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Prawn culture: Introduction and steps in prawn culture Posted on : 23-11-2017 Posted by : Admin

PRAWN CULTURE INTRODUCTION

In India, aquaculture has evolved from just a backyard activity to an activity driven by technology and a commercial business. Currently, India stands second in world aquaculture production next to China. The following are the features which played a major role in lifting the face of in India in commercial aquaculture:

• Vast untapped surface water resources Availability.
• Standardization of new production techniques.
• Extension of technology and practical knowledge to the farmers through governmental and non-governmental organizations
• Financial help for aquaculture farmers

In India large scale farming of Macrobrachium rosenbergii is very popular. It is commonly called "Scampi". It has high demand in both domestic and international markets.

History of Prawn culture

Early attempts of prawn culture by stocking ponds with juvenile prawns had disappointing results. Also experiments carried out by several Asian countries on prawn culture under controlled environment were unfruitful. In 1961, a breakthrough was made by Marine fisheries Research institute, Malaysia. They discovered that certain amount for salinity was important and basic requirement for the survival and development of the early stages of Macrobrachium rosenbergii larvae.

Currently, Macrobrachium rosenbergii is the favorite species of Indian prawn culture. In India, Prawn Breeding unit of Central Inland Fisheries Research institutes developed indigenous technology for prawn culture in the year 1975.

Identifying features of Macrobrachium rosenbergii

Macrobrachium rosenbergii is also known as Giant fresh water prawn. The following are the identification features of this prawn:

• Presence of grey and longitudinal streaks of light and dark color.
• The largest pereopod (limbs) of adult male is dark blue and orange at joints.
• The eggs of berried female are yellow in color
• Presence of long and slender rostrum with 11-14 teeth on dorsal margin and 8-14 teeth on ventral margin
• Both females and males grow up to 35 cm and 24 cm respectively
• These species attain a weight of 200 gram

Species of Prawns for culture

In India a total of 34 species of Macrobrachium comprising of 20 fresh water species and 14 coastal water species have been reported. Out of these only two species are utilized in monoculture and polyculture practices owing to their large size, fast growth and shorter life history. These two species are,

• Macrobrachium rosenbergii
• Macrobrachium malcolmsonii

Distribution of Macrobrachium rosenbergii

Macrobrachium rosenbergii is mainly confined to Fresh water and brackish water habitats. They are sometimes also found in marine waters. It is mostly distributed in Indo-west pacific regions including India, Vietnam, Philippines, New Guinea and northern Australia. In India, Macrobrachium rosenbergii is also known as Golda chingri and Mocha chingri.

STEPS IN PRAWN CULTURE

The technical requirements for establishment of fresh water prawn farm and its successful operation are briefly described below:

Step 1: Site selection

Careful selection of suitable site for fresh water prawn farming is an essential prerequisite for successful farming operation. The site selection plays an important role as the entire management aspect of the farm ultimately depends on specific conditions of the site. The aspects to be considered for site selection are as follows:

Climatic conditions: Warm climate is the most important factor affecting prawn production. Tropical and sub-tropical climates are most suitable when the culture period is too long while warm temperate climate is suitable where culture period is short. Also other climatic conditions like rainfall, evaporation, sunlight, wind speed etc. also play a critical role.

Topography of the location: The ideal site must be flat or gently sloped. Low-lying lands, waterlogged areas, salinity and alkalinity affected areas could be effectively used for construction of Scampi farms.

Soil Quality: The soil texture must be sandy-clay loam or silt clay loam with at least 85% water retention capacity. The clay content in the soil should not exceed 60%. Acid sulphate soils should be avoided for freshwater prawn farming.

Water Quality: The availability of quality and quantity of water is a critical factor. Moreover water should be free from pollution. The pH of water should be of 7.0 to 8.5. The water temperature should range from 18°C to 34°C. Dissolved oxygen content of water should be 3 to 7 ppm.

Step 2: Farm Construction

After fulfilling all the suitable site location requirements, the next step is the construction of farm. The design must suit the operational convenience and biological necessities of the prawn.

Size and depth: For operational convenience a minimum area of one hectare is widely accepted size of the farm. Depending on the local conditions the size may vary between half to 5 hectares. Though square farm is more economical, rectangular farms are more suitable for the harvesting. The constructed pond should have the capacity to hold at least 1.5 to 2 metre water inside.

The dyke: The bottom of ponds needs to be sloped towards the drainage point or dyke. The drainage system should be designed carefully to prevent mixing of outlet water with incoming water.

Water supply and Drainage: Appropriate water supply and drainage systems have to be designed keeping in view the water source. The ponds should be easy to drain out the water. Ground water is preferable for filling the ponds as it is free from pollution. When using canal water, it should be made free from pollution. Care should be taken to provide adequate micro filters for removing the eggs and larvae of fishes especially of omnipresent Tilapia.

Step 3: Production system

Female brood stock is usually obtained from grow-out ponds or from capture fisheries. Normally, "berried" or egg-carrying females are used only once.

Fertilization: A typical male to female ratio is maintained in brood stock holding systems. Within a few hours of copulation, external fertilization occurs and the eggs are transferred to the brood chamber beneath the abdomen of the female. Eggs are orange until 2-3 days before hatching and just before hatching, they become grey-black. The eggs remain attached to the female during embryonic development. At hatching, free-swimming zoeae are produced.

Larval development: First stage zoeae are very small in size about 2mm and grow through 11 larval stages, to almost 8 mm at metamorphosis into post larval forms. Individual metamorphosis can be achieved in 16 days but usually takes much longer, depending on environmental conditions.

Feed and feeding: Feed management plays a very crucial role in prawn culture. More over natural food is preferred over supplementary food. But due to lack of natural food and to increase the growth and quality of production supplementary food is used.

Supplementary food include agricultural and animal husbandry by-products along with locally available cheap feeds like broken rice, tapioca root, trash fish, vegetable and animal feeds mixed in adequate proportions. The feed is produced in pellet form, which should sink in water quickly and should be intact for at least few hours till they are completely consumed by the prawns.

Prawns are generally fed only once a day. Food pellets are distributed uniformly on the surface of the pond or placed in wide containers set up at several points along the margin of the pond. The rate of feeding depends on the age of the prawns.

Step 4: Harvesting and processing

Pond reared giant prawns reach marketable size within 5-8 months depending on the stocking rate and other culture conditions. Generally, giant prawns do not grow at uniform rate and difference in size appears in spite of stocking the seed from same brood. Hence size for harvest must be checked from time to time.

Harvesting can be done partially of completely. Partial harvesting is done for removing larger prawns from the pond at regular intervals. For partial harvesting nets are specially designed to capture only large prawns and exclude smaller ones.

In complete harvesting prawns are harvested by draining the ponds. Draining is done in early mornings to avoid overheating of water when only little water is left in the pond. In the final stage when the prawns are near the outlet they must be provided with fresh oxygenated water.

Careful handling is essential during harvesting to ensure good quality products. Freshwater prawns tend to go "mushy" if not handled and processed correctly.

Firstly, it is essential to prevent prawns from becoming crushed during harvesting.

Secondly, if they are not going to be sold live, they should be killed in a mixture of water and ice at 0°C immediately after harvesting and washed in chlorinated tap water. Prawns for live sale can be transported in aerated water at 20-22°C. Prawns sold fresh must not be kept on ice for more than 3 days. Prawns for frozen sale must be quickly frozen at -10°C and stored at -20°C or below.

• Write the classification of Macrobrachium rosenbergii .
• List out the two species which are used in Indian prawn culture.
• Mention the identifying features of Macrobrachium rosenbergii .
• Mention the steps involved in fresh water prawn culture.
• Describe the production system of prawn culture.
• Mention the measures to be taken for harvesting of Prawns.
• What are the types of harvesting in prawn culture.

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The same as fish cultivation, the selection of the site for prawn cultivation plays a key role in prawn cultivation. And the complete management practices of the cultivation depend on the availability of the facilities at the site. It is crucial that the income from the pond must be more than that of the land itself.

• The selected site for prawn cultivation should be thoroughly surveyed to design layout of ponds for water inlet, walkways, and effluent discharge.
• Rectangular ponds are best for harvesting, which is commonly used in freshwater prawn farming. For successful prawn cultivation of M. rosenbergii larvae, it needs 1. Optimal temperature range, 2. Necessary and suitable feed and 3. You should maintain the water quality in rearing tanks.
• The optimum temperature for larval development should about 28°C, and the larvae can grow in the temperature range of 26.5 to 31.5°C.

The topography of Site for Prawn Cultivation:  

Topography describes the shape of the land for cultivating prawn–

• Topography decides whether the site is flat, hilly upland or lowlands. The topography will make you decide the kind of pond you need to build
• Marking the area of the on the site will be the first step of pond construction for fish farming .
• If the prawn pond is built on a flat surfaced land, the bottom of the pond should be built sloppy facing the outlet for an easy draining system. The main wall of the prawn pond should build erected at the slope end.
• Not only the topography, of the area, soil condition, water quality are also key elements of prawn culture.
• Other considerations are road approach, market, consumers’ food habits/status and availability of labour and ice etc.  

Soil for Prawn Cultivation:   

• Another important element in pond construction is the soil of the pond. The best soil for prawn cultivation should be clay slit mixture with a smooth and slippery texture that is capable of holding properties.
• The soil that is loamy and sandy, comprising 60% sand and 40% silt is highly recommended.
• In case of rocky or shifting sandy soil, in that site, you should only build small ponds. The quality soil is mainly responsible for the fertility of the water for its nutrient contents.
• Fertility is the measure of the nutrients in the pond, and it simply refers to how much food is available in the pond for the prawn/fish to consume. The soil should contain the necessary nutrients like iron, calcium, and magnesium. Sometimes it may also contain certain harmful substances like acids. If the soil is good for agriculture , it ought to be good for aquaculture. The laying down of ponds is often economically best on sandy or marshy grounds, which are not economical for other types of exploitation. The pond must give a better return than what the land would have given. It has often been found that poor agricultural land can be turned into very good fish ponds . In general, better is the soil, better will be the production in such culture ponds. If the pond is built on poor quality agricultural land, and the pond should be taken care well, the pond bottom soil becomes more fertile than what it was before, in due course of time.  Under integrated farming, many farmers often grow prawn and other fishes in paddy fields, with the dual benefits of the earning from the paddy as well as the prawn/fish.
• Acid soils are not good for prawn productivity. In case high acidic soil, they should be treated with lime.
• If the pH level of the pond water should range from 6 to 6.5. If more pH levels than 6.5 at sunrise, the soil should be treated with the lime before the pond completely gets dried out. This enables the lime to dissolve and penetrate into the soil and maintains the pH levels.
• Regular liming increases total alkalinity. Agricultural limestone is the best compound to use for increasing alkalinity. And the quantity of lime required depends on the type of soil and its pH.
• Water ponds with a high-water pH can be improved very well by ‘ageing’. This is done by filling the ponds with water 2-4 weeks before stocking and allowing natural biological processes to buffer the pH. However, this may also increase the chances of growing predators and weeds.
• For prawn cultivation, the pond should be a shallow water body that is recommended for the controlled culture of aquatic species. It is constructed in such a way that it can be easily and completely drained.
• Before construction, selection of the site for the construction of the ponds is of prime importance.
• The number and type of the proposed ponds to be built must also be decided beforehand. The size and surface of the ponds can vary considerably. The medium and small-sized ponds are easier to manage, hence proportionately most productive too.
• A pond size of 0.5 to 1.5 acres is quite handy and easy to manipulate. It is easy to harvest if the pond is rectangular (0.6-hectare pond is 30 m wide and 200 m long).
• The length of the pond should be decided based on site and topography as well as farm layout. A pond with a width between 30 to 50 meters is always easy to operate.
• The depth of the pond should range between 0.75 to 1.20 m with an average depth of 0.9 m.
• Deeper ponds are difficult to manage. The ratio between the dyke and pond slope should be maintained at 2:10. The dyke must always rest on the solid and watertight ground.
• The bottom of the pond must be smooth without having projecting rocks or tree stumps on it. The pond bottom must slope gradually and smoothly from the water intake end towards the drain end (a 20% slope (1:500) is suggested for ponds of 0.4 ha or more in the area and 5 % (1:200) for smaller ponds towards the outlet, where drain harvesting is practiced. This helps to control pockets of water in which prawns often get locked and die ultimately during total drainage of the pond.
• Narrow prawn ponds should be oriented in such a way that the prevailing wind blows down the long axis towards the drain end, which minimizes erosion of the bank.
• And the ponds should have a proper drainage system and you should proper care to avoid mixing incoming water with the outlet water.
• Large prawn ponds have 30m and are regularly drained for harvesting. Freshwater prawns can be stocked in concrete and earthen reservoirs, ponds, irrigation ditches, cages, and natural waters.
• During the winter season, water temperature at the bottom of deep ponds may drop enough to reduce feed consumption by the prawns. And in shallow ponds, the water temperature may rise too high for the prawns.
• Also, the water becomes quite clear, exposing the prawns to greater predation. Further, shallow ponds tend to support the growth of rooted aquatic plants hence are not recommended.

Fertilization in Prawn Cultivation :  

• For an abundant food supply to the young prawns and preventing the growth of weeds, fertilization of the pond should be done regularly in prawn cultivation. The main motive for fertilization of prawn ponds is to direct all primary, secondary and tertiary levels of productivity towards maximum productivity of prawns.
• The natural productivity of the pond can always be enhanced by the application of fertilizers (inorganic and organic). Hence, to begin with, the pond should be conditioned with inorganic as well as organic fertilizers until a mixed bloom of zooplankton and phytoplankton develops. Fertilization of ponds already having a relatively thicker density of microorganisms may increase further their number rather rapidly.
• A layer of lime should be placed at the bottom of the pond, whether the pond is old or new. And the pond should be fertilized with cow dung, which is best organic manures.
• The organic manures for the fish ponds are classified based on the following criteria: Organic fertilizer with little or no carbohydrates b. Organic fertilizer with carbohydrate contents only (e.g. Mustard oil cake, green manuring components ).  c. Fertilizer with carbohydrates and nitrogenous matters (e.g.  Poultry wastes-matters, sewage, sludge, farmyard wastes etc.).
• The type of organic manures required depends upon the variety of fish proposed to be cultivated. Organic fertilizers added @ 24 kg/acre/week produce abundant zooplankton populations. Cottonseed meal is one such good source of organic material that is easily available. The cottonseed meal has higher fiber contents than other organic substances like soybean meal, fishmeal and manures. Mahua oil cake, although acts as a poison for killing fish in the initial stages of application, it also serves as a good fertilizer and induces plankton production. Inorganic fertilizers having nitrogen and phosphorus may be added until a phytoplankton bloom develops in the water. In a properly fertilized pond, the visibility of the water column should be less than 18 inches.

Water Supply for Prawn Cultivation:  

Availability of good quality of water for filling the water body is perhaps the most important factor for selecting the site for pond construction. The supply of water should constantly throughout the tenure of prawn cultivation.

Water in the pond can be obtained from several sources:

• Rainfall: some ponds called sky ponds depend only on rainfall to fill.
• Runoff: Some ponds are gravel and sand pits that fill when water from the surrounding land areas flows into them.
• Natural waters: Many ponds are getting their water supply from natural springs, wells, lakes, rivers etc.

Read: Tuna Fish Farming .

• The ponds should get good quality water having no foul smell or bad taste. It should be clear showing no turbidity.  If the water is muddy, it should be allowed to settle before the water is used in the pond. If the water is bright green, it contains a lot of food. If the water is dark, brownish, it may contain acid in it and lime should be added to neutralize the water. Knowledge of the source of the water and the distance it traveled prior to reaching the pond is necessary.
• Farms must be designed with a proper water distribution system that allows simultaneous filling of all the ponds. A total hardness between 50-100 mg/L (CaCO3) is ideal for freshwater prawn rearing.  The hardness of very soft waters can be increased by adding calcium sulphate (gypsum). 2 mg/L of gypsum increases the total hardness by 1 mg/L.
• For hard waters, no treatment is generally required. Care must be taken that incoming water should not get contaminated without going or drained waters of the same or neighboring ponds. Hence the water inlet should always be placed opposite to the drainage point.
• Each pond must have its own independent water supply from a central distribution channel and should not receive the outflow from another pond.
• Water from one pond should not be transferred to another one because phytoplankton and zooplankton blooms develop rapidly when water from a reservoir or adjacent pond is introduced into the prawn pond.
• Water should be distributed through pipes or open channels and should fall into the pond by gravity (to improve dissolved oxygen content). This can be achieved by placing the inlet supply pipes or channels above the water level in the ponds so that the incoming water falls onto the surface of the water.

Filling of the ponds In Prawn Cultivation:  

• After liming for 15 days, the pond is filled slowly with good quality water. It is better to allow the water to drop into the pond from the inlet situated at a height so that the water gets oxygenated. If the water can enter very fast, the bottom may get stirred up and may become muddy. Therefore, the water should be allowed to settle down for a few days. Prior to the introduction of the juveniles/PL into the pond, the quality of water should be tested.
• The water used in freshwater prawn ponds is not treated with lime or chemicals. Valves, weirs, stop-logs or plugs are used to control the flow of water into each pond. Incoming water should be allowed to pass through a small screen that can restrict the entry of fish eggs, small fish and insects and other predators. Filter fabrics with 300-100-micron mesh can filter out all unwanted predators.
• Ponds should be stocked with the PL within seven days after filling with water, as the population of insects will be least during this time. Water from tube wells and pumping systems may also be used.
• The well water is usually hypoxic hence requires aeration that can be done by cascading or by allowing to fall into the pond water level from a height.
• To maintain the quality of water in prawn cultivation, there should be regular exchange water that helps to maintain high levels. Building ripples into gravity inflow channels can also enhance the dissolved oxygen level of incoming waters.
• Aeration equipment may be needed at the time of oxygen depletion, which is a very common phenomenon of tropical ponds. Artificial aeration is needed to maintain the water quality for increased productivity, especially after partial harvesting. Aeration is also needed to maintain dissolved oxygen levels during the daytime, especially at the pond bottom where it becomes low.
• Each pond should have a water inlet and outlet independent from the other neighboring ponds. The water should be replenished every week or fortnight depending upon the requirement.
• The pond should have very effective drainage systems so that it may be possible to empty and subsequently dry the pond. The emptying can be achieved by means of a series of drains or ditches, which may terminate at a monk. These structures help with drainage and are situated at the deep end of the pond.
• A monk not only helps in complete draining but also helps to control water levels during seine harvesting, flushing, and water circulation. The monk is like a sluice, and it is not built into the pond wall. But sometimes, the back of the monk touches the wall.
• Ponds should be drained out by gravity, preferably through the ‘monk’ or sluice gate. The outgoing water must also be screened to prevent the escape of the fish. Where drainage by gravity is not possible, pumping can be employed.
• The prawns have a wide range of temperature tolerance (15 to 35 ºC). However, 28 ºC is perhaps the most desired temperatures for the development of larvae, even though they can thrive well in the temperature range of 26.5 to 31.5 ºC.
• Sudden changes in temperature, as well as pH, can cause mortalities when prawns are stocked. Before their release into the pond, the bags containing the PL should be allowed to float in the pond water to bring the temperature of the bag gradually to the level of the pond water. Any adjustments to the pH of the transport water should be made in the hatchery itself prior to their transport.
• After harvesting the last batch of prawns, or newly constructed pond, the pond should be drained to get rid of all the predators. Pond sediments should be removed.
• The pond should be dried completely for 2-3 weeks after every harvesting or at least once a year.
• And the bottom of the pond should be ploughed, which increases the oxygen content of the soil.
• And the soil should be treated with 1000 kg/ha of agricultural limestone (CaCO3) or 1,500 kg/ha of hydrated (slaked) lime in case of severe infection during the previous crop. After adding limestone, the pond should be sun-dried for 15 days.
• Necessary repairs to the pond banks and the major structures, including inlets and outlets should also be made.

Broodstock in Prawn Cultivation:    

The sexes in prawn are separate. Fertilization is external; the male deposits the sperms near the genital openings of the female and the eggs get fertilized as soon as they leave the female’s body. Subsequently, the fertilized eggs get fastened to the pleopods by a sticky secretion of the tegmental gland. In this way, the female carries hundreds of the eggs attached to hairs on her pleopods until the eggs hatch. Such females are said to be ‘in berry’ or ‘berried’ females and carry up to 4000 eggs for about 4 months. The females bend down her abdomen first to protect the eggs and later the young’s cling to the swimmerets of the mother for a short period.  

• Practices of outdoor management of broodstock in the tropics are identical to those of rearing facilities.
• Immediately after receiving the broodstock at the hatchery, they should be disinfected with 0.2 to 0.5 ppm of copper sulphate or 15 to 20 ppm of formalin for 30 minutes with proper aeration.  Subsequently, they should be transferred to ponds having an optimum water temperature ranging between 27-31°C.
• A nutritionally complete diet is essential to promote superior egg production and quality. Commercially pelleted feeds can be used, but need supplementation. Broodstock should be fed at a daily rate of 1-3% of the total biomass: 50% of the pelleted feed should be replaced with the equivalent amount of liver or squid or mussel flesh, at least twice a week.
• Freshwater prawns are collected from rivers, or from nurseries, for stocking into open waters. Breeding is done in low saline waters, for larve and PL development after incubation. Breeding of M. rosenbergii takes place in estuaries.
• The collection of seed from the natural resources has many practical advantages that include: (i) the cost of seed procurement is cheaper without the use of any advanced technology, (ii) the method of collection is very simple, (iii) because of their mass movement, pure prawn seed can easily be collected. Juveniles are collected in large numbers during rainy and post-rainy (up to November) seasons. Prawn juveniles are either collected from scoop net or with the help of traps. A trap made of a bunch of various bushes tied with monofilament or coir ropes is fixed at a water depth 5-6 feet during high tide and 3-4 feet during low tide in the river for 3 to 10 days.
• The bush trap where the juveniles have taken shelter is lifted and shaken to collect them on a stretched piece of cloth of 5’ x 3’ size. They are then transported in open plastic tubs of 5 x 4 feet or 6 x 3 feet to a market or to the fish farmer’s tanks. Though the prawn seed is generally collected from the natural resources, they are only available to a limited extent.
• Many of the prawn species require a certain degree of salinity and the long gestation period for the development of their larvae. The growth rate and survival of each population of prawns depend on several factors like density, predation, feed, and temperature. These factors are site- and operation specific. Survival rates during the grow-out period should be maintained above 50%.
• Individual prawns within a population grow at different rates, some growing very faster than the rest, while some do not grow at all.
• The growth rate is among males is more than females. The size of the prawn to be harvested for selling decides the stocking rate that depends upon several factors. Some of these factors include demand of the local, national, or international markets, a period of the growing season, and on the management, practices being employed. The old ponds are more productive than newly constructed ones.
• The lower stocking rates will produce prawns, larger and average sizes. Whereas higher stocking rates will produce prawns of small size and will increase productivity (metric ton/ha/crop). If stocking of juveniles is made, there are some advantages in grading them before stocking. During culture operation, the ponds need proper maintenance including the safeguarding of the water inlet and outlet fittings along with their filters (screens, socks).
• Plantation of vegetation along the pond bank minimizes erosion of the pond bank. The pond depth should be maintained at an average of 0.9 m. The presence of aquatic plants below the waterline, however, provides food and a habitat for the prawns.
• The plants Elodea sp. And Hydrilla makes a good substrate for prawns.
• However, the excessive growth of vegetation prevents light penetration. The ponds should be stocked with the juveniles within 7 days after the pond is filled when the predaceous insects are at low densities.
• In case the size of the PL obtained from the hatcheries are very small, they should first be reared in nurseries for 4 to 5 weeks till they attain a length of 40 to 50 mm with a weight of 1 to 3 g. Depending upon the type of management practices, 4000 to 5000 PL per hectare are released into the ponds.
• The cultural practice may be monoculture or polyculture with major carp. In a polyculture system, the depth of the pond should be increased to 4 or 5 feet. While the number of PL of prawn in polyculture should be from 2500 to 20000, the number of carp fingerlings should range from 2500 to 5000. In monoculture practice, the culture period is about 6 to 8 months, and in polyculture practice, the culture period is about 8 to 12 months.
• Depending upon the type of management practice, the survival rate varies from 50% to 70%. Other important management practices include regular feeding, aeration and water renewal etc.

Prawn Cultivation Management Systems: 

There are two types prawn cultivations, Monoculture and Polyculture:

Monoculture prawn cultivation can be extensive, semi-intensive or intensive, but the definition of these terms is rather vague.

• Extensive Culture:

In extensive culture, rearing of prawn is done in ponds, in this system that production rate is less than 500 kg/ha/yr. In extensive culture, the prawns are stocked from wild sources, with PL or juveniles. Neither the water quality is controlled, nor the growth and mortality of the prawns are generally monitored. In this farming system, prawns are provided with supplemental feed. The ponds should be fertilized with organic manures.

• Semi-Extensive Culture:

In semi-intensive systems, the prawns are fertilized with a balanced diet. Water quality, prawn health and growth rate are constantly monitored. Semi-intensive prawn culture is the best farming system in tropical, with productivity of more than 500 kg/ha/yr.

• Intensive Culture:

In intensive culture freshwater prawn farming is done in small earthen or concrete ponds (up to 0.2 ha), with the high water exchange and continuous aeration, stocked, at more than 20/m2 and the output will be more than 5000 kg/ha/yr. The costs of construction and maintenance of these types of ponds are high and require high degrees of management practice, including the use of a nutritionally complete feed, the eradication of predators and competitors, and controlled water quality.

A polyculture farming system is composite farming, farming prawns along with single or multiple species of fishes. The benefits of polyculture system are:

• High oxygen levels;
• More protection from predators.
• Coprophagy, prawns consume the larvae of fishes, which increases the efficiency of feed;
• High productivity.
• The potentiality of the ponds will increase by the inclusion of a high-value species.
• Prawn-fish polyculture systems are batch-harvested. The addition of prawns to a fish polyculture system won’t reduce the quality of fish production.
• The water from farming ponds is used for the irrigation of agricultural lands.
• Prawns are often reared in paddy fields, without any decrease of the paddy production. The introduction of freshwater prawns reduces the cost of fertilization and weeding (prawns eat weeds).
• The pH levels in agricultural lands vary from 6 to 9.8, which is suitable for prawn to farming.
• The temperature in such a culture system (26 ºC to 32 ºC) is also suitable for the prawns. However, the paddy fields should be prepared properly with fencing the dikes, screening the inlet and outlet pipes and digging a trench around the paddy culture area.
• In semi-intensive prawn farming system, supplementary feeding is a must. Some of the farmers rely on fertilization than on supplementary feeding. A supplementary feed will improve performance and is cost-effective.
• At initial stages feed the prawns with an organic fertilizer that enhances the availability of natural feeds in ponds.
• Applying feed in rearing period will increase the growth the natural food in prawn ponds and also decreases the transparency of the water, therefore reducing the growth of weeds.
• The PL can be fed with different types of feeds, e.g. egg custard and Artemia, fish flesh and Artemia nauplii, tubifex worms, and nauplii etc.
• The types of feed used in prawn cultivation are of many types and the feed includes animal or vegetable raw materials and feed mixtures prepared yourself are called ‘farm-made feeds’.
• The ready-made commercial feeds are also available in the market. Being omnivorous, their nutritional requirements are not very demanding hence can be fed on a variety of feeds ranging from wet feeds made from rice bran, oil cake, flesh of fish and other animals (e.g. squids, mussels’ shrimps) and Artemia, tubifex worm, nauplii, egg custard to scientifically formulated pellet feeds.
• A complete diet must be provided for proper growth of the prawn. It takes both natural as well as formulated feed. Feeds and feeding progressively change from a fertilization schedule to feeding a slow sink pellet.
• Common agricultural by-products such as cottonseed meals and distillers grains may be used to feed the prawns during the initial two months of rearing.
• However, during the last one to two months of growth, pelleted feed preferably water stable must be provided.
• Water-stable feeds provide the prawns with a balanced diet. Well-bound compounded feeds also result in less water pollution and make analyses of the daily feed requirements easier.
• The feed should be scattered evenly on the pond basin. Feeding should be done @ 4% of body weight/per day.
• In polyculture culture systems, simple mixtures of rice bran with plant oilcakes like mustard and groundnut are used as feed.

• Sudden heavy or low mortalities in small numbers over a period may indicate reassessment of the culture applications. Prawns covered with algae or absence of recent mounting may indicate their unhealthy conditions and/or poor culture conditions.
• The reasons may be poor farm management, leading to derelict water quality and/or attack of the disease. Other external factors like pollution from pesticides and herbicides may be some of the other factors.
• The most likely source of external water pollution is from pesticides and herbicides.   Frequent exchange of a small proportion of the water is the usual way of maintaining water quality. Cannibalism is common in prawns.
• A scum of phytoplankton often covers the surface of the pond causing low DO problems after sunset. Low DO should be suspected if prawns begin to crawl out of the ponds or congregate at the edges of the pond in daylight. This can be controlled by reduction in feed and by exchanging water. If this problem persists flushing the pond is recommended. Dense phytoplankton bloom often causes high pH.
• The most important way to prevent the appearance of predatory animals is to stock prawns immediately after filling the ponds so that predators and competitors do not get established.
• The M. rosenbergii themselves, can also control the dragonfly population, if stocked before the hatching of the insects, the presence of good population frogs and toads in the pond is indicatives of the absence of predatory fish.
• Predation is caused mainly by other aquatic species (belonging to the same or different groups) like insects, amphibians, birds, snakes, and mammals. Mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) and related species are often stocked in freshwater prawn ponds to control insects.
• Perimeter fencing, lighting, employment of dogs and reliable watchman may help to minimize predation by human beings. Loss of prawns through operational faults and poor management is also very common.
• If the outlet structures are not properly maintained, the prawns very often escape from them. Using rotenone or teased cake between cycles can effectively control unwanted fish. Passing the intake water through suitable screens or gravel filters can prevent the entry of fish and some insects.
• Disease problem in pond cultivation is relatively low when compared with other aquaculture farming.
• This may perhaps be due to relatively low stocking densities of the prawn practiced so far. With the increased stocking rates, problems may also increase.
• Diseases occur when the prawn ponds when the quality of the water deteriorates. Disease problems are caused due to the transfer of animals from one place to another, and also the introduction of animals into a location where they are not indigenous.
• And some other reasons that can cause diseases are due to nutritional deficiencies, fouling or parasites.
• There are some diseases, which are non-specific or are of unknown origin. Their treatment is also not normally practicable. The prawns also face the diseases called muscle necrosis, the prawns are affected with these diseases have a whitish color in the striated muscles of their tails and appendages.
• The necrotic areas may increase in size and become reddish, a color identical to cook specimens due to the decomposition of the muscular tissues. Secondary infections (e.g. Bacteria and the fungus Fusarium) also get associated with the affected areas.
• Prawns suffering from chronic muscle necrosis do not generally survive and heavy mortality rates varying from insignificant to 100% may occur. This disease may occur due to poor management practices, particularly when stocking rates and handling stress are high resulting in poor environmental conditions (e.g. Low dissolved oxygen, temperature fluctuations, and salinity fluctuations).
• Extreme infestation on the gills impairs their physiology leading to their mortalities in juvenile or adult stages. Heavy infestation over the exterior surface can also reduce its market value. Infestation by filamentous algae has been observed to occur in rearing ponds with high water transparency (above 40 cm).
• This problem can be overcome by lowering water transparency through feed management. The effects of fouling organisms can be controlled by good management practices, especially by proper treatment of the incoming waters, proper cleaning of the tank basins, and the treatment of Artemia cysts. Avoidance of over-feeding and increased water exchange may also help to minimize the incidence of fouling. Chemical treatments against fouling organisms are not generally recommended.

Harvesting in Prawn Cultivation:

• Farmed prawns are better than wild-caught. Good quality prawns have a greenish or bluish tint with bright blue or orange chelipeds. Harvesting of prawn can be identical to seining provided the pond is free from obstruction.
• Once the prawns are collected after harvesting, the larger specimens are picked by hand picking. Small size prawns are returned to the water and should be grown further. Trimming the large blue claw prawns helps the other prawns to grow to a larger size.
• Harvesting can be made either by culling (sometimes called cull-harvesting) or draining (drain-harvesting). The time to harvest depends on the growth rate, size of specimen being caught and the pond management technique applied. Cull harvesting helps to harvest market-sized prawns from the pond. Remaining prawns are harvested at the end of the farming period. Cull harvesting should be initiated from 5-7 months.
• The ponds are drained after 8 to 11 months, and the entire catch is sold. After drain harvesting, the pond can again be prepared, refilled and restocked immediately, or be kept empty until enough water is available again for rearing.
• Cull harvesting is not the best method of harvesting to collect market sized prawns.
• The best way would be to harvest is, to empty the pond totally and remove all the dominant animals and restock the others in the same and/or different ponds.
• All harvesting operations should be practiced in the early morning hours when the atmosphere is cooler and low water levels do not harm the pond inhabitants due to direct exposure to the sun. The pond water level can be lowered during the night before harvesting.

Get piece of information. About to operate a Prawn farming or Begineers here in Suva, Fiji. The tips is great and a way to establish my farm. Hope to hear of the finer details as I progress through the farm.

How can you setup prawn ponds for us in Nigeria? We are highly interested.

Dear Mr Reddy, We have a 250 Acre Parcel of land which is apt for Aquaculture. Would like to speak to you personally with regards to the development of the same. If I could have your personal tel. nos. I would appreciate. thanks and regards. Vikrant Sawant : 9821383465

Is there any info on an aquaponics system , set up with growing food in the same water on the surface. Instead of fish.

We are looking at setting up a prawn and shrimps farming. Can we get a consultant to talk to?

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• Prawn Culture

Macrobrachium rosenbergii , also known as the giant river prawn or the giant freshwater prawn, is native to the Indo-Pacific and northern Australian Regions. The adult is found in freshwater, while its larval stages live in brackish water after the juvenile stage. During mating, the male attaches its spermatophore on the ventral side of the abdomen of female’s body and the eggs coming out of female genital opening are fertilised by the sperms derived from spermatophores.

The fertilised eggs are held in the brood chamber or egg basket, which is made by the interlocking appendix interna of the pleopods and are aerated by vigorous movements of the swimmerets for 2-3 weeks. This is in contrast to shrimps, whose fertilized eggs are released into the sea. Females can lay 80,000-100,000 eggs during one spawning and eggs take an average of 20 days at 28°C to hatch into larvae.

After hatching, larvae are dispersed by the rapid movements of the abdominal appendages of the female. Larvae are planktonic and swim upside down actively with tail first posture and feed on small planktons. Larvae complete development in 15-20 days and metamorphose into post larvae, which resemble miniature adults and generally feed near bottom and then begin to migrate upstream into freshwater rivers within one or two weeks after metamorphosis and are soon able to swim against the rapidly flowing currents (contranatant behaviour) and can also crawl over the stones in shallow waters.

HATCHERIES AND NURSERIES

Freshwater prawn hatcheries need supplies for both freshwater and sea water; the latter can be drawn from areas where the salinity is 30 to 35 ppt. The brackish water derived from the mixture of seawater, brine or artificial sea salts mixed with freshwater should have salinity of 12-16 ppt, pH of 7.0 to 8.5 and dissolved oxygen level of 5 ppm.

 The prawn farm site should also have the following facilities:

• A secure power supply to ensure that the components of hatchery, e.g. aeration, water flow etc. can continue to function uninterrupted.
• An uninterrupted access for incoming and outgoing materials by road.
• Access to the uninterrupted seawater and freshwater supplies.
• Farm should not be close to cities, mines and industrial centres or to other activities that may pollute the water supply.
• Farm should be situated in a climate where the temperature range of 28-31°C can be easily maintained.
• Food supplies for larvae should be easily procured when required.
• Should have access to biological and veterinary assistance whenever required.
•  Should be close to other nursery facilities feed sites.
• Should be close to the market for quick selling after harvesting.

OBTAINING BERRIED FEMALE PRAWNS

Berried females are those that carry fertilised eggs in their egg basket. They can be obtained from rivers, canals, lakes and estuaries, where they are most abundant in the beginning of rainy season. In the tropics, berried females can be obtained all the year round from farm ponds containing adult animals.   Selecting fast-growing, berried females from ponds has a positive effect on the weight of prawns at harvest.

In the tropics, where berried females are readily available, special brood holding facilities are not required but in temperate areas, indoor brood stocking facilities are essential. Brood stock is disinfected by placing into freshwater containing 0.2-0.5 ppm of copper sulphate or 15-20 ppm of formalin for about 30 minutes.  Prawns should be fed daily at the rate of 1-3% of total biomass.

Berried females can be collected from the holding system and placed in tanks where the eggs will hatch into first instar larvae, which are collected by netting. The hatching tanks should be covered to prevent bright sunlight to reach larvae for which the inner side of the tanks should also be painted with black epoxy-resin paint.

LARVAL REARING TANKS

Different designs of containers can be used to grow freshwater prawn larvae, which may be circular flat-bottom tanks, circular conical-bottomed plastic tanks, plastic-lined wooden tanks, rectangular concrete tanks, concrete-faced brick tanks and earthen water jars. Good drainage system is essential as water has to be removed from tanks at harvesting time. Mixing tanks are also required for preparing the brackish water to be used in the hatchery as well as storage tanks.  Aeration of water is also essential which can be done through PVC pipes, with holes cut at one foot intervals.  

Larvae should not be exposed to direct sunlight, for which 90% of the tan area should be covered and shady. Some natural light is essential for good larval survival, which can be provided through transparent roofs over the hatcheries. Physical filters that include sand filters, drum screen filters, and medium filters should be easy to clean and designed to minimize water loss.

Water needs to be chemically treated before it can be used in rearing tanks and also should be physically filtered by passing through the sand bed before transferring it to another tank for treatment. Mix the seawater or brine with freshwater to form 12 ppt of brackish water. The optimum temperature range for M. rosenbergii is 28-31°C. Below 24-26°C the larvae will not grow well and the time taken for them to reach metamorphosis will be longer.

LARVAL FEEDING

A wide range of feeding material is used by different hatcheries, which includes nauplius larvae of shrimps, freshwater cladocerans, fish eggs, squid flesh, frozen adult Artemia , rotifers, fish flesh, egg custard, worms and commercial feeds available in the market. The quantity of food to be given depends on the utilization of feed by larvae that vary from place to place. The quantity of feed consumed will increase as the larvae grow.  

HARVESTING POST LARVAE

When post larvae are about 7-8 mm long, they can withstand transfer from 12 ppt water into freshwater. However, they should not be harvested from the larval tanks and transferred directly into holding tanks containing freshwater but should be acclimatized to fresh water in the larval tanks itself. When majority of larvae have metamorphosed, water level in tanks should be reduced to about 35 cm. Then gradually the tank should be flushed with freshwater over a period of 12 hours. The post larvae can then be collected and transferred or the larval tanks can be refilled to 70 cm with fresh water and the animals temporarily held in them. The best way to harvest post larvae from the larval tanks is to reduce the water level and then remove them by nets.

HOLDING POST LARVAE BEFORE SALE

 Post larvae cannot be held in holding tanks for more than a week or two prior to stocking in nurseries. When the post larvae are in the holding tanks, the rearing water should be changed every 2-3 days) to provide aeration. Post larvae can be stocked at densities of about 5,000/m2 for one week, although survival increases by reducing the density.

REARING PONDS

Pond size should be such that can be managed easily. Generally most farms have ponds of around 0.2-0.6 ha size. Large ponds are normally wider than 30 m and often drained for harvesting. The average depth of water in freshwater prawn ponds in tropical areas should be about one meter; with a minimum of 0.75 m and a maximum of 1.2 m. Deeper ponds are used in colder areas to maintain more stable water temperatures. The banks of the ponds or embankments or bunds must be high enough for the highest water level expected in the pond, which generally should be 1-2 feet higher than water level. The flow of water into each pond must be controlled by valves, stop-logs or plugs. Paddle wheels are the most efficient method of increasing dissolved oxygen levels in the pond water.

Stocking the ponds quickly reduces competitors and predators, which have less time to become established. Often post larvae that are a week or two old after metamorphosis are used to stock ponds, where they remain until harvesting.  A stocking density of about 40,000/ha is recommended for the monoculture of Macrobrachium rosenbergii .  Using larger juveniles for stocking increases the survival rate as well as the average weight of the animals by as much as about 30%.

 Natural productivity of the ponds generally gives small production from the ponds. Therefore, intensive farming must involve supplementary feeding to increase productivity.  Some farms claim to rely on fertilizers, rather than feeding at the beginning of the rearing period, which stimulates algal bloom and lot of micro flora and fauna in the ponds. Others find that providing feed from the beginning of the rearing period improves performance and is cost-effective. Commercial feeds are the most productive and reliable to use but they are expensive and unaffordable to small farmers.

HARVESTING MARKETABLE PRAWNS

Basically there are two methods of harvesting: culling and draining . The time of harvesting depends partly on the growth rate and partly on the size of animals for market requirements. Culling is used to harvest market-sized animals from the ponds to remove faster growing prawns which increase density quickly. In tropics culling usually starts 5-7 months after post larvae have been stocked to take out the market-sized animals for selling and keeping the smaller ones and soft-shelled animals in the pond for further growth. After about 8-11 months ponds are drained and all animals are sold. In cull harvesting, a seine net is pulled through the pond to remove market-sized animals, while in drain harvesting, a harvesting sump is installed in front of the gate or outside the pond, in which prawns will accumulate while water is being drained.

DISEASE CONTROL

Several diseases affect freshwater prawn larvae as well as adults. Some hatcheries use formalin at the rate of 200 ppm daily as an effective remedy for protozoan and hydrozoan parasites and fungal diseases. Formalin can also be used at a lower level of about 30 ppm for longer periods, followed by water change after 24 hours.  Larvae can also be transferred to disinfecting tanks every 5-10 days to get rid of diseases and parasites. Daily dip of larvae in Malachite green (0.2 ppm) for 30 min has also been used for treatment. Also, dipping in copper sulphate 0.4 ppm solution for 6 hours is recommended. Antibiotics and sulfa drugs are sometimes used to control filamentous bacteria and some hatcheries use lime (CaO) as a prophylactic measure.

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A study of Biology for students and science lovers:

• Prawn Culture

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• Animal Kingdom Classification
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What is prawn?

Prawns are belong to the phylum arthropoda, class Crustacea is considered by most people a fish. But it is not a fish; it is an aquatic Crustacea of economic importance. The prawn is a good source of protein and constitutes highly nutritive diet for human beings. Due to its nice taste, it is a cherished food-item throughout the world.

What is Prawn culture ?

Generally the larval forms of prawn is allowed to enter the different types of the culture fields, rear them there and to capture them for marketing. And this is the system which is called the prawn culture.

Habit, Habitat and food of Prawns

Before going for the prawn culture we should have some knowledge about the habit,habitat and food of prowns. Prawn inhabits all sorts of water, much as in sea-water, estuaries and fresh-water. They are generally living at the bottom of water and are avoiding sun-rays. The marine and brackish water species spawn in sea. The hatchlnings are incapable to swim, so they are drifted along with the current to the coastal waters or estuaries where they undergo development till they reaches the juvenile stage. The post larvae feed upon the dead organic matter of plants and animals and upon small benthonic organisms. The juvenile prawn has to enter the sea. The fresh-water species like Macrobrachiumsp. spawn in fresh-water, then they are drifted to estuaries and after attaining the juvenile stage swim back to fresh-water. Prawns are consuming the organic substances, microscopic animals and plants as their food material. Among the animals, minute insect, snail, larvae of mollusca and echinodermata as well as aquatic weeds, algae, moss etc., are taken as their food material.

Types of Prawns used for prawn culture

Cultivable prawns are divided mainly into two groups, such as: (i) Saline-water species and (ii) sweet-water species. Saline-water species are placed in the family Penaeidae, so thay are known as Peneid and sweet-water species using to the family Palaemonidae, hence they are known as Palaemonid or non-peneid.

External features of Prawn

Body of the prawn is elongated and it is covered by hard covering known as carapace. The body is mainly divided into cephaiothorax and abdomen. Cephalothorax is composed of head and thorax and this cephaiothorax is covered by a hard carapace. There is a saw-like structure on the anterior end known as rostrum which acts as a defensive organ. Near about the base of rostrum, there is a pair of compound eyes. A pair of antenna which is a sensetive organ is placed at the anterior end of the body. On the ventral side of the cephaiothorax, six pairs of walking legs are situated for walking on the substratum. These walking legs are known as pleopods. The abdomen is subdivided into few segments and each segment is covered by exoskeletal structures. The last segment of abdomen becomes triangular which is known as telson. On the ventral surface of the abdomen, there are few swimmerets which help in swimming. These swimmerets are known as pleopods.

Methods of Prawn Culture

Salty water prawn culture

PRAWN CULTURE IN PADDY FIELDS

Extensive prawn cultivation in paddy fields is going on in different regions of the world..

Method of prawn culture in paddy field

In those paddy fields which are fed by irrigation canals are most favourable for Prawn culture. In summer months, the water level of feeder canals of a river remains at a level about 30 cm below the level of the paddy fields. At the time of onset of monsoon, the paddy fields are manure and then seedlings are planted.

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Prawn Culture in India | Zoology

In this article we will discuss about the prawn culture in India.

A. Important cultural prawns and their importance in fishery :

A good number of prawn species are of commercial value.

The following are impor­tant:

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a. Penaeus indicus (Fig. 47.8):

Maximum size 230 mm. One of the most important commercial species. Young ones are fished in estuary.

b. Penaeus monodon:

Maximum size 320 mm. An important commercial species. Good fishery in West Bengal and Orissa.

c. Metapenaeus monoceros:

Maximum size 180 mm. Very important commercially.

d. Metapenaeus brevicornis:

Maximum size 125 mm. Good fishery in northern region of south and east coasts. Juveniles are also fished in estuary.

e. Palaemon styliferus:

Maximum size 90 mm. One of the most important fishery in Gangetic delta.

f. Macro brachium rude:

Maximum size 130 mm. Good seasonal fishery in West Bengal and Orissa.

g. Macro brachium Rosenberger (Fig.25.1):

Maximum size 320 mm. Very good fishery in monsoon and post-monsoon months in Kerala.

h. Macro brachium malacolmsonii:

Maximum size 230 mm. Fairly good fishery in North­east coast in monsoon months.

B. Prawn seed collection: sites and time :

The creeks, canals and shallow waters, preferably with sloping sides, are suitable places for seed collection. The lunar phases are the best time period for collection.

Dif­ferent types of gears are used for collection:

a. A battery of nets are operated in longitudinal rows in shallow water.

b. The shooting net is suitable for the pelagic forms.

c. Scoop nets and drag nets are used in intertidal pools and shallow inundations.

Different species of prawn do not breed in confined water. Induced breeding with hypophysation has been a success.

C. Prawn culture in brackish water:

Four types of prawn culture are preva­lent in West Bengal:

a. Only stocking and harvesting without any care to prawn population and food supply.

b. Stocking of known quantity and cul­tured with natural food.

c. Stocking at higher concentration and extra nutrient added. In this method, pro­duction can be increased by 500 per cent.

d. Stocking selected prawns at higher concentration with fertilisation, supplemen­tal feeding and stock manipulation.

1. Pond preparation :

a. Prior to stocking, the culture pond is dewatered and its bed is exposed to sun to dry. It helps in high soil fertility.

b. Mohua oil cake, an organic toxicant, is spread over the bed at a rate of 100 to 150 kg/ha and water is drawn to a depth of 4 to 5 cm.

c. The toxin dissolves in water and the unwanted organisms are killed.

d. The water is again drained out after 2-3 days and the pond is flushed with fresh tide water to wash away rest of the toxi­cants.

2. Fertilisation :

a. For a better growth of prawn food organisms, manuring of ponds is essential.

b. This is repeated monthly with oil cake @ 50 to 100 kg, urea and superphosphate each 50 kg/ha.

3. Water management :

a. Water is periodically drawn through inlets guarded with close mesh screen.

b. This prevents entry of undesirable organisms and also escape of prawn.

c. The optimum ranges are—temperature 25-30’C; dissolved oxygen 4-8 PPM; pH 8.0.

4. Stocking :

Fry and fingerlings are directly stocked in ponds:

a. Stocking density is high in brackish water than in fresh water as the growth rate is slow in the first.

b. Supplementary feeding is done de­pending on the stocking density and pro­ductivity of the pond. 

c. Stocking density largely depends on the culture practiced:

i. Single stocking and single harvest.

ii. Single stocking and multiple harvest.

iii. Multiple stocking and multiple har­vest.

5. Supplementary feeding :

Shortage of natural food needs supple­mentary feeding. It leads to a better growth in a pond where prawns are stocked at a high concentration.

6. Harvest :

a. Partial harvesting is done by setting bag nets at the outlet during low tide.

b. Total harvest is possible only with complete dewatering.

Prawn culture in Kerala :

Prawns are cultured in backwaters along with paddy crops. This is known as paddy cum prawn culture. Juveniles of all commercially important species are trapped in paddy field.

a. The variety of paddy ‘Pokali’ is har­vested in September.

b. From now onwards the salinity of paddy fields gradually increases and prawn juveniles are allowed to enter with water through controlled sluice gates.

c. In and outflow of water are allowed daily during high and low tides but prawns are prevented to escape with bamboo mats placed inside the gates.

d. In April, the culture comes to an end. Prawns are completely harvested by re­peated netting and dewatering of the field.

Problems of prawn culture :

The hazards of brackish water prawn culture are:

a. Mechanical :

i. Structural failure of water gates.

ii. Landslide from dykes.

iii. Erosion and silting up of farm ponds.

iv. Overflowing of ponds.

b. Physical :

i. Temperature

ii. Turbidity of water.

c. Chemical :

i. Salinity.

ii. Organic pollution of farm ponds.

iii. Oxygen deficiency.

d. Biological :

i. Parasites and diseases.

These, however, can be controlled with proper care.

Related Articles:

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Essay on Indian Culture for Students and Children

500+ words essay on indian culture.

India is a country that boasts of a rich culture. The culture of India refers to a collection of minor unique cultures. The culture of India comprises of clothing, festivals, languages, religions, music, dance, architecture, food, and art in India. Most noteworthy, Indian culture has been influenced by several foreign cultures throughout its history. Also, the history of India’s culture is several millennia old.

Components of Indian Culture

First of all, Indian origin religions are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism . All of these religions are based on karma and dharma. Furthermore, these four are called as Indian religions. Indian religions are a major category of world religions along with Abrahamic religions.

Also, many foreign religions are present in India as well. These foreign religions include Abrahamic religions. The Abrahamic religions in India certainly are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Besides Abrahamic religions, Zoroastrianism and Bahá’í Faith are the other foreign religions which exist in India. Consequently, the presence of so many diverse religions has given rise to tolerance and secularism in Indian culture.

The Joint family system is the prevailing system of Indian culture . Most noteworthy, the family members consist of parents, children, children’s spouses, and offspring. All of these family members live together. Furthermore, the eldest male member is the head of the family.

Arranged marriages are the norm in Indian culture. Probably most Indians have their marriages planned by their parents. In almost all Indian marriages, the bride’s family gives dowry to bridegroom. Weddings are certainly festive occasions in Indian culture. There is involvement of striking decorations, clothing, music, dance, rituals in Indian weddings. Most noteworthy, the divorce rates in India are very low.

India celebrates a huge number of festivals. These festivals are very diverse due to multi-religious and multi-cultural Indian society. Indians greatly value festive occasions. Above all, the whole country joins in the celebrations irrespective of the differences.

Traditional Indian food, arts, music, sports, clothing, and architecture vary significantly across different regions. These components are influenced by various factors. Above all, these factors are geography, climate, culture, and rural/urban setting.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Perceptions of Indian Culture

Indian culture has been an inspiration to many writers. India is certainly a symbol of unity around the world. Indian culture is certainly very complex. Furthermore, the conception of Indian identity poses certain difficulties. However, despite this, a typical Indian culture does exist. The creation of this typical Indian culture results from some internal forces. Above all, these forces are a robust Constitution, universal adult franchise, secular policy , flexible federal structure, etc.

Indian culture is characterized by a strict social hierarchy. Furthermore, Indian children are taught their roles and place in society from an early age. Probably, many Indians believe that gods and spirits have a role in determining their life. Earlier, traditional Hindus were divided into polluting and non-polluting occupations. Now, this difference is declining.

Indian culture is certainly very diverse. Also, Indian children learn and assimilate in the differences. In recent decades, huge changes have taken place in Indian culture. Above all, these changes are female empowerment , westernization, a decline of superstition, higher literacy , improved education, etc.

To sum it up, the culture of India is one of the oldest cultures in the World. Above all, many Indians till stick to the traditional Indian culture in spite of rapid westernization. Indians have demonstrated strong unity irrespective of the diversity among them. Unity in Diversity is the ultimate mantra of Indian culture.

FAQs on Indian Culture

Q1 What are the Indian religions?

A1 Indian religions refer to a major category of religion. Most noteworthy, these religions have their origin in India. Furthermore, the major Indian religions are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.

Q2 What are changes that have taken place in Indian culture in recent decades?

A2 Certainly, many changes have taken place in Indian culture in recent decades. Above all, these changes are female empowerment, westernization, a decline of superstition, higher literacy, improved education, etc.

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Essays about Culture and Identity: 9 Examples And Prompts

Writing essays about culture and identity will help you explore your understanding of it. Here are examples that will give you inspiration for your next essay.

Culture can refer to customs, traditions, beliefs, lifestyles, laws, artistic expressions, and other elements that cultivate the collective identity. Different cultures are established across nations, regions, communities, and social groups. They are passed on from generation to generation while others evolve or are abolished to give way to modern beliefs and systems.

While our cultural identity begins at home, it changes as we involve ourselves with other groups (friends, educational institutions, social media communities, political groups, etc.) Culture is a very relatable subject as every person is part of a culture or at least can identify with one. Because it spans broad coverage, there are several interesting cultural subjects to write about.

Our culture and identity are dynamic. This is why you may find it challenging to write about it. To spark your inspiration, check out our picks of the best culture essays. 

1. Sweetness and Light by Matthew Arnolds

2. how auto-tune revolutionized the sound of popular music by simon reynolds, 3. how immigration changes language by john mcwhorter, 4. the comfort zone: growing up with charlie brown by jonathan franzen, 5. culture and identity definition by sandra graham, 6. how culture and surroundings influence identity by jeanette lucas, 7. how the food we eat reflects our culture and identity by sophia stephens, 8. identity and culture: my identity, culture, and identity by april casas, 9. how america hinders the cultural identity of their own citizens by seth luna, 1. answer the question, “who am i”, 2. causes of culture shock, 3. your thoughts on dystopia and utopia, 4. gender inequality from a global perspective, 5. the most interesting things you learned from other cultures, 6. the relationship between cultural identity and clothes, 7. describe your culture, 8. what is the importance of honoring your roots , 9. how can a person adapt to a new culture, 10. what artistic works best express your country’s culture, 11. how has social media influenced human interaction, 12. how do you protect the cultures of indigenous peoples, 13. are k-pop and k-drama sensations effectively promoting korea’s culture , 14. what is the importance of cultural diversity.

“… [A]nd when every man may say what he likes, our aspirations ought to be satisfied. But the aspirations of culture, which is the study of perfection, are not satisfied, unless what men say, when they may say what they like, is worth saying,—has good in it, and more good than bad.”

Arnolds compels a re-examination of values at a time when England is leading global industrialization and beginning to believe that greatness is founded on material progress. 

The author elaborates why culture, the strive for a standard of perfection, is not merely driven by scientific passions and, more so, by materialistic affluence. As he esteems religion as “that voice of the deepest human experience” to harmonize men in establishing that ideal society, Arnolds stresses that culture is the effort to “make reason and the will of God prevail” while humanizing gained knowledge to be society’s source of “sweetness and light.”

“Few innovations in sound production have been simultaneously so reviled and so revolutionary. Epoch-defining or epoch-defacing, Auto-Tune is indisputably the sound of the 21st century so far.”

Reynolds shows how Auto-Tune has shaped a pop music genre that has cut across cultures. The article maps out the music landscape Auto-Tune created and examines its impact on the culture of song productions and the modern taste for music. While the author debunks accusations that Auto-Tune destroyed the “natural” process of creating music, he also points out that the technology earned its reverence with big thanks to society’s current custom of using technology to hide blemishes and other imperfections.

Looking for more? Check out these essays about culture shock .

“… [T]he heavy immigration that countries like Italy are experiencing will almost certainly birth new kinds of Italian that are rich with slang, somewhat less elaborate than the standard, and… widely considered signs of linguistic deterioration, heralding a future where the “original” standard language no longer exists.”

American linguist McWhorter pacifies fears over the death of “standard” languages amid the wave of immigration to Europe. On the contrary, language is a vital expression of a culture, and for some, preserving is tantamount to upholding a cultural standard. 

However, instead of seeing the rise of new “multiethnolects” such as the Black English in America and Kiezdeutsch in Germany as threats to language and culture, McWhorter sees them as a new way to communicate and better understand the social groups that forayed these new languages.

“I wonder why “cartoonish” remains such a pejorative. It took me half my life to achieve seeing my parents as cartoons. And to become more perfectly a cartoon myself: what a victory that would be.”

This essay begins with a huge fight between Franzen’s brother and father to show how the cultural generation gap sweeping the 60s has hit closer to home. This generation gap, where young adults were rejecting the elders’ old ways in pursuit of a new and better culture, will also be the reason why his family ends up drifting apart. Throughout the essay, Franzen treads this difficult phase in his youth while narrating fondly how Peanuts, a pop culture icon at the time, was his source of escape. 

“…Culture is… your background… and Identity is formed where you belong to… Leopold Sedar Senghor and Shirley Geok-Lin Lim both talks about how culture and identity can impact… society…”

In this essay, Graham uses “To New York” by Senghor and “Learning To Love America” by Lim as two pieces of literature that effectively describe the role of culture and identity to traveling individuals. 

The author refers to Sengho’s reminder that people can adapt but must not forget their culture even if they go to a different place or country. On the other hand, Lim discusses immigrants’ struggle to have double identities.

“Culture is something that surrounds all of us and progress to shape our lives every day… Identity is illustrated as the state of mind in which someone or something distinguishes their own character traits that lead to determining who they really are, what they represent.”

Lucas is keen on giving examples of how his culture and surroundings influence an individual’s identity. She refers to Kothari’s “If you are what you eat, then what am I?” which discusses Kothari’s search for her identity depending on what food she eats. Food defines a person’s culture and identity, so Kothari believes that eating food from different countries will change his identity.

Lucas also refers to “Down These Mean Streets” by Piri Thomas, which argues how different cultural and environmental factors affect us. Because of what we encounter, there is a possibility that we will become someone who we are not. 

“What we grow is who we are. What we buy is who we are. What we eat is who we are.”

Stephens’ essay teaches its readers that the food we grow and eat defines us as a person. She explains that growing a crop and harvesting it takes a lot of effort, dedication, and patience, which mirrors our identity. 

Another metaphor she used is planting rice: it takes skills and knowledge to make it grow. Cooking rice is more accessible than cultivating it – you can quickly cook rice by boiling it in water. This reflects people rich in culture and tradition but who lives simpler life. 

“Every single one has their own unique identity and culture. Culture plays a big role in shaping your identity. Culture is what made me the person I am today and determines who or what I choose to associate myself with.”

Casas starts her piece by questioning who she is. In trying to learn and define who she is, she writes down and describes herself and her personality throughout the essay. Finally, she concludes that her culture is a big part of her identity, and she must understand it to understand herself.

“When it comes to these stereotypes we place on each other, a lot of the time, we succumb to the stereotypes given to us. And our cultural identity is shaped by these expectations and labels others give us. That is why negative stereotypes sometimes become true for a whole group or community.”

In this essay, Luna talks about how negative stereotyping in the United States led to moral distortion. For example, Americans are assumed to be ignorant of other countries’ cultures, making it difficult to understand other people’s cultures and lifestyles. 

She believes that stereotyping can significantly affect an individual or group’s identity. She suggests Americans should improve their intellectual competence by being sensitive to other people’s cultures.

14 Prompts on Essays about Culture and Identity

You can discuss many things on the subject of culture and identity. To give you a starting point, here are some prompts to help you write an exciting essay about culture. 

If you are interested in learning more, check out our essay writing tips and our round-up of the best essay checkers .

Understanding your personality is vital since continuous interaction with others can affect your personality. Write about your culture and identity; what is your personality? How do you define yourself? Everyone is unique, so by writing an essay about who you are, you’ll be able to understand why you act a certain way and connect with readers who have the same values. 

Here’s a guide on writing a descriptive essay to effectively relay your experience to your readers.

Sometimes, people need to get out of their comfort zone and interact with other individuals with different cultures, beliefs, or traditions. This is to broaden one’s perspective about the world. Aside from discussing what you’ve learned in that journey, you can also focus on the bits that shocked you. 

You can talk about a tradition or value that you found so bizarre because it differs from your culture. Then add how you processed it and finally adapted to it.

Dystopia and Utopia are both imagined worlds. Dystopia is a world where people live in the worst or most unfavorable conditions, while Utopia is the opposite. 

You can write an essay about what you think a Dystopian or Utopian world may look like, how these societies will affect their citizens, etc. Then, consider what personality citizens of each world may have to depend on the two worlds’ cultures.

Today, more and more people are fighting for others to accept or at least respect the LGBTQ+ community. However, countries, territories, and religions still question their rights.

In your essay, you can talk about why these institutions react the way they do and how culture dictates someone’s identity in the wrong way. Before creating your own, feel free to read other essays and articles to learn more about the global gender inequality issue. 

The world has diverse cultures, traditions, and values. When you travel to a new place, learning and writing about your firsthand experiences with unique cultures and rituals will always be an interesting read.

In this prompt, you’ll research other cultures and how they shaped their group’s identity. Then, write about the most exciting aspects you’ve learned, why you found them fascinating, and how they differ from your culture.

Those proud of their culture will wear clothes inspired by them. Some wear the same clothes even if they aren’t from the same culture. The debate over cultural appropriation and culture appreciation is still a hot topic. 

In this essay, you may start with the traditions of your community or observances your family celebrates and gathers for. Then, elaborate on their origins and describe how your community or family is preserving these practices. 

Learning about your roots, ancestors, and family cultures can help strengthen your understanding of your identity and foster respect for other cultures. Explore this topic and offer examples of what others have learned. Has the journey always been a positive experience? Delve into this question for an engaging and interesting essay.

When a person moves country, it can be challenging to adapt to a new culture. If there are new people at work or school, you can interview them and ask how they are coping with their new environment. How different is this from what they have been used to, and what unique traditions do they find interesting?

Focus on an art piece that is a source of pride and identity to your country’s culture, much like the Tinikling of the Philippines or the Matryoshka dolls of Russia. Explore its origins and evolution up to its current manifestation and highlight efforts that are striving to protect and promote these artistic works.

The older generation did not have computers in their teen years. Ask about how they dated in their younger years and how they made friends. Contrast how the younger generation is building their social networks today. Write what culture of socialization works better for you and explain why.

Take in-depth navigation of existing policies that protect indigenous peoples. Are they sufficient to serve these communities needs, and are they being implemented effectively? There is also the challenge of balancing the protection of these traditions against the need to protect the environment, as some indigenous practices add to the carbon footprint. How is your government dealing with this challenge?

A large population is now riding the Hallyu or the Korean pop culture, with many falling in love with the artists and Korea’s food, language, and traditional events. Research how certain Korean films, TV series, or music have effectively attracted fans to experience Korea’s culture. Write about what countries can learn from Korea in promoting their own cultures.

Environments that embrace cultural diversity are productive and innovative. To start your essay, assess how diverse your workplace or school is. Then, write your personal experiences where working with co-workers or classmates from different cultures led to new and innovative ideas and projects. Combine this with the personal experiences of your boss or the principal to see how your environment benefits from hosting a melting pot of cultures.

If you aim for your article to effectively change readers’ perspectives and align with your opinion, read our guide to achieving persuasive writing . 

Aisling is an Irish journalist and content creator with a BA in Journalism & New Media. She has bylines in OK! Magazine, Metro, The Inquistr, and the Irish Examiner. She loves to read horror and YA. Find Aisling on LinkedIn .

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How to Write an Essay about Your Culture

Do you need to write an essay about your culture but don’t know where to start? You’ve come to the right place! I’m Constance, and I’ll show you how to write an essay about your culture. I’ll guide you step by step, and we’ll write a sample essay together. Let’s dive in. 

Writing an essay about your culture includes 5 steps:

Step 1. Plan how many words you want in each paragraph.

When you know the exact number of words you need for an essay, planning the word count for each paragraph will be much easier. 

For example, a 300-word essay typically consists of five paragraphs and three key elements:

• The introductory paragraph.
• Three body paragraphs.
• The conclusion, or the concluding paragraph.

Here’s a simple way to distribute 300 words across the five paragraphs in your essay:

You’ll get 300 when you add up these numbers. 

Step 2. Decide on what your main and supporting points will be.

First, you must take a stand, meaning you must decide on your main point. What do you really want to say about your culture? Whatever you want to say, that becomes your thesis. 

For example, “My culture is very rich.” That is enough to get started. You’ll get a better idea of how to expand or tweak your thesis after the next step.

Next, divide your topic using the Power of Three to prove the point that your culture is rich using three supporting ideas.

The Power of Three effectively divides an essay’s main idea into its supporting points. It means your main idea is true because of the three reasons you will provide in the body. So, it is a three-part structure that helps produce your body paragraphs .

Let’s try it for an essay about Filipino culture!

For example, here are three supporting ideas explaining the richness of Filipino culture:

• The Philippines has incredible food .
• Traditional Filipino clothing reflects the country’s heritage.
• Family values in the Philippines are essential.

Great! Now we have everything we need to write an essay about Filipino culture. We’re all set for the next step!

Step 3. Write your introductory paragraph.

Here are the key components of an introductory paragraph you need to remember in writing your essay:

Our first sentence is the introduction, which should pull our reader into the world we want to portray in our essay.

And the rest of the introductory paragraph is our thesis statement. It includes our main idea and three supporting points.

Example of an introductory paragraph about culture

“Having been colonized for centuries, the Philippines boasts a vast heritage. It has a rich culture characterized by food, clothing, and family values. Filipino culture has delicious food inherited from diverse parts of the world and periods of conquest. Traditional Filipino clothing reflects the country’s history, as well. And Filipinos prize their family values probably above all else.”

Look at how the introductory paragraph goes from a general statement to specific ideas that support our main idea.

Our introductory sentence is a general statement that serves as the opening in our essay. It briefly sets the essay’s context. Next comes the thesis statement — our main idea. Finally, we have three supporting ideas for our thesis.

Step 4. Write your essay’s body paragraphs.

Again, a 300-word essay typically has three body paragraphs containing your three supporting ideas. Here’s how to structure a body paragraph:

Looking back at our word count plan, we know that our body paragraphs should have roughly 70 words each. Remember your word plan as you write.

Body Paragraph 1

“The Philippines boasts a diverse food culture. It reflects indigenous flavors and foreign influences, such as American, Spanish, Indian, and Chinese. Whether it’s a typical or special day, Filipinos love eating these various dishes with rice, a staple. For example, rice goes well with curry, noodles, and adobo. It is also common to see various foods like pizza, pancit, lumpia, paella, (Filipino-style) sweet spaghetti, cakes, and ice cream at parties.”

As you can see, the first sentence in this body paragraph is a topic sentence . It gives context to the paragraph and briefly summarizes it.

The second sentence explains why the Philippine food culture is considered diverse. 

The remaining sentences illustrate your main point (topic sentence) by providing examples, starting with rice in sentence 3.

Body Paragraph 2

“Traditional Filipino clothing reflects Philippine cultural heritage. Although Filipinos now conform to current fashion trends in their everyday lives, the traditional clothing style is often used during celebrations. The traditional fashion sense exhibits influences from indigenous tribes, Chinese immigration waves, the Spaniards, and Americans, portraying the chronology of Philippine historical events. For example, the Philippines’ national costume, the baro’t saya, is an elegant blend of Spanish and Filipino clothing styles. Even some modernized forms of clothing also display other global influences.”

Just like Body Paragraph 1, this paragraph follows the same structure outlined in the diagram. It proceeds from a general statement to more specific points :

• The topic sentence.
• An explanation.

Body Paragraph 3

“Family values are vital in the Philippines. The daily lives of most Filipinos revolve around close and extended family, making them known for their family-oriented lifestyle even when they’re overseas. It’s common for children to live with their parents after reaching legal age; some even stay after getting married or obtaining a job. Filipinos also cherish their extended families (aunts, uncles, grandparents, and cousins) and hanging out or celebrating significant events together.”

Once again, this paragraph follows the body paragraph structure. Now, we’re all set for the final step — the conclusion.

Step 5. Write the conclusion.

The easiest way to write a concluding paragraph for your essay on your culture is to restate your main idea and its supporting points using different words. You can even paraphrase your introduction — a time-proven method!

Let’s write the conclusion for our essay.

“Because of its history, the Philippines has a rich, diverse culture rooted in a vast heritage. Filipino cuisine is a blend of indigenous and foreign flavors. The nation’s history is reflected in its traditional clothing. And family values display a distinct Filipino trait.”

Note that this conclusion uses different words to restate the points we’ve already made, including those in the body paragraphs. 

Hope this was helpful. Now go ahead and write an essay about your culture!

Tutor Phil is an e-learning professional who helps adult learners finish their degrees by teaching them academic writing skills.

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Why the World Still Needs Immanuel Kant

Unlike in Europe, few in the United States will be celebrating the philosopher’s 300th birthday. But Kant’s writing shows that a free, just and moral life is possible — and that’s relevant everywhere.

Credit... Illustration by Daniel Barreto

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By Susan Neiman

The philosopher Susan Neiman is the director of the Einstein Forum in Potsdam, Germany.

• Published April 17, 2024 Updated April 18, 2024

When I arrived in Berlin in 1982, I was writing a dissertation on Kant’s conception of reason. It was thrilling to learn that the apartment I’d sublet turned out to be located near Kantstrasse, though at the time I wondered in frustration: Why was there no James Street — Henry or William — in the Cambridge, Mass., I’d left behind; no streets honoring Emerson or Eliot? Were Americans as indifferent to culture as snooty Europeans supposed? It didn’t take long before I, too, could walk down Kantstrasse and turn right on Leibniz without a thought.

It’s harder to ignore the way Germany, like other European nations, sets aside entire years to honor its cultural heroes. This century has already seen an Einstein Year , a Beethoven Year , a Luther Year and a Marx Year , each commemorating some round-numbered anniversary of the hero in question. Federal and local governments provide considerable sums for events that celebrate the thinkers in question and debate their contemporary relevance.

Years before Immanuel Kant’s 300th birthday on April 22, 2024, the Academy of Science in Berlin, to which he once belonged, organized a conference to begin preparations for his tercentennial. A second conference published a report of the proceedings, but when I urged colleagues to use the occasion to create programs for a wider audience, I was met with puzzled silence. Reaching a wider audience is not a talent philosophy professors normally cultivate, but conversations with other cultural institutions showed this case to be especially thorny.

It wasn’t just uneasiness about celebrating “another dead white man,” as one museum director put it. The problems became deeper as the zeitgeist changed. “ Immanuel Kant: A European Thinker ” was a good title for that conference report in 2019, when Brexit seemed to threaten the ideal of European unification Germans supported. Just a few years later, “European” has become a slur. At a time when the Enlightenment is regularly derided as a Eurocentric movement designed to support colonialism, who feels comfortable throwing a yearlong birthday party for its greatest thinker?

Nonetheless, this year’s ceremonies will officially commence on April 22 with a speech by Chancellor Scholz and a memorial lunch that has taken place on the philosopher’s birthday every year since 1805. Two days earlier, President Frank-Walter Steinmeier of Germany will open an exhibit at the presidential palace devoted to Kant’s writing on peace.

The start of the year saw special Kant editions of four prominent German magazines. A Kant movie made for television premiered on March 1, and another is in production. Four exhibits on Kant and the Enlightenment will open in Bonn, Lüneburg, Potsdam and Berlin. The conferences will be numerous, including one organized by the Divan, Berlin’s house for Arab culture.

But why celebrate the Kant year at all?

The philosopher’s occasional autobiographical remarks provide a clue to the answer. As the son of a saddle maker, Kant would have led a workman’s life himself, had a pastor not suggested the bright lad deserved some higher education. He came to love his studies and to “despise the common people who knew nothing,” until “Rousseau set me right,” he wrote. Kant rejected his earlier elitism and declared his philosophy would restore the rights of humanity — otherwise they would be more useless than the work of a common laborer.

Chutzpah indeed. The claim becomes even more astonishing if you read a random page of his texts. How on earth, you may ask, are human rights connected with proving our need to think in categories like “cause” or “substance?” The question is seldom raised, and the autobiographical remarks usually ignored, for traditional readings of Kant focus on his epistemology, or theory of knowledge.

Before Kant, it’s said, philosophers were divided between Rationalists and Empiricists, who were concerned about the sources of knowledge. Does it come from our senses, or our reason? Can we ever know if anything is real? By showing that knowledge requires sensory experience as well as reason, we’re told, Kant refuted the skeptics’ worry that we never know if anything exists at all.

All this is true, but it hardly explains why the poet Heinrich Heine found Kant more ruthlessly revolutionary than Robespierre. Nor does it explain why Kant himself said only pedants care about that kind of skepticism. Ordinary people do not fret over the reality of tables or chairs or billiard balls. They do, however, wonder if ideas like freedom and justice are merely fantasies. Kant’s main goal was to show they are not.

The point is often missed, because Kant was as bad a writer as he was a great philosopher. By the time he finishes proving the existence of the objects of ordinary experience and is ready to show how they differ from ideas of reason, the semester is nearly over. Long-windedness is not, however, the only reason his work is often misinterpreted. Consider the effects of a bad review.

Had Kant died before his 57th birthday, he’d be remembered by a few scholars for some short, early texts. He withdrew from writing them in 1770 to conceive and compose his great “Critique of Pure Reason .” After what scholars call his “silent decade,” Kant pulled the text together in six months and finally published in 1781. For a year and a half, Kant waited for responses. When one finally appeared, it was a hatchet job accusing him of being a Berkeleyan solipsist: someone who denies the existence of ordinary objects.

Any author can imagine Kant’s dismay, and most likely his rage. In haste to refute the distortion of his life’s work, Kant wrote a second edition of the “Critique of Pure Reason,” and more fatefully, the “Prolegomena .” Since the latter is much shorter than the main book, it’s read far more often, and this has skewed the interpretation of Kant’s work as a whole. If the major problem of philosophy were proving the world’s existence, then Kant surely solved it. (Richard Rorty argued that he did, and that philosophy has little more to offer.)

In fact Kant was driven by a question that still plagues us: Are ideas like freedom and justice utopian daydreams, or are they more substantial? Their reality can’t be proven like that of material objects, for those ideas make entirely different claims on us — and some people are completely impervious to their claims. Could philosophy show that acting morally, if not particularly common, is at least possible?

A stunning thought experiment answers that question in his next book, the “Critique of Practical Reason .” Kant asks us to imagine a man who says temptation overwhelms him whenever he passes “a certain house.” (The 18th century was discreet.) But if a gallows were constructed to insure the fellow would be hanged upon exiting the brothel, he’d discover he can resist temptation very well. All mortal temptations fade in the face of threats to life itself.

Yet the same man would hesitate if asked to condemn an innocent man to death, even if a tyrant threatened to execute him instead. Kant always emphasized the limits of our knowledge, and none of us know if we would crumble when faced with death or torture. Most of us probably would. But all of us know what we should do in such a case, and we know that we could .

This experiment shows we are radically free. Not pleasure but justice can move human beings to deeds that overcome the deepest of animal desires, the love of life. We want to determine the world, not only to be determined by it. We are born and we die as part of nature, but we feel most alive when we go beyond it: To be human is to refuse to accept the world we are given.

At the heart of Kant’s metaphysics stands the difference between the way the world is and the way the world ought to be. His thought experiment is an answer to those who argue that we are helpless in the face of pleasure and can be satisfied with bread and circuses — or artisanal chocolate and the latest iPhone. If that were true, benevolent despotism would be the best form of government.

But if we long, in our best moments, for the dignity of freedom and justice, Kant’s example has political consequences. It’s no surprise he thought the French Revolution confirmed our hopes for moral progress — unlike the followers of his predecessor David Hume, who thought it was dangerous to stray from tradition and habit.

This provides an answer to contemporary critics whose reading of Kant’s work focuses on the ways in which it violates our understanding of racism and sexism. Some of his remarks are undeniably offensive to 21st-century ears. But it’s fatal to forget that his work gave us the tools to fight racism and sexism, by providing the metaphysical basis of every claim to human rights.

Kant argued that each human being must be treated as an end and not as a means — which is why he called colonialism “evil” and congratulated the Chinese and Japanese for denying entry to European invaders. Contemporary dismissals of Enlightenment thinkers forget that those thinkers invented the concept of Eurocentrism, and urged their readers to consider the world from non-European perspectives. Montesquieu put his criticisms of French society in the mouths of fictitious Persians; Lahontan attacked European politics through dialogues with a Native American.

At a time when the advice to “be realistic” is best translated as the advice to decrease your expectations, Kant’s work asks deep questions about what reality is. He insisted that when we think morally, we should abstract from the cultural differences that divide us and recognize the potential human dignity in every human being. This requires the use of our reason. Contrary to trendy views that see reason as an instrument of domination, Kant saw reason’s potential as a tool for liberation.

He also argued that political and social relations must aim toward justice rather than power, however often those may be confused in practice. We’ve come to better understand how racism and sexism can preclude genuine universalism. Should we discard Kant’s commitment to universalism because he did not fully realize it himself — or rather celebrate the fact that we can make moral progress, an idea which Kant would wholeheartedly applaud?

In Germany, it’s now common to hear that the Enlightenment was at very best ambivalent: While it may have been an age of reason, it was also an age of slavery and colonialism. This argument ignores the fact that, like progressive intellectuals everywhere, Enlightenment thinkers did not win all their battles. It also neglects the fact that they fought for them anyway, despite the risks of censorship, exile and even death.

Significantly, many contemporary intellectuals from formerly colonized countries reject those arguments. Thinkers like the Ghanaian Ato Sekyi-Otu, the Nigerian Olufemi Taiwo, the Chilean Carlos Peña, the Brazilian Francisco Bosco or the Indian Benjamin Zachariah are hardly inclined to renounce Enlightenment ideas as Eurocentric.

The problem with ideas like universal human rights is not that they come from Europe, but that they were not realized outside of it. Perhaps we should take a lesson from the Enlightenment and listen to non-Western standpoints?

Arts and Culture Across Europe

Our theater critics and a reporter discuss the big winne r —  Andrew Lloyd Webber’s “Sunset Boulevard” — and the rest of the honorees at this year’s Olivier Awards .

New productions of “Macbeth” and “Hamlet” in Paris follow a French tradition of adapting familiar works . The results are innovative, and sometimes cryptic.

The internet latched on to 16-year-old Felicia Dawkins’ performance as The Unknown at a shambolic Willy Wonka-inspired event . Now she’s heading to a bigger and scarier stage in London.

When activists urged Tate Britain in London to take an offensive artwork off its walls, the institution commissioned Keith Piper  to create a response instead. The result recently went on display.

The new National Holocaust Museum in Amsterdam has been in the works for almost 20 years. It is the first institution to tell the full story  of the persecution of Dutch Jews during World War II.

At a retrospective of John Singer Sargent’s portraits in London, where the American expatriate fled after creating a scandal in Paris, clothes offer both armor and self-expression .

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