created new learning opportunities for students with special needs in mainstream schools and, more recently, in special schools ( García-Carrión et al., 2016 , 2018 ).

The analysis of the social impact of SEAs on students with special needs shows positive impacts in terms of the participation, learning and social inclusion of these students. Regarding student participation, the supportive peer interactions promoted within the SEAs and the participation of volunteers from the community, who ensured that these supportive interactions were implemented and provided assistance themselves when necessary, facilitated normalized and active participation in learning activities and natural support within the student group, which progressively made specific, individualized support less necessary ( Molina, 2003-2007 ). For this to occur, the case studies showed the importance of the activities that students worked on in the IG being the same for all of them and of students with special needs not being given different activities in any case. The same occurred with DLG: all students participating in the gathering read the same book. The analysis showed that this was important because both IG and DLG work based on interactions and, if one student was given an activity or a book that was different than that of the other students, interaction of this student with the group would be easily broken. In some cases, adaptations were made regarding the way students accessed the material, interacted with it or produced an output or regarding the level of complexity required. However, the learning content was always the same to allow the maximum benefit from interaction and the highest possible level of attainment. Across the case studies, teachers reported that supportive interactions within heterogeneous groups in successful educational actions had been more effective than differentiated individual attention separated from the class, even in the cases when additional human resources were used. Therefore, SEAs have prevented reducing learning opportunities related to the segregation and individualization of educational measures often aimed at these students ( Valls, 2008-2011 ; Flecha, 2015 ).

In terms of learning and cognitive development, the possibility of asking questions when necessary and constantly seeing and listening to peers working on the activity and talking about it helped students with special needs stay connected to the activity, understand it and do it ( Molina, 2003-2007 ; Valls, 2008-2011 ). Learning progress was more evident in instrumental learning subjects (literacy, math), which are prioritized in IG and DLG. Specifically, due to the interactive and dialogical nature of both IG and DLG, communicative ability is one learning and development area in which students show a clear improvement. In this regard, for these children, DLG have meant the opportunity to broaden their vocabulary and gain a better understanding of the language structure, as they are able to listen more proficient children and adults, who also model language and help the students with special needs express themselves better ( Garcia-Carrion, 2018-2020 ).

Regarding the social impact of SEAs on the social inclusion of students with special needs and group cohesion, it was observed that the participation of these students in regular class activities that IG and DLG facilitated contributed to considering these students as “one of the class” and not a “part-time student” who only shares part of their time and activities with their classmates. Beyond participation, SEAs gave students opportunities to interact with their peers and therefore to come to know better each other, ultimately building new friendships. Peer support and friendship that were learned in IG and DLG often extended beyond the class and beyond the context of school, creating new opportunities for both cognitive and social development, for instance, when students with special needs had the opportunity to share their doubts with their classmates when doing homework via telephone or social networks or to meet them at birthday parties ( Valls, 2008-2011 ; Garcia-Carrion, 2018-2020 ).

Extending Improvements to More Schools and Students

The case studies showed ways in which the education of students with special needs improved in SEAs, as well as key components of these actions that explained the results. Both findings were crucial to extend these actions and their benefits to more children with special needs and thus for the social impact of the research.

The first time that primary schools were transformed into learning communities and implemented SEAs was in 1995 in Spain. There were five schools at that time. Ten years later, in 2005, there were 22 schools. After 10 more years, in 2015, the number reached 120 schools in different countries ( Flecha, 2015 ). Today, 225 schools in Spain 2 , 49 schools in other European countries 3 , and 411 schools in Latin America 4 , each with diverse populations, have become learning communities through the application of successful educational actions. These data show that the INCLUD-ED project (2006–2011) was a turning point in the spread of SEAs in schools. The spread of the project also meant that these actions could reach more diverse students with special needs. The applicability of the SEAs with these students was usually a topic of debate among the teachers that incorporated these actions in their schools. When the knowledge of the evidence provided by the line of research reached the new schools, both teachers and the rest of community became more confident when including students with disabilities in IG, DLG, and other shared learning activities in the school. The different teachers interviewed explained that the implementation of SEAs in their schools has increased over time and so has the participation of students with special needs, which reaches 100% in some cases. As one teacher explained, the participation in SEAs prevents the need for individual support outside the classroom: “Out of all the classes, there is not any child that gets out of the classroom [to receive individual support] when they work on SEAs” (Sandra). The implementation of SEAs with students with special needs – as well as with the general population of students – has not only been sustained but has increased, as, for teachers, it is an efficient way to respond to these – and other – students’ needs:

In the school, almost all students with special needs participate in SEAs (.) From my experience I can tell you that I used to do an SEA session per week, then I did two, this year I have done three, and now I cannot imagine less than three, every time I need to do it more and more. (Carmen)

The benefits observed by research in the case studies then started to spread to more children in other schools. Two examples can illustrate these improvements. First, the case of a child with a severe neurological deficit, for whom participating in SEAs made it possible to transform the expectations that were imposed on his learning possibilities:

The neurologist said that he could not learn almost anything. literacy and all the learning, they saw it as impossible. but he has learnt to read (…) if we hadn’t known about it, that evidence about interactions… Last year we did 6 sessions [of IG] per week, plus DLG, we did as much as we could, and it is amazing what he has learnt. (Sandra)

Research has already shown that being able to participate and learn in IG and DLG changes the self-concept and learning expectations of the children with special needs as well as the concept and expectations their peers and adults have of them. In these interactive learning environments, students were often able to solve tasks that they could not solve alone or read books that could not read alone, going beyond teachers’ and families’ expectations for their learning ( Flecha, 2015 ). When SEAs reached new schools and students, these higher expectations, which create new learning opportunities, were created there too.

The second example is of a child with Down syndrome who could benefit from a more normalized learning environment where he could make progress in both learning and group belonging; this shows how the benefits that research had identified in group cohesion were replicated in other cases like this:

We had another child with a disability who was very isolated from the group, he did not have an emotional bond either, and the attention he received was too individualized; with the special education teacher, the speech therapist, he did not feel he belonged to the group. And when we started implementing SEAs, work in IG, DLG, the group changed very much, (…) and the child, who had Down syndrome, started to belong to the group: worked on the same activities as the others, and the others counted on that child. It was a huge change. (…) We achieved a lot of things. (Carmen)

Both teachers, Sandra and Carmen, clearly attributed the improvements observed to the students’ participation in IG and DLG. In some cases, looking for the participation of these children in SEAs has made teachers look for adaptations that enabled their participation. This was the case for a child in Irene’s school. He had not developed oral language, which made it difficult to participate in DLG, but the teachers adapted the book to pictograms and facilitated him in using a tablet with the pictograms and synthesized voice software installed so that he could communicate in the group. This had several impacts: first, the child could follow the reading, think of an idea to share and structure the idea; second, he could share the idea with the group and contribute to the gathering; third, the other children could realize that their classmate wanted and was able to communicate with the others, and even “heard his voice” for the first time; fourth: new opportunities for communication and the sharing of knowledge, experiences and thoughts appeared in the group. These changes did not occur until the teachers considered how they could improve the child’s participation in DLG, so it was the SEA that encouraged teachers to mobilize the resources that enabled the child’s participation and made these changes possible.

Importantly, the improvements achieved have been sustained and even increased through time as the implementation of SEAs also increased. Awareness of improvements has spread in their communities and that has led, in some cases, to an increased demand to enroll students with special needs in these schools, as Sandra explains in the quote below; this is another way in which the participation and learning opportunities of students with special needs in SEAs have been enhanced:

More families are coming with children with special needs that attended other schools. (…) Here, in the town, all the families know each other. (…) They talk and explain their experiences… and therefore many are requesting a change of school. (Sandra)

Social Impact 2: Transforming Schools’ Approaches to Meeting Students’ Diversity in Terms of Special Needs

The education of students with special needs has changed not only because of increased opportunities to participate in SEAs but also because the dialogic, interactive and transformative approach behind the SEAs has been assumed by the teachers and the entire community to change the way they approach the education of these students at every moment – within and outside SEAs – now being more dialogic, interactive and transformative as well.

Before implementing SEAs, schools tended to respond to students’ special needs through individual attention, often outside the classroom and based on low expectations; they understood the students’ disabilities as an indicator of what the students could achieve. The participation of students with special needs in SEAs has meant a turning point in the schools’ approach to diversity.

A Focus on Interactions to Enhance Students’ Learning Opportunities

Knowing SEAs and their scientific and theoretical bases, especially the relevance of interactions for learning, has meant that teachers who have incorporated SEAs in their schools focus on the interactions they promote. In mainstream schools, the more diverse and rich interactions students found in SEAs was an element that convinced teachers to include the participation of students with special needs and to do the necessary material adaptations to allow that interaction. They could observe improvements in typically developing children, both in learning and coexistence, as a consequence of participating in SEAs, which also encouraged them to include students with special needs and extend these benefits to them, overcoming previous ideas about special education, as Irene explained:

We were intoxicated with the idea that [mainstream] students make progress, but those with special needs need different things, need that we adapt to their learning level… But we have advanced in inclusion as we have been implementing SEAs, because we realized that children with special needs can participate too, and interactions with peers are positive for them to progress, besides self-esteem, seeing they are capable, and that they can improve. (Irene)

In the context of special schools, interactions are also a topic of discussion now, which helps teachers focus on providing their students with the best learning environment possible. For the professionals working there, this has meant an opportunity to give their students richer learning opportunities within their segregated placement:

In our school program, we include what the students will learn, but we also consider and talk very much about the interactions they will have, which is a topic we had never discussed before knowing about SEAs. We focus on the type of interactions they have, if they are quality interactions, if they can have more quality, how we can promote them through SEAs, IG, DLG… (Marta)

Evidence, the SEAs, which explain what is best for our students, give us confidence in our work. We know our way to advance in giving the best results to our students. Therefore, we think of interactions; since they are segregated, we consider which type of interactions we should offer to them. (Ana)

Development of Scientific Thinking About Education

Another consequence of being aware of the benefits of SEAs for students with special needs, as demonstrated by research, has been the development of a more scientific way of thinking among the teaching staff. The teachers interviewed, as well as other teachers in their schools, read scientific publications emerging from or related to this line of research and discussed them in dialogic pedagogical gatherings. This helped them become familiar with research and scientific evidence, and they now look for this evidence when they must make decisions on their students’ education:

Now we say: “But is there evidence for it? Let’s see who has written about that” (…) for instance, when we are working on autism, [we want to know] if what we implement is based on scientific evidence or not, and what the most recent research about autism says. It has emerged from having implemented evidence and talking about evidence. (Marta)

Once the teachers learned that there is scientific evidence behind the success achieved by SEAs, they looked for evidence-based actions, practices or programs in any aspect of their professional activity, which increased their chances of enhancing students’ education, not only when the students participate in SEAs but at any moment they are at school. SEA participation therefore increases the potential social impact that other research in education and psychology of education can have, as these teachers look for the evidence of previous improvements achieved and reported by this research to transfer them to their own context and achieve similar improvements.

Changing Teachers’ Minds and Talk About Students With Special Needs

In relation to the scientific view of education, teachers have changed the way they think and talk about their students, focusing not on the students’ disabilities but on what the teachers can do to transform the educational context and improve the education of such students. These teachers do not ask whether students with special needs can participate in SEAs; they start from the premise they can, and they think on the way they can facilitate their students’ participation through, for instance, necessary adaptations. These teachers believe that this way of thinking about their students has made them improve as teachers, as their professional performance is permeated by language of possibilities:

We realize that we have a different approach, I mean, [we think about] how are we going to include these students or how are we going to promote interactions with them. And we did not have this perspective before. As a school, having had scientific evidence within reach made us improve our teaching practice, reconsider many things, and find meaning. (Marta)

At the personal level, we have improved our dialogues about what is best for our students. We are advancing in this direction, always putting the focus on the students, on what we will achieve, on the fact that this is the best for them. (Ana)

Rethinking and Reorganizing Specialized Support Within and Beyond SEAs

Implementing SEAs with students with special needs entailed rethinking the role of special education teachers, speech therapists and other specialized support. While these professionals used to work outside the class to provide individualized support to students with special needs, usually based on different curricular material of lower academic level, when SEAs started to be implemented, teachers agreed with these specialists that students with special needs would not leave the classroom. Instead, these professionals started to enter the classroom to support students in IG. When the class was not organized in IG, teachers kept the criteria of organizing heterogeneous groups of students to facilitate the inclusion of students with special needs, and specialists also provided support there. Speech therapists, who, in some cases, were more reluctant to change their role into a more inclusive role, also agreed to participate in SEAs by preparing activities for IG or supporting students in DLG.

One of the first things we were clear about was that these students would not leave the classroom and would be distributed within the classroom in heterogeneous groups, and at the same time, we started working in IG and DLG. (…) In my school, all of them used to leave the classroom and had different curricular materials. Objectives were set with very low expectations, low academic objectives, and then we engaged in debates and there were several changes. (…) On the one hand, the role of the speech therapist changed, and this was difficult to achieve because they felt they had lost their identity, their role, (…) but now we work and plan children’s learning together. (Sandra)

In some cases, reading and discussing research publications, such as INCLUD-ED results ( INCLUD-ED Consortium, 2009 ), helped in organizing students and supporting them in a more inclusive way when working in SEAs and beyond, which supported the decision to maintain students with special needs in the class when SEAs were implemented:

Little by little, we saw that all students improved, and we started to do pedagogic gatherings. For instance, I remember that we discussed INCLUD-ED “Actions for success in schools in Europe,” and we emphasized the topic of groupings with the teaching staff because the special education teachers had the idea that they had to take the students with special needs out of the classroom. So, we agreed that when we worked in SEAs, these students would stay in the classroom so that they could participate in the same activities as everyone else. (Ines)

Higher Expectations and Enhanced Learning: Teachers Recovering Meaning in Their Profession

Being aware of SEAs and the improvements promoted and having the opportunity to discuss them and implement them in their school facilitated teachers’ enhanced belief about their students’ potential and, at the same time, gave them the tools to make that potential real; as teachers’ expectations were raised, students’ performances also raised and even surpassing these expectations. This has had an impact on students but also teachers, as some of the teachers reported rediscovering meaning in their profession as a result of being better able to facilitate the learning of students with more difficulties:

I think that the teachers who implement SEAs with our students have found more meaning in teaching, because we see that they learn. We have had high expectations, and even with these high expectations, many times, they have surprised us. We’ve said “I never imagined it could but it happened”, even if we always had high expectations. Sometimes, unintentionally, working with disabilities, we think, “well, we have high expectations, but we will get there one day”, and we are already there. (Marta)

The higher expectations and the possibilities enabled by them has meant a shift, especially in the context of special education, where low expectations and low educational levels predominate, as Ana reflected:

I think that in special schools we can easily find the “happiness curriculum”, that is to say, “poor kids, they have enough with their disability, instead of trying to learn more [let’s make them happier]”. I have worked in several special schools, and I always found colleagues with this attitude. Then, I think that implementing SEAs, and now with the line of research, I think we have realized that we have to change our minds, through dialogue: Why expect less? Let’s go for high expectations, for the best of each student, and see what we can achieve. I think it has been something that has spread in the school, as a result of starting to work in this way with students and other colleagues seeing the results. (Ana)

Importantly, the higher expectations supported by the previous evidence of improvement achieved through SEAs have made it possible for teachers to take on challenges that they would not have taken on before. For instance, Carmen explained that once she learned about the SEAs and their impact at a conference, she decided to implement these actions with the most challenging group at her school. The groups with most challenging students are often those that teachers do not choose to work with and are assigned to the least experienced teachers or those who arrived most recently at the school; however, SEAs make teachers more confident in their ability to improve these students’ educations and, as occurred in the case of Carmen, make them wish to teach precisely the most difficult groups because they know they can make a difference in the education of those students:

I could not understand how it was possible to respond to the diversity we had in the classrooms. I remember that when I arrived at the school I couldn’t, I was overwhelmed, and I remember going at the international conference and seeing it crystal clear. I saw it so clear that I remember we had a class in the school with much diversity, a very special group, and I went to the principal’s office and said, “I need to take this group and implement what I know, what the evidence says that works, to ascertain that it works, and to transform this group”. (…) And the change was amazing. (…) Now I cannot see it in any other way, because now, I feel that any challenge I face, I will succeed. And now, I feel very much like taking the group most in need, the most vulnerable one. For me, it has been awesome working like this. (Carmen)

Social Impact 3: From Mainstream to Special Education Settings: The Transference of SEAs

The expansion of SEAs to new schools has entailed SEAs reaching new educational contexts, some of which are specific contexts in special education. Reaching these new contexts has entailed the opportunity for more inclusive, quality education.

SEAs as a Way to Include Students Segregated in Special Education Classes in the Mainstream Class

As the teachers reported, the inclusion of all students with special needs in SEAs has sometimes been a process, especially when the school serves students with severe disabilities, which directly affects areas of curricular learning. Irene’s school contains a specific classroom for students with language and communication disorders (a communication and language classroom) related to the autism spectrum disorder, which serves students from different municipalities. These students have little or no development of oral language, which makes it difficult for them to participate in actions such as IG and DLG, as such methods are based on dialogue and interaction. Teachers relied from the beginning on research evidence for including in SEAs other students with special needs who attended the mainstream classes. Subsequently, guided by the evidence of the improvements achieved with these students in the school, the students from the communication and language classroom also started to be included in the SEAs.

The students of mainstream classrooms started to participate first. (…) At the beginning, the students with autism, who had many difficulties, who could not speak, did not participate in SEAs; we had not thought about that yet. (…) We still had to break with the idea that we had to teach students with special needs outside the classroom. Then, when we started to include them in the classroom, especially by participating in SEAs, and we saw that the students with difficulties – but who could speak – improved, then we said, “And the other students? The most difficult ones? Let’s see if it is possible”. And it is possible. (Irene)

In this case, the teacher highlighted the importance of adapting some aspects of the development of the activity to facilitate the progressive participation of these students. In the case of students with autism and little language development, the readings for the DLG were prepared with pictograms so that the children could follow the story and express themselves. The teachers prepared the reading and the contribution for the gathering with their families ahead of time. In IG, the students started participating in only one activity, with additional support if necessary, and progressively participated in two or more activities of the IG session.

IG and DLG have made the participation of students who previously shared little learning time with their peers possible in the mainstream classroom, which means that SEAs have had an impact on their educational inclusion and learning opportunities. Furthermore, some of these students have left the communication and language classroom and are now enrolled full time in the mainstream classroom. SEAs have helped to make the possibilities for these students to learn in mainstream inclusive settings more visible and, as a consequence, some students have left open places in the communication and language classroom that can be occupied by students who are now attending special schools. Therefore, in this case, SEAs not only promote the inclusion of students within that school but also open possibilities for more inclusive trajectories for students in other schools.

Pau is a child who came to the communication and language classroom as a child with autism. Today, after having worked with him in the mainstream classroom of peers of the same age, participating in SEAs with interactions has improved his performance at the social level, and now this child is in the mainstream classroom and has left an available place in the communication and language classroom for other children with language difficulties at special schools. That is, we have achieved students who were schooled in the communication and language classroom now being in the mainstream classroom. (Ines)

Transference of SEAs in Special Schools

In the context of Spain, where the research was conducted, 17% of students with special needs are enrolled in special schools ( World Health Organization, 2011 ). According to national law 5 , these are students with disabilities whose special educational needs cannot be met in mainstream schools, the most frequent types of disabilities including intellectual disabilities (36%), multiple disabilities (24%) and pervasive developmental disorder (19%) 6 . Some special schools concerned with providing the best education to their students have also wondered about the possibility of bringing to their schools the educational actions that transformed the education of students with disabilities in mainstream schools. Today, there are 4 special schools that implement SEAs. In Marta and Ana’s school, when the teaching staff started to implement SEAs, no one there had previous experience with implementing SEAs in special schools, so they had to recreate the SEAs in the new context. To ensure proper implementation to achieve the benefits that had already been observed in mainstream schools, they implemented the SEAs progressively and assessed the ongoing results:

In our school, we started with one classroom, and little by little, the number of classrooms that implemented DLG increased. Today, not only has this implementation been sustained, but the number of participants has increased, both in DLG and IG. (…) The results are very positive, because in primary education, at the beginning, only one classroom participated and now 5 entire classrooms participate. (Ana)

The transference of SEAs in their special school was not only sustained but, in time, also increased: similarly to what occurred with mainstream schools, more SEAs have been implemented in more groups and with more diverse children: “We included first children with more speech ability, and little by little we included students with less speech ability to see how we could manage to guarantee that all of them could participate in the SEA” (Marta). “Now, when you look at the timetable for the next school year, you can see that it is full of SEAs” (Ana). This extension in the implementation of SEAs in the school cannot be separated from the students’ progress: it is the improvements such work has achieved that encourages teachers to extend IG and DLG to new groups, students and learning content.

In some cases, preparing the activity with the children ahead of time facilitated their incorporation into the SEA. According to the teachers, using such strategies has made it possible for approximately 80% of the students of preprimary and primary education to participate in IG, and approximately 40% of the students to participate in DLG. In this context of special education and with this group of students, SEAs have also demonstrated improved learning. Language is an area in which most of these students present difficulties, and it is the area of improvement that the teachers have highlighted most, along with an improved coexistence between students:

With the SEAs, new language structures appeared in the students that we never imagined before that they could develop, reasoning, argumentation, first with much help and modeling, but finally, it appeared spontaneously. Then, reading books, which we did not foresee either (…). Expanding their vocabulary. (…) With the SEAs they gain richer vocabulary too. (Marta)

The main results we have seen are improvements in language competence and the quality of their contributions, sentence structures of greater complexity, improvement in explaining their opinions, improved coherence of discourse, taking into account the topic of the debate. (…) Then, an increase in the number of participants in the DLG, better knowledge of the other participants, the creation of new bonds and friendships, and the reduction of coexistence problems. (Ana)

This evidence suggests that SEAs are not limited to a particular type of school or student population but can be effective with very different types of student diversity and educational contexts. According to the teachers, the research on SEAs and special needs had an influence on these improvements achieved in their school:

I think that we could not have achieved it if we would not have this line of research and impact. I mean, it has given us much robustness, a great deal of science to say, “Okay, it has been studied, it works,” and this robustness helped us to transfer, sometimes we say “to recreate,” the SEAs. (Marta)

Building Collaboration Between Special and Mainstream Schools

The replicability of SEAs in special schools was accompanied by the previously mentioned transformation of teachers’ understanding of the education of students with special needs. The focus on learning interactions that both IG and DLG have led teachers in these schools not only to ensure maximum diversity in the interactions within the school by, for instance, grouping students with different disabilities and with different capabilities together, but also to look for interactions with typically developing peers who are educated in mainstream schools. Sharing learning activities with these children in an inclusive learning context entailed new learning opportunities for the special school students in a more normalized environment that could eventually help them prepare for a transition from special education to combined (special-mainstream) education. As Ana explained, in her school, the idea of collaborating with mainstream schools emerged from the high expectations developed and the will to pursue more ambitious objectives for their students. Now, the teachers want to establish this beneficial experience as a regular collaboration and extend it from DLG to IG.

Since we started to work with DLG with our students, we have seen that our objectives in DLG are changing, the same way they are progressing and improving, there is an evolution. They start to structure sentences, ask questions, talk about the topic; then, we see the need to look for higher expectations, that is, there is always a bit more. Then, we thought that as we wanted a bit more, and the ones who could provide it as role models were students of their same age. We wanted them to participate in DLG in the most normalized way possible. (…) When we did it with the [mainstream] school it was a spectacular experience, because new dialogues emerged, our students participated very much spontaneously. (…) Then, the need to create these DLG as something periodical and systematic for the next years emerged, starting with DLG, and then we will continue with IG. Each time a bit more, more inclusion, more interactions, more communication, and more learning. (Ana)

According to the teachers’ experience, the students of both regular and mainstream schools benefited from this experience. The special education students could improve their language and academic learning and find new contexts where they could be accepted and respected, and the mainstream school students had the opportunity to learn more about people with disabilities, including their difficulties and capabilities and how to interact with them, which is learning for life. In one of the mainstream schools that had less experience in implementing DLG, students could even learn from the greater experience students from the special school had with DLG. For both groups of students, many of whom lived in the same town, this collaboration entailed the possibility of coming to know each other and creating bonds beyond the school context:

For the children of the mainstream school, it has brought the opportunity to know students with disabilities and learn how to interact with them; for instance, they live in the same municipality, and maybe they met in the street and they did not interact, they did not know how to talk to each other. The gatherings are above all respect, humanity, a climate of total acceptance, that many times we do not find in society. And our students were able to demonstrate what they knew and had no problem raising their hands and sharing what they knew. Although they needed help, they asked questions to their peers at the mainstream school. I mean, their concerns, their language improvement, I think that apart from the academic and the language improvement, regarding human values it is helping both the mainstream and the special school. (Ana)

The fact that SEAs have been replicated in special schools and there are therefore mainstream and special schools that implement SEAs in the same geographical context has made these collaborations and new learning opportunities for both groups of students possible.

Reaching Other Educational Contexts in the Community

The research on SEAs and students with special needs has also had an impact in other places of the community beyond the school context. An illustrative example explained by Sandra is an association dedicated to people with disabilities that offers activities for children with disabilities. The fact that SEAs are open to the community facilitated the president of the association participating in IG in Sandra’s school, showing how both learning and coexistence improve in IG. In addition, the mother of a child with special needs at Sandra’s school is an active member of the association. These connections with members of this association have caused a change in the association, which is now more oriented toward promoting academic learning among the children and is more impregnated with high expectations, creating new contexts where learning and inclusion can be enhanced:

This summer, the association is promoting instrumental learning for the first time; they are doing homework, which they had done never before, and they are very satisfied. And also, the issue of the evidence (…) she told me the other day that a girl with autism had come, the family explained that she had behaviors such as pulling hair, pushing, and she told them, “Don’t worry, we are changing it”, and the mother was very happy, and she was happy too (…) They are learning to read and write since preprimary, and the families are really satisfied… This has been a big change, because they did not think like this before. (Sandra)

Factors Supporting Social Impact

The interviews held with teachers about the impacts achieved have also shown several factors that contributed to these impacts, mainly via supporting the sustainability and replicability of the actions and the promoted improvements. It is important to summarize these factors here because taking them into account may contribute to an enhanced social impact of the research.

Teachers’ Permanent Training Based on Scientific Evidence

As mentioned above, a more scientific approach to education was one of the impacts achieved for teachers. This was translated into the practice of regularly reading scientific texts related to their profession, which, in turn, reinforced this scientific view. Some schools organized seminars in which the teaching staff debated these texts, and in other cases, teachers attended seminars or meetings with teachers from other schools. The texts that they read and debated included articles, books and reports resulting from this line of research and other scientific publications related to teaching and learning that could help them solve problems they encountered and improve their practice. According to the interviewed teachers, sharing this space of learning and debate has been a help in replicating the SEAs in new classes or schools and in bringing the SEAs to more students; it has also been a source of sustainability when the barriers found in the implementation of SEAs were shared and discussed:

Training is essential. As we read about the evidence and debated it, if we had a preconceived idea, we said, “No, this is true, it is as you say, this girl may be able to do that”. I think that training has been and still is essential for all this, because theory gives us a clue to put everything into practice. If we know the theory, then it is very easy. (…) We have to know first, we have to learn first. And then we see it very clearly. (Carmen)

Gaining confidence and feeling empowered to implement the actions that are supported by research has also been an effect of the teachers having access to scientific knowledge:

We emphasized very much that evidence says that children improve more with inclusion, that is, not taking them out of the classroom, if you do not group them separately… Then, you get empowered, and say, “This is really what we have to do; every time, if we could do that it would be ideal”. Then, you change your outlook a bit. (…) Because we came from another paradigm, we had another trajectory, and with the training we started to see things more clearly; we got empowered and said, “It has to be done this way, it is demonstrated that it is best, so let’s do it”. (Ines)

Teamwork and Networks of Support

Another facilitator of social impact highlighted by the teachers was the availability of a network of support among teachers and schools. The previously mentioned seminars are one place where some of these networks have been created. The previous experiences of other colleagues that are shared in these spaces have encouraged new teachers to implement SEAs and have also helped solve doubts and difficulties in the implementation of SEAs. These networks of support have made possible, for instance, collaborations between special and mainstream schools in sharing SEAs. Irene explained that this was an important factor in her case; the same way that special schools took the progress achieved in mainstream schools as a reference to replicate the SEAs in their context, Irene’s school took one special school as evidence of the possibilities for successfully implementing SEAs in her school:

The more positive, inclusive, rich, high expectations and interactions you have in more contexts with other professionals that are implementing SEAs in other schools and see that it is possible, that a special school is doing it and it is possible, and they improve… the more things like that you listen to throughout your professional life, and the more people you can share these spaces with, the more you empower yourself… and finally, you do it, because you believe it is true that it is possible and that you are going to make it. (Irene)

Recording Results and Being Aware of the Improvements Achieved

For teachers, it was also important to have a record of the students’ results related to the SEAs so that they could register progress and be fully aware of the improvements achieved. Some schools had more systematic records than others, and some of them were aware that they had to improve their recordkeeping, but all of them agreed on the importance of gathering this evidence, as it demonstrates teachers they are doing well and encourages the continuance of their work:

Results, because in daily life the inertia doesn’t let us see progress, but it is very important to talk about it with colleagues: “Look at what we have achieved,” “Look, this child could not do that and now he does”. When we verbalize it, we realize all we are achieving. (Carmen)

Sharing the Impact of SEAs With Families

When schools share the development and outcomes of SEAs not only among teachers but also with students’ families, the latter also become active supporters of these actions. This information can be shared in the schools’ seminars or assemblies that are open to families, in individual meetings with the family of a particular student, or while developing the SEAs if families participate, for example, as volunteers in IG. This information has led, for instance, to families not authorizing their children with special needs to receive support outside the classroom – because they know their children can progress further by participating in SEAs in their classroom—or agreeing that their child can stay in the school one more year so as to continue taking advantage of learning in SEAs.

Within education, I think that special education is the great forgotten area, and, with this research, I really believe that now is our time. I think that special education is starting to be visible and show that with them [students with disabilities], it is also possible. (…) I believe that it is our moment and I hope that this research helps all students and that finally, inclusion becomes a reality that we achieve between all. (Ana, teacher at a special school)

Ana, with these words, tried to synthesize what the actual and potential social impact of the line of research was for teachers such as her. Research conducted on SEAs and students with disabilities and other special educational needs allowed the identification of benefits that these educational actions entailed for these children in the schools that were already implementing them. Subsequently, this evidence has reached new schools, bringing these improvements to new student populations and improving teachers’ professional experiences, thus achieving a social impact that, as Ana said, is contributing to transforming special education.

This line of research is an example of the body of research in the psychology of education that studies several aspects of the education of students with special needs, creating interventions that improve their learning and coexistence with peers or bringing forth scientific evidence on which effective educational programs can be based. As interaction and dialogue are key components of SEAs, we argue that the evidence collected on the impact of SEAs on students with special needs shows the transformative potential of the sociocultural approach of learning ( Vygotsky, 1980 ; Bruner, 1996 ) for the education of these students. Because evidence on the social impact of this line of research was obtained from a limited number of interviews, conclusions must be cautiously made. However, there is evidence supporting the achievement of social impact. The criteria defined by SIOR 7 , the Social Impact Open Repository that aims at monitoring, evaluating and improving the impact of research, enables the analysis of how social impact is approached, as well as the limitations that can be addressed to further enhance social impact achievements.

• (1) Connection of research with the social priority goals of sustainable development. The line of research responds to UN Sustainable Development Goal 4 on Quality Education: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Therefore, the research is aligned with one of the social priorities.
• (2) Percentage of improvement achieved regarding the departure situation. The interviews conducted allowed the collection of evidence on the improvements achieved in terms of the students’ learning and improved coexistence and the schools’ more efficient response to student diversity. However, an accurate and quantified record of the academic and/or social improvements of these students has not been systematized. Therefore, evidence of the social impact would be enhanced with a more systematic procedure to collect and quantify the improvements.
• (3) Transferability of the impact: the actions based on the project’s results have been successfully applied in more than one context. Transferability has been achieved in different directions: first, replicating the SEAs in mainstream schools with the participation of students with special needs in these schools; second, recreating the SEAs in special schools, thus transferring the actions to a new student population; and third, transferring the SEAs to other out-of-school educational contexts in the community.
• (4) Scientific, political, and social dissemination. The benefits of SEAs for students with disabilities and other special needs have been disseminated through scientific publications, conferences and training for teachers and schools. Importantly, this dissemination has been a key component for the transferability and sustainability of the impact, according to the evidence collected and is associated with the scientific training of teachers, who used such publications to learn from and discuss the evidence and transform their own professional practice.
• (5) Sustainability of the impact achieved. According to the evidence collected, in all the new contexts and new populations of students where SEAs have been transferred, the intensity of the implementation has not only been sustained but also increased, and the same occurred with the improvements achieved. Although an accurate quantification of the improvement is not yet available, the experience of the sample of teachers who were involved in the transference of the SEAs and still implement them in their own context points in this direction.

Taking this into account, further research on SEAs and students with special needs with social impact could cover four aspects. First, to analyze how SEAs put into practice contributions from theory in the psychology of education to support the learning and development of children with special needs more in depth. Second, to define a procedure to collect and quantify the improvements achieved by the students as a result of participating in SEAs. The INTER-ACT project, which is currently advancing this line of research, will contribute to quantifying this improvement and strengthening the evidence of the research’s social impact. Third, to support the transference of the SEAs and the improvements associated with them to new schools. Additional impact is foreseen in this regard, as the ongoing INTER-ACT project will transfer SEAs to new mainstream and special schools and will add further evidence on the key elements for the transferability of SEAs to new contexts with students with special needs and those without. Finally, to extend the interactive understanding of learning and development beyond schools and the teaching and learning contexts, reaching other related professionals and activities, such as evaluation, attention and counseling related to special needs; these areas of intervention are still very much impregnated with an individualistic perspective more aligned with the medical model than with the social model of disability, and students and schools would benefit from coordinated work based on the evidence of the benefits of the interactive approach of SEAs.

Data Availability Statement

Ethics statement.

The study was fully approved by the Ethics Board of the Community of Researchers on Excellence for All (CREA). The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

SM conceived the original idea with the support of ER. ED conducted the literature review. SM with the support of RG analyzed the results of the line of research (case studies) from the perspective of social impact. ER coordinated the data collection (interviews) on social impact. SM conducted the interviews, and transcribed and analyzed them with the support of RG and ED. SM wrote a full draft of the manuscript. ED, ER, and RG revised it and included corrections. SM revised the final version of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding. This work was supported by the INTER-ACT, Interactive Learning Environments for the Inclusion of Students With and Without Disabilities: Improving Learning, Development and Relationships. Spanish National Programme for Research Aimed at the Challenges of Society, Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness. Reference Number: EDU2017-88666-R.

1 The Ethics Board was composed of Dr. Marta Soler (president), who has expertise in the evaluation of projects from the European Framework Programme of Research of the European Union and of European projects in the area of ethics; Dr. Teresa Sordé, who has expertise in the evaluation of projects from the European Framework Programme of Research and is researcher in the area of Roma studies; Dr. Patricia Melgar, a founding member of the Catalan Platform Against Gender Violence and a researcher in the area of gender and gender violence; Dr. Sandra Racionero, a former secretary and member of the Ethics Board at Loyola University Andalusia (2016-2018) and a review panel member for COST action proposals in the area of health; Dr. Cristina Pulido, an expert in data protection policies and child protection in research and communication and a researcher in communication studies; Dr. Oriol Rios, a founding member of the “Men in Dialogue” association, a researcher in the area of masculinities, and the editor of “Masculinities and Social Change,” a journal indexed in WoS and Scopus; and Dr. Esther Oliver, who has expertise in the evaluation of projects from the European Framework Programme of Research and is a researcher in the area of gender violence.

2 Schools as Learning Communities in Spain: http://utopiadream.info/ca/centros-en-funcionamiento/caracteristicas/

3 Schools as Learning Communities in Europe: Successful Educational Actions for all (SEAS4ALL). ERASMUS + Programme. Record number: 2015-1-ES01-KA201-016327. https://seas4all.eu/ ; Social transformation through Educational Policies based on Successful Educational Actions (STEP4SEAS). ERASMUS + Programme. Record number: 11. 580432-EPP-1-2016-1-ES-EPPKA3-IPI-SOC-IN. https://www.step4seas.eu/

4 2018 Report of the Schools as Learning Communities network in Latin America https://www.comunidaddeaprendizaje.com.es/uploads/materials/579/352de6fce741a0d1e6d17c67944cec2c.pdf

5 Ley Orgánica de Educación [Organic Law of Education] (LOE), of 2006, amended by the Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa [Organic Law for the Improvement of Quality of Education] (LOMCE), of 2013.

6 Spanish Ministry of Education and Vocational Training. Statistics on Education. School year 2017-2018. https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/servicios-al-ciudadano/estadisticas/no-universitaria/alumnado/matriculado/2017-2018-rd.html

7 https://sior.ub.edu/indicators

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College of Education and Human Development

Department of Educational Psychology

Recent educational psychology dissertations

Educational Psychology student researchers develop models that support practitioners' and caregivers' implementation and evaluate evidence-based practices.

All Educational Psychology dissertations since 1981

Collaborative Emotion Interpretation: Investigating Participation and Power in Naturalistic Parent-Child Emotion Interactions in Families Participating in a Non-profit Outdoor Education Network in the United States Ashley Hufnagle, 2023 Advisors: Geoffrey Maruyama, David Deliema

The role of numerical cognitive processes for bar graph comprehension Jimin Park, 2023 Advisors: Keisha Varma, Sashank Varma

Data-Based Decision Making in Early Childhood: Teachers’ Competencies, Beliefs, and Practices Kelsey Will, 2022 Advisor: Panayiota Kendeou

"Let's (fire)Work Together!": Exploring the Potential for Intergroup Contact between Nonbinary and Cisgender Individuals through a Cooperative Commercial Board Game Yu-Chi Wang, 2021 Advisor: Geoffrey Maruyama

Social-emotional learning in higher education: Examining the relationship between social-emotional skills and students’ academic success Isabel Lopez Hurtado, 2020 Advisor: Geoffrey Maruyama

Revising Misconceptions Using Multiple Documents Reese Butterfuss, 2020 Advisor: Pani Kendeou

Pulling back the curtain on stereotype threat: Testing a mediation framework of identity change and belongingness Anthony Joseph Schulzetenberg, 2020 Advisor: Geoffrey Maruyama

The Roles of Convergent, Divergent Thinking, and Contextual Focus during Scientific Reasoning: Birth of the “Z” Model Jean-Baptiste Quillien, 2019 Advisors: Keisha Varma and Wilma Koutstaal

Social Capital, Self-Control, and Academic Performance in School-Age Children and Adolescents: Patterns Associated with Race/Ethnicity Wei Song, 2018 Advisors: Geoffrey Maruyama and Zha Xiong

The Development of Arithmetic Sense and Its Predictive Relationship to Mathematical Achievement Soo-hyun Im, 2018 Advisor: Sashank Varma

Gender, Leadership, and Navigating through the Hierarchy: Behavioral Patterns and Managers’ Assessments of Performance, Promotion Potential and Career Derailment Carolyn R Dienhart, 2018 Advisor: Geoffrey Maruyama

Implicit Learning in Science: Activating and Suppressing Scientific Intuitions to Enhance Conceptual Change Jeremy Y Wang, 2018 Advisor: Keisha Varma

Exploring the Accuracy of School Rankings for Accountability Decisions Yi F. Vue Advisors: Michael Rodriguez, Leah McGuire

A Multi-Modal Multiple Descriptive Case Study of Graduate Students’ Statistical Thinking in Statistical Tests Seven Months After Completing a Simulation-Based Introductory Level Course   Vimal Rao, 2023  Advisors: Jeffrey Bye, Robert delMas

Incorporation of Covariates in Bayesian Piecewise Growth Mixture Models Rik Z. Lamm, 2022 Advisors: Nidhi Kohli and Michael Rodriguez

Understanding the Development of Students' Multivariate Statistical Thinking in a Data Visualization Course   Chelsey Legacy, 2022 Advisors: Robert delMas and Andrew Zieffler

Reliability and Validity Evidence of Diagnostic Methods: Comparison of Diagnostic Classification Models and Item Response Theory-Based Methods   Yoo Jeong Jang, 2022 Advisor: Michael Rodriguez

A Monte Carlo Study of the Effects of Number of Clusters and Level-2 Residual Distributions on Multilevel Models   Hao Jia, 2021 Advisors: Michael Harwell and Nidhi Kohli

Modeling Response Processes in Early Literacy Measures   Jose Rosalio Palma Zamora, 2021  Advisor: Michael Rodriguez

Student Understanding of the Hypothetical Nature of Simulations in Introductory Statistics   Jonathan M Brown, 2021  Advisors: Robert delMas and Andrew Zieffler

Using psychometric models to measure social and emotional learning constructs   Mireya Carmen-Martinez Smith, 2020  Advisor: Micheal Rodriguez

Use of Aggregated Covariates in Propensity Score Analysis of Clustered Data Kyle Nickodem, 2020 Advisor: Ernest Davenport

IRT Branching Models for Individual Differences in Dual-Processing Theory of Reading Comprehension   Bowen Liu, 2020  Advisor: Mark Davison

Standardized Bilingual Assessments: A Means to Reduce Construct-Irrelevant Variance and Ethnic/Racial Stereotype Threat   Julio Caesar, 2020  Advisor: Michael Rodriguez

Growing Certain: Students’ Mechanistic Reasoning about the Empirical Law of Large Numbers   Ethan Brown, 2019  Advisors: Robert delMas and Andrew Zieffler

Asian Americans in Educational Research: The Use of Disaggregated Racial and Ethnic Subgroup Data   Mao Jacobson, 2019  Advisor: Frances Lawrenz

The Effect of Test Speededness Control Within A Computerized Adaptive Multi-Stage Framework   Qinjun Wang, 2019  Advisor: Ernest Davenport

Bayesian Modeling of Associations in Bivariate Mixed-Effects Models for Segmented Growth Curves   Yadira Peralta Torres, 2018  Advisors: Mark Davison and Nidhi Kohli

Using Multiple Regression to Ascertain Group Differences in the Relationship of Predictors to a Criterion: Ethnic Group Differences in the Relationship between Course- taking and Achievement in Mathematics   Kyungin Park, 2018  Advisor: Ernest Davenport

Evaluating the Role of Classroom Behavior Management in Promoting Equitable Discipline Outcomes Alexandria Robers, 2023 Advisors: Faith Miller, Jennifer McComas

Technical Adequacy of the Social, Academic, and Emotional Behavior Risk Screener - Teacher Rating Scale: A Systematic Review, Quantitative Synthesis, & Measurement Invariance Study Annie Goerdt, 2023 Advisor: Faith Miller

“What Should We Do Now?”: Family Service Use and Decision-Making in Autism Stacey C. Brandjord, 2022 Advisors: Amanda Sullivan and Amy Esler

Student Perceptions of Caring Adults in Schools: A Qualitative Multi-Case Study Jenna McGinnis, 2022 Advisors: Clayton Cook and Amanda Sullivan

Advancing Tailored Implementation of Evidence-based Practice in Schools Madeline Francis Larson, 2022 Advisors: Clayton Cook and Faith Miller

The Impacts of Intervention Modality on Student Mathematics Operations Knowledge Kourtney Rebecca Kromminga, 2021 Advisors: Robin Codding and Amanda Sullivan

The Relations between Academic Achievement and Externalizing Behavior: Separating Fact from Fiction Tara Kulkarni, 2021 Advisor: Amanda Sullivan

Teacher Attitudes Toward Evidence-Based Practices: Confirmatory and Predictive Analyses of the School-Adapted Evidence-Based Practice Attitude Scale James Lorenz Merle, 2021 Advisors: Clayton Cook and Faith Miller

Evidence-Based Instructional Principles and Sequences for Effective Fraction Instruction Kristin Elizabeth Running, 2021 Advisors: Robin Codding and Amanda Sullivan

The Association Between SWPBS Implementation and Exclusionary Discipline in U.S. Schools Mollie Rose Weeks, 2021 Advisor: Amanda Sullivan

A Cross-Validated Approach Towards Identifying the Unique and Cumulative Contributions of Child and Family Factors Predictive of Speech-Language Therapy Start Time Marianne Elmquist, 2021 Advisors: Scott McConnell and Veronica Fleury

Planning for Students Who Struggle with Whole Number Computation Nicole McKevett, 2021 Advisors: Robin Codding and Amanda Sullivan

How Teacher Self-efficacy and Mindset Influence Student Engagement and Math Performance Andrew Thayer, 2020 Advisors: Clayton Cook and Theodore Christ

Supporting Fidelity of Implementation of Class-wide Behavioral Interventions Jenna Klaft, 2020 Advisors: Robin Codding and Amanda Sullivan

Universal Factors and Tier 1 Interventions Associated with Quality Student-Teacher Relationships Laurie Kincade, 2020 Advisor: Amanda Sullivan

Screening for Social-Emotional and Behavioral Aspects of Kindergarten Readiness: A Systematic Review of Screeners and Validation of BASC-3 BESS Teacher for Somali Students Alaa Houri, 2020 Advisor: Amanda Sullivan and Faith Miller

An Exploratory Study of Trauma Screening Procedures and Instruments in Schools Sophia Frank, 2020 Advisors: Clayton Cook and Amanda Sullivan

Profiles of Parental Mental Health and Children’s Academic Coping Aria Fiat, 2020 Advisors: Clayton Cook and Amanda Sullivan

The Differential Effects of Elaborated Task and Process Feedback on Multi-digit Multiplication Rebecca Edmunds, 2020 Advisors: Robin Codding and Amanda Sullivan

Sources of variance in reading comprehension research: The role of measures and interventions Calvary Diggs, 2020 Advisor: Theodore Christ

Mathematics Computation: Generalizability and Dependability of Student Performance by Sample Size Danielle Becker, 2020 Advisors: Theodore Christ and Amanda Sullivan

Exploring Relationships among Organizational Factors, Teachers' Attitudes toward Evidence-Based Practices, and Implementation of Universal Prevention Programs Yanchen Zhang, 2019 Advisors: Clayton Cook and Amanda Sullivan

Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Mathematics Word Problem Solving with English Learners Leila C Jones, 2019 Advisors: Robin Codding and Amanda Sullivan

Influence of Head Start Lead Teacher Profiles on the Relation between Coaching and Intervention Fidelity Stephanie Brunner, 2019 Advisor: Amanda Sullivan

Effectiveness and Key Components of School-Based Anxiety Interventions Victoria Erhardt, 2019 Advisors: Annie Hansen-Burke and Faith Miller

Engagement versus Motivation: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Motivation and Engagement Wheel Alyssa Schardt, 2019 Advisor: Faith Miller

Examining the Structural Validity of the My Class Inventory – Short Form for Teachers (TMCI-SF) in Early Elementary School Classrooms Chloe Webb, 2019 Advisors: Amanda Sullivan, Clayton Cook

The Effects and Generalization of a Choice-Based Intervention with Highly preferred Items on Student Off-Task Behavior Gregory R Simonson, 2018 Advisor: Amanda Sullivan

Training Educators to Implement Mindfulness-Based Interventions: Evaluating the Effects of In-Service and Coaching on Intervention Fidelity Laura Marie Potter, 2018 Advisor: Scott McConnell

An evaluation of the use of oral reading fluency as a screening tool with emerging biliterates Kirsten Newell, 2018 Advisor: Robin Codding

Influence of Child Find Referral Mechanisms on Early Childhood Special Education Participation Elyse McCullough Farnsworth, 2018 Advisor: Amanda Sullivan

Summer Learning Loss in Reading Achievement: Effects of Demographic Variables and Summer Activity Julia Baker, 2018 Advisor: Theodore Christ

The Relation between Parent Involvement and the Development of Kindergarten Self-Regulation and Literacy Skills Amber Hays, 2018 Advisor: Scott McConnell

Investigating Young Children’s Attitudes toward Mathematics: Improved Measurement and the Relation to Achievement Allyson Kiss, 2018 Advisor: Theodore Christ

Perspectives of Teachers of Students with Learning Disabilities on Parental Involvement in Jazan, Saudi Arabia: Experience, Obstacles, and Attitudes Mohammed A. Almalki, 2023 Advisor: Jennifer McComas

Word Problem Solving Tasks in Third-Grade Mathematics Textbooks: How Well Do They Align with Effective Teaching Practices? Ahmed A. Alghamdi, 2023 Advisor: Kristen McMaster, Asha Jitendra

Using Behavior Skills Training to Promote Caregivers’ Generalized Skill Instruction with Adults with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Shawn Girtler, 2023 Advisor: Jennifer McComas

Effects of Data-Based Writing Instruction on the Reading Outcomes of Elementary Students with Writing Difficulties Emma Shanahan, 2023 Advisors: Kristen McMaster, Scott McConnell

How Can We Enable Hmong Parents to Take Steps Towards Autism Identification?: Hmong Parents’ Beliefs about Autism and Their Experiences in the Identification Process Pang Xiong, 2022 Advisors: Jason Wolff and Rose Vukovic

An Investigation of Methods Toward Mitigating Resurgence and Renewal in A Human Operant Model Emily Unholz-Bowden, 2022 Advisor: Jennifer McComas

The Impact of COVID-19: Special Education Student Teachers' Practicum Experience during the Spring of 2020 Cristina Umana-Rojas, 2022 Advisor: Kristen McMaster

Validating Movement-Based Sleep Assessment in a Pediatric Sample with Developmental Disabilities and Associated Motor Impairment and Intellectual Disability Alyssa Maria Merbler, 2022 Advisor: Frank Symons

A Comparative Analysis of Self-Injurious Behavior and Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors Between Samples of Children With and Without Developmental Delay or Disability Stephanie Sarah Benson, 2021 Advisor: Frank Symons

Characteristics of Students with Persistent Intensive Needs in Reading Comprehension and the Impact of Response Criteria Britta Johnn Cook Bresina, 2021 Advisor: Kristen McMaster

Sensory Features in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review of Measurement Quality and Empirical Investigation of Sensory Responsivity in Children at High and Low Familial Risk for Autism Jaclyn Gunderson, 2021 Advisors: Frank Symons and Jason Wolff

A Meta-analysis on the Effects of Vocabulary Instruction for English Learners Ellina Xiong, 2020 Advisors: Jennifer McComas and Kristen McMaster

Child and Evaluation Characteristics Predicting Educational Eligibility of Autism Spectrum Disorder: Examining the Role of Race and Ethnicity Kelsey Ann Young, 2020 Advisors: LeAnne Johnson and Jason Wolff

Exploring Determinants of Early Childhood Special Educators' Practice Selections for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Maria Lemler Hugh, 2020 Advisors: LeAnne Johnson and Veronica Fleury

The Use of Generalizability Theory to Inform Sampling of Language Learning Environments for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Andrea Lynn Boh Ford, 2020 Advisor: LeAnne Johnson

Examination Of Three Practice Schedules for Single Digit Math Kyle B Wagner, 2019 Advisor: Kristen McMaster

The IEP Data Collection Intentions Scale (IDCIS): Scale Development and Validation for Intended Score Interpretation and Use in Early Childhood Brenna Noland Rudolph, 2019 Advisor: LeAnne Johnson

Using Brief Experimental Analysis to Identify Effective Mathematics Fluency Intervention for Students in Middle School John Mouanoutoua, 2019 Advisor: Jennifer McComas

The Effect of Parent-Implemented Functional Communication Training on Challenging Behavior and Communication: A Meta-Analysis Brittany Pennington, 2019 Advisors: Jason Wolff and Kristen McMaster

Redefining the Word Gap from a Cumulative Risk Perspective Erin Lease, 2018 Advisor: Scott McConnell

Conflicting Relations Paradigm: The Effects of A Stimulus Equivalence-Based Approach to Changing Bias Robert Henery, 2018 Advisor: Jennifer McComas

Educational Psychology - Second Edition

(18 reviews)

Kelvin Seifert, University of Manitoba

Rosemary Sutton, Cleveland State University

Copyright Year: 2009

Publisher: University of Manitoba

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Seokmin Kang, Assistant Professor, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley on 12/11/22

There is a lack of neuroscience and cognitive aspects such as information process and knowledge representation. Also, it touches a little bit of everything but is shallow in its depth. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

There is a lack of neuroscience and cognitive aspects such as information process and knowledge representation. Also, it touches a little bit of everything but is shallow in its depth.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The content is accurate overall.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

More adding needs in neuroscience, cognitive perspective in learning, and technology use in teaching and learning.

Clarity rating: 4

It is clear overall.

Consistency rating: 4

There is no framework, but a description or summary of the theories.

Modularity rating: 5

It is readily divisible into smaller reading sections.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

One topic is described or explained throughout the chapters. This is a double-edged sword. While readers can connect one concept with various different concepts, novice readers, before fully understanding the topic's core idea, can be easily off track, thinking of how a certain topic is related to different topics.

Interface rating: 3

The text covers mainly its content. There are few images or diagrams to better support student learning. Learning objectives or key terms should be introduced at the beginning of each chapter.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

The book's grammar is fine.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

It leans much on education and application rather than foundational theories.

Reviewed by Melanie Park, Assistant Professor of Education, Huntington University on 6/21/22

Major educational psychology theories are covered, but instructors using this text may want to supplement the material with current neuroscience findings to ensure teacher candidates are prepared to implement brain based instructional strategies.... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

Major educational psychology theories are covered, but instructors using this text may want to supplement the material with current neuroscience findings to ensure teacher candidates are prepared to implement brain based instructional strategies. The impact of trauma on learning, the implications of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory in the classroom, and Dweck’s Growth Mindset Theory are additional concepts not covered in the text.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Overall, the content is accurate for the publication date, but instructors will need to point out that Bloom’s Taxonomy has been updated. References to Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) should also be included in a discussion of special education.

The text provides relevant classroom examples of educational theories. Commentary on technology and diversity have become outdated due to the rapidly changing nature of these areas in education.

Clarity rating: 5

The concepts are clearly communicated, and the classroom examples show students how educational theory is applied in the real world of teaching. The writing is easy to understand, and university students will easily comprehend the text.

Consistency rating: 5

The text consistently addresses educational theories.

The text is designed for ease of division during an educational psychology course. The chapters on classroom management, planning instruction, and assessment could easily be revisited in upper level education courses to reinforce the concepts learned during the introductory educational psychology course.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The organization is logical and will allow instructors to easily design their course in a clear fashion.

Interface rating: 4

Many of the supplemental links need to be updated or replaced. The links to the text in the Table of Contents are very helpful.

The text was free of grammatical errors.

The text did not address the needs of students in the LGBTQIA+ community. References to gender roles and assumptions regarding cultural stereotypes need to better reflect the current social climate.

The text provides a starting point for presenting educational theories. Instructors will need to supplement the text to ensure teacher candidates are exposed to current educational research. New theories and instructional approaches have emerged since the text was published, but overall, the text is easy to understand and certainly helps teacher candidates understand how educational theory can be applied to classroom situations.

Reviewed by Jodie Riek, Assistant Professor of Teacher Education, University of Wisconsin - Superior on 9/20/21

This text comprehensively covered most key traditional aspects of educational psychology such as human development theories; learning theories; and diversity. However as an introduction to education text, it was distinctly lacking content... read more

This text comprehensively covered most key traditional aspects of educational psychology such as human development theories; learning theories; and diversity. However as an introduction to education text, it was distinctly lacking content discussing political and social issues which impact education systems, the work of teachers, student learning and curriculum.

What is covered is accurate and is unbiased.

The content that is covered in this text is relevant and up to date. Any updates that will be needed in the future (for example hyperlinks which are dispersed throughout the text, may need updating in the future); will be relatively easy to update.

This text is very straight forward using every day language with limited jargon and technical terminology. When there is jargon or technical terminology there is a thoughtful easy to read explanation/definition for the reader to be able to understand in context.

Terms are used consistently throughout the text.

Chapters are just the right size, with key topic headings and sub-headings within to help the reader consume the content. It was dispersed with images and hyperlinks which breaks up the reading work. This approach makes it very consumable for the reader.

The topics are somewhat in a logical and clear sequence, although as mentioned earlier as an introduction to education text, it was distinctly lacking content discussing political and social issues which impact education systems, the work of teachers, student learning and curriculum.

Interface rating: 5

Easy to navigate. Presents as a pdf file so it can be read online and offline. It can also be printed for those readers that prefer a hard copy.

The text contains no grammatical errors that I saw.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

Very EDI aware text.

Reviewed by Eliza Bobek, Associate Clinical Professor, Massachusetts Department of Higher Education on 6/29/21

Addresses the main topics covered in a typical Educational Psychology course. Does not include information processing, memory, cognitive load. Could include more on the science of learning, LGBTQIA, trauma informed pedagogy. Some chapters more... read more

Addresses the main topics covered in a typical Educational Psychology course. Does not include information processing, memory, cognitive load. Could include more on the science of learning, LGBTQIA, trauma informed pedagogy. Some chapters more appropriate for students enrolled in teacher preparation e.g. "Planning Instruction" compared to students taking this course as an elective.

High accuracy- no errors noted.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

Some outdated terminology e.g. students with "special educational needs." Could be more inclusive in this chapter by addressing "students with disabilities" and avoiding a deficit perspective. Very little discussion of anti-racist and anti-bias pedagogy, stereotype threat etc.

Clear and well-organized. Text is written in the familiar-tone and terminology is clearly explained. Text is divided into manageable sections.

Appears to be consistent throughout, in terms of structure and flow.

This is very well done, sections are accessible, reducing cognitive load for the reader.

Flow is clear, but perhaps consideration to the audience- teacher preparation course for pedagogy, or psychology students as an elective?

Navigation is clear; additional images and visuals would make it stronger.

Accurate grammar.

No mention of culturally responsive teaching. Predominantly white western view. "Student diversity" is presented separately as "other." Section on "student diversity" could be re-titled to be more inclusive.

Reviewed by Audrey Roberts, Assistant Professor, Bowling Green State University on 1/28/21

This text provides a relatively comprehensive overview of most foundational educational psychology theories. However, there are some important elements missing, as well as an over-emphasis on classroom management and assessment that veer away from... read more

This text provides a relatively comprehensive overview of most foundational educational psychology theories. However, there are some important elements missing, as well as an over-emphasis on classroom management and assessment that veer away from the curriculum normally taught in an introductory educational psychology class for undergraduate students. I would argue that Chapters 1-6 and Chapter 9 would be the selections covered in an ed. psych class, with Chapters 7, 8, and 10-12 better suited for a more pedagogically focused or more assessment focused course. The two biggest concepts not covered in the text are information processing theory and memory, and any sort of mention of the LGBTQ+ community in regard to addressing diversity. I would've liked to see more attention paid to socioemotional learning theories as well.

Content is accurate, error-free, and not significantly biased in any one section or area overall. Where appropriate, the foundational researchers are given credit, so that someone with knowledge in the field would concur.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 2

Content for many of the foundational educational psychology theories has not changed since the bulk of this material was released in 2009. So, in this way, the first 6 or so chapters could continue to be used, with some more recent articles to support it. However, almost all of the citations are now, in 2021, 15+ years old. This presents problems with some of the education policies they mention, and it also neglects the impact that technology has in the day to day classroom. Tech is mentioned, but almost 20 years have passed, so things are rightfully different, and classroom management is a bit different too. Many of the hyperlinks to appropriate websites do not work or lead you to a now incorrect page.

I do appreciate the writing style of these two authors. It is conversational, yet appropriate for an academic audience of young adult students. I appreciate the real-life classroom examples, and think a real effort has been made to make connections and the material more engaging for the reader. It's not bogged down with over-difficult vocabulary, but not too simple either.

The text is generally consistent in the way that material is presented. One issue I had was that there were often concepts brought up in the middle of one chapter that weren't really explained well until later chapters. For instance, discussing motivation at the same time operant conditioning is mentioned is confusing and motivation isn't broken down until chapter 6.

I think this text would be very easy to pull out certain sections, i.e., divisible. The glossary links in the PDF are useful as well.

Overall, the organization isn't bad, however the text has a tendency to jump a bit over the place. Bold text is somewhat liberally used, which could be distracting for readers. I thought Chapter 9: Complex thinking should've been placed before it was in the text-it would've been a natural section after information processing theory/memory (which was not addressed).

Easy enough to navigate. Most of the hyperlinks do not work at the chapters' end. Very few images, but many tables, and they have all formatted well

There are no glaring grammatical errors.

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive, but it does not address any information on the LGBTQ+ community, which is mentioned earlier.

This text has many strengths. It is free to use under a Creative Commons License, which is incredible for students who struggle with text costs. It is well laid out and would be easy to navigate. It covers most foundation educational psychology theories/material well. Last, it is an engaging read, and not filled with dry or overly academic language.

This text also has weaknesses. Nearly all citations are 15+ years old. It does not properly address current technology use in the classroom, social development in adolescence and the importance of friends, information processing theory, memory, or the LGBTQ+ community. There is an overemphasis on classroom management, assessment, and even some research methodology that seems unnecessary. There is no test bank (understandable) or self-review questions to help students. Last, most of the hyperlinks in the pdf no longer work or go to the appropriate place described.

Overall, as an instructor of an educational psychology course that has taught for years, I would feel comfortable using the first half of this text, supplemented with other articles. I think the fact that this textbook is free outweighs most of the negatives.

Reviewed by D F, Professor, Worcester State University on 6/30/20

Surface treatment of some topics. Out dated Bloom Model & references to learning styles; missing discussion of memory; passing reference to race (as part of culture), nothing about poverty, etc. Missing Social Cognitivism. Really missing links... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 2 see less

Surface treatment of some topics. Out dated Bloom Model & references to learning styles; missing discussion of memory; passing reference to race (as part of culture), nothing about poverty, etc. Missing Social Cognitivism. Really missing links to effective teaching

Content Accuracy rating: 2

Inaccuracies due to out of date information/theories Bias in the sense that White, western is normal diversity is other Right at beginning does not use person first language, instead referring to "disabled children"

Book needs major updating in terms of student diversity & students with disabilities. Needs to include the nature of memory, learning theories and give direct links to effective teaching

Clarity rating: 3

Tends to pack a great deal into brief sections. More examples and photos would certainly help.

seems to be

Modularity rating: 4

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

I prefer Ormrod's approach to Educational Psychology starting with research basics and looking at learning theories in depth and then diversity

Not seem to be an iussue

None that I found

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

Narrow, white, western treatment--not reflect US adult and student diversitIES

Good start. Needs updating

Reviewed by Elbert Davis, Assistant Professor, Marshall University on 2/5/20

This textbook aligns with another for-profit textbook that cost $220. The major concepts of educational psychology are present, including the major theories and theorists of education, along with assessments, student diversity, learners with... read more

This textbook aligns with another for-profit textbook that cost $220. The major concepts of educational psychology are present, including the major theories and theorists of education, along with assessments, student diversity, learners with special needs, and motivation. I was pleasantly surprised to see appendices concerning action research, licensure preparation, and critical evaluation of research articles. References were provided at the end of each chapter, as well as websites for additional information. At the end of each chapter are key terms, but no index or glossary was found.

I saw nothing that was inaccurate or biased. Errors were not evident.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The major theories and theorists are covered. As most of these people have passed on, it is unlikely major changes will need to be made. It would be easy to add new theories or theorists if the issue arose. The only section that will need updating or overhauling would be the chapter on standardized testing. This seems to change every so often due to national, state, and local politics. It is possible that major overhauls may be needed when laws change, as with any textbook that discusses these laws. I do think these updates would be straightforward to implement.

The textbook is as accessible as similar books on educational psychology. Jargon is typically defined for the student in-text, along with examples where needed.

The framework is very consistent. Once a student reads the first chapter, he/she should be able to know what to expect in future chapters. In each chapter, headings are broken into subheadings, followed by a chapter summary, key terms, online resources, and references. Terminology is consistent throughout the textbook, and is on the level of college students in the education field should comprehend.

The textbook is organized into chapters with the major concepts. The chapters are organized into headings and subheadings. Each page is numbered. It should be easy to assign different chapters or even sections of a chapter, if necessary. Long blocks of text are interrupted by images, charts, and tables, along with subheadings. There are very few self-referential moments in the text, other than providing an example at the beginning of each chapter.

The organization of the textbook mirrors that of costly for-profit textbooks on the same subject. Major areas are divided into 12 chapters with relevant headings and subheadings in each chapter.

The textbook is free of navigational issues. Headings and subheadings are used throughout the book. In the table of contents, the headings and subheadings are clickable and linked to the appropriate section or subsection of the book, eliminating the need to endlessly scroll to find a certain page. The images and charts used are not distorted. If I had a minor complaint, it would have been to use page breaks to ensure tables were on the same page, rather than be split across two pages. Again, this is a very minor issue.

No grammatical errors were found.

There is a section of the textbook that discusses cultural diversity and provides classroom examples based on different customs. Most of the examples outside of this section relate to the authors' personal experiences. The textbook is not insensitive or offensive in any way.

It is obvious that a love for educational psychology is the major motivation of authors Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton, as well as reviewer Sandra Deemer, and the editorial team (Marisa Drexel, Jackie Sharman, and Rachel Pugliese). Professor Seifert, in the preface, also explains his other motives for co-authoring the textbook (individualization of the content, the expense of the textbook, and eliminating the added features commercial textbook publishers use to increase the price).

Reviewed by Amanda Bozack, Associate Professor, Radford University on 1/6/20

This book covers the general areas explored in an introductory educational psychology course. The chapters are short but address the main concepts widely taught in this course and the reference list at the end of each chapter is comprehensive. read more

This book covers the general areas explored in an introductory educational psychology course. The chapters are short but address the main concepts widely taught in this course and the reference list at the end of each chapter is comprehensive.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

On many main points, the text is accurate. However, the student diversity chapter plays into outdated thinking about learning styles and multiple intelligences. Because the chapters are short, the complexity of this discussion and the importance of combatting misconceptions are missed. Instructors who use this textbook should consider supplementing this section or omitting it. Additionally, the chapter on students with disabilities does not use the language of or discuss tiered levels of support--the basic building blocks for preservice teachers--and the chapter on classroom management is very traditional without any information about trauma-informed practices or restorative practices. The chapters on motivation, communication, and complex thinking are strong.

Updates to the sections on learning styles and multiple intelligences, and the addition of tiered levels of support, trauma informed practices and restorative practices would increase the relevance of this textbook. Additionally, a section devoted to learning science and neuroscience would be useful given the many advances in recent years that help us understand learning from a neurological perspective.

This book is clearly and succinctly written. Terminology is bolded when appropriate and a list of key terms is provided after the chapter summary.

This book is consistent in format, terminology, and framework from one chapter to the next.

This text can easily be assigned in its entirety or for only specific chapters or topics. The information in one chapter is not dependent on information in another chapter. As such, instructors who use the whole text may find it useful to note where information from one chapter is aligned to information in another chapter.

The book and the chapters are organized logically, clearly, and follow the general arc of many educational psychology textbooks.

The interface for this text was appropriate. It is "low tech" and has a clickable table of contents.

There were no grammatical errors evident in my review.

This book did not address culture, race, or ethnicity specifically as part of the content. Educators looking to use a culturally responsive lens to teach educational psychology would probably want to supplement this text or use another text.

Reviewed by Adam Moore, Assistant Professor , Roger Williams University on 12/20/19

The text covers an overview of educational psychology. I wonder about some other areas within educational psychology that are not addressed such as universal design for learning (UDL) (Rose & Meyer), multiple intelligences (Gardner), backward... read more

The text covers an overview of educational psychology. I wonder about some other areas within educational psychology that are not addressed such as universal design for learning (UDL) (Rose & Meyer), multiple intelligences (Gardner), backward design (Wiggins & McTighe) and growth mindset (Dweck). While some of these theories are not without controversy, it might provide future educators and education professionals a more complete understanding of how one learns by including these topics. Even a critical analysis of these commonly known contemporary theories could help provide necessary background for future professionals.

Some of the terminology used to discuss people with disabilities in the text are not in line with people first language and are not 100% accurate (i.e. use of term IEP ("P" means program, not plan). Additionally, authors might consider mentioning the movement to "end the r word" instead of using the term "retarded". It is also important that professionals are explicitly told the problem with calling students "slow learners" (from p. 96). These ideas tend to support ableist language and ideologies that are too often present in educational settings.

This text will support the many education psychology courses offered at most institutions. The topics presented are almost universally taught in educational psychology courses.

The writing is clear and coherent.

The text is consistent in presentation, how terminology is presented, and how information is conveyed.

Many subheadings and bold-face print allow the reader to find information in manageable chunks.

The organization of the text is similar to other educational psychology texts. Clear and logical presentation of information.

The text is easy to read, provides some charts and photos, and is clear in presentation.

No grammatical errors that I found in my reading of this text.

There is not a substantial focus on historically minoritized people in this text. While some of the chapters mention race/ethnicity, there is not a consistent focus on people who have minoritized in educational settings (LGBTQ community, racially minoritized people, gender, people from the disability community, etc) nor is there a focus on equity.

Reviewed by Cassie Bergstrom, Assistant Professor, University of Northern Colorado on 12/14/19

The text covers a wide variety of topics typical to intro to educational psychology texts. The main topics of development, learning, student differences, motivation, classroom environment, and assessment are all covered in what I thought was... read more

The text covers a wide variety of topics typical to intro to educational psychology texts. The main topics of development, learning, student differences, motivation, classroom environment, and assessment are all covered in what I thought was appropriate depth. There were a few topics that I think could be more strongly emphasized, particularly related to how the brain works in the context of learning, information processing theory, and some additional cognitive topics. But I could also see these as topics that teachers could supplement. I did not see an index, but the table of contents is detailed and linked to the subtopics in the chapters. Each chapter has a list of “key terms” at the end (although they are not linked back to the area in the chapter). No overall index or glossary is present.

I did not find any content that was inaccurate. There are many citations throughout the text that I was familiar with in the context of the topics being discussed. References are listed by chapter, so the content is supported by outside sources that students can access. I didn’t detect any biased coverage, most of the commentary speaks to how the topics are currently seen in the field of educational psychology.

Overall, I do think the text is written broadly enough to be relevant for a number of years. Content in a few areas could be updated, as it is now at least 10 years old. There could definitely be more information on a few topics, for example the role of the brain in learning and memory, growth mindset, grit, autism spectrum, self-regulated learning, etc. These are topics that the field of ed psych has expanded on within the last decade. Other topics could be better positioned to reflect the general thinking in the field (ex. the content on Gardner's multiple intelligences could include more than one sentence of criticism…). I do think the text could be updated fairly easily, and would recommend the authors consider doing so within the next few years.

I really enjoyed the writing style of this text. The authors wrote in a clear, but concise manner. They did a nice job blending their writing styles (as opposed to some texts that feel distinctly written by more than one person). Additionally, the terminology and topics are explained at a level that someone without a background in psychology could understand. There is lots of context for the new ideas and terminology.

The internal consistency of this text is strong. Each chapter has the same organization, beginning with a vignette/story and followed with a number of subsections on different topics. The terminology and framework seem to be consistent across all chapters. Additionally, the headings provided follow the same pattern in chapters, also aiding consistency.

There are many headings and subheadings in this text, dividing main ideas into smaller chunks that could be assigned. The text is not overly self-referential—but honestly I think a bit more reference would be helpful at some points (for example connecting the info on gifted learners with special needs, mentioning the focus on multicultural and anti-bias education within the chapter on diversity). I do think the chapters could be assigned in a variety of orders, and the many headings improve the modularity of this text.

Yes, I think the topics presented in the chapters of the text flow logically, both across and within chapters. Providing the basis for learning up front (in Chapter 2) is a strength, as is following it with the information on development. Within each chapter, the topics logically follow one another, but not to the extent that assigning one chunk would disrupt the flow.

Overall, I think the PDF of this text looks really good. The interface feels more streamlined than many published texts, as there are no boxes, unnecessary graphics, or other distractions. The addition of a few more hyperlinks within the text (to help navigate) would be beneficial. Since the text is a bit dated, there were a few links at the end of chapters that didn’t work for me—which might confuse readers. I do wish the text was available in a format other than just a PDF. I have found it beneficial to provide the OER texts directly within the LMS, as opposed to linking out to another source. With the interface of a PDF, I believe this would be more difficult (I’m less likely to cut and paste PDF content, because of the formatting issues and needing to clean up the copy).

I found no grammatical errors in my reading of this text.

I didn’t detect any insensitivity or offensive handling of cultural issues within this text. The focus was often not on cultural diversity, and I think this could be improved. There is a full chapter on student diversity, but the section on culture is almost entirely devoted to language (while important, doesn’t encompass everything about culture). I did enjoy that the vignettes at the beginning of the chapters were authentic to the authors, but I think this could be an area that would benefit from including more diversity of representation (particularly the vignette at the beginning of Chapter 4…I’m not sure it’s the best way to speak to diversity).

I think this is a strong basic educational psychology text. The writing is clear and easy to read. If I was using this text, I would supplement it with a few topics that are either a bit dated or not covered in the text. But overall, I think it is a strong option for an intro to ed psych OER.

Reviewed by Jose Martinez Molinero, Assistant Professor of Secondary Education, Metropolitan State University of Denver on 11/11/19

In terms of covering all areas, this text provides a comprehensive introduction to the field of teaching. It is organized effectively—it takes the readers through a journey of the joys, challenges, nuances, and realities associated with the... read more

In terms of covering all areas, this text provides a comprehensive introduction to the field of teaching. It is organized effectively—it takes the readers through a journey of the joys, challenges, nuances, and realities associated with the teaching profession. The additional materials at the end of the text (Preparing for licensure, Deciding for your self about the research, and Reflective practitioner) provide resources that students in education preparation programs can refer back to as they progress in their respective programs. Although, the text could benefit from presenting other major licensure exam bodies other than Praxis. The text does not include an index or glossary in the traditional sense, however, at the end of each chapter key terms and a works cited is provided.3

From my perspective, the content of this text is accurate, error-free, and is unbiased. Furthermore, the authors invite readers to apply a critical lens on the content and research by providing open-ended questions regarding each chapter in the ‘Deciding for Yourself About the Research’ section in the additional materials section in the end.

The text is written in broad terms that allow longevity in its relevance. This is mostly achieved by presenting various/multiple theories and approaches when explaining how concepts may be applied in the classroom. Also, the authors recognize and address the differences in the classroom diversity and demographics within the text—although some of the content may not apply to one’s specific situation, other areas of the text will apply.

The text is accessible to students entering a teacher education program. As I reflect on the students I have had, I can envision my students reading this book and having ‘something to say’ about the content based on their own experiences as students and in their field experiences. What I appreciate the most is the teacher ‘scenarios’ that are presented in the beginning of each chapter and how authentic/realistic they are—this sets the tone for the chapter and captures the reader’s attention—answers the ‘why’ the chapter is important.

The text is consistent in its terminology and framework. One example of this, is once a concept(s) presented within the text, a visual chart or graph of the same information is provided for additional clarity. Moreover, I can expect a list of key terms and works cited at the end of every chapter.

The modularity of the text makes chapters easy to read and therefore makes the content accessible. Although there are some key terms I would like to see bolded versus italicized, the bullet points and section headers will make it easy for me to section off, focus on, or assign certain elements of the chapter to my students.

The topics are presented in a logical, clear fashion. Although, I would say this is true for teacher educators—some of the students in our programs may be completing their field experiences or student teaching in school districts that emphasize (or even romanticize) standardized testing—and this dominates their concerns and questions. Therefore, I would ask those considering the text to reflect on to what extent or where in the curriculum an honest discussion about the value that is (mis)placed on standardized testing should take place.

The navigation is appropriate and accessible from the Table of Contents. It would be helpful to include a navigation link at the end of chapter that takes the reader back to the Table of Contents instead of having to manually scroll back up. The use of pictures and charts are appropriate and helpful for the readers; however, they appear as simple or basic—not as vivid as in a traditional textbook. Typically, this is not an issue—however, the current generation of students’ focus is on ‘clout’ and aesthetics in determining the value of something.

From my reading of various chapters, I did not find any evident grammatical errors.

I appreciate how inclusive and authentic this text was in discussing the different types of learners. For example, I have use multiple multi-cultural education textbooks in the past, and not one has mentioned the phenomenon of ‘language loss’ that ELLs experience and its implications in the classroom.

Reviewed by Mistie Potts, Assistant Professor, Manchester University on 10/28/19

While the text offers a clear table of contents, no evidence of an index was observed. The reader can clearly locate topics that are relevant to teaching by using the table of contents, however finding specific theorists may be more challenging... read more

While the text offers a clear table of contents, no evidence of an index was observed. The reader can clearly locate topics that are relevant to teaching by using the table of contents, however finding specific theorists may be more challenging without an index of terms/names. The text appears to cover all relevant topics necessary to preservice or in-service teachers.

The content covered in this text appears to be accurate and aligns with recent peer-reviewed research in the field of educational psychology. The text clearly cites relevant research to support concepts covered. Each section concludes with references that direct the reader to recent research in the field. This research-based approach appears to be unbiased and consistent with commonly accepted views in the field of educational psychology.

The content of this textbook compliments the needs of today’s teachers. In this context, the content is relevant and applicable in a way that will allow it to remain relevant for years to come while providing a realistic way for teachers to utilize the theories and research findings. As research continues to unfold in the field of educational psychology, necessary updates may include small adjustments and manageable changes.

Written with a focus on practitioners, the text is clear and understandable. In this way, the text allows access to important topics in the field of educational psychology without bogging down the reader with complicated prose/jargon. The text calls upon a mild level of background knowledge (e.g., Pavlov and classical conditioning) yet provides contextual clues to include readers lacking this background. In my experiences, most undergraduate teacher preparation students come to the classroom with basic understandings of these topics. The clarity of the text is sufficient for this level of learners.

Terms and conceptual frameworks appear consistent throughout the breadth of the text. Tables with terms common to specific theories/concepts are provided to add clarity throughout the text. The terminology is highlighted with bold print making them easy to identify for the reader. No conflicting terminology or definitions were found during this review of the text.

The layout of the text provides clear sections identified with headers and subheadings. These make the text easy to divide and study in specific sections/topics. It could easily be read in chunks rather than front-to-back without disrupting comprehension of the text.

Similar to other textbooks I have explored in the field of educational psychology, the topics in the text are presented in a logical fashion that lays the groundwork for how individuals learn, educational diversity, development, and commences with topics surrounding the assessment of learning. The flow of text and tables is consistent and clear throughout the text. Distracting content is minimized by excluding sidebars and unnecessary graphics. The organization of the text fosters cognitive processing of the information with little distraction from supplemental information. A clear format for the licensure preparation section allows readers to access important test preparation information as needed. These take the form of sample questions from Praxis II exams, which will assist the reader in practice testing to prepare for the licensure exams.

The text is free from distracting content such as sidebars, photographs, or text boxes that may detract from comprehension of the material. Links from the table of contents direct the reader to specific sections in the text. The tables provide clear explanations of terms and theories. No displays or distortions of the images/charts/text were noticed in review of this text.

In review of this text, no grammatical errors were observed.

This text embraces multicultural education and is free from offensive or insensitive material. The omission of photographs alleviates the need to include a diverse array of examples to represent all cultures. The text discusses research relevant to diverse groups of learners and provides culturally relevant concepts to support multicultural education in schools. The examples provided throughout the text are inclusive of race, ethnicities and students from a variety of socio-economic backgrounds. Specifically, this text focuses on subject matter that will support educators as they provide educational experiences for all types of learners.

Reviewed by Nautu Leilani, Asst. Prof. of Education/Exec. Dir. of K12 Programs, Southern Utah University on 6/19/18

This resource is very comprehensive. It actually covers the content for several of our courses at our institution (introduction to teaching, principles of learning and teaching, educational psychology, classroom management, and instructional... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This resource is very comprehensive. It actually covers the content for several of our courses at our institution (introduction to teaching, principles of learning and teaching, educational psychology, classroom management, and instructional planning/assessment). With a resource like this and being so comprehensive we could definitely remove the barrier of cost for our students.

The content in this resource is accurate. I was not able to find any errors and did not find biases. We already have professors in our department using this resource and I have not heard from them that there has been any issues in these areas either.

The content is up to date and will not become obsolete. Since the book is so comprehensive I don't believe the authors could go in depth on many of the topics. They discuss the topics very well. The only suggestion I would have is that they add to each section actual strategies to help teachers with applicability.

The text is written so that a student new to the field could understand it - the authors take time to explain terminology that is specific to the field.

I did not find any inconsistencies in terminology or the framework provided. I believe that in using this text in our classes, we will be more equipped to add further comment on this section.

One of the biggest concerns we have now in our College is overwhelming our students with too much reading. The problem when we do this is that the students choose to do none of it. The smaller chunks that the author provided makes this a resource that helps us address this concern. We could definitely use this resource as an introduction to all these topics and then jump off from there. Since the chunks of reading are small the students will likely read it and get the foundation we need them to have to go deeper.

We just did a scope and sequence of our courses in Teacher Education and when I compare the flow of this resource to our outcomes from our scope and sequence, I found that the flow matched what we thought should be the flow of our courses in general.

I would have liked to see more graphics and visuals and flowcharts to attract the attention of the reader. I think also the very narrow margins makes it feel like there is too much to read on a page. At the expense of having more pages to read for each chunk I would probably make the margins at least a little bigger.

I didn't necessarily read for grammatical errors - because that would be a read of it just for that - but as I read each part I didn't find any grammar errors that would prevent comprehension.

I would say that the cultural relevance/sensitivity of this book is a good surface attempt. I would have liked the authors to go deeper in other areas of culturally responsive teaching like they did with the english language learner sections.

Thank you to the authors for helping us compile such a wonderful resource, and for being willing to share it with us inexpensively. They should be commended. This was a lot of work on their part - and then to be willing to share it liberally is noteworthy. My suggestions were meant to only add to the wonderful work they have done. Thank you again.

Reviewed by Stephen Vassallo, Associate Professor, American University on 2/1/18

The book covers most of what one might expect in an conventional educational psychology text for teacher education. However, I am surprised that self-regulated learning is not included in the book. This notion has been an important area of study... read more

The book covers most of what one might expect in an conventional educational psychology text for teacher education. However, I am surprised that self-regulated learning is not included in the book. This notion has been an important area of study for educational psychologists for about 4 decades now. Self-regulated learning is often discussed in the section on "higher order thinking." There are also other ideas such as growth mindset and grit that are more contemporary than self-regulated learning. I would like to see these concepts discussed in an educational psychology text. I would also like to see some text on embodied cognition, which is a perspective of memory that is contrasted with the information processing perspective, which also happens to not be discussed. Although the information processing theory is philosophically and conceptually limited, it can be helpful for thinking about teaching. There are also sociocultural theories, beyond Vygotsky, that can be helpful for getting a broad and diverse representation of the field.

Educational psychology is never unbiased. The one major error in this book is that this bias is not acknowledged. However, I am hesitant to call that an error of the authors and the text an error of the field. I did not find any errors in representing the elements of the field that are typically taught to teachers. However, what is typically taught to teachers relating to educational psychology misses a great deal of complexities--including those biases that underpin theories, perspectives, methods, ways of reasoning, and models. The authors are accurate in explaining the theories and concepts that are taught in an educational psychology text.

The text is written in a way that can support adding contemporary ideas. For example, grit and growth mindset are getting a good deal of attention among educational psychologists, psychologists, administrators, and policy makers. These notions can easily be integrated in the chapter on motivation. These notions are also problematic. I would suggest integrating not just explanations of these ideas but their philosophical and ideological complexities. As another example, researchers have recently debunked the learning styles framework. I think it is worth talking about "learning styles" but offer different perspectives related to this way of reading and naming students. I am not suggesting that authors shape their texts in response to every educational fad that emerges, but I think authors should try to capture as best they could the critical nuances with the ideas they present to teachers. One of the major shortcomings of this book is the contemporary relevance but I rated this high because the structure of the book lends itself well to integrating new content.

The text is clear and lucid. All terminology is explained well.

The book is consistent. And although consistency is generally a positive quality of a book, I would like to see competing and contradictory text. For example, developmental frameworks can be useful for teaching but they can also be implicated in a number of problematic student evaluations and educational interventions. It is useful and valuable to capture the inconsistencies with thinking about learning, development, and teaching. With that said, the authors are consistent within their frame of reference. They present educational psychology ideas that are intended to improve teaching and learning.

The authors do a fine job at partitioning the text and labeling sections with appropriate headings. Although topics and concepts across chapters are related, each chapter can stand on its own and does not have to be assigned in chronological order. The text is not overly self-referential. In fact, I argue that it lacks self-reference. There are many ideas that need to be considered together and hyperlinks can help students make those connections. For example, the chapter on complex thinking should be considered in the context of development. I would like to see links between chapters.

This book conforms to the general organization of educational psychology texts. Early in the book the authors introduce readers to theories of learning and then move into development. Following are two chapters on learner differences. One is related to cognitive differences such as learning styles and intelligence. The other is related to special learning needs. The middle chapters center on big topic, including classroom management, motivation, and complex thinking. Like many other books, the last chapters are dedicated to application by focusing explicitly on pedagogy and assessment. Although chapters are dedicated to pedagogy toward the end of the book, the authors integrate suggestions throughout for applying ideas to the classroom. The organization and flow makes sense. I might consider, however, having the "complex thinking" chapter follow learning and development. The book is organized and written in such a way to support assignment chapters out of the listed order. I think that is more important than having the book chapters conform to how I might organize topic. Instructors will likely have different ideas about topic organization and this book allows for that possibility.

The images, charts, and tables are clear. There was nothing that distracted me as a reader. I did experience any problems with navigation. One very minor interface issue was that the tables were a little drab. Reviewing the tables felt like I was reviewing a quickly constructed table on a Word file. Perhaps shading title boxes or different rows or columns, for example, might make for targeted attention and aesthetic pleasure.

I did not find any grammatical errors in this book.

I do not believe the authors say anything explicitly offensive or insensitive. There are some examples and discussion of cultural groups and variation. Some educational psychology textbooks have a chapter dedicated to cultural differences in learning and development. This book does not have such a chapter, but rather has evidence of cultural relevance sprinkled modestly throughout. The issue of culture has not quite been handled well in general within educational psychology texts. This limitation is characteristic of the field in general and not specific to the text.

I would like to see some hyperlinks in the text. There are many ideas that are related to each other but are in different chapters. If hyperlinks are not possible to refer students to other chapters, perhaps not just refer students to outside sources at the end of the chapter, but also point them to different chapters within the book.

This textbook is a solid educational psychology book. Aside from missing discussion of some contemporary ideas, concepts, and critical perspectives, the authors provide a good overview of the field. I recommend using this book for a course but supplementing some of the material. I suggest certainly bringing in readings on grit, growth mindset, self-regulated learning, and embodied cognition. I also suggest bringing in text about critical educational psychology, which can support the reflections on the ways ideology, history, culture, and politics operate in and through educational psychology.

Reviewed by Cecelia Monto, Dean, Education and Humanities, and Adjunct Instructor in Education, Chemeketa Community College on 4/11/17

This book provides an overall comprehensive look at educational psychology, but I think it could be updated. If I use this text, I would supplement this text with current sources on: • Educational neuroscience • Poverty and the brain (use Eric... read more

This book provides an overall comprehensive look at educational psychology, but I think it could be updated. If I use this text, I would supplement this text with current sources on: • Educational neuroscience • Poverty and the brain (use Eric Jensen and other sources) • The need for greater diversity in the teaching force (use Linda Darling-Hammond and others) • Bilingualism in the U.S. • The concept of grit (use Duckworth), and for U.S. use I would fold in current legislation and historical pieces. • Communication during conflict Each chapter begins with an inviting story on the opening pages, and then moves on to the core topic. The stories seem a little simplistic, but they do provide a welcoming beginning to each chapter. Some of the openers (such as journals kept by author Kelvin Seifert) would not relate well to U.S. students. I would have liked a “social justice perspective” woven into the book. This could be related to students as they imagine their future teaching role, and the contribution they will make to kids, and to greater society. In the U.S., education has a solid link to democracy, and the historical foundation is powerful to students. Arne Duncans’ quote could be used to lead this idea. ““I believe that education is the civil rights issue of our generation. And if you care about promoting opportunity and reducing inequality, the classroom is the place to start. Great teaching is about so much more than education; it is a daily fight for social justice.” There are no photos or eye-catching items in the text. The authors comment that this is for cost reduction purposes, however, since the text is offered digitally it could add a needed dimension to the text.

Chapters 1, 2 and 3 The first chapter would be a good place to lay the ground work for education as a vehicle for social justice. The “trends in teaching” paragraphs should be updated. I actually thought the first chapter was a little short. There was good coverage of the learning process, although I would add information about learning and the brain. and the major learning theories (behaviorism, Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner), as related to educational psychology and the implications to teaching. The Student development chapter was appropriate for a course on educational psychology, but may present too much information for more introductory courses. I would have liked a more straight forward piece written about stages of development, with a clear outline of physical, cognitive, social and character development, and I would have included a clear graph of Piaget’s model for cognitive development with this section. They do cover this, but the writing is less clear for me in this section. Same on Maslow- I would have liked a simpler hierarchy of needs chart. Erik Erkison’s psychosocial development section is good. The outline for Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning, and linkage to ethical thinking and justice was good, with Gilligan’s framework included. For US use, I would add in examples from US schools and even court cases to exemplify points.

Chapters 4, 5 and 6 The student diversity section was not comprehensive. The content on learning styles, and multiple intelligences was fine. There was some information on Talented and Gifted, but it was not linked to learning disabilities. I would have folded in Chapter 5 into Chapter 4, instead of making it a separate chapter on Students with Special Educational Needs. The separate chapter on Students with Special Educational Needs offered pretty good detail for an overview class. The ADHD section was good. I would recommend more content on dyslexia. The segment addressing behavioral issues could be linked to societal and SES issues. I appreciated the inclusion of hearing loss and vision impairment, because I have not seen that in many texts. I would have introduced the concept of differentiated learning in this section, and then revisited it in the later section. The Gender roles section of chapter 4 is incomplete and dated, more information is needed on different sexual orientations. I would have liked to see deeper content related to the bilingual and second language learners. The initial chapter mentions language diversity, but too briefly. There is no mention of the need of greater diversity in the teaching force itself. Authors could use research from Linda Darling-Hammond to write about this topic. In Chapter 4, the Student Diversity section., there is discussion of bilingualism, but seemed too clinical. I would have liked discussion of why language learners need models ….. and more coverage of English language learners in relation to motivation would have been helpful. The part on cultural identity development was good. This could be addressed by adding journal articles on this topic into supplementary coursework. Content related to low SES and the role poverty plays in the psychological profile of students is missing. The Student Motivation chapter would be appealing to students. I think this could be inserted into any time frame of the class. Perhaps this information would have been better if directly linked to the learning theory section, ie Skinner’s behaviorism, or to the Student Motivation Chapter. I would have liked to see more about making learning relevant and placed in the real world context in this chapter. Motivation linked to self-efficacy was good, but the self-determination section seemed a little esoteric and I don’t think would resonate with U.S. students. This might be a good chapter to include a piece about “grit” (by Duckworth) and learning.

Chapter 7 and 8 I would re-title this section, to use words such a Creating a Positive and Productive Learning Environment, and fold in the student motivation section and the classroom communication section. This chapter could be shorter, and written in a way that made inquiry with the reader to make it more relevant. That would leave more room to fold in the other chapters. The segment on focusing on future solutions rather than past mistakes is excellent. I would have liked to see the use of the word pedagogy in this section. I would remove the section on “functions of talk”, and reduce down the section on nonverbal communication. That would leave more room for additional information about communication and conflict and also cross cultural communication, which are areas where students need help. I would also shorten the section on classroom communication, and build in more inquiry for student readers in this section. Chapter 9, 10, 11 and 12 Facilitation Complex Thinking and Planning instruction and Assessment could be combined. I would like to see the concepts of diagnostic, formative and summative assessment included, and then linked to current examples. This would align with the concepts of student-centered and teacher-centered learning, with discussion on the methodology such as inquiry based learning, cooperative/collaborative learning. Setting learning goals and “backward design” could be added to the curriculum section. The section outlining Bloom’s Taxonomy with examples and revisions is excellent. I am glad you included Marzano. I would revisit the concept of differentiated instruction with the information presented on response to intervention. I would move the multicultural education and anti-bias education section out of this chapter, and in to the earlier section on student diversity. Information on alternative approaches to learning, like online learning and service learning is good. The assessment section was thoughtfully written, and would challenge students to consider how they are making assessment decisions. Getting students to consider the validity and reliability of assessment is critical, and revisiting the concept of bias as related to assessment is important. I would reduce the content related to teacher made assessments, and perhaps have the students evaluate existing assessments

Overall, information was accurate. Some sections that are dated presented slightly inaccurate information. For example, the authors give data about the Hispanic population in the U.S. from 2005, which was 14%. This should be adjusted to 18%, and notice of the growth of this segment should be noted to represent the true picture. The U.S. National Center for Educational Statistics notes about 25% of students in public school are Hispanic (and even that information is 3 years old). The licensing chapter is also dated and therefore inaccurate. The sections on “deciding for yourself”, which explained the research procedures used and gave more content information, were a great vehicle to encourage students to consider the complexities of research, and demonstrate their ability to evaluate and critically consider complicated topics, thus improving the accuracy of their own thinking.

The authors bring a unique perspective to educational psychology because they are from outside the U.S. I appreciate their candor in acknowledging that most major textbooks in this area cover similar content, but are quite expensive when printed and published via conventional manner. However, there are some content issues that jeopardize the relevance and longevity of the book. I would like to see the concept of educational neuroscience addressed in the early sections on cognitive development. The Student Development Chapter 3 would need to be re-worked for greater relevance for U.S. use. I would have liked to see development issues tied to social factors. The authors did some of this when they discussed health issues, but for the most part social links are missing. To improve relevance, I would like to see information on how poverty affects the brain and learning. I would also like to see a section devoted to the importance of having a diverse teaching workforce. The section on technology use in schools is quite dated and unrealistic. Discussion of single-computer classrooms is outdated. Although they must exist, I have never observed such a classroom in at least 10 years. There needs to be more emphasis on using technology in a myriad of ways, from harnessing the power of smart phones, tablets, and internet resource gathering was not fully covered. Chapter 10 references online learning, but it could have been made more relevant by explaining this book as an example. The final section on licensing requirements was outdated. Our state no longer uses PRAXIS. Perhaps because licensing is done on a state-by-state basis, this section should encourage instructors to use their own state resources in this area. Other topics that would improve relevance would be the topic “grit”, and the development of communication skills that address conflict. The citations seem dated, not much past 2006. The publication date is 2011. Relevant current publications and issues should be brought in.

Due to the consistent writing style and predictable format, the book was clear and easy to follow. Additional charts or graphs could reinforce points made in the book, and thus might improve clarity for visual learners. Chapter summaries clearly reinforce main points for students to grasp. Lists of key points and terminology also added clarity, such as the listing at the end of Chapter 3.

Overall consistency was good. Writing style was straightforward and standardized throughout the text, which made reading easier. The links to additional articles were consistently presented, and therefore would be easy to reference.

The text is designed in a modular framework, and authors note that chapters can be taught in any order. Some of the repetition crosses over modules, which helps with clarity.

The text flowed in a logical manner, and as a reader I would recommend teaching from it from the structure already presented. In terms of organization, I would move the Action Research table to a different section, not right up front. The first three chapters fit together nicely as a unit. In this early section, I would also like to see more on changes in the brain that occur from learning new information. Chapters 4 and 5 meshed well. As I already noted, I suggest linking the learning section with the motivation section .I would organize the material in Chapter 6 to fold into the later Chapters 7 or 8. The final chapters regarding instructional planning, assessment and facilitation of complex thinking could be reorganized. Each chapter finished with a summary, which could help students organize their thinking. I would change the layout of the summary into bullet points, to make it more readable. Key vocabulary was also highlighted, so that students could focus on the language specifics of the education field.

The online resources, with examples of assignments, are beneficial. Simple assignments, such as creating a chart summarizing human development, would be easy for students to follow and reinforce their reading. There was a large array of resources and articles, which would allow instructors to supplement and make the chapters more relevant. I would like to see more reflection pieces, like journals on certain topics. The autobiography assignments were too vague. The assignment on “true confessions” from students regarding moral development would be too risky in a community college setting. I would also like to see some video pieces attached as additional resources. In the communication section towards the end of the book, it would have been great to observe examples of communication styles in the classroom, or include interviews with teachers. Video clips demonstrating children in varying stages of development would also be useful. I know it’s always easier to ask for more resources than to provide them. But these additional elements would provide variety to the course.

The grammar was correct and accurate.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

Greater relevance could be achieved by updating resources used and broadening topics to include current issues in the United States. Some opening stories did not mesh well with current student experience. For example, the Chapter 4 opening story would not be relate-able to the students in my class. As noted earlier, more emphasis on the importance of a bicultural and bilingual teaching workforce was not mentioned, and this perspective is critical. Lead in stories could provide a venue for greater cultural perspectives on teaching and student experience, and is needed. The text also lacks mention of social justice issues as they relate to teaching, which is an important point in proving cultural relevancy. Reflective assignments and inquiry based writing could be added to challenge students to broaden their thinking and relate content to their own circumstances.

Many sections of the text are solid, and I would like to use content for an online book that I will create for our Foundations of Education course. I read this text through the lens of that course need, and I was looking for some elements that are understandably not covered in this text. The current text I am using incorporates a lot of student reflection, and I think including that aspect into this text would make it more engaging. I also noted that the lack of content related to social justice and the teaching field is a concern.

Reviewed by Maite Correa, Associate Professor, Colorado State University on 12/5/16

This textbook is very comprehensive. Any prospective or current teacher could use it as an introduction or a refresher (respectively). The topics covered are ample and the references and additional readings provided at the end of each chapter help... read more

This textbook is very comprehensive. Any prospective or current teacher could use it as an introduction or a refresher (respectively). The topics covered are ample and the references and additional readings provided at the end of each chapter help the reader expand on the topic if needed. The text provides an effective index at the beginning and a glossary for each unit.

Content is accurate. Drawing from different pedagogical approaches, the authors manage to create a balance that helps the reader make their own choices.

Content is relatively up-to-date. Although chapter 12 might become obsolete depending on state requirements for standardized tests, overall, the text can stand the test of time (taking into account that pedagogy is an area that changes rapidly).

The text is accessible for any reader. All jargon or terminology is explained. It is suitable for teacher candidates, for teachers who want a refresher and for anyone interested in pedagogy.

The text is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework. Chapters flow into each other very well, although they could be used separately (see modularity below).

The text could be used as a whole textbook divided by units (the order seems appropriate for an "Intro to Pedagogy" course), but it could also be divided into smaller reading sections that can be assigned at different points within the course. It could also be used as a companion to any other handbook that is discipline-specific (Math, Language Arts, World Languages, etc.). Case studies at the end make it very easy to assign them at any point.

The topics in the text follow a logical fashion. From the introduction (learning process and student development) until the end (assessment and standardized tests), the text increases in specificity/complexity. The case studies in the appendices are very conveniently located at the end for easy access in case the chapters are assigned in isolation.

Although the indentation in the tables could be improved and some images could be formatted to be more visually appealing, the interface in general is appropriate.

The text contains no grammatical errors.

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. On the contrary, it follows pedagogies that are inclusive of a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds.

This is a great textbook that can be used in any education course at both undergraduate and graduate levels. It can be complemented with research articles in each discipline if needed, but it can be perfectly used on its own.

Reviewed by Kelly Lynch, Teacher - Elementary Education, University of Oklahoma on 1/12/15

Text covers all aspects of what a teacher would encounter throughout the year in a classroom. Very comprehensive. read more

Text covers all aspects of what a teacher would encounter throughout the year in a classroom. Very comprehensive.

To my knowledge and experience, this text is very accurate on all fronts. It is up-to-date when it addresses standardized testing, management challenges, and student diversity.

The content in this text will need to be updated at times to keep in step with changes in standardized testing. Other than that particular section, I don't believe there will be signifigant updating needed regularly.

Text is easy to read, comprehend, and offers varied examples to address multiple ages of children and adults.

Consistency is not an issue. Text is in step with current terminology.

Text is clearly divided into smaller sections. Very easy to assign.

Text is well organized and easy to follow. Topics are clear and easily defined.

Text is very clear and easy to read. Information is easy to interpret.

No signifigant grammatical errors.

Text is culturally diverse.

Reviewed by Selma Koç, Associate Professor, Cleveland State University on 1/12/15

"Educational Psychology” by Seifert and Sutton covers a wide variety of topics providing examples from everyday classroom situations. The authors need to be commended for a book that can lay a strong foundation in the area for prospective... read more

"Educational Psychology” by Seifert and Sutton covers a wide variety of topics providing examples from everyday classroom situations. The authors need to be commended for a book that can lay a strong foundation in the area for prospective teachers. The structure of the book, the contents, the easy-to-read approach, how the authors make connections relevant to theory and practice and among the topics will be of value to the educational psychology courses. The language of the book makes it clear for the prospective teachers develop an understanding of how major theories of learning and models can be relevant and useful in teaching and learning. The inclusion of the chapters on the nature of classroom communication, facilitating complex thinking, teacher-made assessment strategies and examples provided as well as the appendices with respect to preparing students for licensure, research and the reflective practitioner complement the book compared to the other outlets in the area. For example, in the appendix titled "deciding for yourself about the research," the readers are provided with examples of several research problems, how they were conducted and their implications that reflect many of the themes of the book chapters.

The content seems to be accurate, error-free and unbiased.

The book starts with a chapter about the changing teaching profession: new trends in education such as diversity in students, use of technology to support learning, accountability in education, increased professionalism of teachers. Updates can easily be made if necessary if new trends or influences in education were to occur.

The book is written in a clear and easy-to-understand style that is adequate for those who are novice to educational psychology. The language of the text makes it appealing for exploring the book content further. Although the book is written by two authors, it's hard to detect the difference between the authors' writing.

The book is consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

The table of contents is well organized and easily divisible into reading sections that can be assigned at different points within the course. The authors do a great job providing headings and subheadings to avoid reader fatigue or overload that contibute to the the reading of the content more appealing.

The topics are presented in a manner that is suitable for an educational psychology course that flows with the course content and activities.

The text does not have any interface or navigation issues when read on-screen or in print.

I have not noticed any grammar mistakes or issues with the writing mechanics that will disrupt the meaning of the text.

The book makes use of diversity and cultural relevance as it provides numerous examples from everyday classroom situations as well as the research it discusses.

This is a book that can rivet the attention of teacher candidates because of its easy-to-understand style. I commend the authors for a book that clearly communicates the purpose of studying educational psychology and how it relates to teaching and learning.

Table of Contents

• 1. The changing teaching profession and you
• 2. The learning process
• 3. Student development
• 4. Student diversity
• 5. Students with special educational needs
• 6. Student motivation
• 7. Classroom management and the learning environment
• 8. The nature of classroom communication
• 9. Facilitating complex thinking
• 10. Planning instruction
• 11. Teacher-made assessment strategies
• 12. Standardized and other formal assessments

Ancillary Material

• University of Manitoba

About the Book

Chapters in the text can be assigned either from beginning to end, as with a conventional printed book, or they can be selected in some other sequence to meet the needs of particular students or classes. In general the first half of the book focuses on broader questions and principles taken from psychology per se, and the second half focuses on somewhat more practical issues of teaching. But the division between “theory” and “practice” is only approximate; all parts of the book draw on research, theory, and practical wisdom wherever appropriate. Chapter 2 is about learning theory, and Chapter 3 is about development; but as we point out, these topics overlap with each other as well as with the concerns of daily teaching. Chapter 4 is about several forms of student diversity (what might be called individual differences in another context), and Chapter 5 is about one form of diversity that has become prominent in schools recently—students with disabilities. Chapter 6 is about motivation, a topic that is heavily studied by psychological researchers, but that also poses perennial challenges to classroom teachers.

Following these somewhat more basic psychological chapters, we turn to several lasting challenges of classroom life—challenges that seem to be an intrinsic part of the job. Chapter 7 offers ideas about classroom management; Chapter 8, ideas about communicating with students; Chapter 9, about ways to assist students' complex forms of thinking; and Chapter 10, about planning instruction systematically. The book closes with two chapters about assessment of learning: Chapter 11 focuses on teachers' own efforts to assess students, and Chapter 12 focuses on standardized measures of assessment.

We have organized material and features in ways that we hope will allow for a variety of students, instructors, and institutions to use the book. For instructors and courses that seek a strong focus on research and the research process, for example, we have included an extra “chapter” on research methods—Appendix C, “The Reflective Practitioner”—that discusses the nature of research and the research process. We have also included a set of research-related case studies in Appendix B, “Deciding for yourself about the research”, that describe a number of particular educational research programs or topics in detail and that invite students to reflect on the quality and implications of the research.

Whether or not a strong focus on research is a priority in your particular course, there are additional features of the book that are intended to help students in learning about educational psychology. In particular, each chapter ends with a “Chapter summary”, a list of “Key terms”, and links to Internet sites (called “Further resources”) relevant to the themes of the chapter. One of the sites that is cited frequently and that may be particularly helpful to instructors is the teachingedpsych wiki (http://teachingedpsych.wikispaces.com/), an archive of hundreds of teaching and learning materials that supports the teaching of introductory educational psychology. Teachingedpsych is a project of the Special Interest Group on the Teaching of Educational Psychology (TEP SIG), affiliated with the American Educational Research Association.

All in all, we hope that you find Educational Psychology a useful and accessible part of your education. If you are preparing to be a teacher, good luck with your studies and your future! If you are an instructor, good luck with helping your students learn about this subject!

About the Contributors

Kelvin Seifert is professor of educational psychology at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. He earned a BA from Swarthmore College in 1967 and a Ph.D. from the University of Michigan in 1973, in a combined program from the School of Education and the Department of Psychology. His research interests include the personal identity development of teachers, the impact of peers in 0pre-service teacher education, and the development of effective strategies of blended learning. He is the author of four university textbooks (with Houghton Mifflin, in traditional print format) about educational psychology, child and adolescent development, and lifespan human development. He is also the editor of the online Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy. Recent publications include “Student cohorts: Support groups or intellectual communities?” (Teachers College Record) and “Learning about peers: A missed opportunity for educational psychology” (The Clearinghouse). His professional service includes serving as chair of the Department of Educational Administration, Foundations, and Psychology at the University of Manitoba, and serving as president of the American Educational Research Association Special Interest Group on Teaching Educational Psychology. During his career of 35 years, he has taught introductory educational psychology over 75 times.

Rosemary Sutton attended graduate school and earned her MS in Educational Psychology from the University of Illinois and her Ph.D. from Pennsylvania State University in Human Development. She joined the Cleveland State University faculty in Cleveland, Ohio in 1983 and since that time has taught pre-service and in service undergraduates and graduate students educational psychology and educational technology. She has received several University awards for her teaching and has conducted numerous workshops for teachers in North East Ohio.

Dr Sutton has published a variety research articles on teacher development as well as equity issues in mathematics, technology, and assessment. Her recent research interests have focused in two areas: teaching educational psychology and teachers' emotions. Recent publications can be found in Social Psychology of Education, Educational Psychology Review, Journal of Teacher Education, and an edited volume, Emotions and Education.

Since 2004, Dr Sutton has been working as an Administrator, first as the Director of Assessment for the University. This position involved coordinating the student learning assessment for all graduate, undergraduate, and student support programs. In August 2007, Dr Sutton was appointed Vice Provost for Undergraduate Studies and is now responsible for overseeing offices and functions from academic and student service areas in order to create a campus culture that coordinates student services with the academic mission of the University.

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School suspensions and exclusions put vulnerable children at risk

Managing problematic student behaviour is one of the most persistent, challenging, and controversial issues facing schools today. Yet despite best intentions to build a more inclusive and punitive-free education system, school suspensions and expulsions remain.

Now, new research from the University of South Australia shows that exclusionary practices not only fail to identify the deep-rooted causes of challenging student behaviours but exacerbate negative issues rather than resolve them.

Lead researcher, UniSA's Professor Anna Sullivan, says schools face difficult decisions around suspensions and expulsions.

"Suspensions and expulsions have been the mainstay of schools' behaviour management practices for decades, regardless of research finding that they are ineffective for disciplining bad behaviours," Prof Sullivan says.

"In fact, there is a clear relationship between school suspensions and a range of detrimental health outcomes, including alienation from school, involvement with antisocial peers, use of alcohol and smoking, and a lower quality of school life -- and this contributes to a higher risk of dropping out of school and possible illegal behaviour.

"What makes things worse is that vulnerable students have a higher risk of being suspended or expelled, which in many cases exacerbates their circumstances and life chances.

"Boys, Aboriginal students, students from low SES backgrounds, and students with a disability are disproportionately excluded from schools.

"There is a distinct blind spot about how school suspensions and expulsions perpetuate wider social inequalities.

"Schools and policy makers must look beyond challenging behaviours to understand what is contributing to the cause -- rather than treating the effect -- and it's this missing information that's needed to develop new school policies."

Analysing the recently reviewed NSW Student Behaviour Strategy, researchers found that while there was more behaviour support and management, the new iterations still included punitive practices.

"When a student is suspended or expelled from school, we're ultimately removing them from their education and limiting their life outcomes. And knowing that vulnerable groups are more at risk, these exclusion policies are ultimately discriminatory," Prof Sullivan says.

"We also see situations where children with disabilities -- some on prescribed medications -- are being excluded from school on the basis that 'they have problems already'. As a consequence, exclusion appears to be a reasonable solution given schools do not have the time, expertise or resources to manage complex and challenging behavioural needs.

"Adding to such deficit thinking is removing a 'problem child' from the learning environment of others. Instead of helping these students, the policies are exacerbating their struggles.

"What we need is more listening, more empathy to students at risk, and a willingness to challenge the impact of wider social inequalities including poverty, race, housing, and unemployment on the most vulnerable people in society. These things do not operate in isolation; they affect families and children and cannot simply be left at the school gate.

"It's time to look afresh at the complex and challenging circumstances in which many young people find themselves. Only then can we hope to create a more inclusive and fair education system."

Notes to editors:

• Published paper: Down, B., Sullivan, A., Tippett, N., Johnson, B., Manolev, J., & Robinson, J., (2024). What is missing in policy discourses about school exclusions?, Critical Studies in Education , DOI: 10.1080/17508487.2024.2312878

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Media contact: Annabel Mansfield M: + 61 479 182 489 E: @unisa.edu.au" title="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]

Researcher : Prof Anna Sullivan E: @unisa.edu.au" title="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]

• Educational Psychology
• K-12 Education
• Child Psychology
• Educational Policy
• Poverty and Learning
• STEM Education
• Education and Employment
• Sex education
• Intellectual giftedness
• Social movement
• Early childhood education
• Visual system
• Schizophrenia

Story Source:

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What Is Educational Psychology? 6 Examples and Theories

Plato believed that learning is based on the mind’s innate capacity to receive information and judge its intellectual and moral value.

Plato’s foremost pupil, Aristotle, emphasized how learning involves building associations such as succession in time, contiguity in space, and similarities and/or contrasts.

Later thinkers would devote considerable attention to learning and memory processes, various teaching methods, and how learning can be optimized.

Together, these thinkers have formed the growing and diverse body of theory and practice of educational psychology, and this intriguing topic is what we will discuss below.

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This Article Contains:

What is educational psychology and why is it important, a brief history of the field, job description and roles of an educational psychologist, 3 real-life examples, 3 popular theories, educational psychology research topics, educational psychology vs school psychology, a look into vygotsky’s ideas, positivepsychology.com’s relevant resources, a take-home message.

Educational psychology is dedicated to the study and improvement of human learning, across the lifespan, in whatever setting it occurs.

Such settings include not only schools, but also workplaces, organized sports, government agencies, and retirement communities – anywhere humans are engaged in instruction and learning of some type.

Educational psychology is important because of its focus on understanding and improving the crucial human capacity to learn.

In this mission of enhancing learning, educational psychologists seek to assist students and teachers alike.

However, it was not until later in history that educational psychology emerged as a field in its own right, distinct from philosophy.

John Locke (1632–1704), the influential British philosopher and “father of psychology,” famously described the human mind as a tabula rasa  (blank slate) that had no innate or inborn knowledge, but could only learn through the accumulation of experiences.

Johann Herbart (1776–1841) is considered the founder of educational psychology as a distinct field. He emphasized interest in a subject as a crucial component of learning.

He also proposed five formal steps of learning:

• Reviewing what is already known
• Previewing new material to be learned
• Presenting new material
• Relating new material to what is already known
• Showing how new knowledge can be usefully applied

Maria Montessori (1870–1952) was an Italian physician and educator who started by teaching disabled and underprivileged children. She then founded a network of schools that taught children of all backgrounds using a hands-on, multi-sensory, and often student-directed approach to learning.

Nathaniel Gage (1917–2008) was an influential educational psychologist who pioneered research on teaching. He served in the U.S. Army during WWII, where he developed aptitude tests for selecting airplane navigators and radar operators.

Gage went on to develop a research program that did much to advance the scientific study of teaching.

He believed that progress in learning highly depends on effective teaching and that a robust theory of effective teaching has to cover:

• The process of teaching
• Content to be taught
• Student abilities and motivation level
• Classroom management

The above is only a sample of the influential thinkers who have contributed over time to the field of educational psychology.

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Educational psychologists have typically earned either a master’s degree or doctorate in the field.

They work in a variety of teaching, research, and applied settings (e.g., K–12, universities, the military, and educational industries like textbook and test developers).

Those with a doctorate often teach and do research at colleges or universities.

They teach basic courses such as Introduction to Educational Psychology  and more advanced seminars such as Professional Ethics in Educational Psychology , or Research Methods in Educational Psychology .

They conduct research on topics such as the best measure of literacy skills for students in secondary education, the most effective method for teaching early career professionals in engineering, and the relationship between education level and emotional health in retirees.

Educational psychologists also work in various applied roles, such as consulting on curriculum design; evaluating educational programs at schools or training sites; and offering teachers the best instructional methods for a subject area, grade level, or population, be it mainstream students, those with disabilities, or gifted students.

This theory states that besides the traditionally measured verbal and visual–spatial forms of intelligence, there are also forms that include kinesthetic or athletic intelligence, interpersonal or social–emotional intelligence, musical or artistic intelligence, and perhaps other forms we have not yet learned to measure.

Dr. Gardner teaches, conducts research, and publishes. His many books include Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983) and The Disciplined Mind: Beyond Facts and Standardized Tests, the Education That Every Child Deserves  (2000).

Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983), shown above, was the first African-American woman to receive a doctorate in psychology from Columbia University. She and her husband Kenneth Clark (1914–2005) were interested in development and self-esteem in African-American children.

Her doctoral work illustrated the dehumanizing effect of segregated schools on both African-American and white children, in the well-known “doll study” (Clark & Clark, 1939). She found that both African-American children and white children imputed more positive characteristics to white dolls than to Black dolls.

This work was used as evidence in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the unanimous U.S. Supreme Court ruling that decided that schools separated by race were not equal and must be desegregated.

She and her husband founded several institutions dedicated to providing counseling and educational services for underprivileged African-American children, including the Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited project.

Irene Marie Montero Gil earned her master’s degree from the Department of Evolutionary and Educational Psychology at the Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain.

Ms. Montero Gil had been balancing subsequent doctoral studies with her role as the youngest member of Spain’s Congress of Deputies, representing Madrid. She later postponed her studies to become Spain’s Minister of Equality, an office that advocates for equal opportunity regardless of age, gender, or disability.

The above examples show just some contributions that educational psychologists can make in research, teaching, legal, and advocacy contexts.

Day in the life of an educational psychologist w/ Dr. Sarah Chestnut

Various theories have been developed to account for how humans learn. Some of the most enduring and representative modern-day theories are discussed below.

1. Behaviorism

Behaviorism equates learning with observable changes in activity (Skinner, 1938). For example, an assembly line worker might have “learned” to assemble a toy from parts, and after 10 practice sessions, the worker can do so without errors within 60 seconds.

In behaviorism, there is a focus on stimuli or prompts to action (your supervisor hands you a box of toy parts), followed by a behavior (you assemble the toy), followed by reinforcement or lack thereof (you receive a raise for the fastest toy assembly).

Behaviorism holds that the behavioral responses that are positively reinforced are more likely to recur in the future.

We should note that behaviorists believe in a pre-set, external reality that is progressively discovered by learning.

Some scholars have also held that from a behaviorist perspective, learners are more reactive to environmental stimuli than active or proactive in the learning process (Ertmer & Newby, 2013).

However, one of the most robust developments in the later behaviorist tradition is that of positive behavioral intervention and supports (PBIS), in which proactive techniques play a prominent role in enhancing learning within schools.

Such proactive behavioral supports include maximizing structure in classrooms, teaching clear behavioral expectations in advance, regularly using prompts with students, and actively supervising students (Simonsen & Myers, 2015).

Over 2,500 schools across the United States now apply the PBIS supportive behavioral framework, with documented improvements in both student behavior (Bradshaw, Waasdorp, & Leaf, 2012) and achievement (Madigan, Cross, Smolkowski, & Stryker, 2016).

2. Cognitivism

Cognitivism was partly inspired by the development of computers and an information-processing model believed to be applicable to human learning (Neisser, 1967).

It also developed partly as a reaction to the perceived limits of the behaviorist model of learning, which was thought not to account for mental processes.

In cognitivism, learning occurs when information is received, arranged, held in memory, and retrieved for use.

Cognitivists are keenly interested in a neuronal or a brain-to-behavior perspective on learning and memory. Their lines of research often include studies involving functional brain imaging (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging) to see which brain circuits are activated during specific learning tasks.

Cognitivists are also keenly interested in “neuroplasticity,” or how learning causes new connections to be made between individual brain cells (neurons) and their broader neuronal networks.

From the cognitivist perspective, individuals are viewed as very active in the learning process, including how they organize information to make it personally meaningful and memorable.

Cognitivists, like behaviorists, believe that learning reflects an external reality, rather than shaping or constructing reality.

3. Constructivism

Constructivism holds that from childhood on, humans learn in successive stages (Piaget, 1955).

In these stages, we match our basic concepts, or “schemas,” of reality with experiences in the world and adjust our schemas accordingly.

For example, based on certain experiences as a child, you might form the schematic concept that all objects drop when you let them go. But let’s say you get a helium balloon that rises when you let go of it. You must then adjust your schema to capture this new reality that “most things drop when I let go of them, but at least one thing rises when I let go of it.”

For constructivists, there is always a subjective component to how reality is organized. From this perspective, learning cannot be said to reflect a pre-set external reality. Rather, reality is always an interplay between one’s active construction of the world and the world itself.

For example, Zysberg and Schwabsky (2020) examined the relationships between positive school culture or climate, students’ sense of self-efficacy, and academic achievement in Israeli middle and high school settings.

They found that school climate was positively associated with students’ sense of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, in turn, was positively associated with academic achievement in math and English.

This study reflects a constructivist approach, emphasizing how students create meaning out of their educational experiences.

Other recent research has focused on behavioral interventions to support online learning, which is increasingly prevalent as an educational option.

For example, Yeomans and Reich (2017) found that sending learners regular prompts to complete online work resulted in a 29% increase in courses completed. They concluded that sending regular reminder prompts is an inexpensive and effective way to enhance online course completion.

This study reflects a proactive behaviorist approach to improving educational outcomes.

Another current research domain in educational psychology involves the use of brain imaging techniques during learning activity.

For example, Takeuchi, Mori, Suzukamo, and Izumi (2019) studied brain activity in teachers and students while teachers provided hints for solving a visual–spatial problem (assembling puzzles).

They found that the prefrontal cortex of the brain, involved in planning and monitoring of complex cognitive activities, was significantly activated in teachers, not when they planned hints to be given, but only when they actually gave the hints.

For the student participants, the prefrontal cortex was significantly activated when they had solved the puzzle with hints provided.

This study emphasizes a cognitivist approach, focused on brain activity during learning.

For cognitivists, understanding how the brain converts instructional inputs into learning can lead to improved teaching strategies and better learning outcomes.

Educational and school psychologists overlap in their training and functions, to some extent, but also differ in important ways.

Educational psychologists are more involved in teaching and research at the college or university level. They also focus on larger and more diverse groups in their research and consulting activities.

As consultants, educational psychologists work with organizations such as school districts, militaries, or corporations in developing the best methods for instructional needs.

Some school psychologists are involved in teaching, research, and/or consulting with large groups such as a school district. However, most are more focused on working within a particular school and with individual students and their families.

About 80% of school psychologists work in public school settings and do direct interventions with individuals or small groups.

They help with testing and supporting students with special needs, helping teachers develop classroom management strategies, and engaging in individual or group counseling, which can include crisis counseling and emotional–behavioral support.

One idea central to Vygotsky’s learning theory is that of the zone of proximal development (ZPD).

The ZPD is the area between what a learner (student, adult trainee, rehabilitation patient, etc.) can already do on their own and what the learner can readily accomplish with the help of teachers or more advanced peers.

For example, a five-year-old might already know how to perform a given three-step manual task, but can they be taught to complete a four- or five-step task?

The ZPD is a zone of emerging skills, which calls for its own kind of exploration and measurement, in order to better understand a learner’s potential (Moll, 2014).

Vygotsky was also interested in the relationship between thought and language. He theorized that much of thought comprised internalized language or “inner speech.” Like Piaget, whose work he read with interest, Vygotsky came to see language as having social origins, which would then become internalized as inner speech.

In that sense, Vygotsky is often considered a (social) constructivist, where learning depends on social communication and norms. Learning thus reflects our connection to and agreement with others, more than a connection with a purely external or objective reality.

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As mentioned in the discussion of Nathaniel Gage’s theory of effective teaching, student motivation is an important component to assess and encourage.

The Who Am I Self-Reflection can help students and their teachers think about what they are good at, what significant challenges they have been confronted with, and what inspires them. This knowledge can help both teachers and students find ways to enhance motivation in specific cases.

As noted above, the cognitivist approach to educational psychology includes understanding how the brain learns by forming new connections between neurons. The Adopt A Growth Mindset activity is a simple guide to replacing fixed mindset thinking with growth statements. It can inspire adults to learn by referencing their inherent neuroplasticity.

The idea is that with enough effort and repetition, we can form new and durable connections within our brains of a positive and adaptive nature.

For parents and teachers, we recommend Dr. Gabriella Lancia’s article on Healthy Discipline Strategies for Teaching & Inspiring Children . This article offers basic and effective strategies and worksheets for creating a positive behavioral climate at home and school that is pro-social and pro-learning.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others enhance their wellbeing, this signature collection contains 17 validated positive psychology tools for practitioners. Use them to help others flourish and thrive.

The field of educational psychology has ancient roots and remains vibrant today.

Today, there are many programs across the world providing quality training in educational psychology at the master’s, doctoral, and postdoctoral levels.

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, career opportunities in psychology will grow at a healthy rate of about 14% over this decade, and educational psychology is expected to keep pace.

In addition, job satisfaction in educational psychology and related fields such as school psychology has traditionally been high, including as it concerns social impact, independence, and compensation (Worrell, Skaggs, & Brown, 2006).

Those with a doctorate in educational psychology have potential for a broad impact on learners of any and every type. They often teach at the college or university level, conduct research and publish on various topics in the field, or consult with various organizations about the best teaching and learning methods.

Researchers in educational psychology have made important contributions to contemporary education and culture, from learning paradigms (behaviorism, cognitivism, constructionism) and the theory of multiple intelligences, to proactive school-wide positive behavioral supports.

We hope you have learned more about the rich field of educational psychology from this brief article and will find the resources it contains useful. Don’t forget to download our free Positive Psychology Exercises .

• Brown v. Board of Education , 347 U.S. (1954).
• Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., & Leaf, P. J. (2012). Effects of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports on child behavior problems. Pediatrics , 130 (5), e1136–e1145.
• Clark, K., & Clark, M. (1939). The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identification in Negro preschool children. Journal of Social Psychology ,  10 (4), 591–599.
• Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly , 26 (2), 43–71.
• Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences . Basic Books.
• Gardner, H. (2000). The disciplined mind: Beyond facts and standardized tests, the education that every child deserves . Penguin Books.
• Grinder, R. E. (1989). Educational psychology: The master science. In M. C. Wittrock & F. Farley (Eds.), The future of educational psychology (pp. 3–18). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Madigan, K., Cross, R. W., Smolkowski, K., & Stryker, L. A. (2016). Association between schoolwide positive behavioural interventions and supports and academic achievement: A 9-year evaluation. Educational Research and Evaluation , 22 (7–8), 402–421.
• Moll, L. C. (2014). L. S. Vygotsky and education . Routledge.
• Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology . Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• Piaget, J. (1955). The child’s construction of reality . Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Simonsen, B., & Myers, D. (2015). Classwide positive behavior interventions and supports: A guide to proactive classroom management . Guilford Publications.
• Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis . B. F. Skinner Foundation.
• Takeuchi, N., Mori, T., Suzukamo, Y., & Izumi, S. I. (2019). Activity of prefrontal cortex in teachers and students during teaching of an insight problem. Mind, Brain, and Education , 13 , 167–175.
• Worrell, T. G., Skaggs, G. E., & Brown, M. B. (2006). School psychologists’ job satisfaction: A 22-year perspective in the USA. School Psychology International , 27 (2), 131–145.
• Yeomans, M., & Reich, J. (2017). Planning prompts increase and forecast course completion in massive open online courses. Conference: The Seventh International Learning Analytics & Knowledge Conference , pp. 464–473.
• Zysberg, L., & Schwabsky, N. (2020). School climate, academic self-efficacy and student achievement . Educational Psychology. Taylor & Francis Online.

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