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Constantinople

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 16, 2023 | Original: December 6, 2017

Constantinople is an ancient city in modern-day Turkey that’s now known as Istanbul. First settled in the seventh century B.C., Constantinople developed into a thriving port thanks to its prime geographic location between Europe and Asia and its natural harbor. In A.D. 330, it became the site of Roman Emperor Constantine’s “New Rome,” a Christian city of immense wealth and magnificent architecture. Constantinople stood as the seat of the Byzantine Empire for the next 1,100 years, enduring periods of great fortune and horrific sieges, until being overrun by Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

In 657 B.C., the ruler Byzas from the ancient Greek city of Megara founded a settlement on the western side of the Strait of Bosporus, which linked the Black Sea with the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the pristine natural harbor created by the Golden Horn, Byzantium (or Byzantion) grew into a thriving port city.

Over the following centuries, Byzantium was alternately controlled by the Persians , Athenians, Spartans and Macedonians as they jockeyed for power in the region. The city was destroyed by Roman Emperor Septimius Severus around A.D. 196, but subsequently was rebuilt with some of the structures that survived into the Byzantine Empire , including the Baths of Zeuxippus, the Hippodrome and a protective wall.

After defeating his rival Licinius to become sole emperor of the Roman Empire in A.D. 324, Constantine I decided to establish a new capital at Byzantium called “Nova Roma”—New Rome.

Constantine I

Constantine set about expanding the territory of old Byzantium, dividing it into 14 sections and constructing a new outer wall. He lured noblemen through gifts of land, and transferred art and other ornaments from Rome for display in the new capital. Its wide avenues were lined by statues of great rulers like Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar , as well as one of Constantine himself as Apollo.

The emperor also sought to populate the city through offering residents free food rations. With a system of aqueducts already in place, he ensured access to water through the widening city by the construction of the Binbirdirek Cistern.

In A.D. 330, Constantine established the city that would make its mark in the ancient world as Constantinople, but also would become known by other names, including the Queen of Cities, Istinpolin, Stamboul and Istanbul. It would be governed by Roman law, observe Christianity and adopt Greek as its primary language, although it would serve as a melting pot of races and cultures due to its unique geographic location straddling Europe and Asia.

Justinian I

Justinian I, who reigned from A.D. 527 to 565, weathered the Nika Revolt early in his tenure and used the occasion to undertake extensive renovations of the city. He launched successful military campaigns that helped the Byzantines reclaim territories lost with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, expanding its borders to encircle the Mediterranean Sea.

Additionally, Justinian established a uniform system of law with the Justinian Code, which would serve as a blueprint for civilizations to come.

Along with spurring the spread of iconoclasm in the Empire, Leo III (who ruled from A.D. 717 to 741) fought off an Arab siege of the city and stabilized the throne after recent years of upheaval. He was the first emperor of the Isurian dynasty.

Similarly, Basil I (who ruled from A.D. 867 to 886) launched what became the two-century-long Macedonian dynasty. Despite his illiteracy, he followed Justinian by undertaking renovations and attempting further codification of laws, and successfully pushed the empire’s borders south.

Constantinople endured for more than 1,100 years as the Byzantine capital in large part due to the protective wall completed under Theodosius II in 413. Expanding the city perimeter west from Constantine’s wall by approximately a mile, the new one stretched 3-1/2 miles from the Sea of Marmara to the Golden Horn.

A double set of walls was added after a series of earthquakes in the mid-fifth century, the inner layer standing some 40 feet high and studded with towers that reached another 20 feet.

The Hippodrome, originally built by Severus in the third century and expanded by Constantine, served as an arena for chariot races and other public events such as parades and displaying of the emperor’s captive enemies. More than 400 feet long, it's estimated to have seated up to 100,000 people.

Hagia Sophia

The Hagia Sophia marked a triumph of architectural design. Built on the site of former imperial churches by Justinian I, it was completed in less than six years by a workforce of 10,000 laborers. 

Four columns supported a massive dome with a diameter of more than 100 feet, while its polished marble and dazzling mosaics gave the Hagia Sophia the impression of always being brightly lit.

Less is known of Constantine’s Imperial Palace, which also figured prominently in the heart of the city, but it featured an elaborate display of mosaics, as well as a grand entrance known as the Chalke Gate.

Christian and Muslim Rule

While Constantine’s founding of New Rome coincided with efforts to establish Christianity as the state religion, that didn’t formally happen until after Theodosius I ascended to power in 379. He convened the First Council of Constantinople in 381, which supported the Council of Nicaea of 325, and declared the city patriarch as second in power only to Rome’s.

Constantinople became a center of the iconoclast controversy after Leo III in 730 outlawed the worshipping of religious icons. Although the Seventh Ecumenical Council of 787 reversed that decision, iconoclasm resumed as a rule of law less than 30 years later and lasted until 843.

With the Great Schism of 1054, when the Christian church split into Roman and Eastern divisions, Constantinople became the seat of the Eastern Orthodox Church, remaining so even after the Muslim Ottoman Empire took control of the city in the 15th century.

Fall of Constantinople

Famed for its immense wealth, Constantinople endured at least a dozen sieges over its 1,000-plus years as the Byzantine capital. These included attempts by Arab armies in the seventh and eighth centuries, as well as the Bulgarians and the Rus in the ninth and 10th centuries.

In the early 13th century, prior to heading to Jerusalem , the armies of the Crusades were diverted to Constantinople over a power struggle. When their promised payments fell through, they sacked the city in 1204 and established a Latin state.

Although the Byzantines reclaimed control of Constantinople in 1261, the city remained the sole major population center of what was now a shell of the empire.

Shortly after ascending to the Ottoman throne in 1451, Mehmed II began formulating plans for a major assault on Constantinople. With the overwhelming size of his armed forces, and additional advantages gained by the use of gunpowder, he succeeded where his predecessors failed, claiming Constantinople for Muslim rule on May 29, 1453.

Ottoman Rule

While the early decades of an Ottoman Empire-ruled Constantinople were marked by the transformation of churches into mosques, Mehmed II spared the church of the Holy Apostles and allowed a diverse population to remain.

Following the conqueror, the most prominent ruler of the Ottomans was Suleyman the Magnificent (who ruled from 1520 to 1566). Along with developing a series of public works, Suleyman transformed the judicial system, championed the arts and continued to expand the empire.

In the 19th century, the declining Ottoman state underwent major changes with the implementation of the Tanzimat Reforms, which guaranteed property rights and outlawed execution without a trial.

Early in the following century, the Balkan Wars, World War I and the Greco-Turkish War wiped out the remains of the Ottoman Empire.

The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne formally established the Republic of Turkey, which moved its capital to Ankara. Old Constantinople, long known informally as Istanbul, officially adopted the name in 1930.

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Constantinople/Istanbul.  The Simpson Center for the Humanities at the University of Washington . Constantinople. Ancient History Encyclopedia . The Age of Suleyman the Magnificent. National Gallery of Art, Washington . Constantinople: City of the World’s Desire 1453-1924. Washington Post . The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America .

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Constantinople: Capital of the Eastern Roman Empire

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In the 7th century BCE, the city of Byzantium was built on the European side of the Strait of Bosporus in what is now modern Turkey. Hundreds of years later, the Roman emperor Constantine renamed it Nova Roma (New Rome). The city later became Constantinople, in honor of its Roman founder; it was renamed Istanbul by the Turks during the 20th century.

Constantinople is located on the Bosporus River, meaning that it lies on the boundary between Asia and Europe. Surrounded by water, it was easily accessible to other parts of the Roman Empire via the Mediterranean, Black Sea, Danube River, and Dnieper River. Constantinople was also accessible via land routes to Turkestan, India, Antioch, the Silk Road , and Alexandria. Like Rome, the city claims 7 hills, a rocky terrain that had limited earlier utilization of a site so important for sea trade.

History of Constantinople

Emperor Diocletian ruled the Roman Empire from 284 to 305 CE. He chose to split the huge empire into n eastern and western parts, with a ruler for each portion of the empire. Diocletian ruled the east, while Constantine rose to power in the west. In 312 CE, Constantine challenged the rule of the eastern empire, and, upon winning the Battle of Milvian Bridge, became sole emperor of a reunited Rome.

Constantine chose the city of Byzantium for his Nova Roma. It was located near the center of the reunited Empire, was surrounded by water, and had a good harbor. This meant it was easy to reach, fortify, and defend. Constantine put a great deal of money and effort into turning his new capital into a great city. He added broad streets, meeting halls, a hippodrome, and a complex water supply and storage system.

Constantinople remained a major political and cultural center during the reign of Justinian, becoming the first great Christian city. It went through a number of political and military upheavals, becoming the capital of the Ottoman Empire and, later, the capital of modern Turkey (under the new name Istanbul).

Natural and Man-Made Fortifications

Constantine, the early fourth-century emperor known for encouraging Christianity in the Roman Empire , enlarged the earlier city of Byzantium, in CE 328. He put up a defensive wall (1-1/2 miles east of where the Theodosian walls would be), along the westward limits of the city. The other side of the city had natural defenses. Constantine then inaugurated the city as his capital in 330.

Constantinople is almost surrounded by water, except on its side facing Europe where walls were built. The city was built on a promontory projecting into the Bosphorus (Bosporus), which is the strait between the Sea of Marmara (Propontis) and the Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus). North of the city was a bay called the Golden Horn, with an invaluable harbor. A double line of protective fortifications went 6.5 km from the Sea of Marmara to the Golden Horn. This was completed during the reign of Theodosius II (408-450), under the care of his praetorian prefect Anthemius; the inner set was completed in CE 423. The Theodosian walls are shown as the limits of the "Old City" according to modern maps.

The Walls of Constantinople AD 324-1453, by Stephen R. Turnbull.

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7 Reasons Why Constantinople Was So Important

In the mind of Medieval individuals, for more than a thousand years, Constantinople held the title of one of the most important cities in the world. Here’s why.

Constantinople, the contemporary city of Istanbul in Turkey, was the capital city of the Roman Empire for more than a thousand years. Rising from an ancient Greek colony established in the 7th century BCE, it came to be one of the most important cities of the Middle Ages. In 324, Emperor Constantine officially moved the capital of the Empire from Rome to the city of Byzantium and named it Constantinople, after himself. This event sparked more than a millennium of history infused with Greek culture, Roman state organization, and Christianity. Until the 29th of May 1453, Constantinople, along with its politics and religion shaped the life of the Middle Ages in the region.

1. History & Geography of Constantinople

On the crossroads of ancient commercial and military roads, Constantinople was chosen as the capital of the Roman Empire. The main reasons for this choice were based on the political and military situation that called for a strong center in the eastern part of the Empire. The small city of Byzantium, between two continents and two seas, connected to both the Black Sea and the Aegean and Europe and Asia, was the obvious choice.

The position of Constantinople, with its surroundings and natural harbors, secured an uninterrupted supply of wheat and other necessities of a big city. An important geographical factor is the Sea of Marmara and the Golden Horn Bay, which surrounded two-thirds of the city and made its defense easier. The city was defended from the European side by a 45 km-long wall structure, the Theodosian Walls , named after emperor Theodosius II.

From its earliest period, Constantinople had a great influx of citizens. Based on the writings of John Chrysostom, around the year 400, the city had around 100,000 Christians (and even more citizens). Historians assume that the city numbered around 400,000 citizens before the Great Justinian plague of 542 .

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Since its foundation, the capital was considered a unique urban environment, a City par excellence , compared to other settlements. Even during the Late Byzantine period, the myth of the Imperial city, the political and religious center of Orthodox Christianity, compensated for the reality of the declining empire.

2. Constantinople as the New Rome

More than any other of its physical characteristics, the city’s identity was laid on its multidimensional symbolism. Constantine shook the world of Late Antiquity by moving its center from the Italian Peninsula to the east, from the Old to the New Rome.

The Byzantines used the term Rome, New Rome, or Second Rome for their capital, and the inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire were Romaioi , and the Empire was Romania . The name “ Byzantine ” is an expression coined later in history. Their emperors were the direct successors of Roman emperors. This connection to Rome represents a particular source from which the conception of the absolute power of Byzantine emperors and their claims on the world beyond the borders of their empire was derived.

The idea of the imperial city inherited from Old Rome and its concept of an eternal city had to be integrated into the Christian doctrine, in which the city would last until the End of the World and the Last Judgment.

3. Constantinople as the Christian Capital

On 11th May 330, Constantinople was consecrated and became the first Christian capital in the world. The importance of its consecration is proven by the yearly celebrations of this day in Byzantium. The idea of Constantinople as a universal Christian capital, equal to a New Jerusalem, was complex and fundamental to Byzantine political ideology. The Byzantine emperor was frequently referred to as the “Lord’s Anointed” and compared to figures such as Moses, Elijah, and David. Like these biblical figures, the Byzantine emperor was the leader of God’s chosen people, in this case, meaning all Christians. This meant that the ideology of the new capital needed to be infused with Old Testament biblical influences.

The first mention of Constantinople as a New Jerusalem dates around the year 500, and since then, the term has been used in religious texts. The idea of New Jerusalem belongs to the realm of the imaginary, which in Medieval consciousness was all too real. The most effective way of representing and constructing the identity of Constantinople as New Jerusalem was visual culture.

The monumental example of this idea remains intact in the lunette above the portal of the south vestibule in Hagia Sophia . A symmetrical composition focuses on the Virgin Mary enthroned holding the Christ-child. Emperor Constantine flanks her on one side and Emperor Justinian on the other. Emperors are offering models of the city and the church to them. Their vows and dedication to the Virgin identify the city and its main church as two earthly elements of the heavenly city, or the Heavenly Jerusalem.

5. The Churches of Constantinople

An important aspect of Constantinople as a Christian capital was the number of religious buildings built in the city and its surroundings. Nearly all of these churches and monasteries don’t exist anymore, but according to some estimations, Constantinople had around 1,000 churches throughout its eleven-century-long history. These churches housed around 3,600 relics belonging to 476 different saints.

According to Byzantine tradition, Constantinople was the Holy City, where the second coming of Christ was awaited. Described by pilgrims and travelers as a spatial icon, the city’s sacredness transcended its historical, architectural, and urbanistic realities.

In the eyes of a Medieval man, a church was more than a building decorated with marble and gold. It was a space where the influence of holy relics and icons could be experienced. The power of these relics and icons was spread out throughout the city by processions in which they were carried. From the moment it was founded, Constantinople started “collecting” Christian relics. By the 12th century, Constantinople was considered even in the West as a city reliquary (a container or shrine in which sacred relics are kept) .

6. The Ruler of Constantinople

We have already mentioned the importance of Byzantine political ideology for the idea of Constantinople as a universal Christian capital. In the center of that ideology stood the ruler of Constantinople and the entirety of the Christian world. Despite historical circumstances, the idea of emperorship was firmly believed in by the Byzantines. As was the case with the pagan Roman Empire , the imperial authority conserved its divine character in the Christianized empire.

A Byzantine emperor is the Chosen of God; he is called to rule by Divine Providence and fulfills the Divine Will as a sovereign of the empire protected by God. The emperor was considered the leader of all the world and the protector of the Christian faith. He was the only legitimate emperor on earth, not only chosen by God, but also the successor of the Roman emperors dating back to Augustus .

This idea dominated the life of Constantinople and emanated from monuments, art, seals, coins, speeches, written documents, and the ceremonies of the court. Surprisingly the supremacy of the Byzantine emperor was recognized even by independent Medieval countries. Many non-Byzantine nobles and monarchs held Byzantine court titles that they obtained from Constantinople. Thus, Medieval countries were a part of the hierarchy of states, on whose summit stood the Byzantine autocrat as the head of Christendom.

7. The Apocalypse Is Coming

For contemporary observers, the fall of Constantinople in 1453 was much more than the imperial transition from Byzantium to the Ottoman Empire. Muslims, Christians, and Jews alike saw the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople as an omen of the End of Time, or the Last Hour .

Apocalyptic literature had a very rich and popular intellectual tradition in the history of the Byzantine Empire. In the minds of Byzantines, the end of the Empire was associated with the end of the world. By the 15th century, the Empire was left with only a small area around Constantinople, further magnifying the apocalyptic role attributed to the city throughout history.

By the 15th century, Byzantine apocalyptic tradition became an important part of European apocalypticism, and the fall of Constantinople sparked new apocalyptic speculations in Western Europe. Plans about restoring not only Jerusalem but also Constantinople and establishing the Last World Empire became an important part of the political ideologies of European monarchs.

According to the Byzantine and generally European apocalyptic tradition, the return of Constantinople under Christianity was also prophesized. The Last Roman Emperor would “tame” the Blond Peoples (associated with Nordic peoples) and eventually defeat the “Ishmaelites” and take the capital back with their help.

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By Dusan Nikolic BA History of Art Dusan is an art historian and graduate of the University of Belgrade, specializing in Byzantine church architecture with an interest in the history and creation of art. Formerly a museum worker, he spends most of his research and free time on interdisciplinary work between art history and psychology.

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Reconstruction of Constantinople: From 4th to 13th Century AD

Posted By: Dattatreya Mandal March 10, 2020

• Introduction

Historically, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe from the 5th to early 13th century AD. To that end, it was Emperor Constantine who truly elevated the architectural ambit of the original settlement, by ‘re-founding’ it as  Nova Roma  (New Rome or Νέα Ῥώμη). This symbolic overture mirrored the entire shifting of the capital from original Rome to Byzantium in 330 AD, which was then called  Konstantinoupolis  (or the city of Constantine).

In fact, the massive defense systems of the  major Roman city  were equally matched by its impressive architectural masterpieces, ranging from the magnificent Greek Orthodox cathedral of Hagia Sophia, the humongous Hippodrome of Constantinople (which was capable of possibly holding 100,000 spectators) to the Great Palace of Constantinople (or  Palatium Magnum  or Μέγα Παλάτιον) and the triumphal Golden Gate of the complex Land Walls.

In reference to the flurry of these architectural and engineering credentials, Constantinople in itself was also called  Roma Constantinopolitana , sometimes accompanied by prestigious titles such as  Basileuousa  (Queen of Cities) and  Megalopolis  (the Great City).

Inspired by the wealth of complex spatial elements, artist extraordinaire  Antoine Helbert  painted an entire collection of illustrations that portray the historical scope of the last great Roman city in its hey-days from the 4th to 13th century AD. His works, in his own words, cover the numerous plans, elevations, and sections of the major monuments of Constantinople that date from that extensive time frame of 800 years.

Reconstruction (Overview) of Constantinople

Elevations and sections of the boukoleon palace (on the shore of the sea of marmara), sections of hagia sophia, other elevations of impressive spatial elements, from palaces, forums to gates, the columns of constantinople, porta aurea (golden gate), forum of constantine, hippodrome of constantinople, aqueduct of valens, hagia sophia, blachernae palace, pantokrator monastery.

And finally, in case you want to take a gander at the images from a singular perspective, you can view the collection in a video format (compiled by YouTuber  Quidam Graecus ) –

Architectural Triumphs of Constantinople

The  Porta Aurea   (or Golden Gate), in many ways, symbolically mirrored the rise of Roman Constantinople, with the structure starting out as a triumphal arch (established by Emperor Theodosius) to mark the urbanization of the city.

It has been hypothesized that the arch was constructed to commemorate the victory over the Visigoths in 386 AD, thus suggesting how the structure was emblematically integral to the political fabric of the entire Roman realm after their disastrous defeat at the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD. In any case, the core arch was then connected and reinforced by one of the most effective defensive systems of the ancient and medieval world – the massive Theodosian Walls.

The triumphal section in itself was partially encased in gilded bronze segments, complemented by vibrantly colored statues. Simply put, this part of the great city was aptly suited to ceremonial processions – as proven by Emperor Heraclius in 628 AD.

He made his triumphal entry into Constantinople through the  Porta Aurea  in a chariot drawn by four elephants, after defeating the mighty Sassanids and retrieving the True Cross. The impressive gate was later incorporated into a fort with five towers (circa 10th century AD), which in turn was refurbished into the  Heptapyrgion , ‘the seven-towered bulwark’ in the 14th century AD.

Much like the aforementioned  Porta Aurea , the Forum of Constantine was one of the symbolic bastions of the imperial Roman rule in the city of Constantinople. The circular space, originally constructed outside the city walls of old Byzantium, was aptly positioned on the triumphal procession that started from the Golden Gate to the Great Palace.

In terms of sheer size, it is estimated that the Forum of Constantine had a diameter of (140 m) 460 ft, which translates to an impressive area of 167,000 sq ft (the equivalent of almost three American football fields).

This spatial scope had the focal point of the porphyry Column of Constantine at the center, which was crowned by a large statue of the Emperor himself. And the outer symmetry and access to the circular forum were provided by the surrounding two stories of colonnades and two arches of Proconnesian marble, both of which led to the main thoroughfare of the city.

As for a plethora of other architectural and decorative features (including the  Nymphaeum ), the Byzantine Legacy makes it clear  –

On the northern side of the forum, it had a porch of porphyry columns. We are told that the Senate had huge bronze doors depicting the gods and giants at war (which might have been brought from the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus). It is possible that it housed a gilded statue of Constantine that was central to the city’s anniversary ceremonies celebrated on the 11th of May. On the opposite side of the forum was the nymphaeum, a monumental fountain decorated with a series of statues. Both the Senate House and the Nymphaeum were severely damaged by fire around 464. The forum was also decorated with a large number of statues. The statue that captured the most attention and is most reliably attested was a colossal bronze Athena standing outside the Senate House. It has been suggested that this statue was the Athena Promachos or Parthenos from the Athenian Acropolis. Several sources also say that Constantine brought the Palladium to Constantinople and placed it under the Column of Constantine. The Palladium was a protective statue that supposedly was first in Troy and later moved to Rome. This was not the only emphasis on Troy; there was also a statue group depicting the Judgment of Paris where the prince of Troy Paris judged which goddess was the most beautiful. There were many other statues, including two bronze female statues on the forum’s western arch which were popularly identified as “the Hungarian” and “the Roman” in the 12th century.

The construction of the famed  Hippodrome  of Constantinople was originally started under the orders of Emperor Septimius Severus (probably circa 203 AD). But it took its gargantuan form after the expansion project by Constantine the Great, which translated to a width of 130 m (426 ft) and length of 450 m (1,476 ft). Simply put, the stadium had an approximate area of 629,000 sq ft (the equivalent of more than eleven American football fields) and a seating capacity of over 50,000 spectators.

Much akin to its structural ‘cousin’ in Rome, the Hippodrome of Constantinople was mainly used for wildly popular chariot racing events. The surge in popularity of such sports could be attested by the fervent fans of two rival stables, the ‘Blues’ ( Veneti ) and the ‘Greens’ ( Prasinoi ) – many of whom led the disastrous Nika riots of 532 AD that possibly accounted for around 30,000 deaths.

In any case, reverting to the structure in itself, its central longitudinal barrier (known as the  spina ) boasted a range of columns, statues, and pedestals, two of which were actually dedicated to Porphyrius, the most famous Roman charioteer in the 5th and 6th centuries AD.

Constructed in the late 4th century AD (between circa 368-375 AD), by Emperor Valens who was killed in action only three years later in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD, the  Aqueduct of Valens  was possibly an extension of an old Byzantium infrastructure already laid down by Hadrian in 2nd century AD.

In any case, without a doubt, the massive structure , with its arched bridge expanding over a length of 3,186 ft (and height of 95 ft), was one of the major water supply systems of both ancient and medieval Constantinople. In fact, the aqueduct still flaunts its presence in Istanbul as one of the veritable landmarks of the modern city.

Suffice it to say, given its scale and eminent presence, the Aqueduct of Valens was used for providing water to significant areas of Constantinople, including the  Nymphaeum  (in the Forum of Constantine, which we will talk about in the next entry), the Baths of Zeuxippus and the Great Palace of Constantinople. The structure was later renovated and connected to the gargantuan Basilica Cistern by Emperor Justinian, which had the volumetric capacity for holding 2.8 million cu ft of water (or 21 million gallons of water).

Beyond symbolism,  Hagia Sophia  proudly stood as the cultural bastion of the Eastern Roman Empire, propelled by its Greek Orthodox faith. Now from the historical context, Hagia Sophia (or ‘Holy Wisdom’) was constructed as a church between 532 and 537 AD, with its patron being none other than Justinian I (also known as Saint Justinian the Great), the Eastern Roman Emperor who briefly restored the borders of the Roman realm along its western sections.

However in 1453 AD, Constantinople was finally conquered by the Ottoman Turks, and the basilica was promptly converted into a mosque. And it was only in 1935, after a wave of secularization, that Hagia Sophia was turned into a museum – though there have been recent calls by some Turkish nationalists to revert it to a mosque.

As for the architectural scope, Hagia Sophia boasts an astronomical 12 million cu ft of volume, with an expansive floor area of 65,000 sq ft, which is more than an American football field. To that end, the medieval basilica held the record for the world’s largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years, until overtaken by Seville Cathedral in 1520 AD.

Interestingly enough, mirroring the structure’s changing religious significance over the course of 1,500 years, the architecture was also altered by the Turks, with the addition of minarets and even structural supports that would have protected the building from earthquakes.

The  Blachernae Palace  is named so because of its location in the northwest corner of Constantinople comprising the suburb of Blachernae. During the peak period in the city’s history from the 4th to 11th century AD, this structure, though boasting its fair share of grandeur , was sort of a secondary residence for the imperial family, with most rulers tending to favor the Great Palace on the eastern side.

However, the ascension of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (in the late 11th century) marked a pivotal period for the Blachernae Palace, with the ruler shifting the main imperial residence to the particular compound. The Soros Chapel (as showcased in the animated video) was a part of this impressive palace complex.

In the 12th century AD, Manuel I Komnenos ordered the construction of a wall system specifically fortifying the Blachernae district, which was later probably strengthened and even extended to connect to the Theodosian Walls. In spite of such measures, the Walls of Blachernae were possibly the weakest link in the land defenses of Constantinople – and it was through this point that the Crusaders managed to gain access into the fortified city during the infamous episode of 1204 AD.

The  Monastery of the Pantocrator  (later converted into the Zeyrek Mosque by the Ottomans), constructed circa 1124 AD, was dedicated to the  Christ Pantokrator  (‘Christ Almighty’). The structure, originally comprising the main church along with a library and a hospital, was constructed by the monetary efforts of Byzantine Empress Eirene Komnena.

Later on, Emperor John II Komnenos expanded the complex by adding another church, along with a courtyard, an entrance zone ( exonarthex ), and two shrines that connected to a chapel dedicated to Saint Michael.

This latter structure became the imperial mausoleum of the rulers of the Komnenos and Palaiologos dynasties. And interestingly enough, during the Latin interlude, the massive complex of the Pantokrator Monastery was used as the see of the Venetian clergy.

It was also repurposed into a makeshift palace by Baldwin, the last Latin Emperor. However, the monastery was once again reverted to its original usage pattern by Orthodox monks, after the Palaiologan restoration of Constantinople in 1261 AD. And the  Unkapani cistern  that ran underneath the complex was possibly supplied by an alternate water line, as opposed to the famed Aqueduct of Valens.

* The article was updated on 10th March 2020.

Images Source:  Portfolio from Antoine Helbert

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• City of Constantine

City of Constantine - Assignment Example

• Subject: History
• Type: Assignment
• Level: High School
• Pages: 2 (500 words)
• Downloads: 2

Extract of sample "City of Constantine"

Constantinople was d after the Roman Emperor Constantine which means of Constantine". It is formerly called Byzantium and became part ofthe Roman Empire in the early 100 B.C. "Constantine the Great" conquered emperor Licinius at Chrysopolis in 324 AD and made Byzantium the capital of Roman Empire in 330 A.D. In the 5th century, it survived the fall of Rome and became the core of the Greek Orthodox Christian world afterwards. During the reign of the Byzantine Empire, Emperor Justinian 1 was accounted for many imperial and administrative policies that improved revenues of the state and brought heights to Constantinople.

Through the presence of his empress wife Theodora and two generals, namely Belisarius and Narses, the Africa and Italy was recovered from Vandals and Ostrogoths respectively. Success was not on his side in struggle against Persians, and avoiding attacks of the Bulgars and Slavs. The greatest achievement of Justinian was the Corpus Juris Civilis, which refers to the codification of the Roman law. It was also during Justinian time that many public works took place, and one structure worth mentioning due to its enormous and meticulous construction is the Church of Hagia Sophia.

It was designed by the imperial architects of Justinian, Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, and was built from 532 to 537. It was constructed by Constantius II in 360, after the declaration of Byzantium as the capital of the Roman Empire. Hagia Sophia was burned in 404 and was reconstructed in 415 by Theodisius II, but was burned again in 532. It collapsed in 558 due to earthquake and was rebuilt again in 563. Constantinople was attacked by the Persians, Arabs, Russians and Bulgars from 6th to 13th century, and members of the fourth crusade in the succeeding years due to its strategic location in terms of transport and trade among continents.

It became a target of numerous Muslims Campaigns like the Muslim Arabs and the Muslim Turks, who set the primary goal for besiege. The first Istanbul siege by Muslims occurred in 668 until 669 under Muawiya's reign. But they were not able to conquer the city due to epidemic that resulted to death of many soldiers that eventually lead to their withdrawal. In 673, Muawiya sent another navy that took 7 years of siege and did not triumph due to various incidents like sickness, climate conditions and attacks from the Bulgarian Guerillas.

The last Arab siege happened on 781-782 by the army lead by Harun. In 1261, it returned under the rule of Byzantine. It was conquered in 1453 during the conquest of Turks lead by Sultan Mehmet II. From 1520 to 1566, Constantinople under the Ottoman rule was developed politically and socially but later weakens due to decline in leadership of sultans. Istanbul became part of numerous attacks, particularly the Janissaries Revolt in 1823. Following this is the influx of foreign visitors that lead to introduction of European ideologies and other Western development.

Allied forces gained triumph over the Ottoman Empire during the World War 1 from 1914 to 1918. Mustafa's Army expelled the Allied Troops after freedom was regained from the Turkish War from the period of 1919 to 1922. It was in 1923 when the Republic of Turkey was born and the capital was changed from Constantinople to Ankara. In 1930, the name Istanbul formally replaced Constantinople. REFERENCES History of Istanbul. Istanbul.gov.tr. Retrieved April 16, 2006, from http://english.istanbul.gov.

tr/Default.aspxpid=293 Istanbul. Answers.com. Retrieved April 16, 2006, from Answers.com Encyclopedia. http://www.answers.com/History%20of%20Istanbul Istanbul. (2006). Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved April 16, 2006, from Encyclopdia Britannica Premium Service. http://www.britannica.com/eb/articletocId=9368294 Istanbul. Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2005. Retrieved April 16, 2006, from Encyclopedia Article. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761552870/stanbul.html

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Take your students on a virtual tour to Istanbul to learn about the city of Constantinople. Using a combination of Google Earth™ 360-degree views, informational text, video, and visuals, your students will learn about and visit the following: the Walls of Constantinople, Hippodrome of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia, and the Aqueduct of Valens.

This virtual field trip covers:

:: geographic location Constantinople

:: modern-day Istanbul, Turkey

:: Walls of Constantinople (Theodosian Walls)

:: Hippodrome of Constantinople

:: Hagia Sophia

:: Aqueduct of Valens

This Virtual Field Trip Includes:

:: Informational Text (build background knowledge)

:: Response Questions (EDITABLE)

:: Google Earth™ Links to 360-degree views

:: Video Links

:: Grading Rubric & Answer Keys

:: Everything is set up in Google Slides & ready to go!

SEE PREVIEW FOR MORE DETAILS

How it Works:

This virtual field trip can be conducted teacher-led or shared with students through Google Classroom as an independent assignment. Everything is set up for you. This resource is LOW PREP and would even make great sub plans. Student directions are found within the lesson, and direct links are included to specific Google Earth™ locations and videos. All work is completed digitally. No printing necessary.

This virtual field trip is structured. This means that the informational text and links are meaningful and are meant to lead students to think critically as they respond to the questions throughout the virtual field trip. This is also a great way to keep students accountable as they learn and explore. All response questions are EDITABLE, so you can tailor to your class needs. Students complete this activity in edit mode of Google Slides.

Standards Alignment:

:: Common Core Standards for Reading Informational Text

:: Washington State Social Studies Standards for 6th grade World Civilizations.

:: Tennessee 7th Grade World Civilizations Standards

Grading Rubric:

A grading rubric is included which assesses: accuracy, thoroughness, validity, and writing conventions. Answers will vary throughout, as students are recording their observations and findings.

Technology:

Please note that students will need to access Google Earth™ to complete this assignment. Google Earth™ can be accessed on a desktop using Chrome as the browser. If using a tablet or smartphone, simply download the Google Earth App before starting the virtual field trip. Your students will also need access to YouTube to view the video clips.

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