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17th October 2016
In recent weeks we've had many requests for ‘sample essays’, so the tutor2u Psychology team has been working hard to get our new ‘Core Topic Essays’ resource ready for use. We have started with a topic which we know you all love – Issues & Debates – and have produced seven exemplar essays.
Each essay comes in two versions:
(1) With examiner style commentary
(2) Without examiner commentary, so that you can use these in your lessons.
You can download a sample of these essays here
These essays have been checked by examiners and although we are unable to say exactly what mark they would achieve (as there have been no real linear A Level Psychology exams yet), we are confident with the mark band and and that content is correct.
Also we have provided a mixture of mark band 4 and 3 essays so that students can see what they need to do to improve and what the difference is between these two levels.
The seven Issues & Debates Questions are: 1. Discuss gender bias in psychology. (16 marks) 2. Discuss cultural bias in psychology. (16 marks) 3. Discuss free will and determinism in psychology. (16 marks) 4. Describe and evaluate the nature–nurture debate in psychology. (16 marks) 5. Discuss holism and reductionism in psychology. (16 marks) 6. Discuss idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation. (16 marks) 7. Discuss the ethical implications of research studies and theory, including reference to social sensitivity. (16 marks)
This resource will be published on 20 October 2016 and can be ordered here from our online store
A School Network Licence - which enables the digital and print distribution of the resource to all your students - costs just £35 (+VAT).
A discount on this price is available to teaching colleagues who are members of the AQA A Level Psychology Teacher Group on Facebook - a posting with the coupon code has been posted to the FB Group.
Joseph is a Subject Advisor for Psychology at tutor2u. He is an experienced Psychology & Music Teacher, Writer, Examiner and Presenter. He is currently completing a Professional Doctorate in Education and is passionate about the impact of technology on teaching and learning.
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Tutor Hunt Resources Psychology Resources
Advice on how to answer essays, including key terms in questions and how to meet the assessment criteria.
Date : 13/02/2020
This resource was uploaded by: Rachel
Ao1 effectively outlining a study.
Key Exam Tip!!
Key Exam Tip!! One of the questions you may get asked in the exam is to outline (a study, theory, definition etc…)
Key Exam Tip!! Another type of question that you may get asked in the exam is to evaluate (a study, theory etc…)
Glossary of key terms:.
Download file here: Glossary of terms
Research study revision sheet.
This helps students to remember the key elements of research studies using the structure; aim, procedure, findings and conclusion.
Download file here: Bubble Theory and Evaluation Summary Sheet 2016
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AQA A-Level Psychology (7182) and AS-Level Psychology (7181) past exam papers. You can download the papers and marking schemes by clicking on the links below. Scroll down to find papers from previous years.
June 2023 - AQA A-Level Psychology (7182) Past Papers
A-Level Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7182/1) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme A-Level Psychology Paper 2: Psychology in Context (7182/2) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme A-Level Psychology Paper 3: Issues and Options in Psychology (7182/3) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
June 2023 - AQA AS-Level Psychology (7181) Past Papers
AS Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7181/1) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
AS Psychology Paper 2: Psychology in Context (7181/2) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
June 2022 - AQA A-Level Psychology (7182) Past Papers
November 2021 - AQA A-Level Psychology (7182) Past Papers (Labelled as June 2021)
November 2021 A-Level Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7182/1) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme November 2021 A-Level Psychology Paper 2: Psychology in Context (7182/2) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme November 2021 A-Level Psychology Paper 3: Issues and Options in Psychology (7182/3) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
November 2020 - AQA A-Level Psychology (7182) Past Papers (Labelled as June 2020)
November 2020 A-Level Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7182/1) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme November 2020 A-Level Psychology Paper 2: Psychology in Context (7182/2) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme November 2020 A-Level Psychology Paper 3: Issues and Options in Psychology (7182/3) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
November 2020 - AQA AS-Level Psychology (7181) Past Papers (Labelled as June 2020)
November 2020 AS Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7181/1) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
November 2020 AS Psychology Paper 2: Psychology in Context (7181/2) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
June 2019 - AQA A-Level Psychology (7182) Past Papers
June 2019 A-Level Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7182/1) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme June 2019 A-Level Psychology Paper 2: Psychology in Context (7182/2) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme June 2019 A-Level Psychology Paper 3: Issues and Options in Psychology (7182/3) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
June 2019 - AQA AS-Level Psychology (7181) Past Papers
June 2019 AS Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7181/1) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
June 2019 AS Psychology Paper 2: Psychology in Context (7181/2) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
June 2018 - AQA A-Level Psychology (7182) Past Papers
June 2018 A-Level Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7182/1) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme June 2018 A-Level Psychology Paper 2: Psychology in Context (7182/2) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme June 2018 A-Level Psychology Paper 3: Issues and Options in Psychology (7182/3) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
June 2018 - AQA AS-Level Psychology (7181) Past Papers
June 2018 AS Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7181/1) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
June 2018 AS Psychology Paper 2: Psychology in Context (7181/2) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
A-Level Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7182/1) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
A-Level Psychology Paper 2: Psychology in Context (7182/2) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
A-Level Psychology Paper 3: Issues and Options in Psychology (7182/3) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
June 2017 - AQA AS-Level Psychology (7181) Past Papers
AS Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7181/1)
Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme
For more A-Level Psychology past papers from other exam boards click here .
Finish sign up, filter by paper, core content, 1. social influence.
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7 . research methods, 8. issues and debates in psychology, 9. relationships.
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13. eating behaviour, 15. aggression, 16. forensic psychology, 17. addiction.
Issues and Debates in Psychology (A-Level Revision)
Deb Gajic, CPsychol
Team Leader Examiner (A-Level Psychology)
B.A. (Hons), Social Sciences, Msc, Psychology
Deb Gajic is an experienced educational consultant with a robust history in the education and training field. She brings expertise in Psychology, Training, CPD Provision, Writing, Examining, Tutoring, Coaching, Lecturing, Educational Technology, and Curriculum Development. She holds a Master of Science (MSc) in Psychology from The Open University, a PGCE from Leicester University, and a BA (Hons) 2:1 from Warwick University. She is a Chartered Psychologist (CPsychol) and an Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society (AFBPsS).
Learn about our Editorial Process
Saul McLeod, PhD
Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
On This Page:
In application questions, examiners look for “effective application to the scenario,” which means that you need to describe the theory and explain the scenario using the theory making the links between the two very clear.
If there is more than one individual in the scenario you must mention all of the characters to get to the top band.
The descriptions follow the same criteria; however, you have to use the issues and debates effectively in your answers. “Effectively” means that it needs to be clearly linked and explained in the context of the answer.
Read the model answers to get a clearer idea of what is needed.
Gender bias.
Gender bias results when one gender is treated less favorably than the other, often referred to as sexism, and it has a range of consequences, including:
Avoiding gender bias does not mean pretending that men and women are the same.
There are three main types of gender bias:
Alpha bias – this occurs when the differences between men and women are exaggerated. Therefore, stereotypically male and female characteristics may be emphasized.
Beta bias -this occurs when the differences between men and women are minimized. This often happens when findings obtained from men are applied to women without additional validation.
Androcentrism – taking male thinking/behavior as normal, regarding female thinking/behavior as deviant, inferior, abnormal, or ‘other’ when it is different.
Positive Consequences of Gender Bias
Alpha Bias :
Beta Bias :
Negative Consequences of Gender Bias
Consequences of Gender Bias
Kitzinger (1998) argues that questions about sex differences aren’t just scientific questions – they’re also political (women have the same rights as men). So gender differences are distorted to maintain the status quo of male power.
Feminists argue that although gender differences are minimal or non-existent, they are used against women to maintain male power.
Judgments about an individual women’s ability are made on the basis of average differences between the sexes or biased sex-role stereotypes, and this also had the effect of lowering women’s self-esteem; making them, rather than men, think they have to improve themselves (Tavris, 1993).
Kohlberg & moral development.
Kohlberg based his stages of moral development around male moral reasoning and had an all-male sample. He then inappropriately generalized his findings to women ( beta bias ) and also claimed women generally reached the lower level of moral development ( androcentrism ).
Carol Gilligan highlighted the gender bias inherent in Kohlberg’s work and suggested women make moral decisions in a different way than men (care ethic vs. justice ethic).
However, her research is arguably, also (alpha) biased, as male and female moral reasoning is more similar than her work suggests.
Freud’s ideas are seen as inherently gender biased, but it must be remembered that he was a product of his time. He saw ‘Biology as destiny’ and women’s roles as prescribed & predetermined.
All his theories are androcentric , most obviously: -‘Penis envy’ – women are defined psychologically by the fact that they aren’t men.
But Freud’s ideas had serious consequences/implications. They reinforced stereotypes, e.g., of women’s moral Inferiority, treated deviations from traditional sex-role behavior as pathological (career ambition = penis envy), and are clearly androcentric (phallocentric).
In women, mental illness, especially depression, is much more likely to be explained in terms of neurochemical/hormonal processes rather than other possible explanations, such as social or environmental (e.g., domestic violence, unpaid labor, discrimination).
The old joke ‘Is it your hormones, love?’ is no joke for mentally ill women!
Equal opportunity legislation and feminist psychology have performed the valuable functions of reducing institutionalized gender bias and drawing attention to sources of bias and under-researched areas in psychology like childcare, sexual abuse, dual burden working, and prostitution.
This activity will help you to:
Below are two examples of research that could be considered gender biased. Working in pairs or small groups, you need to do the following:
1. Identify aspects of the research that could be considered gender biased
2. Identify and explain the type of gender bias that is present
3. Suggest the impact that these research examples could have on society
You could look, for example, at how the research might uphold or reinforce gender stereotypes or be used to disempower women in society.
The Psychodynamic View of Personality and Moral Development
Freud and many of his followers believed that biological differences between men and women had major consequences for psychological development. In their view, ‘biology is destiny.’
Freud believed that gender divergence begins at the onset of the phallic stage, where the girl realizes that she has no penis, and starts to feel inferiour to boys (penis envy).
Penis envy becomes a major driving force in the girl’s mental life and needs to be successfully sublimated into a desire for a husband and children if it is not to become pathological.
This view of gender divergence in personality development has implications for other aspects of development. For example, Freud’s view of morality was that it was regulated by the superego, which is an internalization of the same-sex parent that regulates behavior through the threat of punishment.
In boys, immoral behavior is regulated through the mechanism of castration anxiety – men obey the rules because of an unconscious fear that their father will take away their penis.
In the Freudian view, the girl has already had to accept her castration as a fait accompli, which raises important questions about the relative moral strength of men and women.
The Biological View of Mental Illness
The biomedical view of mental illness, which approaches behavioral and psychological abnormality as a manifestation of underlying pathological processes on the biological level, dominates the discussion of mental illness.
In the biomedical view , illnesses such as depression can be explained in terms of chemical imbalances causing malfunction in the parts of the brain associated with emotion.
When explaining why twice as many women as men are diagnosed with depression, adherents of the biomedical view tend to suggest that this is due to hormonal differences and point to the existence of, for example, post-natal depression to show how fluctuations in female sex hormones can lead to abnormalities of mood.
Similarly, sex differences in hormonal processes can be used to explain the existence of disorders that are ‘gender bound,’ such as pre-menstrual syndrome.
Culture can be described as all the knowledge and values shared by a society.
Cultures may differ from one another in many ways, so the findings of psychological research conducted in one culture may not apply directly to another.
In order to fulfill its aspiration of explaining human thinking and behavior, psychology must address the huge diversity in people around the globe. Each individual’s behavior is shaped by a huge number of factors, including their genes, upbringing, and individual experiences.
At the same time, people are affected by a range of factors that are specific to the cultural group in which they developed and within which they live. Psychologists should always attempt to account for the ways in which culture affects thinking and behavior.
However, this has not always been the case. Psychology is a discipline that evolved within a very specific cultural context.
Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise: – (i) 64% of psychological researchers are from the US; (ii) in some texts, 90% of studies have US Participants; (iii) samples are predominantly white middle class.
Consequently, it has incorporated a particular worldview (that of the industrialized West) into the ways it tries to understand people. This can have consequences. For example:
We will be looking at how cultural bias can affect psychological theories and research studies and the sorts of things psychologists can do to avoid the worst effects of cultural bias.
An emic construct is one that is applied only to one cultural group, so they vary from place to place (differences between cultures).
An emic approach refers to the investigation of a culture from within the culture itself. This means that research of European society from a European perspective is emic, and African society by African researchers in Africa is also emic. An emic approach is more likely to have ecological validity as the findings are less likely to be distorted or caused by a mismatch between the cultures of the researchers and the culture being investigated.
Cultural bias can occur when a researcher assumes that an emic construct (behavior specific to a single culture) is actually etic (behavior universal to all cultures).
For example, emic constructs are likely to be ignored or misinterpreted as researchers from another culture may not be sensitive to local emics. Their own cultural ‘filters’ may prevent them from detecting them or appreciating their significance.
An etic construct is a theoretical idea that is assumed to apply in all cultural groups. Therefore, etic constructs are considered universal to all people and are factors that hold across all cultures (similarities between cultures).
Etic constructs assume that most human behavior is common to humans but that cultural factors influence the development or display of this behavior.
Cultural bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.
Making the assumption that behaviors are universal across cultures can lead to imposed etics , where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another. For example, although basic human emotional facial expressions are universal, there can be subtle cultural variations in these.
Bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.
Ethnocentrism occurs when a researcher assumes that their own culturally specific practices or ideas are ‘natural’ or ‘right’.
The individual uses their own ethnic group to evaluate and make judgments about other individuals from other ethnic groups. Research that is ‘centered’ around one cultural group is called ‘ethnocentric.’
When other cultures are observed to differ from the researcher’s own, they may be regarded in a negative light, e.g., ‘primitive,’ ‘degenerate,’ ‘unsophisticated,’ ‘undeveloped,’ etc.
This becomes racism when other cultures are denigrated, or their traditions are regarded as irrelevant, etc.
The antidote to ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, which is an approach to treating each culture as unique and worthy of study.
Cultural relativism is the principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself.
The principle is sometimes practiced to avoid cultural bias in research, as well as to avoid judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture. For this reason, cultural relativism has been considered an attempt to avoid ethnocentrism.
Ainsworth’s strange situation for attachment.
The strange situation procedure is not appropriate for assessing children from non-US or UK populations as it is based on Western childrearing ideals (i.e., ethnocentric).
The original study only used American, middle-class, white, home-reared infants and mothers; therefore, the generalisability of the findings could be questioned, as well as whether this procedure would be valid for other cultures too.
Cultural differences in child-rearing styles make results liable to misinterpretation, e.g., German or Japanese samples.
Takashi (1990) aimed to see whether the strange situation is a valid procedure for cultures other than the original. Takashi found no children in the avoidant-insecure stage.
This could be explained in cultural terms as Japanese children are taught that such behavior is impolite, and they would be actively discouraged from displaying it. Also, because Japanese children experience much less separation, the SSC was more than mildly stressful.
An example of an etic approach that produces bias might be the imposition of IQ tests designed within one culture on another culture. If a test is designed to measure a European person’s understanding of what intelligence is , it may not be a valid measurement of the intelligence of people from other continents.
IQ tests developed in the West contain embedded assumptions about intelligence, but what counts as ‘intelligent’ behavior varies from culture to culture.
Non-Westerners may be disadvantaged by such tests – and then viewed as ‘inferior’ when they don’t perform as Westerners do.
Task: Try the Chittling IQ Test
Nobles (1976) argues that western psychology has been a tool of oppression and dominance. Cultural bias has also made it difficult for psychologists to separate the behavior they have observed from the context in which they observed it.
Equal opportunity legislation aims to rid psychology of cultural bias and racism, but we must be aware that merely swapping old, overt racism for new, more subtle forms of racism (Howitt and Owusu-Bempah, 1994).
The free will/determinism debate revolves around the extent to which our behavior is the result of forces over which we have no control or whether people are able to decide for themselves whether to act or behave in a certain way.
Free Will suggests that we all have a choice and can control and choose our own behavior. This approach is all about personal responsibility and plays a central role in Humanist Psychology.
By arguing that humans can make free choices, the free will approach is quite the opposite of the deterministic one. Psychologists who take the free will view suggest that determinism removes freedom and dignity and devalues human behavior.
To a lesser degree, Cognitive Psychology also supports the idea of free will and choice. In reality, although we do have free will, it is constrained by our circumstances and other people. For example, when you go shopping, your choices are constrained by how much money you have.
The determinist approach proposes that all behavior is determined and thus predictable. Some approaches in psychology see the source of this determinism as being outside the individual, a position known as environmental determinism.
Others see it from coming inside, i.e., in the form of unconscious motivation or genetic determinism – biological determinism.
• Environmental (External) Determinism : This is the idea that our behavior is caused by some sort of outside influence, e.g., parental influence.
Skinner (1971) argued that freedom is an illusion. We may think we have free will, but the probability of any behavior occurring is determined by past experiences.
Skinner claimed that free will was an illusion – we think we are free, but this is because we are not aware of how our behavior is determined by reinforcement.
• Biological (Internal) Determinism : Our biological systems, such as the nervous system, govern our behavior.
For example, a high IQ may be related to the IGF2R gene (Chorney et al. 1998).
• Psychic (Internal) Determinism : Freud believed childhood experiences and unconscious motivations governed behavior.
Freud thought that free will was an illusion because he felt that the causes of our behavior are unconscious and still predictable.
There are different levels of determinism.
Hard Determinism sees free will as an illusion and believes that every event and action has a cause.
Soft Determinism represents a middle ground. People do have a choice, but that choice is constrained by external factors, e.g., Being poor doesn’t make you steal, but it may make you more likely to take that route through desperation.
Essay Question : – Discuss free will & determinism in psychology (16 marks)
The central question is the extent to which our behavior is determined by our biology (nature) and the genes we inherit from our parents versus the influence of environmental factors (nurture) such as home school and friends.
Nature is the view that all our behavior is determined by our biology and our genes. This is not the same as the characteristics you are born with because these may have been determined by your prenatal environment.
In addition, some genetic characteristics only appear later in development as a result of the process of maturation. Supporters of the nature view have been called ‘nativists.’
Evolutionary explanations of human behavior exemplify the nature approach in psychology. The main assumption underlying this approach is that any particular behavior has evolved because of its survival value.
E.g., Bowlby suggested that attachment behaviors are displayed because they ensure the survival of an infant and the perpetuation of the parents’ genes. This survival value is further increased because attachment has implications for later relationship formation, which will ultimately promote successful reproduction.
Evolutionary psychologists assume that behavior is a product of natural selection. Interpersonal attraction can, for example, be explained as a consequence of sexual selection.
Men and women select partners who enhance their productive success, judging this in terms of traits that ‘advertise’ reproductive fitness, such as signs of healthiness (white teeth) or resources.
Physiological psychology is also based on the assumption that behavior can be explained in terms of genetically programmed systems.
Nurture is the opposite view that all behavior is learned and influenced by external factors such as the environment etc. Supports of the nurture view are ‘empiricists’ holding the view that all knowledge is gained through experience.
The behaviorist approach is the clearest example of the nurture position in psychology, which assumes that all behavior is learned through the environment. The best-known example is the social learning explanation of aggression using the Bobo doll.
SLT proposes that much of what we learn is through observation and vicarious reinforcement. E.g., Bandura demonstrated this in his Bobo doll experiments. He found that children who watched an adult role model being rewarded for aggression toward an inflatable doll tended to imitate that behavior when later on their own with a Bobo doll.
This supports the idea that personality is determined by nurture rather than nature. This provides us with a model of how to behave. However, such behavior becomes part of an individual’s behavioral repertoire through direct reinforcement – when behavior is imitated, it receives direct reinforcement (or not).
Another assumption of the nurture approach is that there is a double bind hypothesis that explains schizophrenia. They suggest that schizophrenia develops because children receive contradictory messages from their parents.
Instead of defending extreme nature or nurture views , most psychological researchers are now interested in investigating the ways in which nature and nurture interact. It is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior.
For example, in psychopathology, this means that both a genetic predisposition and an appropriate environmental trigger are required for a mental disorder to develop. Therefore, it makes more sense to say that the difference between two people’s behavior is mostly due to hereditary factors or mostly due to environmental factors.
The Diathesis-stress model of Schizophrenia suggests that although people may inherit a predisposition to Schizophrenia, some sort of environmental stressor is required in order to develop the disease.
This explains why Schizophrenia happens in the late teens or early adulthood, times of considerable upheaval and stress in people’s lives, e.g., leaving home, starting work, forging new relationships, etc.
Essay Question : – Describe & evaluate the nature-nurture debate in psychology (16 marks)
Holism is often referred to as Gestalt psychology . It argues that behavior cannot be understood in terms of the components that make them up. This is commonly described as ‘the whole being greater than the sum of its parts.’
Psychologists study the whole person to gain an understanding of all the factors that might influence behavior. Holism uses several levels of explanation, including biological, environmental, and social factors.
Holistic approaches include Humanism, Social, and Gestalt psychology and make use of the case study method. Jahoda’s six elements of Optimal Living are an example of a holistic approach to defining abnormality.
Imagine you were asked to make a cake .
If I simply told you that you needed 3 eggs, 75 grams of sugar, and 75 grams of self-raising. Would that be enough information for you to make a sponge cake? What else would you need to know?
In this way, a cake is more than the sum of its parts. Simply putting all the ingredients into a tin and sticking them in the oven would not result in a sponge cake!
Reductionism is the belief that human behavior can be explained by breaking it down into smaller component parts. Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems and use the simplest explanations to understand how they work.
In psychology, the term is most appropriately applied to biological explanations (e.g., genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones) of complex human behaviors such as schizophrenia, gender, and aggression.
Such reductionist explanations can be legitimately criticized as ignoring psychological, social, and cultural factors.
Cognitive psychology, with its use of the computer analogy, reduces behavior to the level of a machine, mechanistic reductionism.
Behaviorist psychology sees behavior in terms of simple stimulus/response relationships. And finally, the psychodynamic perspective reduces behavior to unconscious motivation and early childhood experiences.
Reductionism in psychology is useful, as sometimes the simplest explanation is the best. Physiological approaches do tend to be reductionist, but as long as we bare these limitations in mind.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to take a completely holistic approach to psychology, as human behavior is so complex. Case studies come closest to taking a holistic approach.
Explaining behavior in a reductionist manner is seen as a low-level explanation, whereas more holistic explanations are high-level explanations.
Essay Question : – Discuss holism and reductionism in psychology (16 marks)
Nomothetic approach.
The Nomothetic approach looks at how our behaviors are similar to each other as human beings. The term “nomothetic” comes from the Greek word “nomos,” meaning “law.”
Psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. That is to say, in establishing laws or generalizations. Tend to use quantitative methods.
The psychometric approach to the study of personality compares individuals in terms of traits or dimensions common to everyone. This is a nomothetic approach, and two examples are Hans Eysenck’s type and Raymond Cattell’s 16PF trait theories.
The details of their work need not concern us here. Suffice it to say they both assume that there are a small number of traits that account for the basic structure of all personalities and that individual differences can be measured along these dimensions.
The Idiographic or individual differences approach looks at how our behaviors are different from each other. The term “idiographic” comes from the Greek word “idios” meaning “own” or “private.” Psychologists interested in this aspect of experience want to discover what makes each of us unique. Tend to use qualitative methods.
At the other extreme, Gordon Allport found over 18,000 separate terms describing personal characteristics. Whilst some of these are common traits (that could be investigated nomothetically), the majority, in Allport’s view, referred to more or less unique dispositions based on life experiences peculiar to ourselves.
He argues that they cannot be effectively studied using standardized tests. What is needed is a way of investigating them ideographically.
Carl Rogers, a Humanist psychologist, has developed a method of doing this, a procedure called the “Q-sort.” First, the subject is given a large set of cards with a self-evaluative statement written on each one. For example, “I am friendly” or “I am ambitious,” etc.
The subject is then asked to sort the cards into piles. One pile contains statements that are “most like me,” one statement that is “least like me,” and one or more piles for statements that are in-between.
In a Q-sort, the number of cards can be varied, as can the number of piles and the type of question (e.g., How I am now? How I used to be? How my partner sees me? How I would like to be?) So there are a potentially infinite number of variations.
That, of course, is exactly as it should be for an idiographic psychologist because, in his/her view, there are ultimately as many different personalities as there are people.
From these examples, we can see that the difference between a nomothetic and an idiographic approach is not just a question of what the psychologist wants to discover but also of the methods used.
Experiments, correlation, psychometric testing, and other quantitative methods are favored from a nomothetic point of view. Case studies, informal interviews, unstructured observation, and other qualitative methods are idiographic.
There are also broad differences between theoretical perspectives. Behaviorist, cognitive and biological psychologists tend to focus on discovering laws or establishing generalizations: – Nomothetic. The humanists are interested in the individual: – Idiographic.
As always, it is best to take a combined approach. Millon & Davis (1996) suggest research should start with a nomothetic approach and once general ‘laws’ have been established, research can then move to a more idiographic approach. Thus, getting the best of both worlds!
Essay Question : – Discuss idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation (16 marks)
There has been an assumption over the years by many psychologists that provided they follow the BPS guidelines when using human participants and that all leave in a similar state of mind to how they turned up, not having been deceived or humiliated, given a debrief, and not having had their confidentiality breached, that there are no ethical concerns with their research.
But consider the following examples :
a) Caughy et al. 1994 found that middle-class children put in daycare at an early age generally score less on cognitive tests than children from similar families reared in the home.
Assuming all guidelines were followed, neither the parents nor the children that participated would have been unduly affected by this research. Nobody would have been deceived, consent would have been obtained, and no harm would have been caused.
However, think of the wider implications of this study when the results are published, particularly for parents of middle-class infants who are considering placing their young charges in daycare or those who recently have!
b) IQ tests administered to black Americans show that they typically score 15 points below the average white score.
When black Americans are given these tests, they presumably complete them willingly and are in no way harmed as individuals. However, when published, findings of this sort seek to reinforce racial stereotypes and are used to discriminate against the black population in the job market, etc.
Sieber & Stanley (1988) (the main names for Socially Sensitive Research (SSR) outline 4 groups that may be affected by psychological research: It is the first group of people that we are most concerned with!
1) Members of the social group being studied, such as racial or ethnic group. For example, early research on IQ was used to discriminate against US Blacks.
2) Friends and relatives of those taking part in the study, particularly in case studies, where individuals may become famous or infamous. Cases that spring to mind would include Genie’s mother.
3) The research team. There are examples of researchers being intimidated because of the line of research they are in.
4) The institution in which the research is conducted.
Sieber & Stanley (1988) also suggest there are 4 main ethical concerns when conducting SSR:
Sieber and Stanley suggest the following ethical guidelines for carrying out SSR. There is some overlap between these and research on human participants in general.
Privacy : This refers to people rather than data. Asking people questions of a personal nature (e.g., about sexuality) could offend.
Confidentiality: This refers to data. Information (e.g., about H.I.V. status) leaked to others may affect the participant’s life.
Sound & valid methodology : This is even more vital when the research topic is socially sensitive. Academics are able to detect flaws in methods, but the lay public and the media often don’t. When research findings are publicized, people are likely to take them as fact, and policies may be based on them. Examples are Bowlby’s maternal deprivation studies and intelligence testing.
Deception : Causing the wider public to believe something, which isn’t true by the findings, you report (e.g., that parents are totally responsible for how their children turn out).
Informed consent : Participants should be made aware of how taking part in the research may affect them.
Justice & equitable treatment : Examples of unjust treatment are (i) publicizing an idea, which creates a prejudice against a group, & (ii) withholding a treatment, which you believe is beneficial, from some participants so that you can use them as controls. E.g., The Tuskergee Study which withheld treatment for STIs from black men to investigate the effects of syphilis on the body.
Scientific freedom : Science should not be censored, but there should be some monitoring of sensitive research. The researcher should weigh their responsibilities against their rights to do the research.
Ownership of data : When research findings could be used to make social policies, which affect people’s lives, should they be publicly accessible? Sometimes, a party commissions research with their own interests in mind (e.g., an industry, an advertising agency, a political party, or the military).
Some people argue that scientists should be compelled to disclose their results so that other scientists can re-analyze them. If this had happened in Burt’s day, there might not have been such widespread belief in the genetic transmission of intelligence. George Miller (Miller’s Magic 7) famously argued that we should give psychology away.
The values of social scientists : Psychologists can be divided into two main groups: those who advocate a humanistic approach (individuals are important and worthy of study, quality of life is important, intuition is useful) and those advocating a scientific approach (rigorous methodology, objective data).
The researcher’s values may conflict with those of the participant/institution. For example, if someone with a scientific approach was evaluating a counseling technique based on a humanistic approach, they would judge it on criteria that those giving & receiving the therapy may not consider important.
Cost/benefit analysis : If the costs outweigh the potential/actual benefits, it is unethical. However, it is difficult to assess costs & benefits accurately & the participants themselves rarely benefit from research.
Sieber & Stanley advise: Researchers should not avoid researching socially sensitive issues. Scientists have a responsibility to society to find useful knowledge.
A-Level Psychology Attachment
Psychology Memory Revision Notes
Social Influence Revision Notes
Psychopathology Revision Notes
Psychology Approaches Revision for A-level
Research Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
This paper for AS and A level students looks at social influences such as conformity and obedience, cognitive psychology models of memory, the developmental psychology of attachment, and the psycopathological conditions of phobias, depression, and OCD.
This paper for AS and A level students looks at how psychology works in practice. This covers the origins of psychology as well as various approaches to the study of the mind, such as the cognitive and biological approaches. This topic also covers research methods.
This paper is only required for A level students and covers a range of psychological issues. The exam allows students to pick from a choice of questions on issues including relationships, gender, aggression, schizophrenia, eating behaviour, stress, and addiction.
A quick and colourful revision guide!
Short and snappy explanations of syllabus topics for all 3 papers , clearly identified AO3 evaluation points , exam technique section with example answers, and glossary of key terms – in under 200 pages!
AQA psychology revision guide for years 1 and 2 >>>
Revise the course content and exam technique simultaneously!
Practice papers and A* grade model answers based on the format of the AQA psychology A-level exam papers: Introductory topics (7182/1), psychology in context (7182/2), and issues and options (7182/3).
Practice papers with A* model answers >>>
Downloadable and printable PDF files for teachers. Realistic mock exam papers closely based on the format of the AQA Psychology A-level (7182) exam papers, with detailed mark schemes for easy and reliable marking .
Mock exam papers based on the AQA 7182 format >>>
Information on the exam format and assessment objectives for the AS and A level papers, as well as exam dates for 2023.
Exam guide >>>
Comprehensive list of definitions of key words that come up in the course, with links to the relevant pages for more detail.
Key psychology terms >>>
Tools to help you ace your exams, including: past papers, revision notes, and exam-style questions (organised by topic)
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These qualifications are linear. Linear means that students will sit all the AS exams at the end of their AS course and all the A-level exams at the end of their A-level course.
Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology |
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Section A: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks Section B: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks Section C: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks |
Paper 2: Psychology in Context |
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Compulsory content 4–6 above |
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Section A: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks Section B: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks Section C: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks |
Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology |
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Compulsory content 1–4 above |
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Paper 2: Psychology in Context |
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Compulsory content 5–7 above |
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Paper 3: Issues and Options in Psychology |
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Compulsory content 8 above Optional content, one from option 1, 9–11, one from option 2, 12–14, one from option 3, 15–17 above |
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COMMENTS
Past Papers & Mark Schemes Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology. AS: written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes: 72 marks in total: 50% of AS; A-level: written exam: 2 hours: 96 marks in total: 33.3% of A-level; 1. Social Influence (24 marks) 2. Memory (24 marks) 3. Attachment (24 marks) 4. Psychopathology A-Level Only (24 marks) multiple choice, short answer and extended writing
Let's use the example from the A-level Psychology exam in 2023 (Paper 1) which asked two 16 mark questions in a single exam paper (yes you can be asked more than one 16 marker question in a single exam as this paper demonstrates). The first 16 mark essay question asked this: Discuss research into minority influence (16 marks).
Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which "lie behind" the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. "Signpost" the essay's key argument, (and, if possible, how. this argument is structured).
skill and that essays can make all the difference in A Level Psychology. In the June 2017 A Level Psychology exams, essays were worth 51% of the overall grade. The average score for all of the essays was approximately 50%; this means that students were scoring, on average, 8 out of 16
Revision for AQA Psychology AS and A-Level Papers, including past papers, videos, and summary notes.
The past papers are free to download for you to use as practice for your exams. Paper 1: Introductory Topics. Paper 2: Psychology in Context. Paper 3: Issues and Options. AS Psychology (7181): Paper 1. A-Level Psychology (7182): Paper 1. 72 Marks. 96 Marks. 90 minutes.
The seven Issues & Debates Questions are: 1. Discuss gender bias in psychology. (16 marks) 2. Discuss cultural bias in psychology. (16 marks) 3. Discuss free will and determinism in psychology. (16 marks) 4. Describe and evaluate the nature-nurture debate in psychology. (16 marks)
The longest and highest-value questions you might be asked by AQA in the A-level are 16-mark essay questions which you should spend 20-25 minutes on. Types of Essay Questions There are 2 type of essay question and you will usually be asked to answer both types for each exam: 1. Discuss or outline and evaluate questions straightforward essays ...
Tips. Ensure that any description you write as part of an essay is both accurate and detailed. When writing evaluation it is important that you use a perfect paragraph rule (something like PEE (Point, Evidence/Example, Elaborate) or PEEL). The exam-board don't award marks for the number of evaluation points stated.
Scroll down to find papers from previous years. June 2023 - AQA A-Level Psychology (7182) Past Papers. A-Level Psychology Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology (7182/1) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme. A-Level Psychology Paper 2: Psychology in Context (7182/2) Download Past Paper - Download Marking Scheme.
Question paper (A-level): Paper 1 Introductory topics in psychology - June 2023 New. Published 12 Jul 2024 | PDF | 504 KB. Question paper (AS): Paper 2 Psychology in context - June 2023 New. Published 12 Jul 2024 | PDF | 453 KB. Question paper (Modified A4 18pt) (AS): Paper 1 Introductory topics in psychology - June 2023 New.
Here's a quick-fire guide on how to answer essays concerning research in A Level Psychology exams! Pause the video to look at the suggested structure!For mor...
15. Aggression. 16. Forensic Psychology. 17. Addiction. A-Level Psychology past paper questions by topic for AQA. Also offering past papers and videos for Edexcel and OCR.
edience to authority. (16 marks)7. Outline and evaluate the authoritarian personality as a disp. pl. nation for obedience.(16 marks)8. Two A level students were discussing the topic of social influence. after their last psychology lesson. Louise: "It's incredible how some people can resis.
Psychology. Over 70 pages worth of detailed A-Level Psychology essay plans that students can use to write top-grade essays. All of the essay questions that appear in the AQA syllabus are included here- meaning students will be fully prepared for any essay questions thrown at them in the exam. This document is 55 Exchange Credits.
THE STRUCTURE. The most common way of structuring an essay is to base it around three parts — an introduction, main body, and conclusion. I suggest that you stick that structure! It works well, and is also what a marker will be expecting to see. At the same time, you should remember that this structure is only a foundation.
A Level Psychology. Our extensive collection of resources is the perfect tool for students aiming to ace their exams and for teachers seeking reliable resources to support their students' learning journey. Here, you'll find an array of revision notes, topic questions, fully explained model answers, past exam papers and more, meticulously ...
Team Leader Examiner (A-Level Psychology) B.A. (Hons), Social Sciences, Msc, Psychology. ... Essay Question: - Describe & evaluate the nature-nurture debate in psychology (16 marks) Reductionism & Holism Holism AO1. Holism is often referred to as Gestalt psychology. It argues that behavior cannot be understood in terms of the components that ...
The Psychology A Level in a few pages! Revision notes for all topics (+ evaluation), AQA Psychology exam guide, glossary, past papers + more! ... Practice papers and A* grade model answers based on the format of the AQA psychology A-level exam papers: Introductory topics (7182/1), psychology in context (7182/2), and issues and options (7182/3).
Revision notes, past papers and practice questions for Cambridge (CIE) A Level Psychology, written by our expert team of teachers and examiners.
Compulsory content 1-3 above. Assessed. written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes. 72 marks in total. 50% of AS. Questions. Section A: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks. Section B: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks. Section C: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks.