essay about social sciences

The Critical Turkey

Essay Writing Hacks for the Social Sciences

What Should Be in a Social Science Essay? Fundamentals and Essential Techniques

This blogpost is also available as a PDF download , so it can be stored on your desktop and used as a checklist before submitting your essay.

The following is a condensed overview of the most important features of social science essay writing. Its aim is to cut through the noise, and focus on the most essential (and important) elements of essay writing. Read it carefully, and use it as a check-list once you have completed your essay.

Before we get into the details, however, be aware: The purpose of writing essays in the social and political sciences is not so much to just demonstrate your knowledge. Rather, it is about applying this knowledge, using it to make a well-informed, well-reasoned, independently-reflected argument that is based on verified (and verifiable) evidence. What should be in an essay, and how you should write it, is all informed by this purpose.

What’s in an Essay?

The main focus of an academic essay, article or book is to address a research or essay question. Therefore, make sure you have read the essay question carefully, think about what aspects of the topic you need to address, and organize the essay accordingly. Your essay should have three parts:

Introduction
Provide context to the question. Be specific (not ‘since the dawn of time, social scientists have been arguing…’, but ‘one of the key debates in the study of revolutions revolves around…’, ideally providing references to the key authors of said debate).
It is almost always a good idea to formulate an argument – an arguable statement – in relation to the essay question (e.g. if the question is ‘Evaluate Weber and Marx’s accounts of capitalism’, an argument could be ‘I am going to argue that Weber is most insightful on X, but Marx is important for Y’). This builds a nice critical element into your essay, your own take on things, going beyond merely describing what others have written.
Essay plan: Tell the reader about the points you are going to cover, and the order in which you are going to do this (e.g. ‘First, the essay looks at…, second… third…’ etc.). Think of it as a roadmap to the essay.
Define key concepts as necessary for understanding. Do not use general dictionaries, as they often contain notions that social scientists try to challenge. Use definitions from the readings, and from sociological dictionaries.
Length: Intro should be between 5 to 10%, and no more than about 10 per cent of the overall word count.
Main Part / Body
The structure of the essay body is informed by the research/essay question: What points do you need to include in order to address the question? What sub-questions are there to the big question? Concentrate on the ‘need-to-knows’ rather than the ‘nice-to-knows’ .
The order in which you arrange these points depends on what makes the most convincing line of argument. This depends on the essay question, but as a rule of thumb you want to build up your argument, from the basics to the more elaborate points, from the weaker to the stronger, from what contradicts your argument to what supports it.
The different points should be addressed in appropriate depth. Make sure you explain not just what something is, but also how it works, and use examples and illustration.
There should be a coherent thread running through the essay and connecting the various points to one another and the overall argument. Indicate these connections in strategic places with appropriate signposting. These signpostings should also help you develop your argument as you proceed.
Excellent essays often raise counter-arguments to the argument presented, and then provide arguments against those counter-arguments. Think about why and how someone might disagree about what you are saying, and how you would respond to them.
Use peer-reviewed academic sources and present evidence for the points you make, using references, reliable statistics, examples etc. Any opinion you express should be built on reliable evidence and good reasoning.
What, finally, is your answer to the question? Bring the various strings of the essay together, summarize them briefly in the context of the essay question, and round off by connecting to the bigger discussion that the essay question is part of. It is usually a good idea to have a differentiated conclusion, in which you e.g. agree with a statement to a certain extent or under specific circumstances (and explain which and why), but disagree with some other aspects of it, rather than making undifferentiated black-or-white statements. You can also contextualise your argument with your ideas from the introduction. It is normally not a good idea to introduce new material in the conclusion. You are wrapping up here, and rounding off, not starting new discussions.
Conclusion should be about, and no longer than, 10 per cent of the overall word count.

Notes on Writing Style

Find the right balance between formal and informal. Avoid being too informal and conversational on the one hand. But also don’t use overly convoluted and complicated language, as it makes your writing inaccessible, and can lead to a lack of clarity. You may at times encounter academic writing that seems deliberately obscure or overcomplicated, but those are not examples you should try to emulate.
Clarity and specificity should indeed be a top priority. Are the words you are using expressing what you want to express? Is it clear who specifically is doing what or saying what? Pay attention to this when proofreading the essay. Could someone understand this differently? Avoid ambiguities.
Key concepts should be clearly defined and used throughout the essay in the way you defined them. Choose the definitions that are most useful for your discussion.
Avoid hyperbole (don’t do ‘shocking statistics’ or ‘dire consequences’ etc.).

Notes on the Writing Process

Proofreading: When you are first writing, don’t think of it as the final product, but treat it as a first draft. Go through several drafts until you are happy with it. At a minimum, proofread the entire essay once or twice. Don’t be perfectionist when you start out, as you can always come back and improve on whatever you’ve written.
Small steps: Focussing on the small, concrete steps of your writing process rather than constantly thinking of the big task at hand will help you feel in control.
Procrastination: Feeling overwhelmed, as well as being too perfectionist, are among the leading causes for procrastination. The two previous points should therefore help you address this issue as well. Don’t be too harsh on yourself when you do procrastinate – almost everyone does it to some extent .
Over the years, keep addressing areas you want to improve on, and keep looking for information. Search online, for example ‘how to cite a book chapter in Harvard Sage’, ‘developing an argument’, ‘ using quotations ’, ‘memory techniques’, ‘how to read with speed’, ‘understanding procrastination’, or ‘ what does peer-reviewed mean ’. There is plenty of information, and some seriously good advice out there. See what works for you. Read the feedback you get on your writing, and incorporate it into your next essay.

Final Thoughts

Essay Writing skills are good skills to have in any situation (except maybe in a zombie apocalypse). They will make the studying process easier over time, and hopefully also more fun. But in a wider sense, they are general skills of critical engagement with the world around you, and will help you filter and prioritise the overload of information you are confronted with on an everyday basis. In that sense, they might actually even be helpful in a zombie apocalypse.

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USC Libraries
Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

4. The Introduction
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper.

Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Importance of a Good Introduction

Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:

What was I studying?
Why was this topic important to investigate?
What did we know about this topic before I did this study?
How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

According to Reyes, there are three overarching goals of a good introduction: 1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem; 2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and, 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of your research.

A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach. All introductions should conclude with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper.

Hirano, Eliana. “Research Article Introductions in English for Specific Purposes: A Comparison between Brazilian, Portuguese, and English.” English for Specific Purposes 28 (October 2009): 240-250; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide. Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Structure and Approach

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:

What is this?
Why should I read it?
What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow your analysis to more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your research problem and the rationale for studying it [often written as a series of key questions to be addressed or framed as a hypothesis or set of assumptions to be tested] and, whenever possible, a description of the potential outcomes your study can reveal.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction: 1. Establish an area to research by:

Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
Making general statements about the topic, and/or
Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.

2. Identify a research niche by:

Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
Continuing a disciplinary tradition.

3. Place your research within the research niche by:

Stating the intent of your study,
Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
Describing important results, and
Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

NOTE: It is often useful to review the introduction late in the writing process. This is appropriate because outcomes are unknown until you've completed the study. After you complete writing the body of the paper, go back and review introductory descriptions of the structure of the paper, the method of data gathering, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion. Reviewing and, if necessary, rewriting the introduction ensures that it correctly matches the overall structure of your final paper.

II. Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your research . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the topic.

Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction. For example, a delimitating statement could read, "Although many factors can be understood to impact the likelihood young people will vote, this study will focus on socioeconomic factors related to the need to work full-time while in school." The point is not to document every possible delimiting factor, but to highlight why previously researched issues related to the topic were not addressed.

Examples of delimitating choices would be:

The key aims and objectives of your study,
The research questions that you address,
The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon being studied],
The method(s) of investigation,
The time period your study covers, and
Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.

Review each of these decisions. Not only do you clearly establish what you intend to accomplish in your research, but you should also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria understood as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!

NOTE: Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.

ANOTHER NOTE : Do not view delimitating statements as admitting to an inherent failing or shortcoming in your research. They are an accepted element of academic writing intended to keep the reader focused on the research problem by explicitly defining the conceptual boundaries and scope of your study. It addresses any critical questions in the reader's mind of, "Why the hell didn't the author examine this?"

III. The Narrative Flow

Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :

Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest . A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.
Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review--that comes next. It consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature [with citations] that establishes a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem. See the drop-down menu under this tab for " Background Information " regarding types of contexts.
Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated . When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the...."
Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.

IV. Engaging the Reader

A research problem in the social sciences can come across as dry and uninteresting to anyone unfamiliar with the topic . Therefore, one of the goals of your introduction is to make readers want to read your paper. Here are several strategies you can use to grab the reader's attention:

Open with a compelling story . Almost all research problems in the social sciences, no matter how obscure or esoteric , are really about the lives of people. Telling a story that humanizes an issue can help illuminate the significance of the problem and help the reader empathize with those affected by the condition being studied.
Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected, anecdote . During your review of the literature, make note of any quotes or anecdotes that grab your attention because they can used in your introduction to highlight the research problem in a captivating way.
Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question . Your research problem should be framed by a set of questions to be addressed or hypotheses to be tested. However, a provocative question can be presented in the beginning of your introduction that challenges an existing assumption or compels the reader to consider an alternative viewpoint that helps establish the significance of your study.
Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity . This involves highlighting an interesting quandary concerning the research problem or describing contradictory findings from prior studies about a topic. Posing what is essentially an unresolved intellectual riddle about the problem can engage the reader's interest in the study.
Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important . Draw upon the findings of others to demonstrate the significance of the problem and to describe how your study builds upon or offers alternatives ways of investigating this prior research.

NOTE: It is important that you choose only one of the suggested strategies for engaging your readers. This avoids giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance and does not distract from the substance of your study.

Freedman, Leora and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies. Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction. Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.

Writing Tip

Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction

Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific terminology that readers may be unfamiliar with. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source because it doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term or concept may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, use a subject specific dictionary or encyclopedia [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology]. A good database for obtaining definitive definitions of concepts or terms is Credo Reference .

Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper. Florida International University; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Another Writing Tip

When Do I Begin?

A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "Where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from history. Therefore, it is important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that illustrates the study's overall importance. For example, a study that investigates coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exports in Africa. If a research problem requires a substantial exploration of the historical context, do this in the literature review section. In your introduction, make note of this as part of the "roadmap" [see below] that you use to describe the organization of your paper.

Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70.

Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide

Student resources, on this website, you will find a range of resources corresponding to the topics covered in each chapter. just click on links to the left..

Writing good essays is one of the most challenging aspects of studying in the social sciences. This simple guide provides you with proven approaches and techniques to help turn you into a well-oiled, essay-writing machine.

Good Essay Writing demonstrates how to think critically and formulate your argument as well as offering water-tight structuring tips, referencing advice and a word on those all-too-familiar common worries – all brought to life through real student examples from a range of subjects.

This practical guide is an absolute must for everybody wanting – or needing – to brush up on their essay-writing skills and boost their grades.

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This website may contain links to both internal and external websites. All links included were active at the time the website was launched. SAGE does not operate these external websites and does not necessarily endorse the views expressed within them. SAGE cannot take responsibility for the changing content or nature of linked sites, as these sites are outside of our control and subject to change without our knowledge. If you do find an inactive link to an external website, please try to locate that website by using a search engine. SAGE will endeavour to update inactive or broken links when possible.

101 Social Science Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on social science, ✍️ social science essay topics for college, 🎓 most interesting social science research titles, 💡 simple social science essay ideas, ❓ social science research questions.

Interdisciplinary Approach in Social Science
Humanities, Social Science, and Natural Sciences
Social Sciences: A World Without Leadership
Saputo Inc. Cage Analysis: Humanities and Social Sciences
What Is Meant By Social Science Paradigms?
Advertisements in Terms of the Social Science
Social Sciences: Current Realities, and Future Trends
Application of Research in Social Sciences Reflection Paper The purpose of this reflective paper is to explore the roles of research and its relevant applications in the disciplines of social science.
Social Sciences and Organizational Behavior The contribution of psychology and sociology to the individual and group level of analysis of organizational behavior as applied science.
Social Sciences: Postdevelopment Literature and Theories The paper is on Post-development literature where the fundamentals of development are evaluated from the perspective of Rostow’s development theory and Wolfgang Sachs’ approach.
Action Research and Its Types in Social Sciences To assess action research, one should describe different types of it and identify the differences between it and more conventional kinds of social science research.
Rational Choice Theories in Social Sciences Rational choice theories (RCT) are examined in terms of the economic, political, criminal, and religious aspects, as well as the everyday application of RCT.
The Meaning and the Purpose of Social Science Social sciences are essential for exploring the relationships and interconnections of human beings, including the conditions that limit their lives.
Plastic Pollution Through the Lens of Social Sciences When analyzing the problem through the lens of social sciences, it becomes clear that the problem of plastic pollution is complicated.
Social Science and Sexuality: Aspects of Feminism The life of human beings on this Earth has always been a very complicated matter. This has been so due to some factors – natural, physical, psychological, and others.
Ethics as a Social Science Field The paper aims to highlight some of the primary conceptualizations integrated into the study of morality, including natural law, human rights, ethics of care, and virtue ethics.
The Problems and the Future of Social Sciences it is difficult to predict the future of social sciences, but I believe that the efficiency of political and economic scientists will depend on the mindset of elected leaders.
Social Sciences: African American Stereotypes Dating back to the colonial years of settlement, stereotypes have been part of America, especially after inheriting slavery.
Philosophy of Social Science and Education Research This paper will be aimed at examining various issues such as the concept of falsifiability and the use of various research paradigms.
Research Methods for Business and Social Science Students When conducting rigorous research into a topical issue, it is natural to expect serious challenges at each stage.
Theories of Aging in Social Sciences By studying sociological theories of aging, one can discover many important aspects of personality and society, taking into account each person’s many years of experience.
Cultural Artifacts Through History and Social Science Lenses Cultural artifacts tell different stories based on the lens being viewed. This paper aims to explore the interaction between history and social science perspectives.
Sexual Health Through Natural and Social Sciences Lens The paper aims to analyze the issue from a scientific perspective and recognize the way it can help to address and resolve the sexual health and identity problem.
Art Therapy in Social Sciences Mood and emotional reactions to various art during therapy are crucial pointers to the psychological aspects of a person.
Sampling Strategies for Social Sciences Study In simple random sampling techniques, each component of the population is given an equal opportunity or probability of being selected into the sample.
Social Science Perspectives on the Autism Spectrum This report will discuss autism, its characteristics, causes, diagnosis, and management. Autism refers to developmental disorder that impedes a person’s ability to communicate and relate to people.
The Definition of Social Sciences This paper explains the definition of social sciences. It is the study of human beings in a society that explains the choices they make and their consequences.
Predicting the Replicability of Social Science Lab Experiments The quality of work is the most significant factor for any academic organization. A research process for any scientific project requires careful evaluation of information sources.
Course Social Sciences of Sport Soccer is a popular sport known to promote the sustainable existence of community members. Plays have a special place in human culture.
Social Sciences: Religious Individualization Seneca does not object to slavery in and of itself, and there are several reasons for it. The author sees the reality as slavery.
Philosophy and Social Sciences The paper describes the theory of knowledge skepticism and considers the skeptic’s charge that we can never be confident about the reliability of our usual sources of knowledge.
Analyzing Tests and Scales in Social Science The paper at hand provides a brief review of the tests and scales applied to data measurement in social science.
Development of Meaning: Social Science Value The paper argues that social science is an instrumental lens through which the development of meaning occurs, and new ideas are created to address social ills and injustices.
Theory and Methodology in Social Science Research It is vital to provide research on the methodology applied to work out mass media influence on perceptions of gender.
Natural & Social Science Grade 3 Classroom Library One of the professional tasks of a teacher is to compile a methodologically adequate list of literature-references, which can be organically incorporated into the learning process.
Sociologists as Heroes of Social Sciences The paper presents short biographies of outstanding sociologists. The historical significance of their activities is rather difficult to overestimate.
Social Science Loosely Defined Critique Commonsense Commonsense Word Refers
Evolutionary Social Science and Universal Darwinism
Bibliometric and Altmetric Analysis of Three Social Science Disciplines
American Social Science Fraternity and Gover
Sociology and the Disciplines of Social Science
Analytical Sociology and Computational Social Science
Social Science and Neuroscience: How Can They Inform Each Other
Way of Social Science and History Teaching in Hitler’s Germany
Human Behavior Paradox and a Social Science Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics
Conversion and Departure Between Science and Social Science
Biblical Religion and Social Science in the Modern World
Naturalist and Interpretations Social Science
Cumulative Inequality Theory and Social Science
Social Science and the Philosophy of Science
Correlation Between Sociology and Other Social Science Streams
Can Social Science Help Us to Understand Society
Geographically Referenced Data for Social Science
The Difference Between Natural Science and Social Science
Best Practices for Social Science Writing
Social Science and Its Impact on the Development of a Child
Darwinism and the Standard Social Science Model
Elementary Quantum Mechanical Principles and Social Science: Is There a Connection
Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices
The European Corporation: Strategy, Structure, and Social Science
Indigenous Social Science and Economic Development in Kenya
Global and Sociology and Social Science to Students
Anti-semitism and Progressive Era Social Science: The Case of John R. Commons
The Contributions of Social Science to Family Policy
How Important Are Prison Officer’s Social Science, Penology
Nursing — A Discipline between Social and Medical Sciences
Gendered Citation Patterns Across Political Science and Social Science Methodology Fields
Family Structure, Children’s Well-Being, and Social Science
Social Science and Remedies for Social Engineering
The Financial Crisis and the Failure of Modern Social Science
Epistemology of Social Science: The Scientific Status, Values and Institutionalization
Social Science and the Middle of the Two Inside Social Order
Social Science Knowledge and Economic Development: An Institutional Design Perspective
Christopher Freeman: Social Science Entrepreneur
Reflexivity, Complexity, and the Nature of Social Science
Social Science Theory and Methodology Overview
What Is the Importance of Social Science in Real Life?
How Can Social Science Perspectives Be Used to Process Information?
What Are the Distinctive Emphases and Approaches of a Multicultural Philosophy of Social Science?
Why Is Social Science Important in Society?
How Can Social Science Theory Help Reduce Crime?
What Is Social Science and How Can It Be Used to Study and Understand Society?
How Do Applied Social Sciences Help Understanding Individual or Group and Organizational Issues and Concerns?
What Are the Benefits of Social Science Research?
How Does Social Science Focus on and Interpret Sociology?
What Are the Fields of Study in the Social Sciences and What Does Each Field Study About?
How Can Studying Social Sciences Help Us to Understanding Ourselves More?
What Is Interpretation in Social Science?
How Does Social Science Help to Understand the Past and Present Problems?
What Is the Branch of Social Science That Deals With the Study of the Past?
How Can We Apply Social Science in Our Daily Life?
What Is Global Social Science?
How Can the Social Sciences Help Understand and Solve Social Problems?
In What Way Do Social Science Disciplines Play an Important Role in Our Society?
How Can the Disciplines of Applied Social Sciences Be Used in the Development of the Students?
What Is the Main Purpose of the Social Science Approach?
How Does Social Science Help in Improving Our Educational System?
What Is the Role of Social Science in the ‘Urban Age’?
Does Social Science Study Human Behavior?
How Can the Social Sciences Help in Addressing and Resolving Present-Day Social Problems?
What Is the Best Way to Study Social Science?

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These essay examples and topics on Social Science were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on December 28, 2023 .

128 Social Science Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best social science topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on social science, 📑 interesting topics to write about social science, 🥇 simple & easy social science essay titles, ❓ essay questions about social science.

Inductive and Deductive Approach in Social Science Therefore, the main difference between the inductive and deductive approaches consists in the way of expression of the arguments. In this example, the conclusions are based on the personal experience and moves from the particular […]
Social Sciences as a Career Field With the help of social science, I can conduct research and come up with a logical finding. With the knowledge I have in social science, I can research our political system and patterns of leadership. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
Max Weber: Natural and Social Sciences According to Honigsheim, the concept explains that the differences between natural and social science lies in the intentions of the researcher as opposed to inapplicability of empirical principles of research.
Criminology as a Social Science In addition, as McClanahan and South note, the study of crime as a general phenomenon, the causes of crime, the personality of the offender, and crime prevention measures fall within the scope of sociology.
The Power in Social Science He points out that the power-play going on in this kind of situation is based on the power to mobilize players and an assessment of the strength of all supporters in the agenda setting process.
Graphic Design: Fine Arts or Social Science? As it has been argued before, graphic design is a form of communication between people, and one has to understand the rules governing the process of communication in order to be a good designers.
Social Science Research Activities The research can publish the results of the scientific method. The researcher can publish the results of the scientific method on the data analysis and interpretation experiment.
Social Science Theory and How it relates to Social Phenomena It is therefore in the light of this that the topic of gender and mass media must be examined in detail to determine that it is of social importance to individuals, communities and society.
Concept and Theories of Sociology as a Social Science Sociological imagination is a critical field of criminology concerned with the relationship that exists between the beliefs of the society and the life as experienced in the society.
Hypothesis Testing in Social Sciences Testing statistical hypotheses are the accepted standard for the analysis of empirical data in the social sciences if the resulting effects or relationships are not noticeable and an assessment of the reliability of statements about […]
Justice Through the Lenses of Social Science and History In both social sciences and history lenses, the human factor predominates, that is, a person acts as the main source of both injustice and justice.
Social Sciences: Racism Through Different Lenses A thorough analysis of diversity adds value to social interactions by informing human behavior through a deeper understanding of racism and its impacts on society. Using the humanities lens leads to a better understanding of […]
Marge Percy’s The Emperor: Innovative Solutions in Social Sciences Imagery in the rhyme appears when the poet describes the obsessiveness of the current leadership regime when watching and manipulating the world.
Globalization in Education Through Social Sciences Lens In this case, globalization in education will be analyzed using the lens of the social sciences, which focuses on how people act in their social environment, such as schools and universities.
Social Sciences: The “Culture of Smartness” Involvement in the network of ideologies created as a result of the interaction of many institutions, processes, and American culture in general, is a key criterion of smartness.
Discussion: Economics as a Social Science Economics proficiently utilizes scientific theories and constructs to justify the relationship between human behavioral patterns and the progressive ownership of property.
Applying Social Sciences to Address Core Problems To manage the concerns of the town of Nowhereboro in the scenario under analysis, one must investigate its socioeconomic and sociopolitical concerns from the standpoint of the disciplines of sociology, geography, political science, economics, and […]
Practical Value of Social Sciences Social sciences are usually juxtaposed and compared with natural sciences in their practical applicability, and the former almost certainly lose as a result of such contrasting.
Ethical Barriers in Social Science Research It is coupled with the problem of the extreme patriarchal nature of society in Ghana. To fulfill the requirements of ethical standards, researchers needed to confirm confidentiality and approve the study in healthcare services.
Quantitative Data in Social Sciences At the early stages of the statistical analysis, the research was focused on defining the values of the independent variable of religious affiliation and the dependent variable of one’s sexuality.
Ethical Issues in Social Sciences, Humanities, Law and Theology The purpose of this report is to study the topics of research ethics, their principles, and those ethical responsibilities that researchers have both to the participants in the experiment and society as a whole.
Academic Research in Social Sciences After this phase of research is the selection of a methodology in terms of not philosophy but practical relevance and feasibility.
Social Sciences: Car Safety Being Made for Men Moreover, women are much more likely to get serious injuries incompatible with life Also, in the same conditions, a representative of the fair sex has an average chance of dying in an accident by 20% […]
Natural, Applied, and Social Sciences Implementation In conclusion, despite the differing purposes, the transgender issue in U.S.society is one of the most perspective fields of study in natural and applied sciences.
Organizational Behavior: Social Science Types of Culture and Power as a Property Viewpoint: Power culture Role culture Task culture Person culture
Strategies of Social Science Research As a method of investigation, ethnography is deeply reliant on subject observation, with the researcher being present in the context or with the study respondents, albeit in a trivial role, and making efforts to document […]
Ethics in Social Science Study by Laud Humphreys The discussion’s basis is the dilemma between the need for free research and the need to respect the rights of the study participants.
Sociology: Campaign for Social Sciences One of the sources, which contains comprehensive information regarding these initiatives, is the website of the Campaign for Social Sciences, and it is invaluable for conducting research in this respect.
Agency vs. Stratification in Social Sciences The question of free will has been central to philosophy for thousands of years, and yet, the clash between free will and determinism has not been resolved to this day.
Research Methods in Social Sciences The strategic random sampling method enhances the holistic representation of all demographic and social aspects of a population in the area of study.
HIV From a Social Sciences Perspective In the US, the disease was initially associated with gays only but in the recent past, it is has been claiming many lives in the country and other parts of the world. The first social […]
Qualitative Research in Health and Social Science Literature The reviewed study authors claim that their objective is “to obtain a snap-shot profile of the state of the qualitative literature research in health and social science”.
Standards for Reporting on Empirical Social Science It involved the documentary evidence of the employees’ and leaders’ contributions, the meetings’ time, and focus groups and interviews by the end of the training assessment.
Professional Endeavour in the Social Sciences: Medical IT System This study seeks to critically analyse the current state of knowledge in the field of Defence medical Information system, as a unique profession, which I have been a part of, for the past ten years.
Social Sciences: Development in Adolescent Years The discussions about the universality of adolescence are generated at times from the studies of remnant documentation in the hominid line as well as on the similarities of human beings and non-human primates like chimpanzees.
A Social Science Study of “The Namesake” The movie depicts a kaleidoscope of diversity differences, and how they may pose to be a stumbling block in promoting the welfare of the client; one notable client is Gogol.
Social Science as the Area of Scientific and Academic Awareness The difference between natural and social science arises primarily due to the cognitive nature of the scientists instead of the inapplicable nature of the generalization methods used in science in relation to human actions.
Ageing in the UK. Research Methods for Social Sciences Fully a third of the nation’s population will be 60 years of age or older, over one-fourth will be at least 65 and one in nine 80+ years in age.
The Media Violence Debate and the Risks It Holds for Social Science On the other hand, research on the matter is inconclusive showing that the correlation between violence and aggression varies from null to weak.
The Ethical Lessons of Social Sciences Ethical conduct, both within the company and outside of it, is essential to this process, as it is easier to ruin the company’s standing with a scandal than to rebuild its relationships.
Social Science Literature in the 3rd and 5th Grades The author of the book is clever enough to provide the information that the students need to draw their conclusions about the French and the English language, the similarities, and differences between them, and at […]
Power Definition in Social Sciences In this connection, it may be assumed that constructionism partially addresses and accounts for the impacts or rather the influence of power on the society.
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Exercise In this exercise, multiple regression analysis is carried out to investigate the impact of different factors including Usefulness, Male-Dominated Field, Tutor Attitudes, Confidence, and Age that are considered as the independent variables affecting the Self-Efficacy […]
Cultural Standards in 9-12th Grade Social Science Curriculum The research has been guided by the critical race theory, whereby the subject of the research has been investigated and subsequently categorized. In considering the subject of the research, the interactive aspects of education has […]
Inquiry-Based Learning in Social Science Classrooms In this way, students are prepared to deal with the presented information in a critical way by supplying the rationale for their conclusions and comprehending the basics of scientific inquiry.
Social Science: Objectivity and Values The main question discussed in this work centers on the query of whether values undermine the objectivity of research. To what extent can values intrude with the objectivity of research?
Erich Fromm’s Contributions to Social Sciences In particular, this notion can be described as the ability to reject conventions or restrictions. In contrast, other forms of orientation can profoundly impair the cognitive and ethical development of a person.
Social Science Theory and Methodology The question chosen for analysis is “How do violent video games affect family members’ perceptions of teenagers?”This question will be particularly important to society because it might provide an explanation for increased separation of the […]
Instagram as Tool for Social Science Research Another benefit of Instagram as a research tool is the ease in access to vast amounts of information. We decided to search for the information on a particular hash tag on Instagram.
International Relations as Natural and Social Science This is because, even though that, during the course of recent decades, the operational principles of IR did undergo a rather drastic transformation, the innermost essence of how different countries relate to each other on […]
Language and Time in the Social Sciences This is perhaps the reason why at the end, critics of time like Jose Luis Borges were forced to accept that time is real and that time is needed by all especially when it comes […]
Survey and Interview Methods in Social Sciences In interviews, the respondent provides the primary data for the study and the views of the researcher are not important as most of the information comes from the respondent.
Social Science and Elementary Teaching Methods Holmes and Holmes postulate that teachers, “face the responsibilities and pressures of the accountability movement where the lessons they plan must continue the momentum of the curriculum required by the state, district, school and classroom […]
“Citing data sources in the social sciences: Do authors do it?” by Hailey Mooney It is possible to note that the author addresses rather a narrow field which is one of the most important features of a successful research.
Statistics for the Behavioral & Social Sciences In order to assist the parents to become aware of the effectiveness of their partnering in education, teachers should involve dialogue with the parents early enough to discuss about the parents’ hopes and aspirations for […]
Paradigms in Social Science A business only approach to the study of the viability of the oil pipeline will provide no insight to the extent of the social and economic cost of the proposed project.
Social Science Theorist: Karl Marx According to Marx there are two major classes of people in a society; the ruling class and the subjects. Marx also used capitalism to define and study history and he concluded that all social conflicts […]
Analysis of Michael Foucault’s ideas and methods in social sciences Michael addressed the struggle of individuals in the society and the existing institutions of power, giving an in depth analysis of the Marxist capitalist theory.
Anti-Semitism and Progressive Era Social Science: The Case of John R. Commons
Conducting Health-Related Social Science Research in Low-Income Settings
Identifying Economics’ Place Amongst Academic Disciplines: A Science or a Social Science
High-Ranked Social Science Journal Articles Can Be Identified From Early Citation Information
Evaluating Social Science and Humanities Knowledge Production
Why We Need Arts, Humanities, and Social Science Graduates?
Analytical Sociology and Computational Social Science
Employment Status and Job-Studies Relevance of Social Science Graduates
Types and Mechanisms of Collaboration Between Science, Social Science, and Local Knowledge
Conversion and Departure Between Science and Social Science
Citizen Social Science for More Integrative and Effective Climate Action
Humanizing Big Data: Marketing at the Meeting of Data, Social Science, and Consumer Insight
Elementary Quantum Mechanical Principles and Social Science: Is There a Connection?
From Individual Scientific Visibility to Collective Competencies: The Example of an Academic Department in Social Science
Asian Social Science, Canadian Center of Science and Education
Context, Social Construction, and Statistics: Regression, Social Science, and Human Geography
Corrupt Research: The Case for Reconceptualizing Empirical Management and Social Science
Gendered Citation Patterns Across Political Science and Social Science Methodology Fields
Ben Fine Social Capital Versus Social Theory: Political Economy and Social Science at the Turn of the Millennium
Cumulative Inequality Theory and Social Science
Lewis Thomas’ Prescient 1983 Manifesto for the Humanity-Saving Value of Social Science
Darwinism and the Standard Social Science Model
Evolutionary Social Science and Universal Darwinism
Human Behavior Paradox and a Social Science Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics
Epistemological, Methodological, and Socio-Cultural Constraints to Social Science
Agent Zero: Toward Neurocognitive Foundations for Generative Social Science
Citizen Science Practices for Computational Social Science Research
Estimation and Inference Are Missing Data Problems: Unifying Social Science Statistics via Bayesian Simulation
Bibliometric and Altmetric Analysis of Three Social Science Disciplines
British Academy Report Highlights Best International Examples of Teaching Quantitative Skills in Social Science Degrees
Actors, Agendas, Arenas and Institutional Change Processes: A Social Science Approach to Sustainability
Development Studies and Cross-Disciplinarity: Research at the Social Science-Physical Science Interface
Fighting Science With Social Science: Activist Scholarship in an International Resistance Project
Correlation Between Sociology and Other Social Science Streams
Agent-Based Computational Models and Generative Social Science
Future-Proof Grads: New Study Pinpoints Arts, Humanities, and Social Science Graduates’ Skills
Methodological Issues on Agent-Based Models for Analytical Social Science
Cumulative Advantage and Disadvantage and the Life Course: Cross-Fertilizing Age and Social Science Theory
Beyond BMI: The Value of More Accurate Measures of Fatness and Obesity in Social Science Research
Health Policy and Healthy Populations: An Introduction to a Special Issue of the Social Science Quarterly
What Are the Distinctive Emphases and Approaches of a Multicultural Philosophy of Social Science?
How Are Social Science Fields Studied?
What Is the Role of Social Science in the ‘Urban Age’?
How Does Social Science Affect Education?
Can Social Science Help Us to Understand Society?
How Does Social Science Help in Improving Our Educational System?
What Is Social Science?
How Does Social Science Relate to Society?
Is Social Science Scientific?
Why Is Social Science Important in Schools?
What Are the Points of Conversion and Departure Between Science and Social Science?
How Can Social Science Theory Help Reduce Crime?
What Are the Benefits of Social Science Research?
Why Are Arts, Humanities, and Social Science Students Key to Our Future?
From Where Do the Modern Social Sciences in America Come?
What Do You Think Is the Most Important Aspect of Social Studies?
Why Should Social Science Be Taught in Schools?
What Is the Job of Social Science?
Why Is Social Science Important in Our Life?
How Did Social Science Change the World?
What Will Happen if There Is No Social Science?
How Do Social Studies Prepare Students for Life?
Why Is Social Science Important as a School Subject?
How Do the Applied Social Sciences Processes Affect Your Personal Life?
What Is the Most Important Discipline of Social Science?
Can Social Science Help Us to Better Understand Our Lives and the Lives of Others in Society?
What Are the Benefits of Learning Social Studies?
How Can Social Sciences Contribute to Solving Problems?
What Do the Social Sciences Have in Common?
How Does Applied Social Sciences Affect Your Community?
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Common Assignments: Writing in the Social Sciences

Although there may be some differences in writing expectations between disciplines, all writers of scholarly material are required to follow basic writing standards such as writing clear, concise, and grammatically correct sentences; using proper punctuation; and, in all Walden programs, using APA style. When writing in the social sciences, however, students must also be familiar with the goals of the discipline as these inform the discipline’s writing expectations. According to Ragin (1994), the primary goal of social science research is “identifying order in the complexity of social life” (para. 1). Serving the primary goal are the following secondary goals:

Identifying general patterns and relationships
Testing and refining theories
Making predictions
Interpreting culturally and historically significant phenomena
Exploring diversity
Giving voice
Advancing new theories (Ragin, 1994, para. 2)

To accomplish these goals, social scientists examine and explain the behavior of individuals, systems, cultures, communities, and so on (Dartmouth Writing Program, 2005), with the hope of adding to the world’s knowledge of a particular issue. Students in the social sciences should have these goals at the back of their minds when choosing a research topic or crafting an effective research question. Instead of simply restating what is already known, students must think in terms of how they can take a topic a step further. The elements that follow are meant to give students an idea of what is expected of social science writers.

If you have content-specific questions, be sure to ask your instructor. The Writing Center is available to help you present your ideas as effectively as possible.

Because one cannot say everything there is to say about a particular subject, writers in the social sciences present their work from a particular perspective. For instance, one might choose to examine the problem of childhood obesity from a psychological perspective versus a social or environmental perspective. One’s particular contribution, proposition, or argument is commonly referred to as the thesis and, according to Gerring et al. (2009), a good thesis is one that is “ new, true, and significant ” (p. 2). To strengthen their theses, social scientists might consider presenting an argument that goes against what is currently accepted within that field while carefully addressing counterarguments, and adequately explaining why the issue under consideration matters (Gerring et al., 2009). For instance, one might interpret a claim made by a classical theorist differently from the manner in which it is commonly interpreted and expound on the implications of the new interpretation. The thesis is particularly important because readers want to know whether the writer has something new or significant to say about a given topic. Thus, as you review the literature, before writing, it is important to find gaps and creative linkages between ideas with the goal of contributing something worthwhile to an ongoing discussion. In crafting an argument, you must remember that social scientists place a premium on ideas that are well reasoned and based on evidence. For a contribution to be worthwhile, you must read the literature carefully and without bias; doing this will enable you to identify some of the subtle differences in the viewpoints presented by different authors and help you to better identify the gaps in the literature. Because the thesis is essentially the heart of your discussion, it must be argued objectively and persuasively.

In examining a research question, social scientists may present a hypothesis and they may choose to use either qualitative or quantitative methods of inquiry or both. The methods most often used include interviews, case studies, observations, surveys, and so on. The nature of the study should dictate the chosen method. (Do keep in mind that not all your papers will require that you employ the various methods of social science research; many will simply require that you analyze an issue and present a well reasoned argument.) When you write your capstones, however, you will be required to come to terms with the reliability of the methods you choose, the validity of your research questions, and ethical considerations. You will also be required to defend each one of these components. The research process as a whole may include the following: formulation of research question, sampling and measurement, research design, and analysis and recommendations. Keep in mind that your method will have an impact on the credibility of your work, so it is important that your methods are rigorous. Walden offers a series of research methods courses to help students become familiar with research methods in the social sciences.

Organization

Most social science research manuscripts contain the same general organizational elements:

Title

Abstract

Introduction

Literature Review

Methods

Results

Discussion

References

Note that the presentation follows a certain logic: in the introduction one presents the issue under consideration; in the literature review, one presents what is already known about the topic (thus providing a context for the discussion), identifies gaps, and presents one’s approach; in the methods section, one identifies the method used to gather data; in the results and discussion sections, one then presents and explains the results in an objective manner, acknowledging the limitations of the study (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020). One may end with a presentation of the implications of the study and areas upon which other researchers might focus.

For a detailed explanation of typical research paper organization and content, be sure to review Table 3.1 (pp. 77-81) and Table 3.2 (pp. 95-99) of your 7th edition APA manual.

Objectivity

Although social scientists continue to debate whether objectivity is achievable in the social sciences and whether theories really represent objective scientific analyses, they agree that one’s work must be presented as objectively as possible. This does not mean that writers cannot be passionate about their subject; it simply means that social scientists are to think of themselves primarily as observers and they must try to present their findings in a neutral manner, avoiding biases, and acknowledging opposing viewpoints.

It is important to note that instructors expect social science students to master the content of the discipline and to be able to use discipline appropriate language in their writing. Successful writers of social science literature have cultivated the thinking skills that are useful in their discipline and are able to communicate professionally, integrating and incorporating the language of their field as appropriate (Colorado State University, 2011). For instance, if one were writing about how aid impacts the development of less developed countries, it would be important to know and understand the different ways in which aid is defined within the field of development studies.

Colorado State University. (2011). Why assign WID tasks? http://wac.colostate.edu/intro/com6a1.cfm

Gerring, J., Yesnowitz, J., & Bird, S. (2009). General advice on social science writing . https://www.bu.edu/polisci/files/people/faculty/gerring/documents/WritingAdvice.pdf

Ragin, C. (1994). Construction social research: The unity and diversity of method . http://poli.haifa.ac.il/~levi/res/mgsr1.htm

Trochim, W. (2006). Research methods knowledge base . http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

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Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Social Science — Importance of Social Science in Our Daily Life

Importance of Social Science in Our Daily Life

Categories: Social Science

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Collection 29 March 2022

2021 Top 25 Social Sciences and Human Behaviour Articles

We are pleased to share with you the 25 most downloaded Nature Communications articles* in social sciences and human behaviour published in 2021. Featuring authors from around the world, these papers highlight valuable research from an international community.

Browse all Top 25 subject area collections here .

*Data obtained from SN Insights (based on Digital Science's Dimensions) and normalised to account for articles published later in the year.

Research highlights

Psychological characteristics associated with COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and resistance in Ireland and the United Kingdom

Hesitancy and resistance towards vaccination is a challenge for public health. Here the authors determine psychological characteristics associated with COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy or resistance attitudes in the UK and Ireland.

Jamie Murphy
Frédérique Vallières
Philip Hyland

Policy assessments for the carbon emission flows and sustainability of Bitcoin blockchain operation in China

The growing energy consumption and carbon emissions of Bitcoin mining could potentially undermine global sustainability efforts. Here, the authors show the annual energy consumption of the Bitcoin blockchain in China is expected to peak in 2024 at 296.59 Twh and generate 130.50 million metric tons of carbon emissions.

Shangrong Jiang
Shouyang Wang

Potentially long-lasting effects of the pandemic on scientists

The pandemic has caused disruption to many aspects of scientific research. In this Comment the authors describe the findings from surveys of scientists between April 2020 and January 2021, which suggests there was a decline in new projects started in that time.

Dashun Wang

Unsupervised deep learning identifies semantic disentanglement in single inferotemporal face patch neurons

Little is known about the brain’s computations that enable the recognition of faces. Here, the authors use unsupervised deep learning to show that the brain disentangles faces into semantically meaningful factors, like age or the presence of a smile, at the single neuron level.

Irina Higgins
Matthew Botvinick

An actionable anti-racism plan for geoscience organizations

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Filippo Menczer

Individual differences in information-seeking

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Optimal COVID-19 quarantine and testing strategies

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Marco Pagani
Noemi Barsotti
Alessandro Gozzi

Cognitive functions and underlying parameters of human brain physiology are associated with chronotype

How being a “morning person” or “evening person” affects human cognition and brain physiology is not well understood. Here the authors show evidence of an association of chronotype with cognitive functions and related physiological parameters.

Mohammad Ali Salehinejad
Miles Wischnewski
Michael A. Nitsche

Deep neural network models reveal interplay of peripheral coding and stimulus statistics in pitch perception

The neural and computational mechanisms underpinning pitch perception remain unclear. Here, the authors trained deep neural networks to estimate the fundamental frequency of sounds and found that human pitch perception depends on precise spike timing in the auditory nerve, but is also adapted to the statistical tendencies of natural sounds.

Mark R. Saddler
Ray Gonzalez
Josh H. McDermott

Sources of confidence in value-based choice

The authors show that metacognitive awareness of choice certainty is closely linked to endogenous attentional states that guide decision behaviour.

Jeroen Brus
Helena Aebersold
Rafael Polania

CDH2 mutation affecting N-cadherin function causes attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in humans and mice

Molecular mechanisms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are not fully understood. Here the authors demonstrate a mutation in CDH2, encoding N-cadherin, that is associated with ADHD, and in a mouse model, delineate molecular electrophysiological characteristics associated with this mutation.

D. Halperin

The pupil responds spontaneously to perceived numerosity

Rapid and spontaneous estimation of number is observed in many animals. Here the authors show that perceived number of items modulates the pupillary light response in humans, confirming its spontaneous nature, and introducing pupillometry as a tool to study numerical cognition.

Elisa Castaldi
Antonella Pomè
Paola Binda

Infant gut microbiome composition is associated with non-social fear behavior in a pilot study

Experimental manipulation of the gut microbiome in animal models impacts fear behaviours. Here, the authors show in a pilot study that features of the human infant gut microbiome are associated with non-social fear behaviours during a laboratory based assessment.

Alexander L. Carlson
Rebecca C. Knickmeyer

Linear reinforcement learning in planning, grid fields, and cognitive control

Models of decision making have so far been unable to account for how humans’ choices can be flexible yet efficient. Here the authors present a linear reinforcement learning model which explains both flexibility, and rare limitations such as habits, as arising from efficient approximate computation

Payam Piray
Nathaniel D. Daw

Predicting lapses of attention with sleep-like slow waves

Attentional lapses occur in many forms such as mind-wandering or mindblanking. Here the authors show different types of attentional lapse are accompanied by slow waves, neural activity that is characteristic of transitions into sleep.

Thomas Andrillon
Angus Burns
Naotsugu Tsuchiya

Shifting parental beliefs about child development to foster parental investments and improve school readiness outcomes

Parents’ investments in their children are a critical input in the production of early skills, yet those investments differ across socioeconomic backgrounds. Here the authors show that variations in parental beliefs about the impact of such investments can be one of the sources of investment disparities, and report interventions that can potentially shift those beliefs.

John A. List
Julie Pernaudet
Dana L. Suskind

Partially overlapping spatial environments trigger reinstatement in hippocampus and schema representations in prefrontal cortex

The authors examine how we differentiate highly similar places from each other. They provide evidence for complementary neural mechanisms in the human hippocampus and prefrontal cortex involved in processing interfering and common elements important to remembering places that we have visited.

Arne D. Ekstrom

Neural and computational mechanisms of momentary fatigue and persistence in effort-based choice

The willingness to exert effort into demanding tasks often declines over time through fatigue. Here the authors provide a computational account of the moment-to-moment dynamics of fatigue and its impact on effort-based choices, and reveal the neural mechanisms that underlie such computations.

Tanja Müller
Miriam C. Klein-Flügge
Matthew A. J. Apps

Inequality is rising where social network segregation interacts with urban topology

Not much is known about the joint relationships between social network structure, urban geography, and inequality. Here, the authors analyze an online social network and find that the fragmentation of social networks is significantly higher in towns in which residential neighborhoods are divided by physical barriers such as rivers and railroads.

Johannes Wachs
Balázs Lengyel

Finding positive meaning in memories of negative events adaptively updates memory

Finding positive meaning in past negative events is associated with enhanced mental health. Here the authors show this adaptively updates memory, leading to enhanced positive emotion and content at future retrieval, which remains two months later.

Megan E. Speer
Sandra Ibrahim
Mauricio R. Delgado

How social relationships shape moral wrongness judgments

Moral judgments depend on relational context, with different normative cooperative expectations – relational norms – embedded in different social relationships, such as parent-child, romantic partners, siblings, or acquaintances. Here, the authors show how relational norms for care, hierarchy, reciprocity, and mating are embedded in a set of everyday social relationships in the United States, and use this information to predict out-of-sample moral judgments in relational context.

Brian D. Earp
Killian L. McLoughlin
Molly J. Crockett

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Can Social Science Matter?
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Social Science and Contemporary Social Problems

Published in March of 1969, this essay by then SSRC president Henry Riecken grapples with many of the same issues raised by Prewitt and his interlocutors in “ Can Social Science Matter? ” The major upheavals of that historical moment are not discussed in any detail in Riecken’s essay, but they clearly influenced the timing and the content, as Riecken discusses how social science can contribute to addressing public problems, the differences between the social sciences and the natural sciences and engineering in this regard, and the limits to the ways in which social science can contribute given how it is organized and incentivized. Riecken concludes with an extremely prescient analysis of the ethical dimensions of certain kinds of social science work, specifically social experimentation and the collection and use of what we now call “big data.”

The social sciences, like the physical or biological sciences, are intellectual subjects, directed primarily toward understanding, rather than action. It would of course be a curious kind of “understanding” that had no implications for action, and this is perhaps especially true for the social sciences. Nevertheless, there is a difference between enlarging one’s understanding of human behavior and society on the one hand and trying to solve a social problem on the other. The social sciences are distinct from social problem solving, but each can contribute to the other.

During the last few years there has been a significant change in popular attitudes and expectations in the United States regarding social change and social problems. A renewed determination to ameliorate certain long-standing, as well as recently developed, ills of the society has arisen along with a sense of power and confidence in its ability to do so.

In looking for ways in which to implement this desire for self-control, for directed rather than accidental improvement, a good many leaders of society have begun to turn, increasingly expectant, to the social sciences. Some have asked what the social sciences can contribute to the venture. Others have assumed that these sciences have a great deal to contribute to a better society and that they need only to be force-fed (the recommended diet varies from prescriber to prescriber) in order to grow faster and to make their contribution larger.

The social sciences do have a contribution to make to social practice, but not so large a contribution as they will make if helped to develop properly. At this point in history, the magnitude of major social problems exceeds the capacity of social scientists to solve them.

Such expectations have been entertained before. In the latter part of the nineteenth century and the first decade or so of the twentieth, social scientists of the day offered advice to the progressive political and social movements of the times. As David Truman has pointed out, these political scientists and sociologists operated not only from a weak position in the political structure, but also with an almost total lack of theoretical sophistication, quite nonrigorous methods, and few facts about the systems on which they were advising. 1 David B. Truman, “The Social Sciences and Public Policy: Maturity Brings Problems of Relevance and Training,” Science , 160: 508-512, May 8, 1968. They were intellectually premature and too ready to claim relevance. Their efforts fell far short of expectations, both their own and expectations of those who, from outside the disciplines, had called upon them.

Social scientists had another try during the early years of the New Deal when economists especially, but sociologists and political scientists too, were invited into government and other institutions to develop programs, plans, and social devices for dealing with the Great Depression. The novel thinking of agricultural economists and the resultant development of institutions for what was then known as “farm relief” were considerably more successful than the efforts of the social reformers of the early 1900s had been.

One reason for the relatively greater success of the applied economics of the New Deal was that there had been developing in the United States a considerable sophistication in economics as a discipline, together with a good empirical base of data that had been accumulated over the prior decades. In comparison with today’s data base, that of the 1930s was poor and small; but it was a vast improvement over the virtual data vacuum of 1900. Another reason for the relative success was probably the degree of desperation that gripped the country and led to a willingness to try the somewhat radical measures that were proposed by economists; partly because people were willing to try the measures, they were successful. Still another opportunity for the social sciences came during World War II when psychologists and anthropologists especially made significant contributions to the prosecution of the war and the government of occupied territories.

Social scientists are currently being offered a fourth opportunity to display what they have to offer toward the solution of what is now a fairly well-standardized, if incomplete, list of problems: poverty, racial segregation and discrimination, urban decay and the strangulation of transportation, human and mechanical pollution of the environment, and a perceived increase in the incidence of crimes of violence. Will social scientists succeed better this time in living up to the expectations that face them? What can and should be done to make possible greater success?

There are several purely scientific difficulties in applying social science successfully to the solution of social problems. Limitations of space prevent their adequate discussion here. 2 These issues are taken up in the longer article in Social Science Information cited below. Their importance is such that they must at least be mentioned, however, and they require persistent scientific effort in order to improve the capacity of the social science disciplines to cope with social problems. There are three major scientific issues: so-called “Hawthorne effects” or changes in behavior which result from the fact that individuals are subjects in an experimental study; the inadequacies of existing data about social problems and individual behavior and the defects of indirect data; and finally the manipulability of social factors that are variables in social scientific analyses of problems. These are difficult scientific problems, but not impossible of solution. Furthermore, much headway can be made in applying social science without fully solving them.

Over the decades in the social sciences, the tendency has been to develop internal concerns, to define their own problems and not to accept, as their subject matter, the social problems of the contemporary and surrounding society. This tendency is attributable to forces intrinsic to the disciplines themselves, especially to conceptual redefinition of problems and to methodological or technical developments. A social scientist who undertakes to work on a practical problem, not as a wise man or a clever consultant, but as a scientist, quickly finds that the popular, or commonsense, statement of the problem is either incomplete or misleading; that “the” problem is really many problems, only some of which fall within the disciplinary or scientific scope; and that there are severe inadequacies in the methodological or technical equipment that he has for dealing with “the” practical problem. Sometimes the scientist examines the “real world” because some part of it has solved a problem and the scientist wants to know how the solution works. After he understands how it works he can sometimes improve upon the solution, but the basic movement of his thought is always away from the practical and toward abstract knowledge.

The social scientist gets driven back to more fundamental questions that bear less and less resemblance to the practical problem until they appear to be irrelevant; furthermore, some of the more fundamental questions raised in this way take on a life of their own and become genuinely dissociated from practical problems. They form, instead, the central conceptual or methodological core of the science as such. Thus, over a period of time, a social science can grow more abstract and become increasingly concerned with questions that confront it as an intellectual enterprise per se and that require solutions whether or not they bear upon the social problems of the day.

If these intrinsic intellectual forces were the only ones at work, a discipline would gradually lose all relevance. However, exogenous factors also have some influence. For example, some people become social scientists who have a genuine interest in solving social problems and retain it despite the professionalizing experiences of graduate study. Market forces are also effective, especially grants from both private foundations and government agencies to support applied social research.

The opportunity for a career in an applied field of social science is a market factor of importance. The very existence of professional economic consulting firms as private, nonacademic enterprises holds out the possibility of a career outside the academic world, and may tempt a young man who finds practical affairs more challenging than the intellectual world. The development of clinical psychology was greatly aided by the demands of the Veterans Administration directly after World War II for diagnostic and therapeutic help at its hospitals and clinics.

Another factor of importance is prestige. The social sciences are primarily academic enterprises, more so than either the biological or physical sciences, and the academic portion of the discipline is not only overwhelmingly larger than other sectors but also overpoweringly more prestigious. The physical and the biological sciences, on the other hand, have substantial nonacademic sectors that are intellectually and scientifically influential, as well as of great and evident practical importance.

The prestige which most social scientists attach to academic social science may or may not be justified but it is a fact. The low status of applied work is probably undeserved, but it too is a fact, and one that may discourage some first-rate scholars who are status conscious from entering early upon a career in applied social science. The origins of this low status lie partly in the earlier relative failures of social scientists to deal adequately and successfully with social problems. Even where applied social research has developed and has attracted competent people, it still has been applied research rather than what is called “development” (in the Research and Development sense) or “engineering.”

Most applied social research has been concentrated on the analysis of situations explaining or accounting for a given state of affairs; or the measurement of outcomes—and the degree of success of some action in reaching a stated objective. There has been less attention to preparing new means for taking action or recommending how a user should proceed in order to achieve success.

The production of recommendations for action goes beyond research and indeed beyond science, into what is properly termed “development” rather than “research,” or “engineering” rather than “science.” The distinction is more than verbal—it is a whole complex: a state of mind, institutional auspices, cross-disciplinary relations, communication with nonscientists, and employment of nonscientific resources and nonscientific skills.

“Development” or “engineering” calls primarily for an inventive and constructive attitude, more than an analytic and differentiating one. The scientist is usually trying to unscramble a given complex situation to see how its components work. An engineer is usually trying to put together a device or a process to achieve a given purpose. The scientific process is analytic; the engineering process is synthetic. The scientist’s creativity is conceptual, in producing imaginative new principles or connections between concepts. An engineer’s creativity is in tangible inventions of things or processes that have a causative or productive relationship to a desired end.

Except in very limited and spotty areas, social development or social engineering does not exist. Examples of social engineering can be found in economics in the development of fiscal and monetary policies, and in psychology in new forms of psychotherapy (especially behavior therapy), programmed instruction, human relations training, the training of managers, and the social organization of production units in firms.

Organizational influences

The development of an applied social science or a social engineering may proceed faster through professional schools (especially business and medicine) than through disciplinary departments in universities. The academically based research and teaching unit in the social sciences is affected by forces that hinder this sort of development. Some are organizational, some scientific; some derive from the institutional arrangements for the conduct of research in the social sciences. Most research is done in academic settings by part-time or short-term workers, i.e., by professors and graduate students.

The former have teaching and administrative responsibilities that take up part of their time, the latter have a primary short-term interest in completing a dissertation and getting on in the world. The former work part time on a research problem, the latter leave it for other places or other problems after a relatively short time. Thus, many social science research problems are “thesis-sized” because they are selected for that reason.

This tendency is abetted by the current system of project grants which tends to emphasize short-term investigation of discrete problems rather than long-term, exploratory and persistent pursuit of a problem, a phenomenon, or a method. The absence of a tradition of long-term research careers on a full-time basis, the inflexibility of space that makes it hard to expand and contract the size of a long-term project as such changes become necessary, the varying requirements for skilled labor in interviewing and data processing (currently eased by computer applications), all contribute to sporadic interest, easy discouragement, and lack of persistence.

On the other hand, the real basic advances in social science seem more likely to occur in settings—such as disciplinary departments—that are relatively free of the pressures to devise immediate solutions, to work with client systems, and to attend to the range of extra-scientific considerations that are involved in solving social problems. A convincing argument can be made that the most pressing needs of social science are methodological and that the greatest opportunities for strengthening the social sciences lie in improving methods of research and developing more powerful theories. Indeed, a considerable amount of the advance in social science that has taken place in the last few decades has come about through basic research of this sort, conducted in disciplinary departments.

Thus conventional disciplinary departments and institutes that are genuinely embedded in universities can be counted on to provide the social scientific underpinning for solving social problems, but should not be counted on for the actual problem-oriented work itself.

The latter task should be the responsibility of institutions that have less formidable intellectual responsibilities, and are free of the primary educational obligation. Furthermore, applied social research institutions ought to have some closer firsthand contact with social problems and the agencies that can take effective action on the problems.

Requirements for social science contributions to social problems

Where then should the responsibility for social science contributions to the solution of social problems be located? The phrasing of the question suggests part of the answer for, in the first place, a social problem rarely bears a one-to-one correspondence to social science, and almost never bears such a correspondence to any single social science discipline. All social problems are interdisciplinary in the sense that they require, for adequate solution, the efforts of more than one kind of scientist and usually of more than just scientists or engineers. Hence, the first requirement of an applied social research agency is that its professional personnel be drawn from a variety of disciplines (both within and outside the social sciences).

A second requirement, much harder to achieve, is that the assembled members of these disciplines be able to work together productively and effectively. This requirement demands first-rate scholars, not only curious about the problem at hand but also inquisitive about each other’s fields and capable of learning from each other. Willingness to listen and curiosity are more important than anything else, since transfer of training among social scientists is entirely possible, and it may even help in the solution of, say, a psychological problem if an anthropologist without any particular training in psychology gets to thinking about it.

A third requirement is that the team has full opportunity to perform its functions of engineering and development. This requires certain kinds of facilities: buildings and computers—especially adequate “software” to go with the computing machinery and all the programming and other technical help that can be provided. One of the most useful techniques in social engineering is the simulation of the social processes that are believed to underlie the social problem. In many cases these simulations will have to substitute for experimentation because of the size or other intractable features of the problem.

A fourth requirement is long-term funding commensurate with the size of the social problem. It is a commonplace of American politics that social problems must be solved quickly. We are abjured to waste no more time in eliminating segregation, discrimination, poverty, crime, and unemployment. But while sense of crisis may impel movement, a lot of it is waste motion. We are too impetuous and not persistent enough in trying to solve social problems. Problems need sustained study, trials of many different kinds of solution rather than one-shot panaceas arranged overnight by agencies that are funded on an annual basis and publicly criticized for lack of instant success.

Problems in utilization of social science

One of the most interesting points about social science contributions to the solution of social problems is that the process of introducing the changes necessary to solve the problem is in itself a problem in social science.

Before introducing changes into a quasi-stationary situation, the decision maker must consider a number of factors that affect the chances of success. First, he must consider the acceptability of his proposals to all the people involved in the situation; and the harm, damage, or deprivation that some of them may experience. Next, he must assess the effectiveness of the methods he expects to use to attract the attention and arouse willingness to explore, and the capacity he has to teach people new ways of behaving. Finally, he must try to adjust the incentive and inhibitory factors in the situation so as to stabilize the new equilibrium and maintain the change he aims to bring about. Almost all of these problems exist in one form or another in utilization of the products of biological and physical sciences, too. But these sciences have not only an engineering or developmental branch that puts their ideas into usable form, but also a marketing mechanism—a set of activities and relationships that handles these problems or is so constituted that it can afford to ignore some of them.

On the whole, the marketing mechanisms for social inventions and devices do not parallel those for physical and biological technology. There are at least three reasons for this. In the first place, until recently, there have been few social inventions or devices that could not be marketed or disseminated either through existing political mechanisms in the public sector, or through publication, or through the establishment of a professional group such as clinical psychologists. It may be that marketing mechanisms will spring up in response to the appearance of new items to be marketed.

For example, there are profit-making companies which now seem to be interested in developing and selling, as well as installing, new curricular materials and instructional procedures in the schools; and industrial firms have contracted to operate schemes for the alleviation of poverty—usually through retraining of the unskilled or underskilled. This trend has yet to be evaluated, but it could alter profoundly the nature of the process of social change. Secondly, there is difficulty in protecting property rights in intangible social technology. If the product is an idea, an attitude, a routine, it is hard to copyright and generally impossible to patent. The absence of protection of exclusive rights makes the prospect of investing in a marketing organization less attractive to an entrepreneur. Thirdly, much of the technological product of the social sciences has to do with the public rather than with the private sector of the economy, and is valuable for its distributive effect on the total society rather than for its enhancement of the quality of life of one individual at a time. Add to this the fact that a good many social inventions cannot be assigned a unit value, and one can see that the marketing mechanism must be the state in some form, rather than private enterprise.

Public policy issues in the application of social science

Some questions of public policy are raised by research and development activities in the social sciences. For example, what should be the public policy toward deliberate social experimentation, especially toward concealed experiments, in which the subjects are not aware that they are involved in an experiment? There are scientific reasons for concealment but the public policy problem is whether the probable gains from conducting such an experiment outweigh the ethical undesirability of acting in a less than open fashion. There is something repugnant about concealment of purpose, even when the motives for it are disinterested and no one is harmed. There is something upsetting about discovering that what one thought was a real and natural flow of events was instead a carefully contrived sequence of moves deliberately planned to accomplish a preconceived purpose.

The benefits to the general public welfare have to be balanced against these possible disadvantages. If experimental purpose must be concealed in order to obtain valid knowledge that will lead to improved social policies at a relatively low cost, not only in money but in mistakes and discomforts visited upon citizens, then the undesirable features of a concealed experiment may be outweighed by its advantages. The judgment cannot be made a priori for all cases; it must depend in each instance on the estimated costs and the anticipated benefits. Perhaps the more significant public policy question is: Who shall make the judgment?

On a more general level, one may raise questions in terms of a conflict between two values: the advancement of knowledge, and the personal integrity and convenience of the individual citizen. Nowhere does this conflict become more explicit than in questions concerning invasion of individual privacy, especially in regard to the collection of detailed data about individuals and their maintenance in files that are presumably to be used for research purposes.

The issues here turn around safeguards as to how the data will be used, and in how much detail the data will be kept. Briefly summarized, what has been proposed is that certain kinds of data which are now regularly collected by various agencies (central and local authorities and perhaps private agencies, too), but kept in separate files and published only in aggregated forms be made available for research purposes on a disaggregated basis.

More specifically it is proposed that data about individuals such as employment, income, savings, or expenditures be collected and stored in such a way that it would be possible to match the information from these separate series, by individuals. The anonymity of the individual and the confidentiality of the information would presumably be maintained as they are now. The data system would be used for research purposes, not for administrative ones.

Whether the very existence of a national data system would tempt those with legitimate access to make illegitimate use of the data is a much more serious question, going well beyond the data system per se. The question really turns around one’s estimate of the likelihood of “big brotherism”—of a controlling government and a controlled society, and of the role the social sciences might play in bringing about such a situation or maintaining it. As our society grows in density of population, in interdependence, in complexity and technological sophistication, the need for rational planning and for the thoughtful and foresighted management of our affairs grows apace. And so does the need for vigilance in the defense of individual liberty, since there is always, as there always has been, the tempting possibility for those in power to “simplify” their problems by wielding their power in ways that constrict freedom and constrain the less powerful.

There is no reason, however, to see the social sciences as more culpable or more threatening than other kinds of science and technological development. The power of the state is increased by the development of sophisticated weapons for its police, more efficient communication among them, and by devices that enable eavesdropping at a distance and through a wall. There are dangers in pharmacological control of behavior. Individual freedom can be abridged by the architecture of our dwellings and the design of our transportation, as well as by the laws which govern minimum wages, welfare payments, and income tax exemptions.

In fact, the social sciences can help to make us aware of threats to our freedom while giving us greater power to control our own behavior in constructive ways, helping us to be more tolerant of diversity, to learn to live together in greater harmony, less violently and more satisfyingly. If we are to reap these benefits, however, we must work at understanding ourselves and our society, at perfecting a social science that is capable of meeting the challenges of our future.

Henry W. Riecken (1917–2012) was an eminent social scientist who served as president of the Social Science Research Council between 1966 and 1971. He was also the first director of the National Science Foundation’s social science division. He also served on the faculties of Harvard University, University of Minnesota, and University of Pennsylvania.

This essay originally appeared in Items Vol. 23, Issue 1 in the spring of 1969. Visit our archives to view the original as it first appeared in the print editions of Items .

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What I Have Learned from Social Science

I’ve spent my adult life in and around social science. Academically through studying psychology and linguistics (alongside philosophy), professionally through working at SAGE for over 30 years and personally through an abiding amateur interest in various fields sometimes expressed in my own writing of books or articles.

In light of my recent election as a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences. I’ve been reflecting on what social science has meant to me, and why my interest continues to this day.

These reflections are a quite personal take. They are not meant to be a ‘defence of social science’ or a comprehensive review of its impact in various domains, though when people who aren’t familiar with social science ask me what the point of it is I find myself responding in this kind of vein. It’s a personal view on why I think a social science imagination can benefit us as individuals and improve society more generally, especially at a time of such upheaval and reconfiguration.

The starting point for me is in human psychology, the subject of my undergraduate degree. In my first week in October 1985 as a fresher at Exeter University, I met Steve Reicher, who was assigned as my first-year tutor. Steve was a ‘new blood’ lecturer at the time who had a year earlier published what was to become a seminal article analysing the St Paul’s riots in Bristol in April 1980. Through my encounters and discussions with Steve and other psychologists in the department I learned about certain features of human nature. While I didn’t go quite as far as Steve, who would say ‘the nature of human nature is its capacity to transcend itself’, and while the very idea of human nature is, I realise, contested and felt confusing to me initially, I started to learn how profoundly social that nature was.

While this may sound obvious to many – we are social animals who cooperate and learn from each other, of course – I nevertheless find it hard to see myself that way consistently. And I’ve learned that it’s not just me. While social science shows how our natures are deeply social it also explains why we don’t always see this fact that well. When not looking through a social science lens we (in the West at least) tend to see ourselves and our place in the world as more individual than that, like fish swimming around unaware of the environment in which they are suspended.

It’s not that the idea of the individual is a myth. Rather it is one of many identities, all shaped by historical and cultural forces, which tends in our daily lives to be overly emphasised. We see the figure more easily than the ground along which she walks. For instance, what’s known as the ‘fundamental attribution error’ leads me to look at someone’s behaviour and explain it too quickly in terms of their imagined individual characteristics and ignore the context. So if someone cuts me up in traffic I more easily think ‘selfish!’ rather than ‘maybe there’s an emergency’.

A key value of social science, it seems to me, is to counter-balance that self-image , to help us see the ground as well as we see the figure. We know when it comes to physical health that what we want and what is good for us are not always aligned. Well so it is for the social health of this social animal. Our interests, it seems to me, are best served by a more balanced understanding of human circumstances and contexts, but for all sorts of reasons evolutionists like to explore, we don’t do this as fully as we might. The tendency mentioned above for instance, to see the individual more easily than her circumstances, has deep consequences for the chances of human flourishing – for our attitudes toward each other – if left unchecked.

And this point, the need to see more context, can be extended in various ways. Here are 10 examples of tendencies we have which a social science imagination can and should help us to counter-balance, each of which have moral or political implications for how to organise ourselves and society better. This is not to say that each tendency is a problem in itself, or that we can’t reverse it under certain conditions, it’s that a social science imagination is useful in helping us do just that. 1 I’ve added a reference for each one to help provide a bit more insight for those who are interested. But as I say these reflections are personal and highly selective rather than anything systematic. For that you should talk to the experts! I’ve put these 10 into three broad buckets:

Those tendencies which assume we have more agency, more control over our circumstances, than we do, e.g.:

Judgement over luck. It’s easier, thanks to the ‘just-world hypothesis’ and even the idea of meritocracy to assume people have more responsibility for their outcomes than they generally have. So people who end up worse off in life can be blamed for their individual failure to measure up.
Cure over prevention. It’s easier to say ‘lock ’em up’ and harder to be tough on the causes of crime. The same goes for health interventions. We will typically pay more for treatment rather than preventative measures.
The conscious over the unconscious. It’s easier to focus on explicit thoughts and feelings, and to assume we are rational and objective in our judgments while ignoring the less obvious underlying tendencies such as revealed by studies of unconscious bias.

Then there are those which favour the near over the far, whether in terms of time, space or social categories, such as:

Short term over long term. It’s easier to spend now than to save for a pension. Similarly, we can underrate the significance of climate change for future generations.
The near at hand over the far away. It’s easier to care about the incidence of COVID-19 in our own locale rather than further afield. There’s even evidence of a ‘propinquity effect’ which describes how we find people and things more appealing merely by being physically closer to us.
Us over Them. What’s called ‘ingroup favouritism’ makes it easier to sympathise with people ‘like me’ than the members of an outgroup. The recent surge in political polarisation, from Brexit to the recent US election, bears on this tendency.

We have tendencies to oversimplify, to prefer the status quo and then to generalise, such as when we favour

The dominant over the marginalised. It’s easier to see a tall, white middle class man as an authority figure than almost anybody else!
The vivid example over statistical data . It’s easier to fear terrorism and plane crashes than driving cars. And remember the line often attributed to Stalin, that a single death is a tragedy, while a million deaths are a mere statistic.
Choosing the status quo over alternative explanations. It’s easier to say ‘that’s just how things are’, than this is how they got this way and could be different. Much of what feels immutable is in fact socially constructed.
The simple over the complex. It’s easier to skewer politicians on the journalistic jab of ‘answer the question yes or no’, than to accept a more nuanced response. Many social problems are known as ‘wicked’ and don’t always have right or wrong answers, though hopefully better or worse ones.

It’s a simple list which reveals my starting point in psychology, and others (from sociology, anthropology, political science etc) would choose different examples I’m sure. But I hope it shows that tending to think people have more freedom and agency than they do, or tending to favour the near over the far, or to see the social world as fixed rather than constructed comes easily to us, while hampering the possibilities of human progress in many ways.

A social science imagination helps us put a thumb on the scales to counter-balance those tendencies. This offers possibilities to recalibrate society to better suit our social natures than an individualistic essentialising view will be inclined to do. Meanwhile politicians, media outlets, and more generally people with power and wanting to hold on to it exploit these tendencies; and social science analyses that, too.

Social science has a hard time breaking through because it tends not to offer up easy answers and solutions (see point 10 above). But as one physicist pointed out, it is child’s play to understand theoretical physics compared to understanding child’s play. Understanding molecules offers more law-like generalisations and predictions than understanding people and culture. The problems addressed by social science are complex and often don’t have right or wrong answers, but hopefully offer better or worse ones. And often those answers depend on some mix of different levels of analysis.

The complexity of social science reflects the complexities of humanity at many scales and magnitudes. At a global level, scientists study wars and conflict, trans-national migration, cultures and religions, international cooperation and diplomacy between nations. Zoom into a country and they look at forms of government and how power is gained, how the economy works. Zoom further into policy domains and see social scientists looking at crime, aging, mental health, physical health (obesity, vaccine uptake, physical distancing), education, social care, the use of technology, the nature of work, the media, social cohesion, inequality and social injustice. You’ll find them analysing organizations like companies, political parties, schools, prisons, cities, football clubs, unions and the forms of organization that describe how they work, and don’t work, such as leadership, crowd behaviour, discrimination, power. Zoom in further to see them study interpersonal behaviour whether in groups, teams or relationships. Looking into family systems offers yet more levels of complexity even before turning to individual differences and subjective experiences (of love, loneliness, stress, addiction, emotion, memory, motivation) let alone those who dive into perception, cognition, the unconscious and more.

These levels are intersecting and overlapping as much as we are, and the study of them leads social science to interact with other disciplines, from natural sciences on the one side to humanities on the other.

Of course there’s good and bad, deep and trivial, applied and abstract work in social science as in all fields, and the mechanism of generating scholarship which translates to everyday impact and relevance is complex and sometimes badly broken through the many mixed incentives that come from trying to create academic reputations in higher education settings. As the social scientist Garry Brewer once pithily remarked ‘the world has problems while universities have departments’.

With all that said the cumulative intellectual labour of social scientists across the globe does have a powerful effect over time. And it is particularly satisfying watching Steve Reicher, now at St Andrews, commenting influentially on many of today’s political issues. Many of you will have seen his work on government responses to COVID-19 as part of the behavioural science advisory committee to what we call ‘the other SAGE’ and latterly independent SAGE.

But the moment that struck me most forcibly was after the death of George Floyd and the subsequent protests, one of which was the pulling down of the statue of Edward Colston in Bristol — the same city where the St Paul’s riots occurred 40 years before. Steve commented on how this event did not trigger riots this time around. And he gave particular credit to Chief Constable Andy Marsh, suggesting that if he had been there in 1980 there wouldn’t have been riots. But the police have evolved in their training and tactics since then in part thanks to social scientists like Steve and his PhD students, now professors themselves in UK universities and often advising police on their responses to handling protests to avoid them turning into riots. The key point being to see crowds not as mad or bad but as highly minded and acting with reasons, and in contexts partly shaped by how the police themselves intervene. 3 Here’s a representative article urging shifts in the police’s construals of crowds at the time of the poll tax riots: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199807/08)28:4%3C509::AID-EJSP877%3E3.0.CO;2-C Social science imagination in action! I don’t know if Steve’s, his colleagues’ and others’ impact has been obliterated through incorporation, but I can see the link through time.

This is just one example. Play it out over the various domains I described earlier and you might see why I’m incredibly grateful to the social scientists present and past who through their work have shaped and framed my way of thinking and a stance toward the world which I believe would, in countless ways, be much poorer for its absence.

Ziyad Marar

Ziyad Marar is an author and president of global publishing at SAGE Publishing. His books include Judged: The Value of Being Misunderstood (Bloomsbury, 2018), Intimacy: Understanding the Subtle Power of Human Connection (Acumen Publishing, 2012), Deception (Acumen Publishing, 2008), and The Happiness Paradox (Reaktion Books 2003). He tweets @ZiyadMarar.

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This is interesting, and thought-provoking reading; I am reading it as part of the content for my MA in Creative Writing at Kingston School of Art. I am interested in your example of the ‘fundamental attribution error’ where we instantly ‘frame’ someone in a negative light in traffic, and your exposition on how this feeds through into many other examples. I think it is a shame though that you framed this as ‘imagined’, and that the imagination is often blamed for instances like this. As elucidated in A Critique of Pure Reason (Kant), you will note that it is the … Read more »

The most unkind remark made about the social sciences is that they are fuzzy science. Here in this article Ziyad Marar correctly explains that they are complex. And that they are infinitely worth pursueing. However, as Jordan Peterson and from a slightly different angle Douglas Murray might argue, there is a danger today that in this field the academic world has shifted so much to the left that University students are being misled in believing dismantelling statues for “righteous causes” is something brave and praiseworthy. I feel sure Mr. Marar would not be amongst those encouraging them, realising that different … Read more »

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Too Many ‘Gray Areas’ In Workplace Culture Fosters Racism And Discrimination

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Brexit and the Decline of Academic Internationalism in the UK

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Brexit and the Crisis of Academic Cosmopolitanism

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Uncharted Waters: Researching Bereavement in the Workplace

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Mixed Methods As A Tool To Research Self-Reported Outcomes From Diverse Treatments Among People With Multiple Sclerosis

What does heritage mean to you?

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How Pew Research Center will report on generations moving forward

Journalists, researchers and the public often look at society through the lens of generation, using terms like Millennial or Gen Z to describe groups of similarly aged people. This approach can help readers see themselves in the data and assess where we are and where we’re headed as a country.

Pew Research Center has been at the forefront of generational research over the years, telling the story of Millennials as they came of age politically and as they moved more firmly into adult life . In recent years, we’ve also been eager to learn about Gen Z as the leading edge of this generation moves into adulthood.

But generational research has become a crowded arena. The field has been flooded with content that’s often sold as research but is more like clickbait or marketing mythology. There’s also been a growing chorus of criticism about generational research and generational labels in particular.

Recently, as we were preparing to embark on a major research project related to Gen Z, we decided to take a step back and consider how we can study generations in a way that aligns with our values of accuracy, rigor and providing a foundation of facts that enriches the public dialogue.

A typical generation spans 15 to 18 years. As many critics of generational research point out, there is great diversity of thought, experience and behavior within generations.

We set out on a yearlong process of assessing the landscape of generational research. We spoke with experts from outside Pew Research Center, including those who have been publicly critical of our generational analysis, to get their take on the pros and cons of this type of work. We invested in methodological testing to determine whether we could compare findings from our earlier telephone surveys to the online ones we’re conducting now. And we experimented with higher-level statistical analyses that would allow us to isolate the effect of generation.

What emerged from this process was a set of clear guidelines that will help frame our approach going forward. Many of these are principles we’ve always adhered to , but others will require us to change the way we’ve been doing things in recent years.

Here’s a short overview of how we’ll approach generational research in the future:

We’ll only do generational analysis when we have historical data that allows us to compare generations at similar stages of life. When comparing generations, it’s crucial to control for age. In other words, researchers need to look at each generation or age cohort at a similar point in the life cycle. (“Age cohort” is a fancy way of referring to a group of people who were born around the same time.)

When doing this kind of research, the question isn’t whether young adults today are different from middle-aged or older adults today. The question is whether young adults today are different from young adults at some specific point in the past.

To answer this question, it’s necessary to have data that’s been collected over a considerable amount of time – think decades. Standard surveys don’t allow for this type of analysis. We can look at differences across age groups, but we can’t compare age groups over time.

Another complication is that the surveys we conducted 20 or 30 years ago aren’t usually comparable enough to the surveys we’re doing today. Our earlier surveys were done over the phone, and we’ve since transitioned to our nationally representative online survey panel , the American Trends Panel . Our internal testing showed that on many topics, respondents answer questions differently depending on the way they’re being interviewed. So we can’t use most of our surveys from the late 1980s and early 2000s to compare Gen Z with Millennials and Gen Xers at a similar stage of life.

This means that most generational analysis we do will use datasets that have employed similar methodologies over a long period of time, such as surveys from the U.S. Census Bureau. A good example is our 2020 report on Millennial families , which used census data going back to the late 1960s. The report showed that Millennials are marrying and forming families at a much different pace than the generations that came before them.

Even when we have historical data, we will attempt to control for other factors beyond age in making generational comparisons. If we accept that there are real differences across generations, we’re basically saying that people who were born around the same time share certain attitudes or beliefs – and that their views have been influenced by external forces that uniquely shaped them during their formative years. Those forces may have been social changes, economic circumstances, technological advances or political movements.

When we see that younger adults have different views than their older counterparts, it may be driven by their demographic traits rather than the fact that they belong to a particular generation.

The tricky part is isolating those forces from events or circumstances that have affected all age groups, not just one generation. These are often called “period effects.” An example of a period effect is the Watergate scandal, which drove down trust in government among all age groups. Differences in trust across age groups in the wake of Watergate shouldn’t be attributed to the outsize impact that event had on one age group or another, because the change occurred across the board.

Changing demographics also may play a role in patterns that might at first seem like generational differences. We know that the United States has become more racially and ethnically diverse in recent decades, and that race and ethnicity are linked with certain key social and political views. When we see that younger adults have different views than their older counterparts, it may be driven by their demographic traits rather than the fact that they belong to a particular generation.

Controlling for these factors can involve complicated statistical analysis that helps determine whether the differences we see across age groups are indeed due to generation or not. This additional step adds rigor to the process. Unfortunately, it’s often absent from current discussions about Gen Z, Millennials and other generations.

When we can’t do generational analysis, we still see value in looking at differences by age and will do so where it makes sense. Age is one of the most common predictors of differences in attitudes and behaviors. And even if age gaps aren’t rooted in generational differences, they can still be illuminating. They help us understand how people across the age spectrum are responding to key trends, technological breakthroughs and historical events.

Each stage of life comes with a unique set of experiences. Young adults are often at the leading edge of changing attitudes on emerging social trends. Take views on same-sex marriage , for example, or attitudes about gender identity .

Many middle-aged adults, in turn, face the challenge of raising children while also providing care and support to their aging parents. And older adults have their own obstacles and opportunities. All of these stories – rooted in the life cycle, not in generations – are important and compelling, and we can tell them by analyzing our surveys at any given point in time.

When we do have the data to study groups of similarly aged people over time, we won’t always default to using the standard generational definitions and labels. While generational labels are simple and catchy, there are other ways to analyze age cohorts. For example, some observers have suggested grouping people by the decade in which they were born. This would create narrower cohorts in which the members may share more in common. People could also be grouped relative to their age during key historical events (such as the Great Recession or the COVID-19 pandemic) or technological innovations (like the invention of the iPhone).

By choosing not to use the standard generational labels when they’re not appropriate, we can avoid reinforcing harmful stereotypes or oversimplifying people’s complex lived experiences.

Existing generational definitions also may be too broad and arbitrary to capture differences that exist among narrower cohorts. A typical generation spans 15 to 18 years. As many critics of generational research point out, there is great diversity of thought, experience and behavior within generations. The key is to pick a lens that’s most appropriate for the research question that’s being studied. If we’re looking at political views and how they’ve shifted over time, for example, we might group people together according to the first presidential election in which they were eligible to vote.

With these considerations in mind, our audiences should not expect to see a lot of new research coming out of Pew Research Center that uses the generational lens. We’ll only talk about generations when it adds value, advances important national debates and highlights meaningful societal trends.

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Kim Parker is director of social trends research at Pew Research Center

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Comprehending Comics: Exploring Methodologies and Approaches to Comics Studies in History and the Social Sciences

CALL FOR PAPERS - CONFERENCE

Comprehending Comics: Exploring Methodologies and Approaches to Comic Studies in History and the Social Sciences

The conference will take place online September 8-9, 2024.

We are pleased to announce that Rachel Marie-Crane Williams and Marcus Weaver-Hightower will be our keynote speakers.

Please submit your proposal by May 1, 2024.

Interest in comic studies have generated wide and varied interests from an exploration of visual language and narrative in sequential art to the use of technologies in comics, to considerations current questions in both contemporary society and history. These have led to fruitful research which cross disciplines and produced diverse and complex scholarship. Richard Scully have written extensively on political cartoons and their relationship with imperialism and colonialism. Amy Matthewson’s Cartooning China examined the British popular satirical magazine Punch and situated the series of cartoons of China and Chinese people within their geopolitical frameworks. Sheena Howard and Ronald Jackson’s Black Comics: Politics of Race and Representation brought together a range of critical essays exploring contributions of Black graphic artists. Collections such as Drawing the Past Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 (2022), edited by Dorian Alexander, Michael Goodrum, and Philip Smith, brought a range of scholars to unite around the broad theme of the historical imagination in American popular media.

There is still an evolving consensus on which the methodologies that scholars specialized in fields of history and social sciences could use when engaging with comics. Often, research focused on comics-formatted primary sources is pigeonholed into literary study, or in other cases the linguistic framework of describing and analyzing comics fails to translate to a discussion of material culture. As the range of demonstrated methodologies is vast, and as the advancement of comics-based research offers new potential for the study of history and the social sciences, it is a crucial time to reflect and take stock of current practice and possible future directions.

We are interested in all aspects of comics-format works, comics and graphic novels, and methodologies and themes that might address (but are not limited to) the following:

Representation in comics

The challenges of comics-based research studies as applied to the study of history

Historical aspects of visualities and comics in particular

The future of comics in research

Archeology and comics

Ancient and medieval history in comics

The effects of digital tools in comic studies

Comics and the politics of methodology – race, gender, sexuality, class, etc.

The transnational, transcultural, and/or interdisciplinary nature of comic studies

Teaching history with or through comics

Teaching comics-based research methods

Comics in memory studies

Tensions and concordances between art history and history of comics and graphic novels

We are now accepting proposals for papers (20 minutes) and panels (of 2 or 3 papers). Graduate students are also invited to submit a poster instead of a paper, if they choose, which will be displayed online for the duration of the conference. The poster section will enable asynchronous comments, and a presentation session where participants give a short 3-5 minute summary of the poster content. Please submit the following to [email protected] or [email protected] by May 1st 2024:

abstract of 300 words

a biography of 50 words including your name, email, affiliation, and gender pronouns

This will be an online conference hosted by the Comics Lab at Palacký University, Czech Republic. Given the international spread of contributors, participant time zones will be considered when scheduling panels. All conference registration fees and expenses are covered by Palacký University to guarantee fair access for all participants. The conference will take place September 8-9, 2024.

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CALL FOR PAPERS - CONFERENCE. Comprehending Comics: Exploring Methodologies and Approaches to Comic Studies in History and the Social Sciences. The conference will take place online September 8-9, 2024. We are pleased to announce that Rachel Marie-Crane WilliamsandMarcus Weaver-Hightower will be our keynote speakers.
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