how to write research paper in library and information science

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• CAREER BRIEF
• 08 May 2019

Toolkit: How to write a great paper

A clear format will ensure that your research paper is understood by your readers. Follow:

1. Context — your introduction

2. Content — your results

3. Conclusion — your discussion

Plan your paper carefully and decide where each point will sit within the framework before you begin writing.

Collection: Careers toolkit

Straightforward writing

Scientific writing should always aim to be A, B and C: Accurate, Brief, and Clear. Never choose a long word when a short one will do. Use simple language to communicate your results. Always aim to distill your message down into the simplest sentence possible.

Choose a title

A carefully conceived title will communicate the single core message of your research paper. It should be D, E, F: Declarative, Engaging and Focused.

Conclusions

Add a sentence or two at the end of your concluding statement that sets out your plans for further research. What is next for you or others working in your field?

Find out more

See additional information .

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-01362-9

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Holman Library

Library Research: A Step-By-Step Guide

Step 4: write.

• Library Research: A Step-by-Step Guide
• 1a. Understand Your Assignment
• 1b. Select a Topic
• 1c. Develop Research Questions
• 1d. Identify Search Words
• 1e. Find Background Info
• 1f. Refine Your Topic
• 2a. Use Smart Search Strategies
• 2b. Find Books
• 2c. Find Audio and Video
• 2d. Find Articles
• 2e. Find Websites
• 2f. Find Info in Holman Library One Search
• 3a. Evaluate By Specific Criteria
• 3b. Distinguish Between Scholarly/Popular Sources
• Step 5: Cite Your Sources

Useful style & writing guides

Browse the Essential Skills and Main sections of Holman Library -- 808 Call Number -- for books on incorporating sources into your research papers.

How do I incorporate sources into my paper or presentation?

• Can I use it as background information to begin my paper?
• Can I use it to change the focus or direction of my paper? 
• Can I make smooth transitions between thoughts/paragraphs by making connections between sources?
• Can I insert these into my paper for emotional impact or attention-grabbing devices?
• Can I use it as evidence in my supporting paragraphs?
• Can I use it as a counterargument?
• Can I make recommendations or leave questions for the reader to ponder at the end of my paper?
• Is it close enough and good enough that I can still figure out a way to creatively incorporate it in my paper?

Video: How to Avoid Plagiarism in 5 Easy Steps

Source: "How to Avoid Plagiarism: In 5 Easy Steps" by Steelman Library , is licensed under a Standard YouTube License.

Three Methods for incorporating sources

Know these methods.

• Method #1 Summarize
• Method #2 Paraphrase
• Method #3 Quote

It is best to mostly summarize and paraphrase your sources instead of quoting them. This improves the flow of your paper and makes it more coherent for readers.

• Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL): Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing

Summarize:  

state the main ideas of a source concisely and in your own words. Keep if brief and to the point. Always indicate the source you are summarizing. A summary is much shorter in length than the source. 

TIP: Practice explaining out loud a source you would like to summarize. 

Paraphrase:

r estate, in your own words ,  information from a source, like a conclusion or particularly important point. Always cite the source you paraphrase.  A paraphrase is usually about the same length as the original.

Quote: 

use someone's exact words when rewording will not do justice to the original statement, the person you are citing is a known authority, for accuracy, or for conciseness. Use quotes sparingly.

• Limit  the use of direct quotes to at most, 20% of the paper (exception: papers on literary works).
• Put quotation marks around a quote.
• In APA format, quotation marks are used for quotes less than 5 lines only. 
• Indent direct quotes five or more lines (MLA), or 40+ words (APA). 
• Use ellipses (three dots...where the...words were...removed) to indicate omissions from a direct quote. Be careful to not lose context or the true meaning of the statement by omitting parts.
• Indicate additions or changes with [brackets]

Using Information from another Source

• Weaving it together
• Paraphrase or Plagiarize

A summary is a brief synopsis of the key points of a work. A summary is written in your own words and credits the original source.

Click on the link below to download a copy of an 8 step guide to help you summarize!

• Eight Steps for Writing a Summary

Paraphrasing refers to restating someone's ideas in your own words. Note that says ideas  - not words! Paraphrasing is not  just rewriting a sentence using your own words! That's a surefire way to plagiarize! Writing the ideas, or meaning of what you read, however, is the best way to go! And you must give credit when you paraphrase.  Click on the link below to download a copy of an 6 step guide to help you paraphrase!

• Six Steps for Paraphrasing Material

Weaving it all together

Most college level writing - and in fact, life writing - requires you to do more than summarize and paraphrase! You also need to be able to tie it all together into your own discussion and analysis. 

Writing texts refer to this process by different names; The Write Stuff describes it as making an "ice cream sandwich" in which you wrap other's ideas and words within your own analysis. In other words, you sandwich them.

The Ice Cream Sandwich: Framing Facts and Sources

Top Cookie:

A sentence or two to introduce the point you want to make or critique

The text reference that supports your point. Be sure to put the summaries and paraphrases into a sentence of your own:

Paraphrase > plus page number (in parentheses)

Direct quote

Bottom Cookie:

Interpretation and analysis

Interpretation (what is being said - define key terms when necessary)

Analysis (what the messages are and a critique of the author's ideas, writing style, or techniques)

Sims, Marcie. “The Ice Cream Sandwich: Framing Facts and Sources” The Write Stuff: Thinking through Essays. 2nd ed. Boston: Prentice-Hall. 2012. 337-338. Print.

The most common form of “accidental” plagiarism is the result of poor paraphrasing skills. This type of “accidental” plagiarism occurs when you actually cite a source, but the amount of material you use from that source, or the overall writing style—i.e., use of words, phrases, and writing patterns—is too close to the original (without using quotation marks). Be careful about relying too much in a paper on someone else’s words or ideas. Basically, if you use too many of the same phrases or words from the original and do not use quotation marks, it is considered plagiarism even if you cite the source.

Examples of attempted paraphrasing

Original Source Excerpt

Such savvy borrowing may be lost on some educators, but others, like librarians, are catching up. “Students are finding it so easy to use these sources that they will dump them in the middle of the papers without any attribution,” says John Ruszkiewicz, an English professor at Texas. “What they don’t realize is how readily [professors] can tell the material isn’t the student’s and how easy it is for instructors to search this material on the Web” (434).

Student Version A— Plagiarism:

Students borrowing from the Web may be lost on some educators, but some teachers and librarians are catching up. Some students use chunks of other sources right in the middle of their papers without citations. But what these students often don’t realize is how easily professors can tell the material isn’t the student’s and how the instructors can easily search and find this material on the Web too.

This paraphrase is an example of plagiarism because the student uses many of the same phrases as the original passage and the same overall style and structure as the original author with just a few substitution words or phrases (without using any quotation marks and without citations).

Student Version B—Attempted Paraphrase— But Still Plagiarism:

According to Mark Clayton, students borrowing from the Internet may be missed by some teachers, but others are catching it. Students find it easy to use these sources and will put them in their papers without citations or credit. However, they don’t realize that professors can tell the material isn’t the student’s and that it is easy for them to search the web and find this material too.

This paraphrase is an example of “accidental” plagiarism because the student has combined a couple sentences, substituted a few words, but still has used the same overall structure with minor substitutions and has given a nod to the original author with a tagline but still does not have a proper parenthetical citation anywhere in the paraphrase.

Student Version C—Appropriate Paraphrase— Not Plagiarism:

According to Mark Clayton's article, "A Whole Lot of Cheatin' Going On," many students are using the Internet to research sources on topics they write about, but they are using these sources in their papers without giving any credit to the original authors. Clayton also points out that teachers and librarians are figuring out what's going on and can recognize when it is not the student's own work. Furthermore, teachers can find the sources themselves on the Internet and prove that the student has plagiarized (434).

This student has paraphrased using his or her own words and sentence constructions, and the student has accurately reflected the author's ideas and cited him correctly both with a tag and a parenthetical citation.

Content in this “Types of accidental plagiarism” section is reused with permission from Sims, Marcie.  The Write Stuff: Thinking Through Essays.  Upper Saddle River : Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2009. Print.

Tips for avoiding plagiarism

To avoid plagiarism writers must be aware of three concerns: ethical, legal, and methodological.

Every time you use another person’s words or thoughts, you have both a legal and ethical obligation to give that person (also called a source) credit. To fulfill those obligations you must know the methods by which to correctly credit that source. That means using a specific documentation style or format (the most common being MLA, APA, and Chicago Manual of Style). Thus, avoiding plagiarism starts with being aware of what it is and then taking the precautions necessary to document and cite all the sources, even if the writers just gained an insight or idea from another person.

Here are some helpful  tips:

Take careful notes and mark direct quotes and summarized ideas with the page numbers they came from.

In the process of searching for secondary sources, especially when using the Internet, you should be sure to take detailed notes about the source information of any piece you are even considering using in your paper.

Make sure to use your own words and sentence constructions and even your own style when you paraphrase or summarize the ideas of others. You still need to  credit the original source clearly to avoid plagiarism.

Many students intentionally cheat and copy ideas or words without giving credit to the original author. Some students, though, are guilty of just being unaware of the rules for citing sources or maybe even of dismissing that nagging feeling that they might be improperly using other people’s ideas. You should never try to claim lack of awareness as an excuse. Since you are in college now, as a writer, you must be responsible and scholarly and always give credit for others’ ideas or words. You are stealing someone else’s intellectual property when you plagiarize. It is a serious offence with serious consequences.

Content in this “Tips for avoiding plagiarism” section is reused with permission from Sims, Marcie. The Write Stuff: Thinking Through Essays. Upper Saddle River : Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2009. Print.

Get started!

Getting started can often be the hardest part! But sometimes, all you need to do is begin! Map out your essay and plan to paraphrase, summarize, or quote from the sources you found! 

Image source:  "Student studies"  by  Mohamed Hassan  is in the  Public Domain, CC0

Writing tips!

• Writing Tip #1 Be organized
• Writing Tip #2 Take good notes
• Writing Tip #3 Keep it simple

Be organized!

Develop or improve your note-taking habits

• Take notes in your own words, label things that you paraphrase and provide appropriate documentation.
• When taking notes, place direct quotations in quotation marks and provide appropriate and complete documentation.
• Make a list of the writers and viewpoints you discover in your research.
• Be careful of internet sources that may just recycle or plagiarize other sources.
• Clearly organize your notes into three categories: your ideas, your summaries of the contents of a source, and any exact wording you write or copy from a source.

Keep to the basic paper components

• Your thesis.
• The main ideas or arguments that support your thesis. Present them in a logical order.
• Transition words, phrases and sentences which improve the flow of your paper.
• A concluding paragraph that sums up the main points. 

Recommended Websites

• Integrating Sources (Harvard Writing Program)
• Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL): The Writing Process
• << Previous: 3b. Distinguish Between Scholarly/Popular Sources
• Next: Step 5: Cite Your Sources >>
• Last Updated: Apr 1, 2024 7:36 PM
• URL: https://libguides.greenriver.edu/library-research

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Home > Books > Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

Research Methods in Library and Information Science

Submitted: 28 October 2016 Reviewed: 23 March 2017 Published: 28 June 2017

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.68749

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Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

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Library and information science (LIS) is a very broad discipline, which uses a wide rangeof constantly evolving research strategies and techniques. The aim of this chapter is to provide an updated view of research issues in library and information science. A stratified random sample of 440 articles published in five prominent journals was analyzed and classified to identify (i) research approach, (ii) research methodology, and (iii) method of data analysis. For each variable, a coding scheme was developed, and the articles were coded accordingly. A total of 78% of the articles reported empirical research. The rest 22% were classified as non‐empirical research papers. The five most popular topics were “information retrieval,” “information behaviour,” “information literacy,” “library services,” and “organization and management.” An overwhelming majority of the empirical research articles employed a quantitative approach. Although the survey emerged as the most frequently used research strategy, there is evidence that the number and variety of research methodologies have been increased. There is also evidence that qualitative approaches are gaining increasing importance and have a role to play in LIS, while mixed methods have not yet gained enough recognition in LIS research.

• library and information science
• research methods
• research strategies
• data analysis techniques
• research articles

Author Information

Aspasia togia *.

• Department of Library Science & Information Systems, Technological Educational Institute (TEI) of Thessaloniki, Greece

Afrodite Malliari

• DataScouting, Thessaloniki, Greece

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Library and information science (LIS), as its name indicates, is a merging of librarianship and information science that took place in the 1960s [ 1 , 2 ]. LIS is a field of both professional practice and scientific inquiry. As a field of practice, it includes the profession of librarianship as well as a number of other information professions, all of which assume the interplay of the following:

information content,

the people who interact with the content, and

the technology used to facilitate the creation, communication, storage, or transformation of the content [ 3 ].

The disciplinary foundation of LIS, which began in the 1920s, aimed at providing a theoretical foundation for the library profession. LIS has evolved in close relationship with other fields of research, especially computer science, communication studies, and cognitive sciences [ 4 ].

The connection of LIS with professional practice, on one hand, and other research fields on the other has influenced its research orientation and the development of methodological tools and theoretical perspectives [ 5 ]. Research problems are diverse, depending on the research direction, local trends, etc. Most of them relate to the professional practice although there are theoretical research statements as well. LIS research strives to address important information issues, such as these of “ information retrieval, information quality and authenticity, policy for access and preservation, the health and security applications of data mining ”(p. 3) [ 6 ]. The research is multidisciplinary in nature, and it has been heavily influenced by research designs developed in the social, behavioral, and management sciences and to a lesser extent by the theoretical inquiry adopted in the humanities [ 7 ]. Methods used in information retrieval research have been adapted from computer science. The emergence of evidence‐based librarianship in the late 1990s brought a positivist approach to LIS research, since it incorporated many of the research designs and methods used in clinical medicine [ 7 , 8 ]. In addition, LIS has developed its own methodological approaches, a prominent example of which is bibliometrics. Bibliometrics, which can be defined as “ the use of mathematical and statistical methods to study documents and patterns of publication ” (p. 38) [ 9 ], is a native research methodology, which has been extensively used outside the field, especially in science studies [ 10 ].

Library and information science research has been often criticized as being fragmentary, narrowly focused, and oriented to practical problems [ 11 ]. Many authors have noticed limited use of theory in published research and have advocated greater use of theory as a conceptual basis in LIS research [ 4 , 11 – 14 ]. Feehan et al. [ 13 ] claimed that LIS literature has not evolved enough to support a rigid body of its own theoretical basis. Jarvelin and Vakkari [ 15 ] argued that LIS theories are usually vague and conceptually unclear, and that research in LIS has been dominated by a paradigm which “ has made little use of such traditional scientific approaches as foundations and conceptual analysis, or of scientific explanation and theory formulation ” (p. 415). This lack of theoretical contributions may be associated with the fact that LIS emanated from professional practice and is therefore closely linked to practical problems such as the processing and organization of library materials, documentation, and information retrieval [ 15 , 16 ].

In this chapter, after briefly discussing the role of theory in LIS research, we provide an updated view of research issues in the field that will help scholars and students stay informed about topics related to research strategies and methods. To accomplish this, we describe and analyze patterns of LIS research activity as reflected in prominent library journals. The analysis of the articles highlights trends and recurring themes in LIS research regarding the use of multiple methods, the adoption of qualitative approaches, and the employment of advanced techniques for data analysis and interpretation [ 17 ].

2. The role of theory in LIS research

The presence of theory is an indication of research eminence and respectability [ 18 ], as well as a feature of discipline’s maturity [ 19 , 20 ]. Theory has been defined in many ways. “ Any of the following have been used as the meaning of theory: a law, a hypothesis, group of hypotheses, proposition, supposition, explanation, model, assumption, conjecture, construct, edifice, structure, opinion, speculation, belief, principle, rule, point of view, generalization, scheme, or idea ” (p. 309) [ 21 ]. A theory can be described as “ a set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that explains or predicts events or situations by specifying relations among variables ” [ 22 ]. According to Babbie [ 23 ], research is “ a systematic explanation for the observed facts and laws that related to a particular aspect of life ” (p. 49). It is “ a multiple‐level component of the research process, comprising a range of generalizations that move beyond a descriptive level to a more explanatory level ” [ 24 ] (p. 319). The role of theory in social sciences is, among other things, to explain and predict behavior, be usable in practical applications, and guide research [ 25 ]. According to Smiraglia [ 26 ], theory does not exist in a vacuum but in a system that explains the domains of human actions, the phenomena found in these domains, and the ways in which they are affected. He maintains that theory is developed by systematically observing phenomena, either in the positivist empirical research paradigm or in the qualitative hermeneutic paradigm. Theory is used to formulate hypotheses in quantitative research and confirms observations in qualitative research.

Glazier and Grover [ 24 ] proposed a model for theory‐building in LIS called “circuits of theory.” The model includes taxonomy of theory, developed earlier by the authors [ 11 ], and the critical social and psychological factors that influence research. The purpose of the taxonomy was to demonstrate the relationships among the concepts of research, theory, paradigms, and phenomena. Phenomena are described as “ events experienced in the empirical world ” (p. 230) [ 11 ]. Researchers assign symbols (digital or iconic representations, usually words or pictures) to phenomena, and meaning to symbols, and then they conceptualize the relationships among phenomena and formulate hypotheses and research questions. “ In the taxonomy, empirical research begins with the formation of research questions to be answered about the concepts or hypotheses for testing the concepts within a narrow set of predetermined parameters ” (p. 323) [ 24 ]. Various levels of theories, with implications for research in library and information Science, are described. The first theory level, called substantive theory , is defined as “ a set of propositions which furnish an explanation for an applied area of inquiry ” (p. 233) [ 11 ]. In fact, it may not be viewed as a theory but rather be considered as a research hypothesis that has been tested or even a research finding [ 16 ]. The next level of theory, called formal theory , is defined as “ a set of propositions which furnish an explanation for a formal or conceptual area of inquiry, that is, a discipline ” (p. 234) [ 11 ]. Substantive and formal theories together are usually considered as “middle range” theory in the social sciences. Their difference lies in the ability to structure generalizations and the potential for explanation and prediction. The final level, grand theory , is “ a set of theories or generalizations that transcend the borders of disciplines to explain relationships among phenomena ” (p. 321) [ 24 ]. According to the authors, most research generates substantive level theory, or, alternatively, researchers borrow theory from the appropriate discipline, apply it to the problem under investigation, and reconstruct the theory at the substantive level. Next in the hierarchy of theoretical categories is the paradigm , which is described as “ a framework of basic assumptions with which perceptions are evaluated and relationships are delineated and applied to a discipline or profession ” (p. 234) [ 11 ]. Finally, the most significant theoretical category is the world view , which is defined as “ an individual’s accepted knowledge, including values and assumptions, which provide a ‘filter’ for perception of all phenomena ” (p. 235) [ 11 ]. All the previous categories contribute to shaping the individual’s worldview. In the revised model, which places more emphasis on the impact of social environment on the research process, research and theory building is surrounded by a system of three basic contextual modules: the self, society, and knowledge, both discovered and undiscovered. The interactions and dialectical relationships of these three modules affect the research process and create a dynamic environment that fosters theory creation and development. The authors argue that their model will help researchers build theories that enable generalizations beyond the conclusions drawn from empirical data [ 24 ].

In an effort to propose a framework for a unified theory of librarianship, McGrath [ 27 ] reviewed research articles in the areas of publishing, acquisitions, classification and knowledge organization, storage, preservation and collection management, library collections, and circulations. In his study, he included articles that employed explanatory and predictive statistical methods to explore relationships between variables within and between the above subfields of LIS. For each paper reviewed, he identified the dependent variable, significant independent variables, and the units of analysis. The review displayed explanatory studies “ in nearly every level, with the possible exception of classification, while studies in circulation and use of the library were clearly dominant. A recapitulation showed that a variable at one level may be a unit of analysis at another, a property of explanatory research crucial to the development of theory, which has been either ignored or unrecognized in LIS literature ” (p. 368) [ 27 ]. The author concluded that “explanatory and predictive relationships do exist and that they can be useful in constructing a comprehensive unified theory of librarianship” (p. 368) [ 27 ].

Recent LIS literature provides several analyses of theory development and use in the field. In a longitudinal analysis of information needs and uses of literature, Julien and Duggan [ 28 ] investigated, among other things, to what extent LIS literature was grounded in theory. Articles “ based on a coherent and explicit framework of assumptions, definitions, and propositions that, taken together, have some explanatory power ” (p. 294) were classified as theoretical articles. Results showed that only 18.3% of the research studies identified in the sample of articles examined were theoretically grounded.

Pettigrew and McKechnie [ 29 ] analyzed 1160 journal articles published between 1993 and 1998 to determine the level of theory use in information science research. In the absence of a singular definition of theory that would cover all the different uses of the term in the sample of articles, they operationalized “theory” according to authors’ use of the term. They found that 34.1% of the articles incorporated theory, with the largest percentage of theories drawn from the social sciences. Information science itself was the second most important source of theories. The authors argued that this significant increase in theory use in comparison to earlier studies could be explained by the research‐oriented journals they selected for examination, the sample time, and the broad way in which they defined “theory.” With regard to this last point, that is, their approach of identifying theories only if the author(s) describe them as such in the article, Pettigrew and McKechnie [ 29 ] observed significant differences in how information science researchers perceive theory:

Although it is possible that conceptual differences regarding the nature of theory may be due to the different disciplinary backgrounds of researchers in IS, other themes emerged from our data that suggest a general confusion exists about theory even within subfields. Numerous examples came to light during our analysis in which an author would simultaneously refer to something as a theory and a method, or as a theory and a model, or as a theory and a reported finding. In other words, it seems as though authors, themselves, are sometimes unsure about what constitutes theory. Questions even arose regarding whether the author to whom a theory was credited would him or herself consider his or her work as theory (p. 68).

Kim and Jeong [ 16 ] examined the state and characteristics of theoretical research in LIS journals between 1984 and 2003. They focused on the “theory incident,” which is described as “an event in which the author contributes to the development or the use of theory in his/her paper.” Their study adopted Glazier and Grover’s [ 24 ] model of “circuits of theory.” Substantive level theory was operationalized to a tested hypothesis or an observed relationship, while both formal and grand level theories were identified when they were named as “theory,” “model,” or “law” by authors other than those who had developed them. Results demonstrated that the application of theory was present in 41.4% of the articles examined, signifying a significant increase in the proportion of theoretical articles as compared to previous studies. Moreover, it was evident that both theory development and theory use had increased by the year. Information seeking and use, and information retrieval, were identified as the subfields with the most significant contribution to the development of the theoretical framework.

In a more in‐depth analysis of theory use in Kumasi et al. [ 30 ] qualitatively analyzed the extent to which theory is meaningfully used in scholarly literature. For this purpose, they developed a theory talk coding scheme, which included six analytical categories, describing how theory is discussed in a study. The intensity of theory talk in the articles was described across a continuum from minimal (e.g., theory is discussed in literature review and not mentioned later) through moderate (e.g., multiple theories are introduced but without discussing their relevance to the study) to major (e.g., theory is employed throughout the study). Their findings seem to support the opinion that “ LIS discipline has been focused on the application of specific theoretical frameworks rather than the generation of new theories ” (p. 179) [ 30 ]. Another point the authors made was about the multiple terms used in the articles to describe theory. Words such as “framework,” “model,” or “theory” were used interchangeably by scholars.

It is evident from the above discussion that the treatment of theory in LIS research covers a spectrum of intensity, from marginal mentions to theory revising, expanding, or building. Recent analyses of the published scholarship indicate that the field has not been very successful in contributing to existing theory or producing new theory. In spite of this, one may still assert that LIS research employs theory, and, in fact, there are many theories that have been used or generated by LIS scholars. However, “ calls for additional and novel theory development work in LIS continue, particularly for theories that might help to address the research practice gap ” (p. 12) [ 31 ].

3. Research strategies in LIS

3.1. surveys of research methods.

LIS is a very broad discipline, which uses a wide range of constantly evolving research strategies and techniques [ 32 ]. Various classification schemes have been developed to analyze methods employed in LIS research (e.g., [ 13 , 15 , 17 , 33 – 35 , 38 ]). Back in 1996, in the “research record” column of the Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, Kim [ 36 ] synthesized previous categories and definitions and introduced a list of research strategies, including data collection and analysis methods. The listing included four general research strategies: (i) theoretical/philosophical inquiry (development of conceptual models or frameworks), (ii) bibliographic research (descriptive studies of books and their properties as well as bibliographies of various kinds), (iii) R&D (development of storage and retrieval systems, software, interface, etc.), and (iv) action research, it aims at solving problems and bringing about change in organizations. Strategies are then divided into quantitative and qualitative driven. In the first category are included descriptive studies, predictive/explanatory studies, bibliometric studies, content analysis, and operation research studies. Qualitative‐driven strategies are considered the following: case study, biographical method, historical method, grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenology, symbolic interactionism/semiotics, sociolinguistics/discourse analysis/ethnographic semantics/ethnography of communication, and hermeneutics/interpretive interactionism (p. 378–380) [ 36 ].

Systematic studies of research methods in LIS started in the 1980s and several reviews of the literature have been conducted over the past years to analyze the topics, methodologies, and quality of research. One of the earliest studies was done by Peritz [ 37 ] who carried out a bibliometric analysis of the articles published in 39 core LIS journals between 1950 and 1975. She examined the methodologies used, the type of library or organization investigated, the type of activity investigated, and the institutional affiliation of the authors. The most important findings were a clear orientation toward library and information service activities, a widespread use of the survey methodology, a considerable increase of research articles after 1960, and a significant increase in theoretical studies after 1965.

Nour [ 38 ] followed up on Peritz’s [ 37 ] work and studied research articles published in 41 selected journals during the year 1980. She found that survey and theoretical/analytic methodologies were the most popular, followed by bibliometrics. Comparing these findings to those made by Peritz [ 37 ], Nour [ 38 ] found that the amount of research continued to increase, but the proportion of research articles to all articles had been decreasing since 1975.

Feehan et al. [ 13 ] described how LIS research published during 1984 was distributed over various topics and what methods had been used to study these topics. Their analysis revealed a predominance of survey and historical methods and a notable percentage of articles using more than one research method. Following a different approach, Enger et al. (1989) focused on the statistical methods used by LIS researchers in articles published during 1985 [ 39 ]. They found that only one out of three of the articles reported any use of statistics. Of those, 21% used descriptive statistics and 11% inferential statistics. In addition, the authors found that researchers from disciplines other than LIS made the highest use of statistics and LIS faculty showed the highest use of inferential statistics.

An influential work, against which later studies have been compared, is that of Jarvelin and Vakkari [ 15 ] who studied LIS articles published in 1985 in order to determine how research was distributed over various subjects, what approaches had been taken by the authors, and what research strategies had been used. The authors replicated their study later to include older research published between 1965 and 1985 [ 40 ]. The main finding of these studies was that the trends and characteristics of LIS research remained more or less the same over the aforementioned period of 20 years. The most common topics were information service activities and information storage and retrieval. Empirical research strategies were predominant, and of them, the most frequent was the survey. Kumpulainen [ 41 ], in an effort to provide a continuum with Jarvelin and Vakkeri’s [ 15 ] study, analyzed 632 articles sampled from 30 core LIS journals with respect to various characteristics, including topics, aspect of activity, research method, data selection method, and data analysis techniques. She used the same classification scheme, and she selected the journals based on a slightly modified version of Jarvelin and Vakkari’s [ 15 ] list. Library services and information storage and retrieval emerged again as the most common subjects approached by the authors and survey was the most frequently used method.

More recent studies of this nature include those conducted by Koufogiannakis et al. [ 42 ], Hildreth and Aytac [ 43 ], Hider and Pymm [ 32 ], and Chu [ 17 ]. Koufogiannakis et al. [ 42 ] examined research articles published in 2001 and they found that the majority of them were questionnaire‐based descriptive studies. Comparative, bibliometrics, content analysis, and program evaluation studies were also popular. Information storage and retrieval emerged as the predominant subject area, followed by library collections and management. Hildreth and Aytac [ 43 ] presented a review of the 2003–2005 published library research with special focus on methodology issues and the quality of published articles of both practitioners and academic scholars. They found that most research was descriptive and the most frequent method for data collection was the questionnaire, followed by content analysis and interviews. With regard to data analysis, more researchers used quantitative methods, considerably less used qualitative‐only methods, whereas 61 out of 206 studies included some kind of qualitative analysis, raising the total percentage of qualitative methods to nearly 50%. With regard to the quality of published research, the authors argued that “ the majority of the reports are detailed, comprehensive, and well‐organized ” (p. 254) [ 43 ]. Still, they noticed that the majority of reports did not mention the critical issues of research validity and reliability and neither did they indicate study limitations or future research recommendations. Hider and Pymm [ 32 ] described content analysis of LIS literature “ which aimed to identify the most common strategies and techniques employed by LIS researchers carrying out high‐profile empirical research ” (p. 109). Their results suggested that while researchers employed a wide variety of strategies, they mostly used surveys and experiments. They also observed that although quantitative research accounted for more than 50% of the articles, there was an increase in the use of most sophisticated qualitative methods. Chu [ 17 ] analyzed the research articles published between 2001 and 2010 in three major journals and reported the following most frequent research methods: theoretical approach (e.g., conceptual analysis), content analysis, questionnaire, interview, experiment, and bibliometrics. Her study showed an increase in both the number and variety of research methods but lack of growth in the use of qualitative research or in the adoption of multiple research methods.

In summary, the literature shows a continued interest in the analysis of published LIS research. Approaches include focusing on particular publication years, geographic areas, journal titles, aspects of LIS, and specific characteristics, such as subjects, authorship, and research methods. Despite the abundance of content analyses of LIS literature, the findings are not easily comparable due to differences in the number and titles of journals examined, in the types of the papers selected for analysis, in the periods covered, and in classification schemes developed by the authors to categorize article topics and research strategies. Despite the differences, some findings are consistent among all studies:

Information seeking, information retrieval, and library and information service activities are among the most common subjects studied,

Descriptive research methodologies based on surveys and questionnaires predominate,

Over the years, there has been a considerable increase in the array of research approaches used to explore library issues, and

Data analysis is usually limited to descriptive statistics, including frequencies, means, and standard deviations.

3.2. Data collection and analysis

Articles published between 2011 and 2016 were obtained from the following journals: Library and Information Science Research, College & Research Libraries, Journal of Documentation, Information Processing & Management, and Journal of Academic Librarianship ( Table 1 ). These five titles were selected as data sources because they have the highest 5‐year impact factor of the journals classified in Ulrich’s Serials Directory under the “Library and Information Sciences” subject heading. From the journals selected, only full‐length articles were collected. Editorials, book reviews, letters, interviews, commentaries, and news items were excluded from the analysis. This selection process yielded 1643 articles. A stratified random sample of 440 articles was chosen for in‐depth analysis ( Table 2 ). For the purpose of this study, five strata, corresponding to the five journals, were used. The sample size was determined using a margin of error, 4%, and confidence interval, 95%.

Table 1.

Profile of the journals.

Table 2.

Journal titles.

Each article was classified as either research or theoretical. Articles that employed specific research methodology and presented specific findings of original studies performed by the author(s) were considered research articles. The kind of study may vary (e.g., it could be an experiment, a survey, etc.), but in all cases, raw data had been collected and analyzed, and conclusions were drawn from the results of that analysis. Articles reporting research in system design or evaluation in the information systems field were also regarded as research articles . On the other hand, works that reviewed theories, theoretical concepts, or principles discussed topics of interest to researchers and professionals, or described research methodologies were regarded as theoretical articles [ 44 ] and were classified in the no‐empirical‐research category. In this category, were also included literature reviews and articles describing a project, a situation, a process, etc.

Each article was classified into a topical category according to its main subject. The articles classified as research were then further explored and analyzed to identify (i) research approach, (ii) research methodology, and (iii) method of data analysis. For each variable, a coding scheme was developed, and the articles were coded accordingly. The final list of the analysis codes was extracted inductively from the data itself, using as reference the taxonomies utilized in previous studies [ 15 , 32 , 43 , 45 ]. Research approaches “ are plans and procedures for research ” (p. 3) [ 46 ]. Research approaches can generally be grouped as qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies. Quantitative studies aim at the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties or phenomena and their relationships. Qualitative research can be broadly defined as “ any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification ” (p. 17) [ 47 ]. It is a way to gain insights through discovering meanings and explaining phenomena based on the attributes of the data. In mixed model research, quantitative and qualitative approaches are combined within or across the stages of the research process. It was beyond the scope of this study to identify in which stages of a study—data collection, data analysis, and data interpretation—the mixing was applied or to reveal the types of mixing. Therefore, studies using both quantitative and qualitative methods, irrespective of whether they describe if and how the methods were integrated, were coded as mixed methods studies.

Research methodologies , or strategies of inquiry, are types of research models “ that provide specific direction for procedures in a research design ” (p. 11) [ 46 ] and inform the decisions concerning data collection and analysis. A coding schema of research methodologies was developed by the authors based on the analysis of all research articles included in the sample. The methodology classification included 12 categories ( Table 3 ). Each article was classified into one category for the variable research methodology . If more than one research strategy was mentioned (e.g., experiment and survey), the article was classified according to the main strategy.

Table 3.

Coding schema for research methodologies.

Methods of data analysis refer to the techniques used by the researchers to explore the original data and answer their research problems or questions. Data analysis for quantitative researches involves statistical analysis and interpretation of figures and numbers. In qualitative studies, on the other hand, data analysis involves identifying common patterns within the data and making interpretations of the meanings of the data. The array of data analysis methods included the following categories:

Descriptive statistics,

Inferential statistics,

Qualitative data analysis,

Experimental evaluation, and

Other methods,

Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. Inferential statistics investigate questions, models, and hypotheses. Mathematical analysis refers to mathematic functions, etc. used mainly in bibliometric studies to answer research questions associated with citation data. Qualitative data analysis is the range of processes and procedures used for the exploration of qualitative data, from coding and descriptive analysis to identification of patterns and themes and the testing of emergent findings and hypotheses. It was used in this study as an overarching term encompassing various types of analysis, such as thematic analysis, discourse analysis, or grounded theory analysis. The class experimental evaluation was used for system and software analysis and design studies which assesses the newly developed algorithm, tool, method, etc. by performing experiments on selected datasets. In these cases, “experiments” differ from the experimental designs in social sciences. Methods that did not fall into one of these categories (e.g., mathematical analysis, visualization, or benchmarking) were classified as other methods . If both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in an article, only the inferential were recorded. In mixed methods studies, each method was recorded in the order in which it was reported in the article.

Ten percent of the articles were randomly selected and used to establish inter‐rater reliability and provide basic validation of the coding schema. Cohen’s kappa was calculated for each coded variable. The average Cohen’s kappa value was κ = 0.60, p < 0.000 (the highest was 0.63 and lowest was 0.59). This indicates a substantial agreement [ 48 ]. The coding disparities across raters were discussed, and the final codes were determined via consensus.

3.3. Results

3.3.1. topic.

Table 4 presents the distribution of articles over the various topics, for each of which a detailed description is provided. The five most popular topics of the papers in the total sample of 440 articles were “information retrieval,” “information behavior,” “information literacy,” “library services,” and “organization and management.” These areas cover over 60% of all topics studied in the papers. The least‐studied topics (covered in less than eight papers) fall into the categories of “information and knowledge management,” “library information systems,” “LIS theory,” and “infometrics.”

Table 4.

Article topics.

Figure 1 shows how the top five topics are distributed across journals. As expected, the topic “information retrieval” has higher publication frequencies in Information Processing & Management, a journal focusing on system design and issues related to the tools and techniques used in storage and retrieval of information. “Information literacy,” “information behavior,” “library services,” and “organization and management” appear to be distributed almost proportionately in College & Research Libraries. “Information literacy” seems to be a more preferred topic in the Journal of Academic Librarianship, while “information behavior” is more popular in the Journal of Documentation and Library & Information Science Research.

Figure 1.

Distribution of topics across journals.

3.3.2. Research approach and methodology

Of all articles examined, 343 articles, which represent the 78% of the sample, reported empirical research. The rest 22% (N = 97) were classified as non‐empirical research papers. Research articles were coded as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods studies. An overwhelming majority (70%) of the empirical research articles employed a quantitative research approach. Qualitative and mixed methods research was reported in 21.6 and 8.5% of the articles, respectively ( Figure 2 ).

Figure 2.

Research approach.

Table 5 presents the distribution of research approaches over the five most famous topics. The quantitative approach clearly prevails in all topics, especially in information retrieval research. However, qualitative designs seem to gain acceptance in all topics (except information retrieval), while in information behavior research, quantitative and qualitative approaches are almost evenly distributed. Mixed methods were quite frequent in information literacy and information behavior studies and less popular in the other topics.

Table 5.

Topics across research approach.

The most frequently used research strategy was survey, accounting for almost 37% of all research articles, followed by system and software analysis and design, a strategy used in this study specifically for research in information systems (Jarvelin & Vakkari, 1990). This result is influenced by the fact that Information Processing & Management addresses issues at the intersection between LIS and computer science, and the majority of its articles present the development of new tools, algorithms, methods and systems, and their experimental evaluation. The third‐ and fourth‐ranking strategies were content analysis and bibliometrics. Case study, experiment, and secondary data analysis were represented by 15 articles each, while the rest of the techniques were underrepresented with considerably fewer articles ( Table 6 ).

Table 6.

Research methodologies.

3.3.3. Methods of data analysis

Table 7 displays the frequencies for each type of data analysis.

Table 7.

Method of data analysis.

Almost half of the empirical research papers examined reported any use of statistics. Descriptive statistics, such as frequencies, means, or standard deviations, were more frequently used compared to inferential statistics, such as ANOVA, regression, or factor analysis. Nearly one‐third of the articles employed some type of qualitative data analysis either as the only method or—in mixed methods studies—in combination with quantitative techniques.

3.4. Discussions and conclusions

The patterns of LIS research activity as reflected in the articles published between 2011 and 2016 in five well‐established, peer‐reviewed journals were described and analyzed. LIS literature addresses many and diverse topics. Information retrieval, information behavior, and library services continue to attract the interest of researchers as they are core areas in library science. Information retrieval has been rated as one of the most famous areas of interest in research articles published between 1965 and 1985 [ 40 ]. According to Dimitroff [ 49 ], information retrieval was the second most popular topic in the articles published in the Bulletin of the Medical Library Association, while Cano [ 50 ] argued that LIS research produced in Spain from 1977 to 1994 was mostly centered on information retrieval and library and information services. In addition, Koufogiannakis et al. [ 42 ] found that information access and retrieval were the domain with the most research, and in Hildreth and Aytac’s [ 43 ] study, most articles were dealing with issues related to users (needs, behavior, information seeking, etc.), services, and collections. The present study provides evidence that the amount of research in information literacy is increasing, presumably due to the growing importance of information literacy instruction in libraries. In recent years, there is an ongoing educational role for librarians, who are more and more actively engaging in the teaching and learning processes, a trend that is reflected in the research output.

With regard to research methodologies, the present study seems to confirm the well‐documented predominance of survey in LIS research. According to Dimitroff [ 49 ], the percentage related to use of survey research methods reported in various studies varied between 20.3 and 41.5%. Powell [ 51 ], in a review of the research methods appearing in LIS literature, pointed out that survey had consistently been the most common type of study in both dissertations and journal articles. Survey reported the most widely used research design by Jarvelin and Vakkari [ 40 ], Crawford [ 52 ], Hildreth and Aytac [ 43 ], and Hider and Pymm [ 32 ]. The majority of articles examined by Koufogiannakis et al. [ 42 ] were descriptive studies using questionnaires/surveys. In addition, survey methods represented the largest proportion of methods used in information behavior articles analyzed by Julien et al. [ 53 ]. There is no doubt that survey has been used more than any other method in LIS research. As Jarvelin and Vakkari [ 15 ] put it, “it appears that the field is so survey‐oriented that almost all problems are seen through a survey viewpoint” (p. 416). Much of survey’s popularity can be ascribed to its being a well‐known, understood, easily conducted, and inexpensive method, which is easy to analyze results [ 41 , 42 ]. However, our findings suggest that while the survey ranks high, a variety of other methods have been also used in the research articles. Content analysis emerged as the third‐most frequent strategy, a finding similar to those of previous studies [ 17 , 32 ]. Although content analysis was not regarded by LIS researchers as a favored research method until recently, its popularity seems to be growing [ 17 ].

Quantitative approaches, which dominate, tend to rely on frequency counts, percentages, and descriptive statistics used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. Fewer studies used advanced statistical analysis techniques, such as t‐tests, correlation, and regressions, while there were some examples of more sophisticated methods, such as factor analysis, ANOVA, MANOVA, and structural equation modeling. Researchers engaging in quantitative research designs should take into consideration the use of inferential statistics, which enables the generalization from the sample being studied to the population of interest and, if used appropriately, are very useful for hypothesis testing. In addition, multivariate statistics are suitable for examining the relationships among variables, revealing patterns and understanding complex phenomena.

The findings also suggest that qualitative approaches are gaining increasing importance and have a role to play in LIS studies. These results are comparable to the findings of Hider and Pymm [ 32 ], who observed significant increases for qualitative research strategies in contemporary LIS literature. Qualitative analysis description varied widely, reflecting the diverse perspectives, analysis methods, and levels of depth of analysis. Commonly used terms in the articles included coding, content analysis, thematic analysis, thematic analytical approach, theme, or pattern identification. One could argue that the efforts made to encourage and promote qualitative methods in LIS research [ 54 , 55 ] have made some impact. However, qualitative research methods do not seem to be adequately utilized by library researchers and practitioners, despite their potential to offer far more illuminating ways to study library‐related issues [ 56 ]. LIS research has much to gain from the interpretive paradigm underpinning qualitative methods. This paradigm assumes that social reality is

the product of processes by which social actors together negotiate the meanings for actions and situations; it is a complex of socially constructed meanings. Human experience involves a process of interpretation rather than sensory, material apprehension of the external physical world and human behavior depends on how individuals interpret the conditions in which they find themselves. Social reality is not some ‘thing’ that may be interpreted in different ways, it is those interpretations (p. 96) [ 57 ].

As stated in the introduction of this chapter, library and information science focuses on the interaction between individuals and information. In every area of LIS research, the connection of factors that lead to and influence this interaction is increasingly complex. Qualitative research searches for “ all aspects of that complexity on the grounds that they are essential to understanding the behavior of which they are a part ” (p. 241) [ 59 ]. Qualitative research designs can offer a more in‐depth analysis of library users, their needs, attitudes, and behaviors.

The use of mixed methods designs was found to be rather rare. While Hildreth and Aytac [ 43 ] found higher percentages of studies using combined methods in data analysis, our results are analogous to those shown by Fidel [ 60 ]. In fact, as in her study, only few of the articles analyzed referred to mixed methods research by name, a finding indicating that “ the concept has not yet gained recognition in LIS research ” (p. 268). Mixed methods research has become an established research approach in the social sciences as it minimizes the weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research alone and allows researchers to investigate the phenomena more completely [ 58 ].

In conclusion, there is evidence that LIS researchers employ a large number and wide variety of research methodologies. Each research approach, strategy, and method has its advantages and limitations. If the aim of the study is to confirm hypotheses about phenomena or measure and analyze the causal relationships between variables, then quantitative methods might be used. If the research seeks to explore, understand, and explain phenomena then qualitative methods might be used. Researchers can consider the full range of possibilities and make their selection based on the philosophical assumptions they bring to the study, the research problem being addressed, their personal experiences, and the intended audience for the study [ 46 ].

Taking into consideration the increasing use of qualitative methods in LIS studies, an in‐depth analysis of papers using qualitative methods would be interesting. A future study in which the different research strategies and types of analysis used in qualitative methods will be presented and analyzed could help LIS practitioners understand the benefits of qualitative analysis.

Mixed methods used in LIS research papers could be analyzed in future studies in order to identify in which stages of a study, data collection, data analysis, and data interpretation, the mixing was applied and to reveal the types of mixing.

As far as it concerns the quantitative research methods, which predominate in LIS research, it would be interesting to identify systematic relations between more than two variables such as authors’ affiliation, topic, research strategies, etc. and to create homogeneous groups using multivariate data analysis techniques.

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• 57. Blaikie N. Approaches to social enquiry. Cambridge: Polity; 1993
• 58. Johnson RB, Onwuegbuzie AJ. Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher. 2004; 33 (7):14-26
• 59. Westbrook L. Qualitative research methods: A review of major stages, data analysis techniques, and quality controls. Library & Information Science Research. 1994; 16 (3):241-254
• 60. Fidel R. Are we there yet?: Mixed methods research in library and information science. Library and Information Science Research. 2008; 30 (4):265-272. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2008.04.001

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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How to Do Library Research

How to do library research? Many times instructors will recommend, or even require, that student researchers avoid the popular search engines and, instead, use a library, when doing their research. A visit to the library can transform your research efforts from simple look-ups into an educational experience that reveals many more resources that are open to you.

Not only is a library a source of countless texts, but it is also a place where you can seek the help of reference librarians who are schooled in using both print and digital resources to find reliable sources of information.Research librarians can also help you review and understand the requirements of an assignment, help you get started, and direct you in your search for information.

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Libraries also offer you the advantage of being able to access books, articles, and other documents that are off-limits to average users. Most public and university libraries are members of these database networks, and they allow you to access them through computers in the library or by entering information from your library card or student ID.Many libraries offer their own search engines for finding articles in specialized databases. Usually, they allow you to search by categories (such as the humanities, science, or business) and click on a journal to browse it or to enter keywords to search across databases, much like you do when using an online search engine.

How to Use a Library Catalog

An important part of your exploratory research is identifying the specific sources to use when you begin taking notes for your paper. The best place to start is the library catalog, which includes a list of all the books in your library. Assuming the catalog is online and you need help using it, ask the librarian to show you how. Check to see if you can access your library catalog on your home computer too.

You can search the library catalog in three ways—by subject, title, or author. A subject search shows the titles of books on your topic. To do a subject search, type in your topic. Then click on “subject.” You will get a list of all the books in the library on your topic, including the title, author, and call number for each book. The call number is important because the books are placed on the shelves in numerical order according to call number.

If you happen to know particular authors or titles of books that you might want to use, do an author or title search. Type in the author’s name to get a list of books by that author, or type in the title of a book to get information about that book.

In most online catalogs, you can get more information about a book by highlighting the title and clicking on “more information,” “expanded view,” or a similar phrase that appears on the screen. Then the catalog shows the name of the publisher, the place and date the book was published, whether or not the book is available, the call number, and where in the library it is located—the reference section, the adult nonfiction section, or the children’s section. You also may be able to click on helpful options such as “More by this author” or “More titles like this.”

All libraries use some form of cataloging or classification system to organize books. This allows library patrons to easily find the books on the shelves and tells librarians how to return them to their proper places when borrowers bring them back. Libraries use a variety of different classification schemes to index and shelve their books.The two most widely used are the Dewey Decimal Classification system (DDC) and the Library of Congress Classification system (LCC).

The Dewey Decimal Classification System (DDC) was developed by Melvil Dewey in 1876 to standardize the way in which books were organized within libraries. The Library of Congress Classification System (LCC) was developed in 1897 by the U.S. Library of Congress to meet the archival needs of the U.S. government. More than 95 percent of U.S. libraries use one or the other to provide a logical system for helping researchers and readers quickly locate titles about their topics. Most U.S. research and university libraries have moved to the LCC, while the DDC continues as the system most often found in public and school libraries. The categories in the two systems tend to reflect one another, although the precise alphanumeric system used by each is different. Both systems are constantly being expanded to keep up with the evergrowing body of published knowledge.

Researchers who lack a working knowledge of either system can always ask a librarian to point them in the right direction. However, it helps to have a basic understanding of how the systems work, particularly if you plan to browse the library shelves for books on your research paper topic.

Decoding Call Numbers

Both the DDC and the LCC use alphanumeric systems to identify titles according to topic. Each title is assigned an identification number, called a “call number,” according to how it is classified in the DDC or LCC.

Because it uses a system in which the categories and subcategories are divisible by 10, many researchers find DDC call numbers more logical and easier to use than the LCC’s alphanumeric codes. The DDC organizes topics under 10 general categories that are identified by number. Each category is further divided into subcategories, also identified by number. DDC codes continue with a decimal-based system that is relatively easy to decipher as you zero in on your subject. Many times, the decimal is followed by a letter which indicates the first letter of the last name of the author.

Dewey Decimal Classification System

The 10 general categories of the Dewey Decimal System include:

• 000 Generalities
• 100 Philosophy and psychology
• 200 Religion
• 300 Social sciences and anthropology
• 400 Language
• 500 Natural sciences and mathematics
• 600 Technology and applied sciences
• 700 The arts
• 800 Literature and rhetoric
• 900 Geography and history

For a list of the subclassifications under each category and more information about the DDC, visit the Dewey Services page of the Online Computer Library Center, Inc. (OCLC) at  http://www.oclc.org/dewey.en.html .

Library of Congress Classification System

LCC call numbers begin with a letter, designating the general category, followed by either another letter or a number that designates the subcategory. Deciphering LCC codes is trickier and may require the help of a librarian. The first letter in an LCC call number refers to one of the 21 categories represented in the system.The initial digit is followed by a letter or number combination that represents the subcategory. However, some categories in the LCC (including E and F which represent the history of the Americas) use numbers to indicate the subcategory and others (such as D which represents some areas of history, and K which represents Law) use three letters.The digits that follow the category and subcategory in the call number further define the subject. The final three letter-number combination in the call number is called the “cutter number.” It provides a code to the name of the author or the organization that sponsored the publication. The 21 general categories of the LCC include:

• A General works
• B Philosophy, psychology, religion
• C Auxiliary sciences of history, such as archaeology and genealogy
• D World history and the history of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and so on
• E–F History of the Americas
• G Geography, anthropology, recreation
• H Social sciences
• J Political science
• L Education
• M Music and books on music
• N Fine arts
• P Language and literature
• S Agriculture
• T Technology and engineering
• U Military science
• V Naval science
• Z Bibliography and library science, information resources

You will find a full list of LCC categories and subcategories in Appendix B of this book. More information about the LCC can be found online through the Library of Congress Cataloging Distribution Service at  http://www.loc.gov/cds/ .

No matter which system your library uses, your search for books at the library will begin with the library’s catalog. A library catalog is much like any other catalog. It is a record of everything that is available to you. Items within the library are indexed by their call numbers and arranged on the shelves according to their categories and subcategories.

Browsing for Information

Knowing the category and subcategory designations for your research paper topic also allows you to peruse the library shelves and browse titles in your subject area. Browsing is often useful in the early stages of your search for information because it allows you to open the books and scan the tables of contents, indexes, introductions, and chapter headings of books on your topic. These, in turn, can offer you a good idea of how helpful the work will be. Browsing, however, can be time-consuming.

To use your browsing time effectively, acquaint yourself with the categories under which you will likely find titles about your topic. Learn where the categories are shelved in the library. Typically, you will find topic labels or the range of call numbers for the topics in that aisle posted at the ends of individual aisles. After identifying the call numbers for your topic and subtopic, you will be able to go directly to the shelves where titles on your topic are located.

Keep in mind, however, that the best materials on your topic might not always be in the section where you are browsing. If a publication covers a variety of topics, it may be classified under one that is different from what you looked up.

Fortunately, subjects in card catalogs are cross-referenced so that you can search by title of the work,author’s name,and a variety of keywords, as well as by subject.Your search will produce a record of the books with a “call number,” or identification code. Libraries typically organize their shelves sequentially according to the system they use and label the ends of the aisles with the range of numbers to be found on the shelves in each aisle.

An Effective Browsing Strategy:

• Identify the main category in the DDC or LCC system (whichever one your library uses) under which you are likely to find your topic.
• Identify the logical subcategory under which your topic would fall.
• Make a notation of the category and subcategory identification codes.
• Use the first digit in the identification code to find your aisle.
• Use the second digit in the code to identify the range of shelves containing titles on the subcategory.
• Find titles that fit your topic.
• Review the chapter headings, introduction, index, relevant pages, illustrations, and captions in the volume to identify how helpful the title will be.
• As you browse through the shelves, remember that when the initial digits of the identification codes change, you’ll be leaving your topic and moving into another.

How to Use Books for Research Paper Writing

For many people, books are an indispensable part of research. For starters, they’re “user-friendly.” It’s easy to open a book and start reading. You don’t need any special equipment such as a computer terminal to read a book, either. Since it takes time to write and publish a book, they tend to be reliable sources. Right now, you’ll learn how to find the books you need to complete your research paper. Library collections are also limited by the physical capacity of the buildings. Fortunately, most of today’s libraries are connected through networks to other, affiliated libraries, allowing you to order titles that can be delivered locally. The library’s card catalog tells you what is in your library’s collection and what can be ordered through its network.

All libraries are repositories of recorded information, but not all libraries are alike. Their collections differ—both in the kinds of materials they offer and in how they categorize them. Public libraries, for instance, typically feature large sections of popular fiction, while research libraries may offer classical fiction but few titles that you would find on a current best-seller list. If you were looking for vampire novels, for instance, you are likely to find Bram Stoker’s 1897 Gothic classic,  Dracula , but do not expect it to share a shelf with the recent popular  Twilight  series by Stephanie Meyer.

The books you will use for your research paper fall into two main categories:  fiction  and nonfiction :

• Fiction is novels and short stories. Fiction is cataloged under the author’s last name.
• Nonfiction books, however, are classified in two different ways. Some libraries use the Dewey Decimal System; other libraries use the Library of Congress system. In general, elementary, junior high, high school, and community libraries use the Dewey Decimal System. University and academic libraries use the Library of Congress system.

Your research paper topic determines how you search for a book. Since most research papers deal with topics and issues, you’ll likely be searching by subject. However, it is often necessary to look under titles and authors as well. Consider all three avenues of finding information as you look through the card catalog.

Useful Books to Consider

A reference work is a compendium of information that you use to find a specific piece of information, rather than read cover to cover. Updated editions are published as needed, in some cases annually. In addition to specific books on your research paper topic,  here are some general reference sources to consider:

Encyclopedias . Some teachers will not let their students cite encyclopedias in their bibliographies, but that’s no reason not to use them for background information. An encyclopedia can be an excellent way to get a quick, authoritative overview of your topic. This can often help you get a handle on the issues. There are general encyclopedias ( World Books ,  Britannica ,  Colliers ,  Funk and Wagnalls ) as well as technical ones. The encyclopedias can be in print form or online.

Guide to Reference Sources . Published by the American Library Association, this useful guide has five main categories: general reference works; humanities; social and behavioral sciences; history and area studies; and science, technology, and medicine. The new editions include online sources as well as print ones. Another excellent reference guide is  Credo Reference  (formerly Xreferplus), an online product that accesses more than 200 reference books online.

Who’s Who in America . This reference work includes biographical entries on approximately 75,000 Americans and others linked to America.  Who Was Who  covers famous people who have died.

Almanacs . Almanacs are remarkably handy and easy-to-use reference guides. These one-volume books are a great source for statistics and facts.  The World Almanac  and  The Information ,  Please Almanac  are the two best known almanacs. They are updated every year.

Dictionaries . Complete dictionaries provide synonyms, antonyms, word histories, parts of speech, and pronunciation guides in addition to definitions and spelling. Depending on your topic, you may need to define all terms formally before you begin your research.

How to Use Articles in Periodicals

To get the most reliable, up-to-date, and useful information, you will want to use a variety of different reference sources. You will also likely use articles from magazines, newspapers, and journals as well as online sources and books to find information for your research paper.

Periodicals include all material that is published on a regular schedule, such as weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly, four times a year, and so on. Newspapers, magazines, and journals are classified as periodicals.

• Newspapers and magazines are aimed at a general readership.
• Journals are aimed at a technical audience.

Finding articles in periodicals that are relevant to your topic can be a bit trickier because they tend to be indexed in separate databases organized by subject.

Electronic look-ups provide the fastest and easiest way of finding articles, allowing you to search on the subject and keywords to zero in on your topic. Frequently, you begin at the same search form that you would use to find book titles. However, articles are usually found through databases that require a bit more searching because you may have to access more than one database to find what you are looking for.

To find articles and essays on your subject:

• Review the list of databases and periodical indexes that are available at your library.
• Identify the databases that might address your topic, such as Business Source Premier, for business articles, or MEDLINE for biomedical literature.
• If you have difficulty finding an appropriate specialized database, use one such as Academic Search Premier or JSTOR which cuts across numerous categories.
• Go to the search screen for your database.
• Enter keywords to begin your search.
• Select logical titles from the results that you receive.
• Click on each title to retrieve the article citation.
• Read the abstract, or summary, to see whether that article contains the type of information you are seeking.
• Click to retrieve the full text if it is available electronically or use the citation information to order the article via email or through your library.

One useful way of identifying additional sources of information is to check the sources of quotations and citations in articles that were helpful to you. You then have the author’s name, the title of the article, or the publication in which an article of interest might have appeared and can look it up using the same database you used to find the original article.

How to Identify Appropriate Sources

Whether you found an article online or in print, you will need to evaluate the authority, or importance, of the research material you uncover.

As a general rule, reference texts, such as encyclopedias, dictionaries, and other standard reference sources like  Who’s Who  or  Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations  may meet the standard for high school research papers but they are generally not acceptable in college. The information in those volumes is considered “generic”—good for gathering general background but not unique or authoritative. Specialized dictionaries and compendiums, such as the Physicians’ Desk Reference , a listing of FDA-approved drugs, represent the exception.

University professors prefer “primary” and “secondary” sources. Primary sources are ones with unique discussions of ideas, concepts, trends, events, personalities, and discoveries. They report findings, set forth arguments, and provide unique insights and conclusions from the authors who wrote them. Secondary sources are materials that use or report on the work of others to provide summaries, analyses, or interpretations of primary sources.

An example of a secondary source would be a book review or an analysis of another work. For example,  The Rights of Man , Thomas Paine’s famous essay in defense of the French Revolution, is a primary work. It sets forth his original argument against the French monarchy. An article that mentions the essay in a discussion about the ideas of philosophers in the 1700s would be considered a secondary source.

This is not to say that you should abandon encyclopedias and other standard references. Such sources make great starting points in your research. Not only do they provide valuable background on the topic you plan to discuss, but they reveal the wealth of information that is commonly known about the subject.

Encyclopedias can also point you to other valuable sources. Encyclopedia articles often contain their own bibliographies that cite the primary and secondary research sources that the encyclopedia writers and editors used to develop the article. Not only will these citations direct you to primary sources that can be useful in your own research, but they come from sources that you know were deemed reliable by the editors of the encyclopedia.

How to Identify Reputable Print Sources

Finding information for your research paper in print sources can be equally as challenging as finding them online. Often the information you seek will be found in a small section of one article that appears in a very large volume. How do you find the information and know it will be useful unless you read the whole thing?

How to Find Good Print Resources:

• Look up your topic in the book’s index. Read those passages.
• Check journals and reports for an abstract, summary of findings, or executive summary at the beginning; these highlight the key information in the report.
• Review prefaces, introductions, and summaries on dust jackets for a quick overview.
• Read reviews, summaries, and commentaries about books.
• Check citations in a work to see how well-documented the work is.
• Read headlines, subheads, and call-outs in newspapers and magazines.
• Scan graphics and illustrations. Read the captions that accompany them.

How to Read Critically

You cannot write intelligently about a subject if you have not fully read and understood the material you found in your research. This requires “critical” reading. Critical reading means more than reviewing and recording the material. It means pausing to think about it. Ask yourself whether you found the research convincing.Then ask yourself: Why or why not?

There are strategies for critical reading, just as there are for writing research papers. Critical reading requires you to gain a complete and accurate understanding of the material you find in your research so that you can analyze it intelligently and interpret it for others. This means devoting more time to the reading than you normally do when you sit down to casually read a newspaper or curl up with a novel.

Expect to spend more time with a text than what it takes to simply understand what it says. Think about what you read; ask yourself questions about it. Evaluate its logic. Consider alternatives to the information the author presented. Be prepared to turn to other texts if you do not find answers to your questions or if the author’s arguments appear invalid. The more you can inform yourself about your topic and what other writers have said about it,the more you will equip yourself for the task ahead.

Critical reading is challenging so you will want to diminish noise and interferences. Turn off your radio, TV, iPod, and cell phone—anything that is likely to interrupt. Do not check your e-mail or read while socializing with friends. Reading in a quiet environment, and pursuing strategies for understanding eases the process and reduces the amount of time you will spend on research.

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How to Write a Research Paper

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Research Paper Fundamentals

How to choose a topic or question, how to create a working hypothesis or thesis, common research paper methodologies, how to gather and organize evidence , how to write an outline for your research paper, how to write a rough draft, how to revise your draft, how to produce a final draft, resources for teachers .

It is not fair to say that no one writes anymore. Just about everyone writes text messages, brief emails, or social media posts every single day. Yet, most people don't have a lot of practice with the formal, organized writing required for a good academic research paper. This guide contains links to a variety of resources that can help demystify the process. Some of these resources are intended for teachers; they contain exercises, activities, and teaching strategies. Other resources are intended for direct use by students who are struggling to write papers, or are looking for tips to make the process go more smoothly.

The resources in this section are designed to help students understand the different types of research papers, the general research process, and how to manage their time. Below, you'll find links from university writing centers, the trusted Purdue Online Writing Lab, and more.

What is an Academic Research Paper?

"Genre and the Research Paper" (Purdue OWL)

There are different types of research papers. Different types of scholarly questions will lend themselves to one format or another. This is a brief introduction to the two main genres of research paper: analytic and argumentative. 

"7 Most Popular Types of Research Papers" (Personal-writer.com)

This resource discusses formats that high school students commonly encounter, such as the compare and contrast essay and the definitional essay. Please note that the inclusion of this link is not an endorsement of this company's paid service.

How to Prepare and Plan Out Writing a Research Paper

Teachers can give their students a step-by-step guide like these to help them understand the different steps of the research paper process. These guides can be combined with the time management tools in the next subsection to help students come up with customized calendars for completing their papers.

"Ten Steps for Writing Research Papers" (American University)  

This resource from American University is a comprehensive guide to the research paper writing process, and includes examples of proper research questions and thesis topics.

"Steps in Writing a Research Paper" (SUNY Empire State College)

This guide breaks the research paper process into 11 steps. Each "step" links to a separate page, which describes the work entailed in completing it.

How to Manage Time Effectively

The links below will help students determine how much time is necessary to complete a paper. If your sources are not available online or at your local library, you'll need to leave extra time for the Interlibrary Loan process. Remember that, even if you do not need to consult secondary sources, you'll still need to leave yourself ample time to organize your thoughts.

"Research Paper Planner: Timeline" (Baylor University)

This interactive resource from Baylor University creates a suggested writing schedule based on how much time a student has to work on the assignment.

"Research Paper Planner" (UCLA)

UCLA's library offers this step-by-step guide to the research paper writing process, which also includes a suggested planning calendar.

There's a reason teachers spend a long time talking about choosing a good topic. Without a good topic and a well-formulated research question, it is almost impossible to write a clear and organized paper. The resources below will help you generate ideas and formulate precise questions.

"How to Select a Research Topic" (Univ. of Michigan-Flint)

This resource is designed for college students who are struggling to come up with an appropriate topic. A student who uses this resource and still feels unsure about his or her topic should consult the course instructor for further personalized assistance.

"25 Interesting Research Paper Topics to Get You Started" (Kibin)

This resource, which is probably most appropriate for high school students, provides a list of specific topics to help get students started. It is broken into subsections, such as "paper topics on local issues."

"Writing a Good Research Question" (Grand Canyon University)

This introduction to research questions includes some embedded videos, as well as links to scholarly articles on research questions. This resource would be most appropriate for teachers who are planning lessons on research paper fundamentals.

"How to Write a Research Question the Right Way" (Kibin)

This student-focused resource provides more detail on writing research questions. The language is accessible, and there are embedded videos and examples of good and bad questions.

It is important to have a rough hypothesis or thesis in mind at the beginning of the research process. People who have a sense of what they want to say will have an easier time sorting through scholarly sources and other information. The key, of course, is not to become too wedded to the draft hypothesis or thesis. Just about every working thesis gets changed during the research process.

CrashCourse Video: "Sociology Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is tailored to sociology students, it is applicable to students in a variety of social science disciplines. This video does a good job demonstrating the connection between the brainstorming that goes into selecting a research question and the formulation of a working hypothesis.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Analytical Essay" (YouTube)

Students writing analytical essays will not develop the same type of working hypothesis as students who are writing research papers in other disciplines. For these students, developing the working thesis may happen as a part of the rough draft (see the relevant section below). 

"Research Hypothesis" (Oakland Univ.)

This resource provides some examples of hypotheses in social science disciplines like Political Science and Criminal Justice. These sample hypotheses may also be useful for students in other soft social sciences and humanities disciplines like History.

When grading a research paper, instructors look for a consistent methodology. This section will help you understand different methodological approaches used in research papers. Students will get the most out of these resources if they use them to help prepare for conversations with teachers or discussions in class.

"Types of Research Designs" (USC)

A "research design," used for complex papers, is related to the paper's method. This resource contains introductions to a variety of popular research designs in the social sciences. Although it is not the most intuitive site to read, the information here is very valuable. 

"Major Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is a bit on the dry side, it provides a comprehensive overview of the major research methodologies in a format that might be more accessible to students who have struggled with textbooks or other written resources.

"Humanities Research Strategies" (USC)

This is a portal where students can learn about four methodological approaches for humanities papers: Historical Methodologies, Textual Criticism, Conceptual Analysis, and the Synoptic method.

"Selected Major Social Science Research Methods: Overview" (National Academies Press)

This appendix from the book  Using Science as Evidence in Public Policy , printed by National Academies Press, introduces some methods used in social science papers.

"Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 6. The Methodology" (USC)

This resource from the University of Southern California's library contains tips for writing a methodology section in a research paper.

How to Determine the Best Methodology for You

Anyone who is new to writing research papers should be sure to select a method in consultation with their instructor. These resources can be used to help prepare for that discussion. They may also be used on their own by more advanced students.

"Choosing Appropriate Research Methodologies" (Palgrave Study Skills)

This friendly and approachable resource from Palgrave Macmillan can be used by students who are just starting to think about appropriate methodologies.

"How to Choose Your Research Methods" (NFER (UK))

This is another approachable resource students can use to help narrow down the most appropriate methods for their research projects.

The resources in this section introduce the process of gathering scholarly sources and collecting evidence. You'll find a range of material here, from introductory guides to advanced explications best suited to college students. Please consult the LitCharts  How to Do Academic Research guide for a more comprehensive list of resources devoted to finding scholarly literature.

Google Scholar

Students who have access to library websites with detailed research guides should start there, but people who do not have access to those resources can begin their search for secondary literature here.

"Gathering Appropriate Information" (Texas Gateway)

This resource from the Texas Gateway for online resources introduces students to the research process, and contains interactive exercises. The level of complexity is suitable for middle school, high school, and introductory college classrooms.

"An Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods" (NSF)

This PDF from the National Science Foundation goes into detail about best practices and pitfalls in data collection across multiple types of methodologies.

"Social Science Methods for Data Collection and Analysis" (Swiss FIT)

This resource is appropriate for advanced undergraduates or teachers looking to create lessons on research design and data collection. It covers techniques for gathering data via interviews, observations, and other methods.

"Collecting Data by In-depth Interviewing" (Leeds Univ.)

This resource contains enough information about conducting interviews to make it useful for teachers who want to create a lesson plan, but is also accessible enough for college juniors or seniors to make use of it on their own.

There is no "one size fits all" outlining technique. Some students might devote all their energy and attention to the outline in order to avoid the paper. Other students may benefit from being made to sit down and organize their thoughts into a lengthy sentence outline. The resources in this section include strategies and templates for multiple types of outlines. 

"Topic vs. Sentence Outlines" (UC Berkeley)

This resource introduces two basic approaches to outlining: the shorter topic-based approach, and the longer, more detailed sentence-based approach. This resource also contains videos on how to develop paper paragraphs from the sentence-based outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL)

The Purdue Online Writing Lab's guide is a slightly less detailed discussion of different types of outlines. It contains several sample outlines.

"Writing An Outline" (Austin C.C.)

This resource from a community college contains sample outlines from an American history class that students can use as models.

"How to Structure an Outline for a College Paper" (YouTube)

This brief (sub-2 minute) video from the ExpertVillage YouTube channel provides a model of outline writing for students who are struggling with the idea.

"Outlining" (Harvard)

This is a good resource to consult after completing a draft outline. It offers suggestions for making sure your outline avoids things like unnecessary repetition.

As with outlines, rough drafts can take on many different forms. These resources introduce teachers and students to the various approaches to writing a rough draft. This section also includes resources that will help you cite your sources appropriately according to the MLA, Chicago, and APA style manuals.

"Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

This resource is useful for teachers in particular, as it provides some suggested exercises to help students with writing a basic rough draft. 

Rough Draft Assignment (Duke of Definition)

This sample assignment, with a brief list of tips, was developed by a high school teacher who runs a very successful and well-reviewed page of educational resources.

"Creating the First Draft of Your Research Paper" (Concordia Univ.)

This resource will be helpful for perfectionists or procrastinators, as it opens by discussing the problem of avoiding writing. It also provides a short list of suggestions meant to get students writing.

Using Proper Citations

There is no such thing as a rough draft of a scholarly citation. These links to the three major citation guides will ensure that your citations follow the correct format. Please consult the LitCharts How to Cite Your Sources guide for more resources.

Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide

Some call  The Chicago Manual of Style , which was first published in 1906, "the editors' Bible." The manual is now in its 17th edition, and is popular in the social sciences, historical journals, and some other fields in the humanities.

APA Citation Guide

According to the American Psychological Association, this guide was developed to aid reading comprehension, clarity of communication, and to reduce bias in language in the social and behavioral sciences. Its first full edition was published in 1952, and it is now in its sixth edition.

MLA Citation Guide

The Modern Language Association style is used most commonly within the liberal arts and humanities. The  MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing  was first published in 1985 and (as of 2008) is in its third edition.

Any professional scholar will tell you that the best research papers are made in the revision stage. No matter how strong your research question or working thesis, it is not possible to write a truly outstanding paper without devoting energy to revision. These resources provide examples of revision exercises for the classroom, as well as tips for students working independently.

"The Art of Revision" (Univ. of Arizona)

This resource provides a wealth of information and suggestions for both students and teachers. There is a list of suggested exercises that teachers might use in class, along with a revision checklist that is useful for teachers and students alike.

"Script for Workshop on Revision" (Vanderbilt University)

Vanderbilt's guide for leading a 50-minute revision workshop can serve as a model for teachers who wish to guide students through the revision process during classtime. 

"Revising Your Paper" (Univ. of Washington)

This detailed handout was designed for students who are beginning the revision process. It discusses different approaches and methods for revision, and also includes a detailed list of things students should look for while they revise.

"Revising Drafts" (UNC Writing Center)

This resource is designed for students and suggests things to look for during the revision process. It provides steps for the process and has a FAQ for students who have questions about why it is important to revise.

Conferencing with Writing Tutors and Instructors

No writer is so good that he or she can't benefit from meeting with instructors or peer tutors. These resources from university writing, learning, and communication centers provide suggestions for how to get the most out of these one-on-one meetings.

"Getting Feedback" (UNC Writing Center)

This very helpful resource talks about how to ask for feedback during the entire writing process. It contains possible questions that students might ask when developing an outline, during the revision process, and after the final draft has been graded.

"Prepare for Your Tutoring Session" (Otis College of Art and Design)

This guide from a university's student learning center contains a lot of helpful tips for getting the most out of working with a writing tutor.

"The Importance of Asking Your Professor" (Univ. of Waterloo)

This article from the university's Writing and Communication Centre's blog contains some suggestions for how and when to get help from professors and Teaching Assistants.

Once you've revised your first draft, you're well on your way to handing in a polished paper. These resources—each of them produced by writing professionals at colleges and universities—outline the steps required in order to produce a final draft. You'll find proofreading tips and checklists in text and video form.

"Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

While this resource contains suggestions for revision, it also features a couple of helpful checklists for the last stages of completing a final draft.

Basic Final Draft Tips and Checklist (Univ. of Maryland-University College)

This short and accessible resource, part of UMUC's very thorough online guide to writing and research, contains a very basic checklist for students who are getting ready to turn in their final drafts.

Final Draft Checklist (Everett C.C.)

This is another accessible final draft checklist, appropriate for both high school and college students. It suggests reading your essay aloud at least once.

"How to Proofread Your Final Draft" (YouTube)

This video (approximately 5 minutes), produced by Eastern Washington University, gives students tips on proofreading final drafts.

"Proofreading Tips" (Georgia Southern-Armstrong)

This guide will help students learn how to spot common errors in their papers. It suggests focusing on content and editing for grammar and mechanics.

This final set of resources is intended specifically for high school and college instructors. It provides links to unit plans and classroom exercises that can help improve students' research and writing skills. You'll find resources that give an overview of the process, along with activities that focus on how to begin and how to carry out research. 

"Research Paper Complete Resources Pack" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, rubrics, and other resources is designed for high school students. The resources in this packet are aligned to Common Core standards.

"Research Paper—Complete Unit" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, notes, PowerPoints, and other resources has a 4/4 rating with over 700 ratings. It is designed for high school teachers, but might also be useful to college instructors who work with freshmen.

"Teaching Students to Write Good Papers" (Yale)

This resource from Yale's Center for Teaching and Learning is designed for college instructors, and it includes links to appropriate activities and exercises.

"Research Paper Writing: An Overview" (CUNY Brooklyn)

CUNY Brooklyn offers this complete lesson plan for introducing students to research papers. It includes an accompanying set of PowerPoint slides.

"Lesson Plan: How to Begin Writing a Research Paper" (San Jose State Univ.)

This lesson plan is designed for students in the health sciences, so teachers will have to modify it for their own needs. It includes a breakdown of the brainstorming, topic selection, and research question process. 

"Quantitative Techniques for Social Science Research" (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This is a set of PowerPoint slides that can be used to introduce students to a variety of quantitative methods used in the social sciences.

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Where Do I Find the DOI?

APA prefers that DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers) are used for article citations. DOIs can be found in the article record in the database or you can search on the article title in CrossRef below. ( Note : Some articles--especially older ones--will not have a DOI.)

Help With the APA Citation Style

The American Psychological Association (APA) created the citation style you will be using for all of your research papers. You can buy the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition  from Amazon.com or check the sites below for advice. 

• APA Style: Style and Grammar Guidelines This page presents information about APA Style as described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition, including but not limited to reference and in-text citation examples.
• APA's Style Blog Want to find out how to cite a tweet or have other obscure APA questions? The APA's official blog is a great place to start.
• How to Cite Something You Found on a Website: When Information is Missing No date? No author? No problem! The guidance here is the same for 6th and 7th editions.
• Excelsior OWL Excelsior OWL provides examples of APA citation formats (in-text and references).

Writing Tutors & Resources

Need help on your paper? Set up a 45-minute online appointment with a writing tutor:

https://ischool.sjsu.edu/writing-tutoring-information

No time? The Writing Center also offers handouts and video tutorials with quick writing advice and tips. 

24/7 Writing Help Online

The Excelsior OWL is unique in its multimedia support for writers. It offers a wide variety of interactive multimedia activities, quizzes, videos, interactive PDFs, and games – all designed to help writers understand important concepts about writing. Topics include the writing process, grammar essentials, and more.

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How to write an original research paper (and get it published)

The purpose of the Journal of the Medical Library Association (JMLA) is more than just archiving data from librarian research. Our goal is to present research findings to end users in the most useful way. The “Knowledge Transfer” model, in its simplest form, has three components: creating the knowledge (doing the research), translating and transferring it to the user, and incorporating the knowledge into use. The JMLA is in the middle part, transferring and translating to the user. We, the JMLA, must obtain the information and knowledge from researchers and then work with them to present it in the most useable form. That means the information must be in a standard acceptable format and be easily readable.

There is a standard, preferred way to write an original research paper. For format, we follow the IMRAD structure. The acronym, IMRAD, stands for I ntroduction, M ethods, R esults A nd D iscussion. IMRAD has dominated academic, scientific, and public health journals since the second half of the twentieth century. It is recommended in the “Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals” [ 1 ]. The IMRAD structure helps to eliminate unnecessary detail and allows relevant information to be presented clearly in a logical sequence [ 2 , 3 ].

Here are descriptions of the IMRAD sections, along with our comments and suggestions. If you use this guide for submission to another journal, be sure to check the publisher's prescribed formats.

The Introduction sets the stage for your presentation. It has three parts: what is known, what is unknown, and what your burning question, hypothesis, or aim is. Keep this section short, and write for a general audience (clear, concise, and as nontechnical as you can be). How would you explain to a distant colleague why and how you did the study? Take your readers through the three steps ending with your specific question. Emphasize how your study fills in the gaps (the unknown), and explicitly state your research question. Do not answer the research question. Remember to leave details, descriptions, speculations, and criticisms of other studies for the Discussion .

The Methods section gives a clear overview of what you did. Give enough information that your readers can evaluate the persuasiveness of your study. Describe the steps you took, as in a recipe, but be wary of too much detail. If you are doing qualitative research, explain how you picked your subjects to be representative.

You may want to break it into smaller sections with subheadings, for example, context: when, where, authority or approval, sample selection, data collection (how), follow-up, method of analysis. Cite a reference for commonly used methods or previously used methods rather than explaining all the details. Flow diagrams and tables can simplify explanations of methods.

You may use first person voice when describing your methods.

The Results section summarizes what the data show. Point out relationships, and describe trends. Avoid simply repeating the numbers that are already available in the tables and figures. Data should be restricted to tables as much as possible. Be the friendly narrator, and summarize the tables; do not write the data again in the text. For example, if you had a demographic table with a row of ages, and age was not significantly different among groups, your text could say, “The median age of all subjects was 47 years. There was no significant difference between groups (Table).” This is preferable to, “The mean age of group 1 was 48.6 (7.5) years and group 2 was 46.3 (5.8) years, a nonsignificant difference.”

Break the Results section into subsections, with headings if needed. Complement the information that is already in the tables and figures. And remember to repeat and highlight in the text only the most important numbers. Use the active voice in the Results section, and make it lively. Information about what you did belongs in the Methods section, not here. And reserve comments on the meaning of your results for the Discussion section.

Other tips to help you with the Results section:

• ▪ If you need to cite the number in the text (not just in the table), and the total in the group is less than 50, do not include percentage. Write “7 of 34,” not “7 (21%).”
• ▪ Do not forget, if you have multiple comparisons, you probably need adjustment. Ask your statistician if you are not sure.

The Discussion section gives you the most freedom. Most authors begin with a brief reiteration of what they did. Every author should restate the key findings and answer the question noted in the Introduction . Focus on what your data prove, not what you hoped they would prove. Start with “We found that…” (or something similar), and explain what the data mean. Anticipate your readers' questions, and explain why your results are of interest.

Then compare your results with other people's results. This is where that literature review you did comes in handy. Discuss how your findings support or challenge other studies.

You do not need every article from your literature review listed in your paper or reference list, unless you are writing a narrative review or systematic review. Your manuscript is not intended to be an exhaustive review of the topic. Do not provide a long review of the literature—discuss only previous work that is directly pertinent to your findings. Contrary to some beliefs, having a long list in the References section does not mean the paper is more scholarly; it does suggest the author is trying to look scholarly. (If your article is a systematic review, the citation list might be long.)

Do not overreach your results. Finding a perceived knowledge need, for example, does not necessarily mean that library colleges must immediately overhaul their curricula and that it will improve health care and save lives and money (unless your data show that, in which case give us a chance to publish it!). You can say “has the potential to,” though.

Always note limitations that matter, not generic limitations.

Point out unanswered questions and future directions. Give the big-picture implications of your findings, and tell your readers why they should care. End with the main findings of your study, and do not travel too far from your data. Remember to give a final take-home message along with implications.

Notice that this format does not include a separate Conclusion section. The conclusion is built into the Discussion . For example, here is the last paragraph of the Discussion section in a recent NEJM article:

In conclusion, our trial did not show the hypothesized benefit [of the intervention] in patients…who were at high risk for complications.

However, a separate Conclusion section is usually appropriate for abstracts. Systematic reviews should have an Interpretation section.

Other parts of your research paper independent of IMRAD include:

Tables and figures are the foundation for your story. They are the story. Editors, reviewers, and readers usually look at titles, abstracts, and tables and figures first. Figures and tables should stand alone and tell a complete story. Your readers should not need to refer back to the main text.

Abstracts can be free-form or structured with subheadings. Always follow the format indicated by the publisher; the JMLA uses structured abstracts for research articles. The main parts of an abstract may include introduction (background, question or hypothesis), methods, results, conclusions, and implications. So begin your abstract with the background of your study, followed by the question asked. Next, give a quick summary of the methods used in your study. Key results come next with limited raw data if any, followed by the conclusion, which answers the questions asked (the take-home message).

• ▪ Recommended order for writing a manuscript is first to start with your tables and figures. They tell your story. You can write your sections in any order. Many recommend writing your Result s, followed by Methods, Introduction, Discussion , and Abstract.
• ▪ We suggest authors read their manuscripts out loud to a group of librarians. Look for evidence of MEGO, “My Eyes Glaze Over” (attributed to Washington Post publisher Ben Bradlee and others). Modify as necessary.
• ▪ Every single paragraph should be lucid.
• ▪ Every paragraph should answer your readers' question, “Why are you telling me this?”

The JMLA welcomes all sizes of research manuscripts: definitive studies, preliminary studies, critical descriptive studies, and test-of-concept studies. We welcome brief reports and research letters. But the JMLA is more than a research journal. We also welcome case studies, commentaries, letters to the editor about articles, and subject reviews.

Introduction to Library and Information Science

(2 reviews)

Reed Hepler, College of Southern Idaho

David Horalek, College of Southern Idaho

Copyright Year: 2023

Publisher: College of Southern Idaho Pressbooks Network (CSI)

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Kathy Evans, Reference & Archive Librarian, Shenandoah University on 11/10/23

This textbook is logically organized, with distinctive chapters covering essential practices of librarianship. Hepler and Horalek do not offer an index in this introductory text. The authors define key concepts within the text, and those words are... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This textbook is logically organized, with distinctive chapters covering essential practices of librarianship. Hepler and Horalek do not offer an index in this introductory text. The authors define key concepts within the text, and those words are conveniently bolded and offer a "pop-out" definition. Unfortunately, these concepts are not in a glossary of terms or a helpful index. However, the text is searchable as an eBook.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

The text reads accurately in regards to librarianship. Some wording in the texts indicates bias. For example, the authors describe OCLC as a monopoly. Which is arguably true, but is it necessary to state that? The authors mention "publisher's whims." Whims? Another word may be more appropriate. Curiously, there is no mention of the ancient Library of Alexandria in Chapter 2 – History of Libraries.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

Overall, the text is straightforward and relevant to the subject. Updates should be relatively easy, given the organization and format of the information.

Clarity rating: 4

Current terms may help clarify the different aspects of librarianship and library services. Some sections are wordy and lack confidence in the subject discussed, while others seem almost rushed.

Consistency rating: 4

The text is consistent in terms of terminology and framework. As mentioned under clarity, more current descriptions of library services could be added to the text to clarify the terminology used.

Modularity rating: 5

The authors do a good job organizing the sections into readable chunks of information.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The authors organized the textbook logically.

Interface rating: 5

The interface is easy to navigate. The self-check modules at the end of each section are helpful, albeit clunky, to use.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

The text is wordy in the delivery of the material covered. Some language seems too familiar when presenting the information. Several punctuation errors are apparent.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The authors address the importance of diversity, inclusion, and equity in library collections.

Introduction to Library and Information Science could be a helpful textbook with some added proofreading and revisions.

Reviewed by Taylor Tharpe, Research & Digital Services Librarian, Longwood University on 7/18/23

In Part I of the textbook, the author offers consistent definitions of certain terms, such as data, knowledge, and information. The author does a great job of providing helpful resources and information to go hand-in-hand with each... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

In Part I of the textbook, the author offers consistent definitions of certain terms, such as data, knowledge, and information. The author does a great job of providing helpful resources and information to go hand-in-hand with each chapter/section. However, some of the material that is questioned in the interactive quizzes are not mentioned in that particular section.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

I noticed no bias while reading this textbook. All information is presented in an accurate and unbiased manner.

The majority of the content was relevant and up to date.

Clarity rating: 5

This textbook is written in accessible prose and provides a disclaimer and instructions for the interactive features that accompany each section/chapter.

Consistency rating: 5

The textbook is consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

Textbook is broken into three different parts, that can be separated to support different units of a course or class.

The topics presented are organized in an understandable manner. They flow together nicely.

Interface rating: 4

Pictures and graphs could use some formatting work as the some of the captions aren't directly under the image, but I think this just depends on how you are viewing the textbook. The online version of the textbook is much more user-friendly than the PDF version.

Grammatical Errors rating: 2

This textbook makes many grammatical errors. This includes capitalization, sentence structure, spelling, misusing, etc. I counted numerous errors throughout the entire text.

The author touches on the subject of demographics and knowing how to serve patrons regardless of ethnic group, race, gender, sexual orientation, etc. The textbook also has a section on DEI and how important it is for libraries to acquire materials and hold events that meet the DEI initiative.

The author focuses more on the application of skills associated with working within the library field, rather than just lecturing about library theory. However, the author also mentions using ChatGPT, which doesn't seem very reliable to me.

Table of Contents

• Data, Information, and Knowledge
• History of Libraries
• Library Services
• Acquisitions
• Collection Development 
• Classficiation and Cataloging 
• Facilities and Funding
• Circulation
• Reference Librarianship 
• Preservation
• Intellectual Freedom
• Digitial Initiatives and Library 2.0
• Representation in the Library
• Patron Services
• Reader's Advisory
• The Modern Library Experience

Ancillary Material

About the book.

This book explores the history, present, and future of library science, both in theory and in practice. It examines the place of the librarian as arbiter of information access in a constantly-changing and modernizing global community.

About the Contributors

Reed Hepler , College of Southern Idaho

David Horalek , College of Southern Idaho

Contribute to this Page

Library Research Paper: Example & Writing Guide [2024]

What is a library research paper? It’s nothing more than an academic writing project that summarizes the information on a specific topic taken from primary and secondary sources.

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There are numerous library research examples you can find online. But to complete this assignment, you should simply follow these essential steps:

• Find relevant sources.
• Collect the necessary data from them.
• Synthesize all the information.
• Form the main points to present in the paper.
• Find evidence to support every claim.

Just as with essay writing, creating a library research paper is full of challenges and obstacles. You can overcome them without a struggle if you check the tips gathered by our team . Stay on our page and find library research paper examples, outlines, and useful guidelines.

• 📚 Introduction
• 📝 The Main Body
• 🗞️ Conclusion

📓 Bibliography

🔗 references, 📃 library research paper: choosing the title.

Just like any other academic work, a library research paper should start with a compelling title. Don’t worry if you don’t know how to create one. You’ll find it out in this section!

The compelling title should fit the following criteria:

• reflects the core topic of the research paper;
• contains up to 15 words;
• identifies the purpose of research;
• grabs the readers’ attention;
• doesn’t include unknown abbreviations, too complex lexical and grammar constructions;
• clear, concise, mistakes-free.

Library Research Title Examples

Here are some examples of library research paper titles:

Just in 1 hour! We will write you a plagiarism-free paper in hardly more than 1 hour

• American Female Artists in the Nineteenth and Twenty-First Centuries Overview
• The Influence of Different Types of Advertising on Children and Adults
• The Impact of Rapid Digitalization on Modern Art and Music
• The Role of Community Library in Civic Involvement
• Leadership Elements of the California State Library
• Unique Aspects of Running a Business in South Africa.
• The Crucial Role of Ethics in Medical Research on Humans
• How to Reduce the Rates of Injuries and Deaths Among Childhood Pedestrians
• The Importance of Qualitative Research in Healthcare Practice
• Small and Medium Businesses in South Africa
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Computerization of Medicine
• Benefits of Computer Technology for Criminal Investigations
• The Study of the Roman Road System and Its Importance
• Overview of the Homelessness Issue and the Ways to Eliminate It
• The Definition and Role of Action Research in Healthcare
• The Causes of Cultural Shifts in the United States in the Twentieth Century
• The Importance of Library Services for Community Building
• Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Efficacy in Healthcare
• The Emergence and Development of British Abolitionism
• The Effect of Current Laws on the Wellbeing of Indigenous People .
• The Peculiarities of Cross-Cultural Negotiations and Conflict Mitigation
• Analysis of Social Rights in the United States in the Early Nineteenth Century
• The Impact of Psychopathy Research on the Western Criminal Justice System
• Overview of Causes That Led to Airline Industry Crises
• The Effect of Confounding Variables on the Results of the Research
• Examination of the Nature and Possible Issues of Qualitative Research
• The Positive and Negative Impact of Culturally Diverse Team on Project Success
• The Peculiarities and Challenges of Product Launch Strategy
• What Inspires Scientists to Conduct Their Research?
• The Analysis of Food Service in Hospital
• Analysis of the Most Effective Leadership Models
• The Nature of Groupthink and Its Impact on Problem-Solving
• Stereotypes and Prejudices in Perception of Japan
• The Cause of Juvenile Delinquency and the Ways to Prevent It
• The Origin and Development of Video Games
• The Workplace Challenges of Transgender Employees
• Work-Life Balance and Its Impact on Employee Performance
• How to Find Knowledge in the Digital Library Haystack
• Nelson Mandela , His Leadership Style, and Contribution to South Africa’s Development
• The Significance of New Cybersecurity Solutions for the World’s Safety
• The Impact of Domestic Animals on Human Mental Health
• Is It Necessary to Reform Campaign Financing System?
• Criminal Mythology and Its Influence on Society
• The Distinctive Aspects of Various Types of Business Structures
• Benefits of Information Technology Infrastructure Library
• Cryptography and Mathematics : From Scytales Cylinders to Bitcoin
• The Effect of Obesity on Physical and Mental Health
• The Connection Between Alcohol Abuse During Pregnancy and Child’s Mental Health
• The Necessity of Mental Health Services for Healthcare Providers of Critical Patients
• The History and Role of Pop Art

📚 Library Research Paper Introduction

Start your scientific research essay with an overview—an introductory part of your work. Here, you have to use secondary literature to provide a general background.

An overview helps the author to establish the context and to introduce the hypothesis. Your thesis statement should clearly and concisely answer the research question and be easily understandable for the reader.

Your overview shouldn’t be too long—3 paragraphs max.

Now, let’s figure out how to conduct research.

First and foremost, it is crucial to develop a strategy. One of the research methods is to go from general to specific ideas.

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See some useful tips that will make your research process smoother:

• Use keywords. Start searching the info in a database using broad terms to get the general ideas. Then, narrow it down by inserting more specific keywords into the search tool to find clear examples, essential studies, statistics, etc.
• Start with broad context. Use the same strategy as above for providing the background of your issue. First, present the general knowledge of your field of study. Then, go to more specific facts, details, and examples. Overall, your reader is supposed to dive into your topic gradually.
• Check multiple databases. Don’t forget that there are plenty of them, and you can examine several. It’s always possible to find enough info. You should know the basics of digital library management and search for sources properly and effectively.

Take a look at our example of library research hypothesis:

It may seem that the twenty-first century with its democratic values and the strive for equality opened up limitless horizons for women. Nevertheless, female artists still face various challenges that can restrict their activity and creativity. This paper compares the peculiarities of female artists’ professional activity in the nineteenth and twenty-first centuries from the feminist perspective.

Overall, by the end of your overview, the readers should know two things:

• the background of the issue you are going to investigate;
• your hypothesis.

Note that you aim to present the previous investigations in your research paper and demonstrate your position. Make sure you have your well-developed arguments and supportive details.

📝 The Main Body of a Library Research Paper

The next step of your writing process is the presentation of the recent results. Here, you need to use primary sources to find evidence to support your claims. Keep in mind that you can also use resources that contradict your position. They are useful for the rebuttal.

Get an originally-written paper according to your instructions!

Follow our tips to get credible sources :

• Find books through the catalog. Use the citation (author, title, year) to find it quickly. Remember that some books may not be available in public libraries because another student has already taken them. So, check the book’s circulation status.
• To search for an e-book, use the library’s main digital catalog.
• Use scholarly databases to find journals and peer-reviewed articles.
• If you need news or magazine articles, go to the online newspaper or magazine edition.
• For dictionaries (to find definitions) and encyclopedias (to find meanings), search in reference source databases.

The evaluation of the sources is another crucial part of research paper writing. To do it properly, answer three simple questions: who, when, why?

• Who created the work?
• What are their credentials?
• Who published the book/article?
• Who are the readers?
• When was the work created?
• When was the work published?
• What is the historical context of the work’s creation period?
• Why is the work valuable for your library research paper?
• Why might the source be inappropriate for your assignment? (Biased authors, outdated information, etc.).
• Why the authors created this work?
• How can it change your readers’ views?

Are you unsure about how to use primary sources in your project? Take a look at the part of our library research paper sample:

Although many female artists are able to display their works and be successful in their profession, equality in fine arts is still unattained. Borowiecki and Dahl (2020) analyzed census and statistical data from 1850 to the present day and explored the peculiarities of female artists’ careers. The authors found that time constraints, financial aspects, and racial inequality were some of the most influential factors affecting female artists’ choices.

🗞️ Library Research Paper Conclusion

The last element of your paper is the summary. In this part, you need to summarize your arguments and make a clear conclusion regarding your findings.

See some insightful tips:

• Connect the last paragraph to your introduction. The summary starts with a well-paraphrased thesis statement. It should highlight all the keywords and the core idea of the paper. For this task, you can utilize a paragraph shortener that will practically do the same thing, only faster. Then you list your findings from the body.
• Motivate your readers. In your summary, you can also cause your readers to investigate your issue further. Suggest new ways of thinking, expand their horizons, and make them interested in your field of study.
• Prove the significance of your work. Explain why your ideas are relevant and how they can help the readers.

Take a look at our example of library research summarizing sentences to have a clear understanding of how a conclusion looks like:

Women have created numerous masterpieces that shed light on the aspects of human life that have been ignored or misunderstood by male artists. There are still views that the limited engagement of female artists is natural and meets the needs of this population. Hence, the role female artists play and should perform in the development of world fine arts is still open to debate.

This section presents a list of the sources used in the process of writing. It proves that your work is not plagiarized and filled with reliable information.

What’s vital is:

Don’t include the literature that you didn’t cite in your work in your reference list. You might have read it before. Yet, the source shouldn’t be in the bibliography if there is no in-text citation.

While dealing with referencing and citing sources, it is enough to answer three questions:

WHY DO YOU NEED TO CITE?

• to avoid plagiarism;
• to prove to your readers that you have completed research;
• to demonstrate the reliability of your sources;
• to let your readers find the sources for further investigation of your topic.

WHEN DO YOU NEED TO CITE?

• when you are using direct quotes;
• when you are taking the ideas, beliefs, and opinions of another person;
• when you are taking statistics, facts, visuals form the other sources;
• when you are paraphrasing the other thoughts using your own words.

HOW DO I FORMAT MY CITATIONS?

• Figure out what citation style is required. It has to be done even before writing the paper as there are a lot of them. The most popular ones are MLA format and APA style .
• Investigate the aspects of the required citation style. If you are unsure about something, ask your instructor or find a formatting manual.
• Always proofread and double-check. Ensure that your in-text citations and reference list are neat and free of mistakes.

Look at the references from our library research sample:

• In-text citations:

According to Borowiecki and Dahl (2020), … or The life and art of Cecilia Beaux can serve as an appropriate illustration of these constraints (McGuirk, 2017).

• References:

Borowiecki, K. J., & Dahl, C. M. (2020). What makes an artist? The evolution and clustering of creative activity in the US since 1850. Regional Science and Urban Economics, in \ press. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0166046220302994?via%3Dihub

McGuirk, H. D. K. (2017). Mary Cassatt and Cecilia Beaux: An analytical comparison of two new women and issues surrounding femininity, modernity, and nineteenth-century feminism. [Master’s thesis, College of Fine Arts of Ohio University]. College of Fine Arts of Ohio University.

✅ Library Research Example

Writing a library research paper can be an exciting task as it allows you to delve deep into a topic of interest and explore various intriguing sources. To inspire you even more, we have prepared an example of a library research paper showcasing excellent research, analysis, and writing. You can download the PDF file by clicking the link below. 

The realm of American art has been profoundly influenced by the contributions of female artists across centuries, from the 19th to the 21st. The paper delves into the societal and cultural factors that influenced female artists’ representation and recognition while also highlighting prominent artists’ groundbreaking works. It analyzes the evolution of women’s roles in art, examining their struggles, triumphs, and lasting influence on the artistic landscape.

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• Library Research Process: Elmer E. Rasmuson Library
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• Writing a College Research Paper: Rentschler Library
• Finding articles, Library Research Skills Tutorial: Concordia University Library
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Do you need to write a research analysis paper but have no idea how to do that? Then you’re in the right place. While completing this type of assignment, your key aim is to critically analyze a research article. An article from a serious scientific journal would be a good...

You might be wondering about how to write a conclusion paragraph for a research paper. It may seem like your readers should understand your main arguments by the end, so there is no need for it. However, there are several aspects that prove the importance of a conclusion section in...

American Antiquity is a professional quarterly journal, which contains various papers on the American archeology. It is incredibly popular among archeologists and the students majoring in history. The organization adopted the rules of The Society for American Archaeology (SAA) citation style. As a result: The journal includes numerous references that...

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An appendix is the part of the paper that contains supplementary material. The information from an appendix in paper writing is not essential. If the readers ignore this part, they still have to get the paper’s idea. Appendices help the readers to understand the research better. They might be useful...

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It’s longer than your Bachelor’s thesis. It’s more stressful. It’s more important. And you have no clue how to write it. We understand that a lot comes with the responsibility of creating a Master’s thesis from scratch. But no need to stress out; you can get all the help you...

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Few students fully get the meaning and the importance of a research proposal. If you have a good research proposal, it means that you are going to carry out adequate research. A low-quality research proposal may be the reason your research will never start.

Wow! Nice information from these. Thanks a lot for the guidelines. Definitely it will be useful for me.

I’m happy you found the article helpful, Rubini! 

Thanks for the tips! I’m writing my library research paper, and these tips on library research papers format will definitely help me out 🙂 THX!!!

I’m thrilled to find such helpful information on writing library research papers! The use of the correct format is halfway to success! Thanks for detailed guidelines on writing a library research paper.

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Library and Information Science

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Abstract: This paper is a study of theoretical perspectives on knowledge and Knowledge Management. Business organizations in the 21st century need effective Knowledge Management practices in order to enhance the performance and growth of their businesses and ensure long-term sustainability and competitive advantage. An understanding and appreciation of knowledge as a strategic resource is critical for organisational decision makers so that they can take Knowledge Management more seriously. T...

Motivation Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques

This paper describes Motivation: Cognitive and behavioral theories and techniques, it analyzed the three theories underlying the cognitive and behavioral theories and techniques, it examined the expectancy theory, assumptions underlying expectancy theory, the explanation, the applicability of the expectancy theory. It also examined the equity theory of motivation, gave an explanation of the equity theory, application of equity theory in an educational organization. It also examined the goal s...

A Critique of the paper ‘Library Architecture around the World’ by Garba, Chiwendu and Mustapha

For the past two decades, libraries have been dramatically reinventing their physical spaces. The traditional model of cavernous reading rooms and dark warrens separated by stacks of books is incompatible with the digital age. The library of today and tomorrow must provide versatile spaces that support a wide range of users’ learning and research activities while accommodating rapid advances in information technology (IT). As expectations for library resources and physical facilities have c...

How to Write an Empirical Review

The purpose of the paper is to offer guidance on how to write an empirical review. The paper presented an introduction, and discussed the concept of empirical review, the importance of empirical review, steps for writing empirical review, apractical approach to writing an empirical review, characteristics of a good empirical review and concluded with the following statement; well-crafted empirical reviews are the cornerstone of good papers, however it is not uncommon to find weak, or even abs...

Diversity of Information Services in the Library World

Regardless of which type of library and the environment it is designed to serve, the basic mission and objectives of information service provision should be to support and promote natural and social justice, equity, fair play and democratization of information access and utilization.  It is within this perspective that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities under the principles of non-discrimination, equal opport...

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Concept of Information Retrieval and the Strategies

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An organized structure for vocabulary control

This paper examined the concept of controlled vocabulary, it gave the definition and discussed the major concerns in establishing a controlled vocabulary, the types of controlled vocabulary. The principles of creating vocabulary control, principles for applying controlled vocabulary, controlled vocabulary standards, mechanics of vocabulary control, the merits and demerits of vocabulary control, and vocabulary control challenges and their solutions, and other vocabulary control challenges. The...

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A Critical Analysis of the Library of Congress

The Library of Congress houses the largest information resources, records and archival collection of materials in the world (Whitman, 2021). As part of the Library's mission to make its resources available and useful to the American public, the Library has digitized a number of these materials and has also created an array of online secondary sources that highlight life and work. 

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Resources for Writing and Editing

• American Statistical Association Style Guide Presents the rules and conventions for articles to be published in ASA journals.

The reference and information desks of most of the University libraries maintain collections of style guides, dictionaries, and other items that can assist you in writing papers and reports and in submitting manuscripts for publication.  The links below point to similar items.  If you need additional assistance, please ask at any library service desk.

A book of possible interest is How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper by Robert A. Day, Westport, Conn.; Greenwood Press, various editions.  This book is available for check out in the Brown Science and Engineering Library and other locations; check VIRGO for details and call numbers.  Note that the 5th edition of this title is available online.  The Library also has a variety of similar titles in its collection.

A similar book is A Writer's Handbook for Engineers by David A. McMurrey, Toronto, Thomson, 2008.  This book is available in the Brown Library under the call number T11.M3685 2008.  Check VIRGO for details.  Searching VIRGO for the phrase "technical writing" (DO use the quotes!) will turn up many additional titles on the same topic.

• Center for American English Language & Culture English as a Second Language (ESL) services at U.Va. are offered through the Center for American English Language and Culture, which helps members of the U.Va. community attain the linguistic proficiency needed to succeed at an American university.
• Center for Teaching Excellence The Teaching Resource Center is pleased to provide an alphabetical listing of editors and writing coaches who provide us with descriptions of their services and experience. NOTE: These services are fee based.
• Designing Effective Poster Sessions Poster sessions are frequently used as a means to convey information in a brief format (typically 4' x 8') in classrooms, conferences and symposia, and workshops. Designing effective poster presentations is an art unto itself. This guide provides resources to make the process easier.
• LaTeX Research Guide A guide from the Stevens Institute of Technology Library that provides links and ebooks to help you get started with using LaTeX, a high-quality typesetting system used for creating technical and scientific publications such as journal articles, books, theses, and dissertations. NOTE: the ebooks listed may not be available to non-Stevens Institute viewers; check VIRGO for local UVa access.
• LaTeX Search The Springer LaTeX search lets you search through millions of LaTeX code snippets to find the equation you need.
• Plagiarism Resource Site, Charlottesville, Virginia U.Va. Physics Professor Louis Bloomfield's web pages devoted to resources for detecting and combating plagiarism.
• Primer of Mathematical Writing By Steven G. Krantz, this text discusses topics of grammar, style, mathematical exposition, use of TeX, and various aspects of getting published in academic journals. Available in the Math Library, call number QA42.K73 1997
• RefWorks Bibliographic Software (UVA's subscription expires August 31, 2019) RefWorks is a web-based tool that will help you organize and properly cite the information and articles you discover during your research. Learn more about RefWorks at this link.
• Research Paper Planner A guide from the Baylor University Library that provides step-by-step planning and scheduling assistance for writing term papers and research reports.
• Study Skills Guide This page from Drury University gives tips and helpful advice on how to succeed in class though organization, time management and thorough preparation.
• Style Guides and Writing Help This link goes to a page offering a variety of online style manuals and writing assistance tools. Be aware that most U.Va. libraries also offer many similar tools in print format in their reference collections.
• University of Virginia Writing Center The UVA Writing Center is a writing resource staffed by graduate and undergraduate student tutors and available to all UVA students. Tutors work one on one with students in 50-minute appointments. We can help with drafting, revision, argument structure, and other special concerns. Several of our tutors are trained specifically for teaching English as a second language (ESL) and American Academic English (AAE) grammar. Though we can offer help at every stage of the writing process, we do not offer proofreading or editing services.
• Writing College Papers This is a link to a guide produced by Anne Arundel Community College, MD, that presents a clear, step-by-step plan for writing effective papers at the college level.
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