philippine historiography essay

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The Philippine Colonial Historiography Since 20th century

2021, Academia.edu DOI 10.11770306422018769578

Many historical narratives focus on the elite's contributions to nation-building, such as what the Illustrados fought for in the nineteenth century. Historical research books have incorrectly classified Filipino historians as savages or barbarians. Non-Christians and highlanders remain unrecognizable in historical accounts. The norms and lordship have been passed down through a succession of fathers, sons, and grandsons. The mission of masonry, in accordance with the Gran Oriente's "Programa", is completely humanitarian. The Decalogue of the obligations of the KKK individuals, which Bonifacio's Decalogue lays down in his lifetime, is nowadays proper known, printed in schoolbooks, and inscribed on monuments. Their oaths, execrations, and guarantees are all as above mentioned, namely, May Bahaman devour thee, if thou dost no longer talk the truth, or fulfill what thou hast promised,'' and similar things. Public education shall be free and obligatory in all schools of the nation. No foreigner who has not been naturalized may exercise in the Philippines any office which carries with it any authority or jurisdictional powers. The Assembly may constitute itself into a Tribunal of Justice to hear and determine crimes committed against the security of the State by the President of the Republic and members of the Council of Government. The National Assembly shall have the following additional powers: To examine the legality of the elections and the legal qualifications of the elected members. To elect its President, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries. To accept the resignations of its members and grant privileges. Article 63. The President of the Republic may require the Assembly to re-approve same which cannot be refused.

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This essay was originally written by Yoshiko Nagano in 2004 in Japanese as a commentary to an edited volume where Japanese translation of eight essays by three Filipino historians, Reynaldo C. Ileto, Vicente L. Rafael and Floro C. Quibuyen - originally written in English – are compiled. Originally the essay was written for Japanese readers, then translated into English by Michiyo Yoneno-Reyes. The essay analyzes the contributions of the three Filipino authors to Philippine historiography, to post-colonial studies broadly, and to post-colonial studies in Japan in particular.

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, Pedro Paterno
Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: the History of Historical Studies BERNARDITA REYES CHURCHILL

Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies BERNARDITA REYES CHURCHILL

INTRODUCTION

Philippine historiography can be traced to the issues in the writing (and teaching) of Philippine arrival of Ferdinand Magellan (1521) and the history. In so doing, perhaps an agenda for future advent of Spanish colonial period (1565) when historical studies could be planned that will printed and published records, consisting of address the imbalance that seems to exist in chronicles, manuscripts and public documents Philippine historical writing. became available, documenting early Philippine HISTORICAL WRITING ON/IN THE PHILIPPINES society and culture and Spanish colonization of Filipinas. For the period prior to the 16th century, the archipelago’s society and culture can be partly, Historical writing by Filipinos did not begin though insufficiently, reconstructed from until the 1880s, and between 1880 and 1940, they archaeological remains and references to the were necessarily limited not only in number but islands in the records of other countries, like also in scope. We can cite several reasons for this: China, India, and the various states of mainland first, literacy was limited as university education and island Southeast Asia. was not made available to Filipinos until 1863, and This historiography essay will look at the public education was not effectively established history of the discipline of history in the until the beginning of the twentieth century; and Philippines, discussing the nature, characteristics second, history as a discipline was probably not and trends in historical writing, especially from considered as important and popular as literature, the period in the 19th century when educated as is still the case today. Filipinos, referred to as ilustrados, studied and Until almost the end of the 19th century, the wrote about their history, society, and culture. The history of the Philippines had been written by essay will look at the most significant themes that Spanish missionaries and government officials. have contributed towards developing a national Spanish historical writing on the Philippines before history, and also identify some of the gaps and 1887 had two outstanding characteristics. First, 142 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

virtually all of it was written by friars of the It was not until the last two decades of the 19th religious orders, chiefly by missionaries of many century that Filipino ilustrados took courage years’ service in the Philippines who had a good (censorship was strictly enforced in the Philippines knowledge of the languages and the people. by the Spanish authorities) to write about Second, it was inseparably connected with the themselves or Spanish administration of the historiography of Spanish missions elsewhere in Philippines. Among these were the Filipino Asia—in the Moluccas, Indochina, China and propagandists in Spain, and more specifically Japan with the Philippines serving as the outpost Gregorio Sancianco y Gozon (1852-1897) who for these missionary activities. After 1887, several wrote El progreso de Filipinas (Madrid, 1881) and important secular historians enter the lists; but Jose Rizal who edited, with copious notes, Morga’s even so, the missionary influence remained very Sucesos (Paris, 1890). strong. The pioneers of Philippine historical research In general, the historical works written by and writing generally wrote in Spanish, only missionary chroniclers tended to have a strong occasionally, in Tagalog. Among the most religious (and also racial) bias, oftentimes prominent of them were Pedro Paterno (1858- hagiographic in nature, although they do contain 1911), Isabelo de los Reyes (1864-1938), T. H. Pardo interesting and varied materials about the country de Tavera (1857-1925), Manuel Artigas y Cuerva and the people than is often realized. It is, however, (1866-1925), Jaime C. de Veyra (1846-1963), and very clear that in these chronicles, the Filipinos Epifanio de los Santos (1871-1928). The two were submerged in histories which dealt mostly “giants” of this age of the pioneers were Rafael with Spanish history in the Philippines. With very Palma (1874-1939) and Teodoro M. Kalaw (1884- few exceptions, they also reflected Spanish 1940). The works of these pioneers may appear to prejudices, lack of understanding, or refusal to us today as “museum pieces” because they had understand the people they had come to colonize.1 not used the standard tools of historical research The only secular writer of the period before and methodology, but they nevertheless have 1887 was Dr. Antonio de Morga (1559-1636), a formed the foundation of historical studies on the judge of the Audiencia (the Supreme Court in the Philippines. Some of these pioneers did not only Philippines), whose Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas write on history, including local history, but also (Mexico, 1609) is one of the most interesting books on ethnography, law, politics, prehistory, folklore, on sixteenth-century Philippines. It has generally and literature. been accepted that Morga’s work was judicious Beginning with the third decade of the 20th and impartial, although he never came to regard century, when the Philippines came under the Philippines and the Filipinos with the same American colonial rule, English became a popular sympathy and affection that some of the medium of writing with most historical writers. missionary writers showed. Maximo M. Kalaw (1891-1955), Conrado Benitez The second lay history published was the (1899-1971), Leandro H. Fernandez (1899-1948), three-volume work of José Montero y Vidal, which Encarnación Alzona (1898- 2001), and Gregorio F. appeared between 1887 and 1895—Historia general Zaide (1907-1987) all wrote almost exclusively in de Filipinas desde descubrimiento hasta nuestros días English, having been educated in the schools (Madrid, 1887-1895). Montero y Vidal was very established during the American period. critical of the missionary historians. The other Historical writing by Americans from 1898 to Spanish lay historian was Wenceslao E. Retana 1940 was probably slightly better than the who had an enormous output on all aspects of the generally biased Spanish accounts, although there history, literature, and bibliography of the were also a number of books written by Americans Philippines.2 which greatly incensed the Filipinos. A good part of the literature up to 1940 were participants’ Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies 143

literature, with a few exceptions, generally movements, the nature and methods of the concerned with explaining America’s venture into conversion of Filipinos to Christianity, and the imperialism or American policy towards the responses to Catholic conversion.4 Filipinos.3 Other topics have also been dealt with. Adding In the first decade since the end of the war and to classic institutional studies on the Manila Independence in 1946, few historical studies were galleon, the Audiencia of Manila, are studies on the produced probably because scholarly attention Spanish bureaucracy and a detailed and was focused on more current events attending to preliminary study of nineteenth-century the reconstruction and rehabilitation of the Philippines. There were also studies on economic Philippines from the devastation of the Second history, such as on the late eighteenth-century World War and the Japanese Occupation. activities of the Royal Company of the Philippines, Chronologically speaking, postwar scholarship up the English “country trade” with the Philippines, to the mid-sixties focused on classical colonial the Economic Society of Friends of the Country, history dealing primarily on colonial institutions Spanish trade in the Pacific based in Manila, the established and the motives and policies of the impact of foreign trade on nineteenth-century Spaniards in Mexico (between 1565-1821, the Philippines, the Mexican real situado and the Philippines was governed from Mexico) and tobacco monopoly. Later works included studies Madrid; the Americans in Washington, D.C.; and on the cabildo secular of Manila, the US Army in in the colonial capital in Manila. This type of the Philippines, and the Philippine Constabulary .5 history was for the most part political and national The period of nationalism and revolution was in scope, and was traditionally and narrowly a particular focus of historical writing, especially defined as the chronicle of political events with the centennial celebration of the birth of the involving civil or religious governance and the National Hero Jose Rizal (in 1961), the later Manila elite. Centennials of the Philippine Revolution against By the late fifties and early sixties (and through Spain (1996), and the Declaration of Philippine the succeeding decades) modern Filipino-centric Independence from Spain (1998). Key works on history really emerged in works on the late 19th the Propaganda Movement , the Katipunan and the and early 20th century and the analysis of political Philippine Revolution, and a more critical study developments and nationalism were often made of Rizal (away from the previous hagiographic more sophisticated as historians began to employ works) were produced in the decades of the fifties the insights of other social science disciplines. The up to the 1990s and into the present century when completed body of impressive works on Philippine the Centennial Commemorations (including the history was produced by trained scholars who took recent Sesquicentennial of the birth of Jose Rizal their formal graduate training in Spanish colonial, in 2011) resulted in a surge of works on Jose Rizal American diplomatic, and East Asian histories, and other revolutionary heroes, the Philippine and then in Philippine/Southeast Asian history. Revolution against Spain, and the Philippine- A cursory survey of some works completed American War. These later works have enriched during this period presents a wide-ranging and previous publications and compilations through interesting landscape of Philippine history from the use of new sources, methodologies, and the colonial to contemporary periods. A major perspectives on nationalism and the revolution.6 theme of nearly all the histories dealing with the For sure, classical colonial histories still pre-1898 period is the Catholic Church and the constitute the bulk of the historical literature, friars. Specialized studies deal with such topics as including attempts at revisionism and re- episcopal succession, the geography of religious interpretation and they will continue to be written, adherence before and after 1898, folk Christianity but there has occurred a shift in approach towards or split-level Christianity, contemporary religious the latter part of the last century. Many scholars 144 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

now believe that the best way to study Philippine sources, photographs), and the re-examination of history is not to spend time on colonial old sources in new ways to flesh out Filipino administrators in Manila, whether Spanish, reaction and the Filipino point-of-view from American or Japanese, but to try to discover what archival sources which may be Spanish, the “submerged” majority of the Filipinos were American/British or Japanese. The historian now doing. In other words, writing the history looks for evidence from people who left very little foregrounding the Philippines and the Filipinos in the way of personal documentation—almost against the background of the Spanish/American/ everything and anything from the past that is Japanese colonial occupations. usable. Through the insights of other social In the mid-sixties, the direction of Philippine sciences, it has become possible for the historian historiography took a different turn with the to find more sophisticated differentiation within publication of Edgar Wickberg’s classic article, Philippine society—between rural and urban “The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History,” Filipino, between landlord and peasant, between (1964), which was the study of an entirely commercial and agricultural groups, between indigenous social group which became a major Chinese and mestizo, between Christian and economic force in the 19th century. Influenced by Muslim/non-Christian, between Visayan and Wickberg’s approach, local history studies were Tagalog. Such studies have also been more realistic born. John Larkin, in his article, “The Place of Local in understanding the continuities and dis- History in Philippine Historiography,” (1967) continuities in Philippine institutions and culture proposed the study of the Philippines in terms of which have changed and/or persisted throughout “the disparate socio-economic units that actually a long period of intensive colonial influence. comprise the Philippine whole.” He argued that With this “new history” historians now look Philippine society is not a “monolithic structure at subjects that heretofore concerned other social susceptive to outside influence and change at a scientists, such as issues of culture change, social uniform rate.” What followed was his work on integration, demographic transformation, patterns Pampanga Province.7 of livelihood, agricultural expansion, economic Since then a good number of major works, development, kinship networks, residential socio-economic in nature, covering practically all patterns, and environmental issues, in an effort to the significant population groups have been write “total history.” This whole-culture, or completed, many of them centered on the 19th holistic, approach probably makes more sense for century. This “new history” goes beyond the the simple fact that “a human society is a single definition of Philippine history as the history of system...a complex whole, functionally Manila-based elites—the “Big Names” of history— interrelated, in which an innovation or the to a history of all the Filipinos, including the introduction of new elements necessarily leads to anonymous, voiceless masses, the “inarticulate interconnected changes in others.”8 majority—in the provincial town, the barrios, and Perhaps one of the most exciting, if not even up in the highlands and the hinterland— controversial, works in the last thirty years is hitherto ignored in traditional histories. Reynaldo C. Ileto’s Pasyon and revolution: Popular The shift from politico-diplomatic direction to movements in the Philippines, 1840-1910 (1979). the socio-economic/socio-cultural trend has Ileto’s work was unlike earlier historical writings necessitated the use of techniques and theories of on nationalism and revolution in that he related social science disciplines (anthropology, interpreted Philippine popular movements “from geography, demography, sociology, political within” in terms of the perceptions of the “history- science, psychology), the utilization of new sources less, superstitious, manipulated masses” (such as field interviews or oral history and themselves. Earlier works used elite categories of vernacular sources, artifacts, literary texts, fugitive meaning. He submitted standard documents to Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies 145

varied kinds of analyses “to tease the secrets out Be that as it may, the body of major works to of the materials,” while he also used previously date is impressive, with historians looking more ignored sources of folk songs, poems, and religious and more on the “internal” history of the traditions to articulate the thinking of the masses. Philippines during the long colonial period. This was his “history from below.”9 Philippine studies has become an exciting area of The publication of some significant works on studies, not only among Filipino scholars, but also the history of the Philippines in the 20th century, among American, European, Australian, and covering the period of American colonial rule Asian historians. The works of some foreign (1898-1941), the brief, but difficult, interim of the scholars, advantageous to Filipino scholars in their Japanese Occupation during World War II (1942- use of foreign archival collections, still tend to be 1945), and the contemporary period following the Eurocentric, but they can be counterbalanced by restoration of Philippine Independence in 1946, works of Filipino and other historians which look has expanded and, at times revised, the breadth more towards an “autonomous Filipino history,” and depth of Philippine historiography. Thus more or “history from within.” Some studies have also recent Philippine historiography (since the late been interdisciplinary/multidisciplinary in 1990s) has resulted in a rich harvest of works on approach, which has certainly enriched historical new topics and new perspectives on Philippine studies, although there still has been little attempt history, covering all historical periods, no longer at doing “border-crossing” research, as seems to following traditional chronological lines but multi- be the trend these days in the social sciences. Be disciplinary/interdisciplinary studies on culture that as it may, clearly, the body of historical works, and society—crime, society and the state, cultures especially the more recent publications, has been of disaster, ilustrado politics and Filipino elite very interesting in their topics, methodologies, and response, social history, cultural history, women perspectives.10 studies, kinship, politics, the military It also helps considerably that every four years, establishment, friar estates and agrarian reform, an International Conference on Philippine Studies popular movements and peasant revolts, (ICOPHIL) is held alternately in the Philippines demographic studies—and many others. The and in a foreign venue (in Europe, Australia, and works were done not only by Filipino, Spanish, the United States ), where are gathered a good American and Japanese historians, but also by number of “Filipinists” presenting completed or Australians, French, Russians, Mexicans, ongoing research, across disciplines, on a wide Portuguese, and Chinese, among others. range of topics on Philippine history, society and It seems to be the case that the post-1898 period culture. Needless to say, the range of topics still receives disproportionate attention, and fewer presented here, as well as in such international and fewer Filipino historians do work on Spanish venues as the International Association of materials because of limitations in the use of Historians in Asia (IAHA), International Spanish and the limited opportunities for research Convention of Asia Scholars (ICAS), and the afforded them in archives in Spain, Mexico, the occasional intermittent conferences with United States, and wherever Filipiniana materials Portuguese, Mexican, and recently, some Latin/ are deposited. The Spanish colonial period, South American scholars, and professional especially during the 16th to the 18th centuries, relations with other foreign scholars, including the “forgotten” centuries in Philippine history, are Chinese historians, have also expanded the especially neglected. There is still a wide field open breadth and depth of Philippine historiography. for research on the Philippine-American War Not to be ignored are the national historical (1899-1902 and beyond), especially on how this conferences within the Philippines which have event affected the lives of Filipinos who contributed to a wealth of historical knowledge on experienced the war. Philippine society and culture.11 146 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF LOCAL HISTORY Interest in local history in the Philippines antedates the initiatives since the 1950s, and can It can be said with certainty that the most be traced as far back as the works of nationalist striking example of the increase in area interest in writers of the late 19th century like Isabelo de los Philippine historiography in recent times is the Reyes who published a history and culture of the growing number of local or regional histories that Ilocos and the Visayas and Rafael Artigas y Cuerva have been produced since the 1970s, many of them on Leyte. In the 1950s, the Department of using archival materials (found in Manila, the Education commissioned the compilation by United States, Mexico, and European archives) and public school teachers of reports on local history, social science concepts and interdisciplinary/ folklore and traditions in the Historical data papers, multidisciplinary methodology within an now deposited in the National Library of the historical analysis. In an archipelagic country like Philippines. The National Historical Commission the Philippines, characterized by cultural and of the Philippines (formerly the National Historical ethnic diversity, a history that treats the country Institute), at various times, has undertaken training and its people as a monolithic whole is not realistic. and dissemination activities aimed at promoting Local histories could well be “the necessary regional and provincial histories.15 building blocks that will someday help in the There have been some efforts by historians, construction of a substantial edifice for Philippine historical societies, and government agencies to history.”12 The building blocks are, however, not bring history to a greater number of Filipinos numerous enough yet, in areas and topics covered, whose interest in the subject is, at best, minimal, and are not strictly comparable. The time periods and whose general knowledge of the history of studied often vary considerably, the shape of the their country appears to be superficial. The main blocks differs, depending on the theme and content reason for this is the method of teaching history of the historical research itself. Nevertheless, those which for many students and teachers involves that have been completed are a good collection of excruciating memorization of names, places, and works on many provinces and regions of the dates. The significance of historical events and archipelago, including studies on cultural their repercussions in the context of the life of the communities, although they are not nearly enough nation are never presented for discussion and to cover the broad spectrum of geographical and study. When you add to this the fact that these socio-cultural groups in the Philippines.13 days the study of Philippine history has been The trend towards local/regional history has diminished by official policy in some institutions resulted in the establishment of local research which have relegated the subject to an elective, centers, museums and special libraries, such as the rather than a required subject as has been the case Cordillera Studies Center, Center for Central in the past since the decade of the 1910s, it is not Luzon Studies, Cavite Studies Center, Center for surprising that the study of history, even and Kapampangan Studies, Institute of Bikol History especially, Philippine history, is not a popular and Culture, Mangyan Heritage Center, Center for undertaking among Filipinos. Mindoro Studies, all in Luzon; Leyte-Samar Cognizant of the need to develop and/or Research Library, Cebuano Studies Center intensify historical consciousness, as well as (University of San Carlos), West Visayas Studies encourage historical research, the Philippine Center, Central Visayas Studies Center, all in the National Historical Society (PNHS) has convened Visayas; and the Coordinated Investigation of Sulu an annual national conference on local and Culture, Dansalan Research Center, Research national history, now going into its 33rd year, the Institute for Mindanao Culture, in Mindanao and purpose of which is to take history to the people Sulu.14 while encouraging teachers and researchers in the provinces to write history from the people, Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies 147

Kasaysayan mula sa bayan. With the National studies in archaeology, anthropology, Commission for Culture and the Arts-Committee ethnohistory, literature, musicology, arts and the on Historical Research (NCCA-CHR) and the entire gamut of culture, and how these fields National Historical Commission of the Philippines impact on national and local history. Filipino (NHCP), PNHS undertakes various projects to historians are reminded to teach history that will bring history to areas beyond Metro Manila, into integrate the history of the regions and their the far flung regions of the archipelago. These peoples to the totality of Philippine national projects bring to the community of teachers and history.17 students in the provinces new and updated CORDILLERA HISTORY: FROM CRITIQUE OF historical materials to enrich their knowledge of COLONIAL HISTORIOGRAPHY TO NEW Philippine history and enhance their competence INTERPRETATIONS 18 as history teachers. Local historians, including amateur practitioners of history, are encouraged to undertake researches in local history while they From memorias, estadisticas, and noticias of the are also reminded that their local history should Spanish regime, and the preoccupation of censuses be situated in the context of national history. For and colonial ethnographies during the American in the words of a historian colleague, “without administration, initiatives to re-write Cordillera local realities national history will be unjust just history and re-interpret Cordillera indigenous as local history without [a] national perspective society have achieved significant strides. This will be parochial.” 16 development in historical studies has sprung from For the past three decades, PNHS has the recognition of the imbalances and inadequacies aggressively contributed towards setting the pace of homogenizing and generalizing national and the agenda of historical research in the narratives. Influences of both theorizing and Philippines, by effecting a major intellectual shift openness to new methodologies in history as an away from what Resil B. Mojares, a distinguished academic discipline have likewise been apparent PNHS member, described as “classical colonial in recent Cordillera historiography. scholarship” towards studies depicting “the The beginnings of Cordillera regional histories grassroots of Filipino civilization and the life date back to the colonial period when the colonial histories of individual Filipino communities governments considered the region as distinct showing rural life in its full detail and color.” The from the mainstream of their subject population. focus on local history recognizes that it is an Julian Malumbres (1918) wrote a series of important component and key to the provincial histories of the eastern section of Luzon understanding of national history, and is crucial at a time when the political boundaries between in correcting sometimes inaccurate or imprecise the Cordillera and the eastern lowland generalizations made by national history. It is communities of Cagayan were still in a state of flux. emphasized that a relationship must be established Following the American political regime in the between local and national history, for without this Philippines, Felix Keesing provided a coherent linkage, local history becomes divisive and, account of interethnic relations of peoples of the therefore, of very little significance to national Ilocos, Cagayan and the Cordillera in The history except as part of local literature. Local ethnohistory of Northern Luzon (1962). Following this cannot remain local—it must go beyond its local earlier tradition of making a coherent regional boundaries—hence local history must be in the history of the Cordillera, more recent context of national history. Further, because interpretations with new foci, new approaches and historical studies these days are also informed by attempts to use new archival data were done. other social science disciplines and the humanities, The historiography of lay American Episcopal PNHS Conferences have also presented updated missionary, William Henry Scott, may be 148 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

considered a marker in the re-writing of Cordillera Fry’s discussion on the American regime in the History. Scott’s The discovery of the Igorots (1974) Cordillera, but deviates from Fry by remaining remains the most comprehensive work on the focused on the historical construction and Spanish period from the launch of their reconstruction of Igorot identity founded on a expeditions to the Igorot mines, the consciousness—Igorotism. Finin’s interpretation implementation of reducción to the establishment highlights the Igorot intelligentsia that has played of comandancias politico militar, a special a pivotal role in the formation of Igorot administrative unit for the unpacified areas. Using consciousness. While he tackles the emergence of archival data which used to be inaccessible to local social movements that evolved from the enflamed scholars, William Henry Scott established his nationalism of the intelligentsia, there is the niche. Maybe Rankean in his approach and ambivalence to explain the diverse directions/ methodology, Scott’s scholarship dislodged myths trajectories. That Finin works around pan- of pan-Cordillera consciousness. His works Cordillera consciousness that was a result of the straddle the disciplines of history and turbulent years of Cordillera resistance against the anthropology as he documented ethnographic damming of the Chico brings back the myth of data on Cordillera indigenous society. His works pan-Igorot consciousness. While The making of the of analyzing pre-colonial society and later Igorot accepts the process of becoming as a unhispanized societies under the Spanish colonial continuing history, Finin concludes that a level of order bring to our attention the existence of social pan-ethno-regional consciousness has been differentiation in Philippine society in pre-colonial achieved. This is contrary to the interpretation that times. This refutes the historical interpretation that Igorot identity is still a contested terrain. This has pre-Spanish Philippines was classless, and social become even more complicated as Cordilleran has differentiation is attributed to colonialism. Scott’s started to replace Igorot identity. There is some repudiation of a unified Cordillera struggle against ambivalence in settling the issue. Spanish colonialism and the classless character A more recent attempt to generate a regional of pre-colonial society are significant history is northern Luzon-based Dominican Pedro reinterpretations of Cordillera history. Beyond Salgado’s two-volume Cagayan Valley and Eastern historical scholarship this reinterpretation was a Cordillera, 1581-1898 (2002). As he articulates in his significant part of the discourse of indigenous prologue, the intention of this historiographic work society, which is the very crux of the existence of is to reconstruct history and society of the social movements in the Cordillera. His decision northeastern region during the Spanish period. to take up residence in the area gave him the Regional histories of the Cordillera augur well physical proximity, but his being white provided toward providing a sense of coherence to a region the distance. that was historically reconstructed, first by British historian Howard T. Fry continued colonialism and then the process of othering that from where The discovery of the Igorots ended. Fry’s resulted from the colonized-uncolonized divide. A history of the Mountain Province (1983) covers the Regional histories of the Cordillera, though a most American colonial period until the post World War daunting task, have provided an arena for tracing II rehabilitation of the region. Culled from the linkages between nation and region. Regional American archival resource collections, Fry’s histories of the Cordillera have also integrated history presents a general history of the region, the developments within the region, and traced the strategies of colonization, the exceptional triumphs historical continuities in the relations of the of American colonial administration in integrating highlands with the lowlands. the wild non-Christian peoples of the Cordillera. A survey of historical studies would show that Completing the trilogy is Gerard Finin’s The almost every aspect of Cordillera society has been making of the Igorot (2005), which overlaps with investigated, and that, moreover, scholarship has Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies 149

been uneven. This displays the inherent openness Visayas, covering several fields of study, most of of history to multi-disciplinary collaboration, such them focusing on a specific Visayan island as on economic history and interethnic relations. province, or some industry as prevailed in a province.21 Cordillera history, the postmodern An important development responsible for the and other frameworks production of studies on Visayas history and The openness to new sources, the creative culture has been the establishment since the 1970s combination of methods and interpretations have of various study centers in several institutions in allowed explorations of “histories at the the region. These study centers are involved not interstices.” Independent scholar Erlyn Ruth only in research in provincial and regional history Alcantara has contributed historical vignettes but also in the collection, exhibition, and featuring the Baguio market and other colonial preservation of art forms and historico-cultural spaces. The history of the body, ethnic markers like materials. The Leyte-Samar Research Center was tattoos, material culture, the analysis of established at the Divine Word University in photographs, all in the mould of postcolonial Tacloban City, curated by the late Fr. Raymond theorizing have been attractive to scholars, both Quetcuenbach, SVD (1929-1911) which preserved local and foreign who have chosen the Cordillera probably the largest collection of resource as their subject for historical studies. History has materials on Waray culture and Waray-waray happily collaborated with anthropology for language. The Center unfortunately, is now interpreting Igorot representations; the former defunct. The University also published the Leyte- provides the temporal context, and the latter, the Samar Studies, a biannual publication about the ethnography. non-written cultural and theatrical traditions of the In the final analysis, Cordillera historiography Leyte-Samarnon group of the Visayas. The has been a historiography of identity, an issue most Cebuano Studies Center at the University of San elusive. In whatever form, as regional history, local Carlos, Cebu City, was established in 1975 as a history, thematic, the re-writing and the research center devoted to all aspects of Cebuano continuing reconstructions of the Cordillera past culture, conceived in answer to the growing addresses the issue of identity. Each demands for research services in local history and historiographic work may be located in a breadth vernacular literature. The University of the of identifying the relations of the Cordillera to the Philippines in the Visayas (UPV) established the nation; the relation of the Cordillera to the Center for West Visayas Studies (in Miag-ao, lowlands, to northern Luzon, to other regions; and Iloilo); the Central Visayas Studies Center (UP the relation of the Cordillera to the global order. Cebu College); and the Leyte-Samar Heritage Historical studies that aim to understand the Center (UP Tacloban College). character of Cordillera society could not be Of these, the Center for Cebuano Studies has dissociated from the changing social forces, and probably been the most productive and has these have to be studied in their temporal context.19 published important studies on the history and culture of Cebu Province. As a center of research THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE VISAYAS20 for all aspects of Cebuano culture, it houses a special library for source materials pertaining to In this review, historical studies that highlight Cebu as well as the predominantly Cebuano- the history of the whole Visayas, separately as local speaking areas in the country. It is devoted to histories of islands, provinces, towns and cities, studies in the areas of humanities and social as well as studies that have tried to synthesize the sciences, thus assisting in the promotion of history of the Visayas region, will be presented. Cebuano culture and the arts – history and There are useful bibliographic compilations on the ethnography, literature and biography, popular 150 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

and expressive culture, folk science, language Fr. Lucio Gutierrez, OP, in 2004. Fr. Alcina was a translation and documentation, and women seventeeth-century Jesuit missionary who studies.22 dedicated forty years of his life in evangelical work in the Philippines, thirty-six of those years among Sources of Visayas historiography his “Beloved Bisayans.” During that period, Alcina There have been other major sources of wrote the monumental nine-book Historia, which Visayas historiography (aside from those documented the ancient customs, traditions, produced by the studies centers listed above) and beliefs, and literature—poems, ballads, songs and the outputs in topics and themes have been epics—of the Samareños. The volumes also numerous and varied. One major source of local contained materials on flora—trees, palms, history is the Silliman Journal, published by bamboo, herbs and vines—and animals and fowl, Silliman University, established in 1901 in “living creatures of the land, sea and air and Dumaguete City in Central Philippines. The around the Bisayan islands,” which Fr. Alcina discipline of history was the first to be included “interestingly weaves in all sorts of episodes, among the courses of instruction of Silliman happenings, calamities,…misfortunes, bits of Institute at the collegiate level. It was in 1912 that historical glimpses of the pueblos, narratives about a major program in history was established with ideal and heroic Bisayan datos, principalias and men six different courses being offered. A graduate and women.”25 program in history leading to an MA degree was Another important work recently made first offered in 1953. The Silliman Journal has been available is Reseña de la Provincia de Leyte (Manila, published twice a year since 1954.23 1914), written by Manuel Artigas y Cuerva (1866- PNHS, probably the most active proponent of 1925), a Bisayan-Spanish mestizo, identified as local history in the Philippines today, publishes biographer and bibliographer. The book was The Journal of History, and since the late 1970s has translated by Rolando O. Borrinaga and Cantius published papers on Visayas studies. Since 1978, J. Kobak, OFM, as The colonial oddysey of Leyte, 1521- the thrust of PNHS has been to encourage research 1914 (Quezon City, 2006), probably one of the on local history through an annual conference on earliest extensively documented local or regional local and national history which is conducted in history published in the Philippines. It provides a the three major regions of the archipelago in history of Leyte from earliest times up to the first Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao and Sulu. Thus far, decade of the 20th century. PNHS has convened eight conferences in the There have been many significant subsequent Visayas (between 1978 and 2011) which have works on the local history of the Visayas and yielded a good number of significant publications practically all the major Visayan island provinces on the local history of various aspects of Visayas have been written about. Admittedly, there are still society and culture. Mention should also be made gaps in historical research, and historiography of the surge in publications on local history, could move beyond the usual history of towns, including Visayas history, during the Centennial cities, provinces to a more comprehensive history Commemorations of 1996-1998.24 of the land and people. The challenge that faces Probably one of the most important historians, not just historians on the Visayas, is how publications on the Visayas to have been to collate all these historical studies, to construct a completed recently—mainly because it is one of regional history of the Visayas that would really the few early sources of Visayan society and represent the historical discourses of the region culture—is the translation of Fr. Alcina’s Historia and the nation. de las islas e indios de Bisayas…(History of the Bisayan Notwithstanding all that has been written people in the Philippine Islands), translated, edited about the Visayas, a noted Visayan (Cebuano) and annotated by Fr. Cantius J. Kobak, OFM, and scholar, Resil B. Mojares, posed this question a few Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies 151

years ago—“Is there a Visayan historiography?” phenomenon that occurred in the Visayan seas and The paper he presented at a PNHS Conference in related them in the context of the popular concept Tacloban City in 2006 was his reflection of what of slave raiding which the Spanish colonizers studies on Visayan society and culture have labeled as “Moro raids.” The final article in the accomplished thus far by way of the advancement series examines the Japanese Occupation of the of the historiography of the region, implying that Visayas, again pointing to the role of the seas in perhaps there should be a rethinking and connecting the anti-Japanese resistance redirecting of the efforts at historical writing by movements in the region and in Mindanao.27 Other historians in the region. He felt that the studies on methodologies and perspectives can be explored, local history “have not led to significant revisions following the steps taken by Cleope. of the narrative” and called for “a critical inventory The matter of a Visayas historiography, as of local histories written over the past thirty years” articulated by Mojares, is a concern that applies to show “how local studies [have] effectively also to other regions in the archipelago. In a interrogated, destabilized or revised dominant country marked by a considerable diversity in conceptions of Philippine society and culture.” He culture and language, and separated by bodies of proposed revising Visayan historiography [and water surrounding the archipelago, applicable Philippine historiography for that matter] that will perspectives on historical research are needed to take the Visayas region as the “object of study,” compose a “meaningful narrative of the nation.” indicating how “different [it is] from the histories THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF MINDANAO produced in Luzon or Mindanao in terms of AND THE SULU ARCHIPELAGO28 thematic concerns, methodological approaches and theoretical assumptions.” Mojares pointed out that “considerable homogeneity exists (among the The island of Mindanao and the Sulu Visayan islands) by virtue of location, proximity archipelago, which constitute the Southern to each other, geology, climatology, history and Philippines, is a region of primary historical ethnolinguistic character,” all of which should be importance in the Philippines in terms of its culture taken into consideration to create a regional history and traditions. It is the single largest section of the of the Visayas.26 Philippines to have remained largely In a series of five articles presented in several unhispanized, and this fact should offer significant PNHS Conferences and published in The Journal implications to understanding the history of the of History, historian Earl Jude Paul Cleope, from whole archipelago. Sulu’s position in relation to Silliman University, proposed what could well be Indonesia and Malaysia, particularly the a possible framework to write one face of the neighboring islands of Borneo and Sulawesi, regional history of the Visayas, focusing on the role meant that, historically, Southern Philippines also of the seas surrounding the numerous islands as served as a common boundary for maritime the unifying thread, as well as a link to the histories movements of people and trade in Island Southeast of nearby Mindanao and Sulu. Starting with an Asia. It is possible, therefore, to deal with the exposition on the conditions of the Visayas islands history of the area as a whole, to include the at the time of European contact and the subsequent Southern Philippines, at least for the period up to Spanish colonization, through the examination of the 17th century.29 folklore and the etymologies of the various islands, The distribution of peoples and cultures in the series moves on to document the response of Mindanao and Sulu is based on two major criteria: the indigenous peoples as they lived through religion and ecology. On the basis of religion, the Spanish colonial rule, which came in the form of ethnic groups of the southern Philippines are either revolts that rocked the islands up to the 1880s. He converts to Christianity, converts to Islam, or then looked into the maritime raiding unconverted traditionalists or animists. On the 152 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

basis of ecology or geography, the inhabitants of traditionalists. The major reason for this may well this area may be divided into highlanders, be that the earliest traces or records have been lowlanders, and sea nomads. Generally speaking, fragmentary in nature and these groups have been lowlanders tend to be converts either to Islam or quite content with the verbal articulation of their Christianity, whereas the highlanders tend to be history through their vast and rich oral literature— traditionalists. Such is the general ethnic profile poems, riddles, wise sayings, short narratives and of Mindanao and Sulu—a colorful mosaic of ethnic epics—which have characterized these communities displaying a variety of material communities. It is characteristic of many cultural culture, social organizations, and beliefs.30 communities in the Philippines that historical For the Spanish colonizers, the peoples of sources are provided by indigenous written Mindanao and Sulu presented an interesting group materials (where society was literate) and oral of people to be Christianized and hispanized. To literature (which abound in preliterate societies). them, especially to the missionaries, we owe our Filipino Muslim history is a good example of earliest information on the land and peoples of local history with a significant national dimension. Mindanao and Sulu, our earliest versions of local The “Moros” as they were called in colonial times, or regional history. It can be said that the history and presently “Bangsamoro,” come from a specific of and historical writing on Mindanao and Sulu geographic area historically delineated as the have been shaped largely by these Spanish efforts homeland of the Islamized peoples of the to colonize and Christianize the Moros and the Philippines. Given the sources available, the Muslim resistance to such Spanish aims and the approach to Filipino Muslim history requires a subsequent Spanish-Muslim rivalry in trade. historical methodology that would involve the There is no dearth of historical writing on the integration of indigenous written and oral Muslim Filipinos, although some groups have been literature, supplemented by data from the other written up more than others, and this applies also social sciences such as anthropology, archeology, to the unconverted traditionalists. But little has and linguistics. The history of the area goes back been done to integrate the history of Mindanao and to very ancient times, which has a definite Sulu to the totality of Philippine national history. significance in the prehistory and protohistory of A few books on general Philippine history recently insular Southeast Asia and Micronesia. published have included, albeit in a limited scope, There are several written materials of historical the history of the Muslim and traditionalist peoples value in Sulu and Maguindanao: the sarsila (tarsila), of the Philippines. Among these are the recently the khutbah and kitab, and the luntar. The Sulu revised book of Teodoro A. Agoncillo, History of sarsilas and Maguindanao tarsilas are primarily the Filipino people (1990); O.D. Corpuz, The roots of written genealogical accounts, either lineal or the Filipino nation (2 volumes, 1990); and Samuel multilineal, and sometimes accompanied by an K. Tan, History of the Philippines (1987). introductory legendary or traditional account. Other Muslim groups have also claimed similar Sources of Filipino Muslim history sarsilas/tarsilas, but there are no existing copies that The colorful history of Muslim Filipino can be verified. A khutbah is a sermon or oration communities antedates many of the other ethno- delivered during Friday congregational prayers linguistic groups found in the Philippines and and during the two great festivals of Id ul-Fitr and studies on their culture and traditions could very Id ul-Adla, and it was customary to include prayers well serve as the foundation for the history of a for the reigning Muslim ruler. The kitab is a booklet nation composed of diverse cultural-linguistic or notes representing an attempt not only to communities as exist in the Philippines. However, present a list of sultans who have reigned but also in general, very little historical literature has been some salient features of their character and written by Muslim themselves, even less by the exploits. The luntar (with affinity to the Sulawesi Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies 153

lontara) is a semi-historical material legitimizing United States, and probably elsewhere in other local leadership. Because of the nature of these foreign repositories. materials and the problems of chronology they A great deal of the literature produced by pose, these sources have limited value for the Spanish writers were accounts of Muslim raids, reconstruction of the history of the sultanates. piracy, slavery, and Spanish military expeditions Oral literature with historical content is useful to Mindanao and Sulu. Unexpectedly they reveal as sources for Tausug and Samal history. They the strong prejudices of Spanish officials and consist of the kissa and the parang-sabil, narratives missionaries confronting their old “Moro” of sultans and datus and religious personalities, antagonist. Spanish literature generally proceeded the parang-sabil being epical in structure and from two basic assumptions: that the Moros were function, and unique to the Tausug. There are also savages, pirates and warlike, and should either be folktales and folk-speech forms (katakata, daman, Christianized or put to the sword; and, that all masa-alla, malikata, tukud-tukud, tarasul) which give Muslims belonged to only one ethnic group, some insight into social structures, values, and uncivilized in culture and, debased by Islam. customs preserved in contemporary Tausug and However biased the colonial Spanish sources may Samal society. Again these sources are of limited be, they nevertheless provide some useful value because the stories are interwoven with information and it is possible to separate their myths and legends that reflect folk sentiment, and biased or prejudiced interpretation and value are of marginal value to the historian. judgments from the description of events or Nevertheless, there is no question that these characterization of personalities in the narrative. literary traditions, ancient and contemporary, are When the British entered the area in the middle of crucial in the reconstruction of the ethnohistory of the 18th century, they recorded important ethnic communities in the Philippines for they are observations, particularly on the internal workings reflective of the world-view of the people. A survey of the sultanates as well as on the all-important of citations of possible sources show historical data institutions of slavery, piracy, and trading. The available in Malay/Indonesian and Chinese activities of the British were related to their interest sources, such as in the writings of Chau Ju-kua and in southern Philippines, which adjoined the Malay Wang Ta-yuan.31 Peninsula and Borneo, their sphere of interest. The The entire range of Spanish sources from 1565 Dutch sources relate relations with Maguindanao to 1898 constitutes one of the richest materials for in connection with their possessions in Eastern the history of Muslim Filipinos, however biased Indonesia. 32 or exaggerated they may be, being colonial sources. With the establishment of the American These have provided us with invaluable materials regime in 1899, studies of cultural communities on habitat, social structure, system of kinship, began to get serious attention, although a great politics, the economy, religion, and languages. many of these were anthropological in nature. There is a huge body of archival materials on the Among the major pioneering works on Mindanao Muslim Filipinos in the National Archives of the and Sulu of this early period of American rule were Philippines—for instance, there are about 200 those of Najeeb M. Saleeby, a Lebanese-born bundles labeled “Mindanao y Sulu,” plus materials American official, whose works—Studies in Moro labeled “Piratas,” Ereccion de pueblo,” and “Varias history, law and religion (1905) and The history of Sulu provincias.” There is also a vast body of (1908)—laid the foundations for the genealogical documentary and manuscript materials and history of the ruling families of Sulu and published works still untapped in archives and Maguindanao with his translations of the sarsilas libraries abroad, i.e., Spain, Portugal and Macau, and tarsilas. There were also works on the the Netherlands, Great Britain, France, Mexico, the Subanuns (Emerson Christie, 1909); Davao “wild tribes” (Fay-Cooper Cole, 1913); Bagobos (Laura 154 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

Benedict, 1916); and Manobos (John M. Garvan, Admittedly these scholars are anthropologists but 1929). Until 1973 when Cesar Adib Majul there can be no doubt that given the nature of the published his Muslims in the Philippines, Filipino materials they had to work with—the history is Muslim history had depended heavily upon quite obscure and many sources are conjectural— Saleeby’s works. their studies must necessarily be heavily American literature on the Muslim developed ethnographical or anthropological. In the pursuit along two distinct lines: first, it continued the anti- of the methodology of “new history,” their studies Muslim bias of Spanish literature, especially are of more than passing importance to historians. during the period of the Muslim-American wars More recently, important materials have which lasted from 1899 to 1912; and second, it held become available for research on Mindanao and the view that the Muslim Filipinos were a “united, Sulu, which hopefully would result in an enlarged proud and sensitive race, rich in culture, loyal to Muslim historiography. The Jesuit Missionary tradition and devoted to Islam.” Some American Letters from Mindanao and Jolo (1861-1899), now travelers and Protestant missionaries eventually translated and published, contain important began to look more critically at Muslim studies and information on the geography, history, collected data through observations and oral ethnography and linguistics of the Maguindanao, history. There is a large body of manuscript and not to mention data on the relations between the printed sources on Mindanao and Sulu in the Jesuits and the Moros during the last quarter of Library of Congress and the National Archives in the 19th century.33 Washington D.C., as well as in many other Samuel K. Tan, foremost historian on repositories in the United States, like the Newberry Mindanao and Sulu, himself a native of Sulu of Library in Chicago. Tausug/Chinese ancestry, has in recent years The post-war period saw the flowering of published indigenous materials in Jawi, folk Mindanao and Sulu studies, especially after the Islamic writing using the Arabic alphabet for the Mindanao Conference held in May 1955 at the writing of Tausug and Maguindanaoan materials, University of Chicago, where Fred Eggan, an which he has collected from archives in the United anthropologist, had set up a Philippine Studies States and the Philippines. Surat Sug, in two Program. A period of about twenty years (1955- volumes, consists of Jawi letters, opinions, 1975) saw the completion and/or publication of comments, reactions, requests, etc., written by special studies on Mindanao and Sulu. By this time, Tausug leaders and compiled by the American interest in local/regional history had received authorities in Sulu from 1899 to 1935, which were impetus from graduate studies in history as well transliterated into Tausug from Jawi and as from multi-interdisciplinary studies in the social translated into English. In these materials can be sciences. Some of these studies were conducted discerned the Tausug perception of and their under the auspices of Southeast Asia Programs of reaction to the establishment of American colonial institutions like the University of the Philippines, rule and the changes wrought on their society by University of San Carlos, Mindanao State the imposition of foreign rule on the Sultanate. University, Xavier University, Notre Dame College These primary materials, “crucial to the in Jolo, as well as universities in the United States, reconstruction of a more balanced and more Australia, and Europe. Many of these studies used realistic history of the Muslim South,” will very not only the historical methodology exclusively, definitely serve to “validate or enrich” earlier but also folklore, archaeology, historical linguistics, findings, and will ultimately correct recorded geography, and sociology, among others. distortions and biased perspectives of the socio- A survey of the major works since the 1960s economic and political realities of the peoples of shows that researches cover a broad spectrum of Muslim Mindanao and Sulu during the long the ethnographic canvas of Mindanao and Sulu. Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies 155

period of colonial rule under Spain and the United and discrimination of the lowland/coastal States.34 Christian majority, the matter of perspective in the The range of historical research has been wide presentation of their history is of utmost and varied—from the collection of essays on the importance. They underscore the need to rewrite/ general topic of Muslims in the Philippines to reconstruct Philippine history in order to give specialized studies on certain areas or groups of recognition to the role they have played in national people, dealing with such topics as Mindanao or history. They want a Filipino Muslim history that Sulu’s relations with the British and Dutch; the would be impartial and truly reflective of the socio-economic patterns of trading, raiding and historical circumstances of the region, possibly slavery in Sulu; the American administration of using the framework of the indigenous pre-Islamic Mindanao and Sulu; the tradition of Muslim Indo-Malay heritage that is rightfully the basic armed struggle; and Maguindanao history and foundation of Filipino historical and cultural leadership. Perhaps it is appropriate at this point traditions. to emphasize that some of the most recent works LOOKING FORWARD completed and/or published have been significant because they utilized a variety of archival sources hitherto untouched by scholars. Majul, for Philippine historiography has made major instance, used Spanish, Dutch and British sources; strides in the past one hundred years and has Ileto used Spanish sources found in American moved from colonial/Eurocentric history to repositories; Tan used archival sources in the nationalist/Filipinocentric or autonomous/ United States; and Laarhoven used documents of internal history. Histories have also moved from the Dutch East India company. the center—Manila and Luzon—to the There are gaps in the contemporary literature periphery—the provinces and regions; from the of the Muslim Filipinos where the focus has been history of “the big men” to the history of the on the issues of the “Moro Problem,” specifically inarticulate masses of men and women who the issues of autonomy or separatism and Muslim- compose Philippine society. Methodologies have Christian understanding. The bulk of the literature also changed, from one-dimension historical is on the Maranao and the Tausug, with the studies to multidisciplinary/interdisciplinary Maguindanaoan the least studied. As well, the studies enriched by other social science disciplines. minor Muslim groups have received practically Historical studies have also presented nationalist little attention, except for some works on the Samal literature and theories of indigenization, which at and the Yakan. There is a need for an ethnographic times have been the subject of controversial, albeit history of the various groups that compose the healthy intellectual inquiry.35 The harvest has been Muslim Filipinos which will not look at them as a rich and varied—all one has to do is survey the monolithic group. A pluralistic approach to the available literature and the variety of topics that study would be the better alternative, one that will have been worked on. Each new study brings up look at the basic differences in terms of ethnology the need for further research and conceptual and language, history and culture, without synthesizing. There will be no limit to the topics overlooking the similarities they share. This for research that can be undertaken by historians, applies to all cultural communities in the especially in view of the still vast documentary/ Philippines—lowland and highland, coastal and archival and other sources and resources available mountain, with no distinction in culture, religious for historical study. beliefs, and practices. There are, however, immediate challenges that For Muslim Filipinos, as well as those cultural face Filipino historians. More studies on the long communities who have felt marginalized from the Spanish colonial period need to be undertaken by national narrative, and have experienced the bias Filipino historians, despite the fact that colonial 156 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

sources would have to be used, which would and secondary levels, and in the tertiary level. become increasingly difficult as fewer and fewer However, training to be a historian is not a historians are able and willing to undertake preferred profession, and there is a serious lack of research in Spanish materials. This goes also for competent history teachers in Philippine schools, scattered materials in repositories abroad that are colleges and universities. There has not been a not written in English or any of the Philippine standardized curriculum for history majors that languages. Perhaps collaborative work would has been successfully or fully implemented, mainly solve this problem. The bigger problem, however, because of the limited resources available to higher is the opportunity to do research in foreign educational institutions where other professional archives, given the limited funding resources programs are more attractive to students. There is available to Filipino scholars. Many depositories a need to upgrade the teaching of history as there abroad have documentary materials that are not is a need to expand the frontiers of historical found in the Philippines and, therefore, not research. Teaching and research are important accessible to Filipino researchers, while it can also preoccupations for historians. be pointed out that voluminous materials are There are more than two thousand higher available to researchers in the Philippines. education institutions in the country. Of these, only Thankfully, some archival materials can be two universities offer doctoral programs in the accessed through Internet portals, and these would discipline—the University of the Philippines and help Philippine scholars look at foreign sources on the University of Santo Tomas, and this means that the Philippines without having to travel abroad. doctoral students have to come to Manila. Seven Another big undertaking for historians is the universities, located in Luzon and Visayas offer re-writing of national history that would be truly master’s degree programs; no university offers this inclusive—that will portray the rich variety and program in Mindanao and Sulu. Five universities cultural diversity of all Filipinos and that will in Luzon and Visayas offer a master’s degree in revise most, if not all, of the current general history without thesis, mainly designed for histories that have marginalized minority teachers of history. Twenty-five universities communities in the country and have put forward throughout the archipelago offer undergraduate facile generalizations without benefit of in-depth history programs. In many universities, instead of studies. Given the range of local and regional a Department of History, they have a Division/ history that presently exists, a critical inventory of Department of Social Sciences where history is these materials would serve the purpose of adding included with other social science disciplines. A such materials to a general national history that general survey course on Philippine History is would be “a useful past” for all Filipinos.36 mandated to be taught by the Commission of There are major issues to confront the Higher Education (CHED) in all colleges and historian, especially on the matter of universities. It has been observed that history interpretation—whether local or regional or courses, even the basic survey course, are national history, particularly because colonial sometimes not taught by a history major graduate, sources are important to the reconstruction of the at best by one who may have taken a degree in a past. The challenge is to reconstruct the past multidisciplinary program like Philippine through the re-reading and reinterpretation of Studies.37 old/colonial sources and/or look for new sources The Department of History of the University (documents, oral history, material culture, of the Philippines was established in 1910, two whatever can add to the narrative) to move away years after the University was established in 1908, from colonial and Manila-centric historiography. and it was the first to be designated as a Center of History is one of the major subjects in Excellence in History by CHED several years ago. Philippine schools—it is taught in the elementary The Department is the biggest in the College of Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies 157

Social Sciences and Philosophy, and probably also revised curriculum was specifically designed to has the biggest enrolment of history majors and reflect the cultural diversity that characterizes graduate students among all universities in the Philippine society and that will teach a history of Philippines offering a history course both in the the entire nation, without excluding any cultural graduate and undergraduate programs (presently community; hence, there are courses on local about 61 undergraduate and 60 graduate). These history and the history of the Muslim and numbers are not matched in other universities traditionalist cultural communities. The textbooks offering history programs. In some instances, to be prescribed will also have to reflect that programs in the regional universities have been version of national history. History matters and it suspended because of the lack of enrolees, is the task of educational institutions to improve although there are plans to restore and/or update and promote understanding of history among and upgrade the program in the near future. Filipinos. It is in view of this situation that in the recently The challenge that faces the Filipino historian revised undergraduate and graduate programs for and the Filipino teacher of history is to teach and history approved by CHED and planned for write Philippine history which will look at each implementation throughout the country, the ethnic community or region as an inter-related and Technical Committee for History has put together interdependent component of the whole a curriculum that will strengthen the programs of Philippine historical process, where no one is colleges and universities who train history teachers excluded and neglected. More important is the by requiring minimum standards for the need for a meaningful analysis of the forces of implementation of the history program in terms history—religious, cultural, historical, economic, of curricular offerings, faculty, and library intellectual—that will bring all Filipinos into unity requirements. The graduate programs (MA and with the Philippine nation state and that will give PhD) will also provide the necessary competence coherence to the “collective destinies and splendid for historical research. More importantly, the variety” of our national history.

This article picks up from an earlier study on Philippine historiography – Bernardita Reyes Churchill (ed.), “State of the art – history and current situation of the discipline of history in the Philippines,” in Philippine encyclopedia of the social sciences, Vol. II (Quezon City: Philippine Social Science Council, 1993), pp 1-177. The study updates the trends in historical studies in the Philippines, covering both published and unpublished materials of the more important studies done by both Filipino and foreign scholars, mostly by historians, but also by other social scientists whose works have contributed significantly to the advancement of our knowledge of the Philippine past. It is not possible to include the historical literature to illustrate the history of History discipline in the Philippines. Thus, a full listing of even the more significant works has not been presented but I have noted as many of what I think are the key works by historians cited in the essay. I have cited bibliographic listings which can be supplemented by those that can be accessed in the Internet. Any omission of names and works does not reflect any judgment on the part of the author. The materials for this paper have been drawn from the following studies: Marcelino A. Foronda, Some notes on Philippine historiography (Manila, 1972); Norman Owen, “Trends and directions of research on Philippine history: An informal essay,” Asian Studies, 12 (August-December 1974), pp. 1-17; Robert Bruce Cruikshank, “Philippine historiography: Accomplishment and promise, 1955- 1976,” in Donn V. Hart (Ed.), Philippine studies: History, sociology, mass media and bibliography, Occasional Paper No. 6, (Dekalb, Ill, 1978); John A. Larkin, “Introduction,” in John A. Larkin (Ed.), Perspectives on Philippine historiography, Monograph series No. 21 (Yale University Southeast Asian 158 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

Studies, 1979), pp. 1-11; and Resil B. Mojares, “Recent Philippine historiography: An evaluative review,” Journal of History XXVII:1-2 (1982): pp. 178-190; and Teodoro A. Agoncillo, “Philippine historiography in the age of Kalaw,” in History and culture, language and literature: Selected essays of Teodoro A. Agoncillo, edited by Bernardita Reyes Churchill (Manila: 2003), pp. 3-29.

1 See C.R. Boxer, “Some aspects of Spanish historical writing on the Philippines,” in D.G.E. Hall (Ed.) Historians of Southeast Asia (London, 1961), pp. 200-212. For an extensive bibliography on the missionary chronicles, see Volume 55 of the monumental work entitled Descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the Catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the close of the nineteenth- century, edited and annotated by Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson (Cleveland, OH, 1903-1909), 55 volumes. Reprint Edition (Mandaluyong, Rizal, 1973). 2 José Montero y Vidal’s other works include El archipiélago filipino y las Islas Marianas, Carolinas y Palaus (Madrid, 1886); and Historia de la piratería malayo mahometana en Mindanao, Jolo y Borneo (2 volumes, Madrid, 1888). Wenceslao E. Retana, Archivo del biblíofilo Filipino: Recopilación de documentos históricos, cientificos, literarios y politicos y estudios bibliográficos (5 volumes, Madrid, 1895-1905); Aparato bibliográfico de la Historia general de Filipinas (3 volumes, Madrid, 1906); a new edition of Francisco Combes, S.J., Historia de Mindanao y Jolo (Madrid, 1897); Vida y escritos del Dr. Jose Rizal (Madrid, 1907); Noticias histórico-bibliográficas del teatro en Filipinas (Madrid, 1910); Origines de la imprenta Filipina (Madrid, 1911); annotated editions of Joaquin Martínez de Zuñiga, OSA, Estadismo de las islas Filipinas (Madrid, 1893); and Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las islas Filipinas (Madrid, 1909). 3 See “The forgotten Philippines, 1790-1946” by Peter W. Stanley, in American-East Asian relations: A survey, edited by Ernest R. May and James C. Thomson, Jr. (Cambridge, USA, 1972), pp. 291-316; and Glenn Anthony May, “The state of Philippine-American studies,” in the Bulletin of the American Historical Collection 10 (October 1982), pp. 11-32. 4 A more extensive listing of works up to the 1970s, including journal articles, is found in Cruikshank (1978), pp. 56-62. 5 For a survey of materials published abroad, see John N. Schumacher, “Survey: Recent historical writing on the Philippines abroad,” in Philippine Studies IX: 12 (January 1961): pp. 97-127; and Philippine Studies XI: 4 (October 1964), pp. 557-572. See also Cruikshank (1978), pp. 51-53. 6 See also Bernardita Reyes Churchill, “The Philippines and the historiography of 1898: Perspectives and critical bibliography,” in Florentino Rodao and Felice Noelle Rodriguez (Eds.), The Philippine revolution of 1896, ordinary lives in extraordinary times (Quezon City, 2001), pp. 277-300. There were many publications on the Philippine Revolution against Spain before the end of Spanish rule and shortly after Spain lost the Philippine colony to the United States in 1898. There are comprehensive bibliographies on this particular period, indeed, a difficult and painful circumstance in Spanish imperial history. The publications listed here are only a few of the contemporary Spanish works on the subject. For a full listing of the publications of the various Centennial Commemorations mentioned, see publications of the Jose Rizal National Centennial Commission (1961) on the life and works of Rizal and the Philippine Centennial Commission (1996-1998) on the Philippine Revolution against Spain. The National Historical Commission of the Philippines (formerly known as the National Historical Institute) has also been printing monographs and reprinting out-of-print publications on Rizal and the Revolution. There are now several translations of Rizal’s two novels—Noli me tangere and El filibusterismo —as well as several new biographies of the national hero, written by both Filipino and foreign authors. It should also be noted that many fine works have been written by well-known Filipino literati (Nick Joaquin, Felice Prudente Sta. Maria, Adrian E. Cristobal) as well as many historical articles of a popular nature published in metropolitan dailies and magazines by professional historians and journalists. Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies 159

See also the publications of the Philippine National Historical Society (PNHS) which actively participated and collaborated with the National Commission for Culture and the Arts and the then National Historical Institute (during the term of Samuel K. Tan as Executive Director and Chairman) in the Centennial Commemorations from 1994-1998. See Bernardita Reyes Churchill (Ed.), Resistance and revolution: Philippine archipelago in arms (Manila: National Commission for Culture and the Arts-Committee on Historical Research, 2002), a publication of selected papers from eight Echo Seminars on the Philippine Revolution (1896-1898), conducted countrywide from 1994-1997, in preparation for the Centennial of the Philippine Revolution against Spain and the Declaration of Philippine Independence on 12 June 1898; and History from the people: Proceedings of the 1998 centennial regional seminar-workshop on oral and local history, Volumes I-XVI, edited by Bernardita Reyes Churchill (Project Director), Digna B. Apilado, Eden M. Gripaldo, and Violeta S. Ignacio (Manila: National Historical Institute and Quezon City: Philippine National Historical Society, 1998, 1999.). The sixteen Regional Seminar-Workshops were conducted in all sixteen administrative regions of the archipelago. For a brief history of PNHS, see Fn. # 17. 7 Edgar Wickberg, “The Chinese mestizo in Philippine history,” Journal of Southeast Asian History 5 (March 1964), pp. 62-100; John A. Larkin, “The place of local history in Philippine historiography,” Journal of Southeast Asian History, VIII: 2 (September,1967), pp. 306-317. See also Larkin’s “The causes of an involuted society: A theoretical approach to rural Southeast Asian History,” Journal of Asian Studies, XXX: 4 (August 1971), pp. 783-795; and The Pampangans: Colonial society in a Philippine province (Berkeley, 1972). Picking up from the excellent study of Wickberg, Richard T. Chu has published a fine and well-researched volume, Chinese and Chinese mestizos of Manila, family, identity, and culture, 1860s-1930s (Leiden and Boston, 2010). 8 See William Henry Scott, “History of the inarticulate,” in Cracks in the parchment curtain and other essays in Philippine history (Quezon City, 1982); Reynaldo C. Ileto, “Toward a history from below,” in Pasyon and revolution, popular movements in the Philippines, 1840-1940 (Quezon City, 1979); John A. Larkin, “Philippine history reconsidered: A socio-economic perspective,” in The American Historical Review, 87: 3 (June 1982), pp. 595-628; Alfred W. Mc.Coy and Ed. C. de Jesus, Philippine social history, global trade and local transformations (Quezon City, 1982), and William G. Skinner, “Asian studies and the disciplines,” Asian Studies Newsletter (USA): XXXIX:4 (April 1984), pp. 7-9. 9 Reynaldo C. Ileto, Pasyon and revolution, popular movements in the Philippines, 1840-1910 (Quezon City, 1979). For the controversies generated by this book, see Milagros C. Guerrero, “Understanding the Philippine revolutionary mentality,” in Philippine Studies 29 (1981), pp. 240-256; Reynaldo C. Ileto, “Critical issues in understanding revolutionary nentality,” in Philippine Studies 30 (1982), pp. 92-119; and John N. Schumacher, S.J., “Recent Perspectives on the Revolution,” in Philippine Studies 20 (1982), pp. 445-491. 10 For updated insights on studies on this period, see Glenn Anthony May, “The unfathomable other: Historical studies of US-Philippine relations, in Warren I. Cohen (Ed.), Pacific passage: The study of American East Asian relations on the era of the twenty-first century (New York, 1996), pp. 279-312; and Vicente L. Rafael, “Notes on the study of the Philippines in the United States,” in Philippine Studies 56:4 (2008), pp. 345-358. 11 The International Conference on Philippine Studies (ICOPHIL) Committee was formed in July 1996 at the initiative of Belinda A. Aquino, Director of the Center for Philippine Studies, University of Hawai’i at Mano’a, which hosted the 5th International Philippine Studies Conference that year. The International Committee (now called the International Board of Philippine Studies Conferences, or ICOPHIL Board for short) consists of heads of Philippine- related groups internationally, such as the Philippine Studies Association of Australia (PSAA – Michael Pinches); the Philippine Studies Group (PSG – Cherubim Quizon, Paul Rodell) of the Association for Asian Studies (AAS) in the US; the Philippine Studies Association (PSA) in the Philippines (Bernardita R. Churchill); Philippine Studies Conference of Japan (PSCJ – Yoshiko Nagano, Nobutaka Suzuki); and a European Philippine Studies (Europhil – Otto van den Muijenberg, Rosanne Rutten) Committee. Several ICOPHIL Conferences have been held – the first one was held in 1980 at Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan; the last one, the 8th ICOPHIL in 2008 in Manila. The 9th ICOPHIL will be convened by Michigan State University at East Lansing, Michigan, in October 2012. 160 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

The International Association of Historians of Asia (IAHA) was established in Manila at the initiative of a group of Filipino historians from the Philippine Historical Association (PHA, established in 1958). The first IAHA Conference was convened in Manila in 1960, and since then, the Philippines has hosted IAHA Conferences in 1983 (convened by the Philippine National Historical Society) and 2006 (convened by the Philippine Social Science Council). The International Convention of Asia Scholars (ICAS) was founded in 1997 as a platform for representatives of academia and civil society to focus on issues critical to Asia and by implication, to the rest of the world. The first ICAS meeting in Leiden in 1998, and to date there have been six international conventions on Asian Studies held in various venues in Europe and Asia every 2-3 years. National conferences on history have been held annually by three professional associations of historians in the Philippines— the Philippine National Historical Society (1941), Philippine Historical Association (1955), and ADHIKA ng Pilipinas (Philippine Association of Historians, Researchers, Teachers and Professionals, 1989). The Philippine Academic Consortium for Latin American Studies (PACLAS), a network of academic and research institutions and facilities fostering mutual cooperation in the area of Latin American studies, which convenes international conferences, was established in 2002 in Manila. The Fifth International Conference on Latin American Studies is scheduled in October 2012, at the University of Asia and the Pacific in Pasig City. There have also been studies on the history of Philippine relations with Mexico and other Hispanic countries in the Americas, with European countries (Portugal and France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, Russia), Australia, with the People’s Republic of China and Macau – not extensive, but informative of historical relations and the availability of Filipiniana materials in these countries. 12 See Larkin (1978), p. 317. 13 See Cruikshank (1978), pp. 18-19, for some of the early works on local history, including studies on the capital Manila. The historiography of the metropolitan capital—Manila—is extensive, although there are not as many in-depth studies on the historical antecedents of the various districts that comprised what was referred to as Extramuros, or the arrabales of the Spanish colonial Walled City of Intramuros. There has also been very little by way of social history of the city, although there are currently important archaeological studies on the earliest sites. More recently, there have been publications on Manila by the Manila Studies Association (founded in 1989), which are selected papers from its annual conferences, now going into its 21st Annual Conference to be held in July 2012. See Manila volumes, published in 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011. 14 Luzon: Cordillera Studies Center (University of the Philippines Baguio, Benguet ); Center for Central Luzon Studies (Central Luzon State University, Muñoz, ); Cavite Studies Center (De La Salle, Dasmariñas, Cavite); Center for Kapampangan Studies (Holy Angel University, Angeles City, Pampanga); Institute of Bikol History and Culture (Ateneo de Naga University, Naga, Camarines Sur); Mangyan Heritage Center (Calapan, Oriental Mindoro); Center for Mindoro Studies (Divine Word College, Calapan, Mindoro). Visayas: Leyte-Samar Research Library (Divine Word University, Tacloban, Leyte, now defunct); Cebuano Studies Center (University of San Carlos, Cebu); West Visayas Studies Center (University of the Philippines, Miag-ao, Iloilo); Central Visayas Studies Center (University of the Philippines Cebu). Mindanao: Coordinated Investigation of Sulu Culture (Notre Dame College, Jolo); Dansalan Research Center (Dansalan College, Marawi); Research Institute for Mindanao Culture (RIMCU- Xavier University, Cagayan de Oro); Surigaonon Heritage Center (Surigao City, Surigao del Norte). 15 Isabelo de los Reyes, Historia de Ilocos (Manila, 1890); and Manuel Artigas y Cuerva, Relación de la Provincia de Leyte (Manila, 1914), translated as The colonial odyssey of Leyte (1521-1914), by Rolando O. Borrinaga and Cantius J. Kobak (Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 2006). A Spanish Governor of Batangas Province, Manuel Sastrón wrote Filipinas, Pequeños Estudios, Batangas y su Provincia (Manila, 1895). Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies 161

The Historical data papers (HDP) consist of 105 volumes of the histories and customs covering practically all the provinces of the Philippines and some chartered cities, which were ordered to be collected by public school teachers, through presidential executive orders (1951 and 1963). The executive orders were prompted by the need to replace government records destroyed during the Japanese occupation. In general, the materials included in this compilation of historical and cultural data were intended to “perpetuate the social and cultural heritage” of the place, and, to a limited extent, to “help historians who may in the future wish to write a more detailed and authentic history of the life and culture of the people” of the locality. See Robert Bruce Cruikshank, “The historical data papers as a source of Filipiniana,” Bulletin of the American Historical Collection 1 (1973), pp. 14-23. The National Historical Commission of the Philippines, the reorganized (by legislation in 2010) National Historical Institute, is the Philippine Government’s cultural agency established for “the promotion of Philippine history and cultural heritage through research, dissemination, conservation, sites managements and heraldry works.” This cultural agency had its beginnings in 1933 during the American colonial period with the creation of the Philippine Historical Research and Markers Committee (PHEMC). Subsequent reorganizations named the body the Philippine Historical Committee (PHC) in 1935, the National Historical Commission in 1961, and the National Historical Institute in 1972. 16 See Samuel K. Tan, “The methodology of rural history,” Journal of History XXII:1-2 (1977), pp. 5-11; Leslie E. Bauzon, “Local history: Rationale, problems, and prospects,” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 6:3 (1978), pp. 157-165; and the following articles by Resil B. Mojares, “The writing of rural history,” Journal of History XXVIII:1-2 (1983-1984), pp. 1-9; “History from the periphery: Local history in Philippine history,” Journal of History XXXIV:1-2 (1989-1990), pp. 9-19; and “Revisiting local Histories,” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 25 (1997), pp. 225-231; Marcelino A. Foronda, Jr., Studies on local and oral history (Manila, 1991). See also the following historiographic essays on the state of historical writing on local/regional history, with specific focus on Luzon: Bernardita Reyes Churchill, “Bikol historiography: Trends and prospects,” The Journal of History XXXVI-XXXVII:1-2 (1991-1992), pp. 1-17; “The historiography of the province of Pampanga and the Kapampangan in the context of national history,” Unpublished paper, Pampanga 2001; “Popularizing history in the Philippines – Bringing history to the people,” unpublished paper, Leiden 2004); and “The historiography of Cavite province in the context of national history,” The Journal of History LI (January-December 2005), pp. 20-44; Stephen Henry S. Totanes, “Fifty years of the Bikol Annals: Towards a regional history of Kabikolan,” Gibón 2 (Ateneo de Naga University Journal) (2002), pp. 63-84; Francis A. Gealogo, “Katagalugan historiography: Historical sources, current trends and future prospects,” The Journal of History XLIX (January-December 2003), pp. 1-21; Gil G. Gotiangco, Jr. II, “The province of Laguna in the writing of Philippine national history,” The Journal of History XLIX (January-December 2003), pp. 94-111; Digna Balangue Apilado, “The teaching and research of Ilocos history,” The Journal of History LII (January-December 2006), pp. 296- 305. 17 PNHS is today the oldest professional organization devoted to study and research in Philippine history. It was officially organized on 2 February 1941 by a group consisting of the most prominent historians and practitioners of historical research of that time. The PNHS is a charter member of the Philippine Social Science Council and is presently accredited to the National Commission for Culture and the Arts-Committee on Historical Research and the National Historical Commission of the Philippines. For information about PNHS see the PNHS Newsletter Vols. 1-11 (1995, 1996, 2002-2011). The official publication of the PNHS is The Journal of History I-XXXIX (1941-1994); XLV-LVII (1999- 2011). Volumes XL-XLIV are back issues which are presently being completed, the delay in publication having been due to financial constraints. The Journal of History can be accessed and downloaded from www.ejournals.ph. See also PNHS website: http://pnhsi.tripod.com. 18 This portion of the article is taken from the paper presented by Ma. Nela B. Florendo at the 32nd National Conference on Local and National History, held on 20-22 October 2011, at Holy Angel University, Pampanga Province, Philippines. Florendo has written extensivelwy on the historiography of the Cordillera. See the following articles: “Recapturing historic men and women: The life history methodology,” The Journal of History XLV:1-4 (January-December 1999), 162 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

pp.1-11; “Tracing historical confluences in lowland-Cordillera relations,” The Journal of History XLVI: 1-4 (January-December 2000), pp. 1-4; “Voices from the margins: Local history and indigenous people,” The Journal of History XLVIX (January-December, 2003), pp. 35-49; “History, space and ethnicity: Revisiting Felix M. Keesing’s the history of Northern Luzon,” The Journal of History LIV (January-December 2008), pp. 75-96; and “In Search of a Regional History: Tracing and Researching Northern Luzon History,” The Journal of History LVIII (January-December 2011), pp. 52-73. 19 See Julian Malumbres, Historia de Cagayan (Manila, 1918); Historia de Isabela (Manila, 1918); and Historia de Nueva Vizcaya y Provincia Montañosa (Manila, 1919); Felix Keesing, The ethnohistory of Northern Luzon (Stanford, 1962); William Henry Scott, The discovery of the Igorots, Spanish contacts with the pagans of Northern Luzon (Quezon City, 1974); Cracks in the parchment curtain (Quezon City,1982); and Barangay: sixteenth-century Philippine culture and society (Quezon Ctiy, 1994); Howard T. Fry, A history of the Mountain Province (Manila, 1983); Gerard Finin, The making of the Igorot: Contours of Cordillera consciousness (Quezon City, 2005); Pedro V. Salgado, O.P., Cagayan valley and Eastern Cordillera, 1581-1898 (2 volumes, Quezon City, 2002); James J. Halsema, E.J. Halsema: Colonial engineer (Quezon City, 1991); Rodney Sullivan, Exemplar of Americanism: The Philippine career of Dean C. Worcester (Quezon City, 1992). See also Arnold Molina Azurin, Reinventing the Filipino: Sense of being and becoming (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1993). Thongchai Winichakul, Siam mapped: A history of the geo-body of a nation (Chiang Mai, Thailand, 2004). There are also many interesting journal articles on the Cordillera in The Cordillera Review and The Journal of History. 20 The materials in this section on Visayas Historiography are from the following papers: Earl Jude Paul L.Cleope, “Bibliographic notes on Visayas historiography,” Earl Jude Paul L. Cleope and Rolando O. Borrinaga, “Bibliographic notes on Visayas historiography,” which were papers prepared for the 32nd National Conference on Local and National History, 20-22 October 2011, held at Holy Angel University, Angeles City, Pampanga. See also Rolando O. Borrinaga, “The historiography of Eastern Visayas revisited,” The Journal of History LIII (January-December 2007), pp. 40-75. 21 Some useful bibliographies can be accessed at the Cebuano Studies Center, University of San Carlos; Silliman University Library; and the West Visayas Studies Center, University of the Philippines in the Visayas in Miagao. 22 The University of San Carlos (USC) was established in 1935 in Cebu City as a private institution governed by the Society of the Divine Word (SVD). Aside from the publications already cited, the Cebuano Studies Center has also published two coffee table books: Cebu: More than an island (Makati,1997); and University of San Carlos: A commemorative history (2005). The Center, assisted by the USC Department of History, has completed for publication a 55-volume set of the histories of Cebu Province, its 46 towns and 7 cities, and the Provincial Capitol. Its founding director, Resil B. Mojares, served in that position from 1975-1996; he was succeeded by Erlinda Kintanar-Alburo (1996-2011). The Center is presently headed by Hope Sabanpan-Yu. See Resil B. Mojares, “The Cebuano Studies Center,” The Journal of History 1-2 (January-December 1977), pp. 31-37. 23 See selected articles published in the Silliman Journal (1947-2007) by the following local historians: F. Delor Angeles, Carlos M.Magtolis, Jr., Elias R. Saycon, Earl Jude Paul L. Cleope, Jesa D. Samson, Roslino I. Villamil, Regan P. Jomao-as, Joseph T. Raymond, among others. 24 The issues of The Journal of History from its first volume in February 1941 to 1981 also published papers on local history, including Visayas local history, but they were not numerous. Easily the most important article published during this early period was that of Fr. Richard Arens, SVD, “The Early Pulahan movement in Samar,” (1959) – a landmark study on this anti- American social movement in Samar and Leyte at the turn of the 20th century. After 1981 there were more papers on local history published in The Journal of History, and since 1987 with the holding of the First National Conference on Local and National History in Cagayan de Oro, PNHS has focused more on studies on local history. There are also articles on the local history of the Visayas in the series History from the people (Kasaysayan mula sa bayan - Volumes 6, 7, and 12), as well as in the volume, Resistance and revolution: Philippine archipelago Philippine Historiography – Looking Back and Looking Forward: The History of Historical Studies 163

in arms (Manila, 2002), edited by Bernardita Reyes Churchill, consisting of selected papers from the Echo Seminars on the Centennial of the Philippine Revolution held in eight venues across the country between 1994-1997, including in the cities of Cebu, Iloilo and Tacloban. 25 Ignacio Francisco Alcina, S.J., History of the Bisayan people in the Philippine Islands, Translated, edited and annotated by Cantius J. Kobak, OFM and Lucio Gutiérrez, OP (3 volumes, Manila, 2002, 2004, 2005). 26 Resil Mojares, “Is there a Visayan historiography?” The Journal of History LIII (January-December 2007), pp. 1-12. 27 See the following articles by Jude Paul L. Cleope, The Journal of History, “The Visayas: Islands in the seas, a historical perspective,” Vol. XLIX:1-4 (January-December, 2003), pp. 112-139; Vol. LIII (January-December 2007), pp. 13-39; Vol. LIV (January-December 2008):180-204; Vol. LV (January-December, 2009):176-204; and Vol. LVI (January-December, 2010), pp. 127-164. 28 Materials for this section have been taken from the following unpublished manuscripts by Bernardita Reyes Churchill, presented at several PNHS Conferences: “Historical research on Mindanao and Sulu: Trends and prospects” (General Santos, 1989); “Historical overview of Mindanao, Sulu and Palawan” (Marawi, 1991), “State of the art of historical writing on Sulu and Tawi-Tawi” (Bongao, 1992); “State of the field of Mindanao historiography” (Kabacan, 1993). See also “The historiography of Muslim Filipinos in the context of national history,” presented in Bongao in 1994 and 1998 for the NCCA-Committee on Historical Research; and “The Bangsa Moro armed conflict in Southern Philippines: A historical overview and background to the current conflict” at the Roundtable Discussion on “Mindanao: The continuing crisis,” Association for Asian Studies, Chicago 2005. See also Moctar I. Matuan, “The state of research and scholarship on the Moros of Mindanao and Sulu” (PNHS, Marawi, 1991); Samuel K. Tan, “The methodology of Filipino Muslim history” (Paper 1986); “A framework for Filipino muslim history: Survey and Reformulation” (PNHS, Jolo, 1997); and “Beyond local history: The case of Sulu history in national perspective,” The Journal of History LIV (January-December, 2008), pp. 1-20; Calbi A. Asain, “Preparing the Groundwork for a Mindanao-Sulu Historiography,” The Journal of History LIV (January- December, 2008); Calbi A. Asain, “A critique of historical frameworks in Mindanao-Sulu historiography,” The Journal of History LVII (January-December, 2011); and “The historiography of Mindanao, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi: At the crossroads” (PNHS, Angeles City, 2011). 29 See Anthony Reid, Southeast Asia in the age of commerce, 1450-1680, Volume one: The lands below the winds (New Haven and London, 1988); Volume two: Expansion and crisis (New Haven and London, 1993). 30 See Eric Casiño, “Arts and peoples of the Southern Philippines,” in Gabriel S. Casal, OSB, The people and art of the Philippines (Los Angeles, 1981), pp. 123-127; also Jesus T. Peralta, Glimpses: Peoples of the Philippines (Manila, 2000). 31 Samuel K. Tan, Selected essays on the Filipino Muslims (Marawi City, 1982); and Filipino Muslim perceptions of their history and culture as seen through indigenous sources (Zamboanga City, 2003); Alexander Spoehr, Zamboanga and Sulu – An archaeological approach to ethnic diversity (Pittsburgh, 1973); Najeeb M. Saleeby, The history of Sulu (Manila, 1908); Cesar Adib Majul, Muslims in the Philippines (Quezon City, 1973). 32 See Pedro Chirino, S.J. (1604); Antonio de Morga (1609; 1890);Francisco Colin (1663); Francisco Combes (1667); Pedro Murillo Velarde (1749); Juan de la Concepción (14 volumes, 1788-1792); Francisco Gainza (1851); Emilio Bernaldez y Fernandez y Folgueras (1857); Vicente Barrantes (1878 and 1892); José Montero y Vidal (3 volumes, 1888); Pio A. de Pazos (1879); Juan Gonzales Parrado (1893); Palo Pastels (3 volumes, 1916-1917). Also William Dampier (1703); Thomas Forrest (1779); Henry Keppel (2 volumes, 1853); Frank Marryat (1848); Frances H. Guillemard (1889); Charles Wilkes (1844); Joseph Montano (1886); Ferdinand Blumentritt (1882). 33 Jose S. Arcilla, S.J. (editor, translator, annotator), Jesuit missionary letters from Mindanao Vol. 1: The Rio Grande mission (Quezon City and Manila, 2000); Vol. 2: The Zamboanga-Basilan-Jolo mission (Quezon City and Manila, 2000); Vol. 3: The Davao mission (Quezon City and Manila, 1998); Vol. 4: The Dapitan-Balingasag mission (Quezon City and Manila, 2000); Vol. 5: The Surigao mission (Quezon City and Manila, 2002). 164 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

34 Samuel K. Tan, Surat Sug: Letters of the Sultanate of Sulu (2 volumes, Manila, 2005); see also Annotated bibliography of Jawi materials of the Muslim South (Quezon City, 1996); with Samier M. Bakuludan, Munap H. Hainulla; Ermina K. Mariano Annotated bibliography: Maguindanaon, Tausug, Yakan studies (Quezon City, 1996; with Samier M. Bakuludan, The Surat Maguindanaon (Quezon City, 2002); with Munap H. Hairulla, An annotation of the Marsada Kitabs (Quezon City, 2002); Basilan Kitabs (Quezon City, 2007). 35 The discourse on nationalist historiography continues and the literature is available in published materials and in the Internet. For interesting discussions, see Reynaldo C, Ileto, Knowing America’s colony, A hundred years from the Philippine War (Hawaii, 1999); also the essay of Reynaldo C. Ileto, and commentaries of Yoshiko Nagano and Patricio N. Abinales, Proceedings of the 2002 International Workshop – Can We Write History? Between Postmodernism and Coarse Nationalism; the essays of Yoshiko Nagano, Reynaldo C. Ileto, Vicente L. Rafael, Floro C. Quibuyen, in Philippine historiography and colonial discourse: Eight selected essays on postcolonial studies in the Philippines (Translated from Japanese by Michito Yoneno-Reyes) (UCLA,2007). There have been discourses also in the Philippines contesting the nationalist historiography of Teodoro A. Agoncillo and Renato Constantino, among others. There have also been conceptual frameworks offered for the writing of national history as corrective measures to current narrow and biased literature considered inadequate and unacceptable. See for instance, Samuel K. Tan, A history of the Philippines (Quezon City and Manila, 1987, 1997); Leslie E. Bauzon, “Twenty-first century prospects for national history: A conceptual framework for the study of history and nation building,” The Journal of History XLVI: 1-4 (January-December 2000), pp. 1-22; Arnold M. Azurin, “Revaluating orthodox national history, Re-invigorating regional histories,” The Journal of History LII (January-December 2006), pp. 18-31. In 1991, Zeus Salazar, History Professor, University of the Philippines, proposed a historical theory he called pantayong pananaw which required that the Filipino language be used in the writing of Philippine history, and sources written by foreigners should not be used, maintaining that they are tainted with biases, and historians must look for unconventional sources and oral history. See articles in Forum Kritika 13 (August 2009). 36 The general histories of Teodoro A. Agoncillo (1990) and Renato Constantino are the most used textbooks for required survey courses on Philippine history in many colleges and universities, replacing/displacing the earlier textbooks written by Gregorio Zaide and Nicolas Zafra which tended to be more Euro-/Hispanic-centric and dated. There have been written other recently published general histories – revisionist histories claiming to supplement and deviate from the two histories seemingly popular texts. 37 See CHED Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 16, Series of 2010: Policies and Standards for Bachelor of Arts History Program (11 June 2010) and CHED Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 22, Series 2011: Policies, Standards and Guidelines (PSG) for Graduate Programs in History (15 August 2011).

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A brief essay on my key issues book: the philippines: from earliest times to the present.

My AAS Key Issues in Asian Studies book— The Philippines: From Earliest Times to the Present —is intended to introduce readers to a nation originally named after a European prince. The people of the archipelago that now constitutes the Philippines had a long history before any European contact occurred. Since the latter part of the nineteenth century, Filipinos have experienced a wide range of encounters with the US. The Philippines was Asia’s first republic and then became a US colony after an American war of conquest and pacification, which some argue resulted in the deaths of 10 percent of the population. Almost a million Filipino soldiers and civilians, and approximately 23,000 American military, died in the war against Imperial Japanese forces.

There are at least two ideas that drive this book. The first is that the Philippines was not some isolated archipelago that was accidentally “discovered” by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. Some residents of the Philippines had contact with “the outside world” long before European contact through trade with other Southeast Asian polities and Imperial China.

Photograph of a middle aged Damon Wood. He has a bald head and a grey short beard, and he is wearing a black business suit.

The second and more important theme is that vibrant cultures existed before outsiders arrived, and they have continued throughout the history of the Philippines, though perhaps not seen or simply ignored by historians and other scholars. The intrusion by the Spaniards might be seen to have changed almost everything, as did the American incursion, and to a lesser extent the Japanese occupation. This is not the case. But if one does not know what was there before, the focus may be upon the intruders—their religion, culture, economies, and the impact they had on the local population—rather than on Filipinos, the local inhabitants. While acknowledging the impact and influence of foreign occupations, I sought in the book to focus on Filipinos and to see them as not merely, or even primarily, reactive.

Beginning with the pre-Hispanic period, The Philippines: From Earliest Times to the Present seeks to present, briefly, the reality of an advanced indigenous culture certainly influenced but not erased by more than three centuries of Spanish occupation. The second half of the nineteenth century saw the emergence on two levels—peasants and elite—of organized resistance to that presence, culminating in what some call a revolution and finally a republic. But this development was cut short by the Americans. When a commonwealth was put in place during the fourth decade of American rule, this was interrupted by World War II and the Japanese occupation. After World War II, the Philippines once again became an independent republic with the growing pains of a newly evolving democracy and its share of ups and down, including the Marcos dictatorship.

The Philippines has emerged in the twenty-first century with a robust and expanding economy, and as an important member of ASEAN. And it has its issues. On November 7, 2013, the most powerful Philippine typhoon on record hit the central part of the archipelago, resulting in more than 6,000 deaths. President Rodrigo Duterte, elected in 2016, has caught the eye of human rights advocates as he has dealt harshly with a drug problem that is far more significant than most realized. Then there is the ongoing conflict with China over islands in the South China Sea. The Philippines has been and will continue to be in the news.

The Philippines: From Earliest Times to the Present depicts Filipinos as not passive or merely the recipients of foreign influences. Contrary to the title of Stanley Karnow’s 1989 book, In Our Image: America’s Empire in the Philippines, the Philippines is not made in anyone’s, including America’s, image. Teachers and students should find this book helpful, not only in dealing with the history of the Philippines but also in recognizing that often the histories of developing countries fail to seriously take into account the local population—their culture, their actions, their vision of the world. The Philippines is perhaps best known today in the West as a place with beautiful beaches and as a wonderful place to vacation. This book will show it to be much more than that.

Philippines: Philippine History

Architecture
Martial Arts

Philippine History

Costumes & Fashion
Performing Arts
Sculptures & Paintings
Food by Region
Cebuano Language, Literature, History, Arts & Culture
Human Trafficking
Marine Ecology & The Environment
Jose S. Libornio
Bataan Death March
HIST 296 ("WWII and Its Legacies in Asia/Pacific")
Indigenous Peoples of Luzon/The Cordilleras
The Ilokanos
The Tagalogs
Indigenous Peoples in Mindanao
Mindanao Politics and History
Islam in the Philippines
Philippine Boats & Navigation
Colonial Mentality
Reference Materials
Ramon Sison Collection
Dissertations
Digital Archives
U.S. Government Documents on the Philippines

Agoncillo, T. (1962). Philippine history. Inang Wika Pub. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995179914605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .A34

Arcilla, J. (1973). An introduction to Philippine history (2d ed., enl.). Ateneo de Manila University Press. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma998405584605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .A82 1973

Women’s role in Philippine history : selected essays. (1996). https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9917408334605682

Location: Hamilton Asia HQ1757 .C66 1996

Zaide, G. (1951). Great events in Philippine history : patriotic calendar . M. Colcol. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995179894605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS667 .Z3

Looney, D. (1977). A beginner’s guide to Philippine history books . Friends of the Filipino People. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995180024605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .L66

De la Costa, H. (1965). Readings in Philippine history : selected historical texts presented with a commentary . Bookmark. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma998348874605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .C6

Abeto, I. (1989). Philippine history reassessed : a collection of undiscovered historical facts from prehistoric time to 1872 . Integrated Pub. House. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9915965084605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .A24 1989

Scott, W., & Scott, W. (1984). Prehispanic source materials for the study of Philippine history (Rev. ed.). New Day Publishers. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9914729264605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS673.8 .S36 1984

Scott, W. (1982). Cracks in the parchment curtain and other essays in Philippine history . New Day Publishers. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9913659044605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .S366

Scott, W. (1992). Looking for the prehispanic Filipino and other essays in Philippine history . New Day Publishers. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9916747444605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS673.8 .S355 1992

Scott, W. (1968). A critical study of the prehispanic source materials for the study of Philippine history. University of Santo Tomas Press. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma999685544605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668.A2 S36

Gagelonia, P. (1970). Concise Philippine history. Far Eastern University Consumers Cooperative Incorporation. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9910091030505681

Print available through LCC

Zafra, N. (1967). Philippine history through selected sources. Alemar-Phoenix Pub. House. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma999685634605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .Z273

Valencia, E. (2002). Trade & Philippine history & other exercises. Giraffe Books. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9921935834605682

Location: Hamilton Asia HC453 .V35 2002 v.2

Bernal, R. (1967). Prologue to Philippine history. Solidaridad Pub. House. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995180204605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS669 .B47

De la Costa, H., & Jesswani, P. (1989). A Look at Philippine history. St. Paul Press. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995873454605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .L658 1989

Sánchez-Arcilla Bernal, J. (1990). Recent Philippine history, 1898-1960 . Office of Research and Publications, Ateneo de Manila University. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9916211104605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS685 .S265 1990

Zaide, G. (1938). Philippine history and government. S. E. Macaraig co. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma991508434605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS676 .Z3

Prominent caviteños in Philippine history. (1941). Atty. Eleuterio P. Fojas. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma996232564605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS688.C38 P96 1941

Alejandro, R., Vallejo, R., & Santiago, A. (2000). Selyo : Philippine history in postage stamps. Published and exclusively distributed by National Book Store, Inc. and Anvil Pub. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9920966844605682

Location: Hamilton Asia HE7265 .A43 2000

Bernad, M. (1983). Tradition & discontinuity : essays on Philippine history & culture. National Book Store. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9913857054605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .B456 1983

Wickberg, E., Wei, A., & Wu, W. (2001). The Chinese mestizo in Philippine history. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9921693624605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS666.C5 W53 2001

Quirino, C. (1995). Who’s who in Philippine history. Tahanan Books. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9910320113705681

Print available through Kauai Community College

Dery, Luis Camara. When the World Loved the Filipinos and Other Essays on Philippine History. España, Manila: UST Pub. House, 2005. Print. / https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9926868854605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS669 .D47 2005

Anderson, Gerald H. Studies in Philippine Church History. Ithaca [N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1969. Print. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9912038704605682

Location: Hamilton Asia BR1260 .A5

Zaide, Gregorio F. The Pageant of Philippine History : Political, Economic, and Socio-Cultural. Manila, Philippines: Philippine Education Co., 1979. Print. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma998680134605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .Z288

Trillana, Pablo S. The Loves of Rizal and Other Essays on Philippine History, Art, and Public Policy. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publishers, 2000. Print. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9921091674605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS675.8.R5 T74 2000

Bohol, E. (1948). Outline on Philippine history for the fourth year high school. Bohol Junior Colleg. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995179974605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .B8 1948

Soliven, P. (1999). Half a millennium of Philippine history : snippets of what we were-- snatches of what we ought to be. Phil. Star Daily, Inc. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9920391134605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS655 .S65 1999

Bulletin of Philippine folklore & local history. (1981). Cebuano Studies Center of the University of San Carlos. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9919428124605682

Location: Hamilton Asia (Library Use Only) DS651 .B84

McCoy, A., & De Jesus, E. (1982). Philippine social history : global trade and local transformations. Ateneo de Manila University Press. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9911802664605682

Location: Hamilton Asia HN713 .P52 1982

Fernandez, D. (1996). Palabas : essays on Philippine theater history. Ateneo de Manila University Press. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9918558194605682

Location: Hamilton Asia PN2911 .F36 1996

Kalaw, T. (1969). The Philippine revolution. Jorge B. Vargas Filipiniana Foundation. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995181134605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS676 .K3 1969

Taylor, J. (1971). The Philippine Insurrection against the United States; a compilation of documents with notes and introduction. Eugenio Lopez Foundation. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9918622934605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS676 .T38 1971

Zaide, G. (1957). Philippine political and cultural history (Rev. ed.). Philippine Education Co. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma992202714605682

Location: Hamilton DS668 .Z32 1957

Agoncillo, T. (1974). Introduction to Filipino history. Radiant Star Pub. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma999968264605682

Gagelonia, P. (1977). Filipino nation : history and government. National Book Store. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma998661564605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .G26

Hornedo, F. (2001). Ideas and ideals: essays in Filipino cognitive history. University of Santo Tomas Pub. House. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9921663694605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS664 .H65 2001

Marcos, F. (1976). Tadhana: The history of the Filipino people. [Publisher not identified]. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9911735624605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .M37

Root, M. (1997). Filipino Americans : transformation and identity. Sage Publications. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9919145254605682

Location: Hamilton Main E184.F4 F385 1997

Dery, L. (2006). Pestilence in the Philippines : a social history of the Filipino people, 1571-1800 . New Day Publishers. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9928888094605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS663 .D47 2006

Philippine History (Continuation)

Batacan, D. (1972). The Supreme Court in Philippine history; from Arellano to Concepcion. Central Lawbook Pub. Co.; [distributed by Central Book Supply, Manila. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma998953074605682

Location: Hamilton Asia KQH .P6 B37

Ileto, R. (2018). Knowledge and pacification : on the U.S. conquest and the writing of Philippine history . Ateneo de Manila University Press. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9949874814605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS682 .A184 2017

Zaide, G. (1939). Philippine history and civilization. Philippine associated publishers. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995181154605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS676 .Z25

Diaz, C. (2009). The other Philippine history textbook. Anvil. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9932768274605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .D52 2009

Jose, R. (2006). Recent studies in Philippine history. College of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of the Philippines. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9932306234605682

Location: Hamilton Asia (Library Use Only) H1 .P537 v.57

Benitez, C. (1928). Philippine history in stories. Ginn and company. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma991508274605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .B4

Engel, F. (1979). Philippine history : a brief digest (2nd ed.). [Publisher not identified]. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9911330244605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .E53 1979

Zaide, G. (1937). Early Philippine history and culture. G.F. Zaide. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma999277334605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .Z23

Zafra, N. (1956). Readings in Philippine history (New ed.). University of the Philippines. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995180094605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .Z28 1956

Zaide, G., & Zaide, S. (1990). Documentary sources of Philippine history. National Book Store. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9916188534605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .D6 1990

Miravite, R. (1967). Books on Philippine history . [publisher not identified]. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma996857894605682

Location: Hamilton Asia Z3298.A4 M53

IBON Teacher’s manual on Philippine history. (2nd ed.). (1981). IBON Data Bank Phils. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma999892824605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS669 .I244 1981

Torres, J. (2000). Pananaw : viewing points on Philippine history and culture. UST Pub. House. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9921387604605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS663 .T67 2000

Ocampo, A., Peralta, J., & Rodriguez, F. (2012). The diorama experience of Philippine history. Ayala Museum. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9941650394605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .O23 2004

Rasul, J. (n.d.). Philippine history : from thousand years before Magellan. [Publisher not identified]. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9931273854605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS655 .R37 2008

Gagelonia, P. (1970). The Filipino historian (controversial issues in Philippine history). FEUCCI. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995180234605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS669 .G33

Abinales, P. (2010). The “Local” in Philippine National History: Some Puzzles, Problems and Options. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9910993006405681

Location: Hamilton Asia DS674 .S76 2013

De Viana, Augusto V. Stories Rarely Told : the Hidden Stories and Essays on Philippine History . Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 2013. Print. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9946341294605682

Owen, Nrman G. Trends and Directions of Research on Philippine History, an Informal Essay. Place of publication not identified: Publisher not identified, 1975. Print. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995180254605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS669 .O94

Joaquin, N. (1977). A question of heroes : essays in criticism on ten key figures of Philippine history. Ayala Museum. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma998474024605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS653.7 .J63

Scott, W. (1968). A critical study of the prehispanic source materials for the study of Philippine history. Thesis--University of Santo Tomas. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma99512344605682

Location: Hamilton Asia (Library Use Only) MICROFICHE 187

Barrientos, V. (1998). A finding guide to the picture collection of the Filipiniana Division. Part IV, Heroes in Philippine history. Special Collections Section, Filipiniana Division, The National Library. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9920366764605682

Location: Hamilton Asia Reference (Library Use Only) Z3299 .N38 1998

Alip, E. (1958). Philippine history: political, social, economic; based on the course of study of the Bureau of Public Schools. (7th rev. ed). Alip & Sons. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995179924605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .A4 1958

Mastura, M. (1979). The rulers of Magindanao in modern history, 1515-1903 : continuity and change in a traditional realm in the southern Philippines. Publisher not identified]. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma999183994605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS666.M23 M37 1979a

Lumbera, B., & Lumbera, C. (1997). Philippine literature : a history & anthology (Rev. ed.). Anvil. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9926072204605682

Location: Hamilton Asia PL5530 .P44 1997

Outline of Philippine history and government, based on the course of study and includes all changes before and after World War II. (Rev. ed.). (1950). Philippine Book Co. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma991508294605682

Location: Hamilton DS670 .O88 1949

Voices, a Filipino American oral history. (1984). Filipino Oral History Project. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9911221724605682

Location: Hamilton Main F870.F4 V65 1984

Gorospe, O. (1933). Making Filipino history in Hawaii. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma997879204605682

Location: Hamilton Hawaiian (Library Use Only) DU620 .M5 v.45 p.241-253

Rafael, V. (2000). White love and other events in Filipino history. Ateneo de Manila University Press. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9922646264605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS685 .R24 2000b

Filipino-American history. (2008). Language, Literature & History Section, Hawaiʻi State Library, Hawaii State Public Library System. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9931245804605682

Location: Hamilton Hawaiian (Library Use Only) IN CATALOGING 3124580

Bautista, V. (2002). The Filipino Americans: (1763-present) : their history, culture, and traditions (2nd ed.). Bookhaus Pub. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9923164014605682

Location: Hamilton Main E184.F4 B38 2002

Okamura, J. (1991). Filipino organizations: a history. Operation Manong. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995894474605682

Location: Hamilton Hawaiian (Library Use Only) DU624.7.F4 O42 1991

Agoncillo, T., & Guerrero, M. (1973). History of the Filipino people ([4th ed.]). R.P. Garcia. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9919225084605682

Location: Hamilton Main DS668 .A32 1973

Tubangui, H. (1982). The Filipino nation : a concise history of the Philippines. Grolier International. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9913647534605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .F5 1982

Batacan, D. (1966). The laughter of my people: a history of the Filipino people written a smile. Printed by MDB Pfint. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma995180194605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS669 .B38

Craig, A., Mabini, A., & Rizal, J. (1973). The Filipinos’ fight for freedom; true history of the Filipino people during their 400 years’ struggle. AMS Press. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9912137304605682

Location: Hamilton Asia DS668 .C69 1973

Measham, F. (2016). The secret history of Filipino women. Lifted Brow, The, 29, 49–52. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/1rbop20/informit901765406961917

Location: ILL through unspecified college

San Juan, E. (1989). MAKING FILIPINO HISTORY IN A “DAMAGED CULTURE.” Philippine Sociological Review, 37(1/2), 1–11. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/1rbop20/jstor_archive_1241853640

Location: Hamilton Asia (Library Use Only) DS651 .P462 // Also through JSTOR

Online - Ebook

Nagano, Y. (2006). Transcultural Battlefield: Recent Japanese Translations of Philippine History. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/68t5m5h0 https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/1rbop20/cdl_soai_escholarship_org_ark_13030_qt68t5m5h0

Link: Through escholarship UCLA https://escholarship.org/uc/item/68t5m5h0

Project Muse: https://muse-jhu-edu.eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/journal/531

Journal title: Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints

Aquino, B. (2006). From Plantation Camp to Global Village:100 Years of Filipino History in Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii: Center for Philippine Studies, University of Hawaii at Manoa. https://uhawaii-manoa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UHAWAII_MANOA/11uc19p/alma9910995904405681

Link: Through UH Scholarspace http://hdl.handle.net/10125/15379

Databases - Scholarly Works/Articles

Database: Historical Abstracts

Serizawa, T. (2019). Translating Philippine history in America’s shadow: Japanese reflections on the past and present during the Vietnam War. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 50(2), 222–245. https://doi-org.eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/10.1017/S0022463419000274

Database: Business Source Complete

Reyes, P. L. (2018). Claiming History: Memoirs of the Struggle against Ferdinand Marcos’s Martial Law Regime in the Philippines. SOJOURN: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, 33(2), 457–498. https://doi-org.eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/10.1355/sj33-2q

Database: Points of View Reference Center

Republic of the Philippines. (2003). In Background Notes on Countries of the World 2003 (pp. 1–15). http://eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pwh&AN=11208051&site=ehost-live

Database: MasterFILE Complete

Trent Smith, S. (2018). A Call to Arms. World War II, 33(3), 64–71. http://eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f6h&AN=131241187&site=ehost-live

Suter, K. (2007). The Philippines: What Went Wrong with One Asian Economy. Contemporary Review, 289(1684), 53–59. http://eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pwh&AN=24884353&site=ehost-live

FRANCIA, L. H. (2014). José Rizal: A Man for All Generations. Antioch Review, 72(1), 44–60. https://doi-org.eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/10.7723/antiochreview.72.1.0044

Luyt, B. (2019). The early years of Philippine Studies , 1953 to 1966. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 50(2), 202–221. https://doi-org.eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/10.1017/S0022463419000237

Database: ABI/INFORM

Mercene, R. (2016, Mar 27). A shining moment in philippine history. Business Mirror Retrieved from http://eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/docview/1776085049?accountid=27140

A guide to the philippines' history, economy and politics: Daily chart. (2016, May 06). The Economist (Online), Retrieved from http://eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/docview/1787331077?accountid=27140

Carroll, J. (1961). Contemporary Philippine Historians and Philippine History. Journal of Southeast Asian History, 2(3), 23-35. Retrieved October 22, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20067346

Zafra, N. (1958). On The Writing Of Philippine History. Philippine Studies, 6(4), 454-460. Retrieved October 22, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42720410

Larkin, J. (1982). Philippine History Reconsidered: A Socioeconomic Perspective. The American Historical Review, 87(3), 595-628. doi:10.2307/1864158

Mulder, N. (1994). The Image of Philippine History and Society. Philippine Studies, 42(4), 475-508. Retrieved October 22, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42633467

OWEN, N. (1974). The Principalia in Philippine History: Kabikolan, 1790-1898. Philippine Studies, 22(3/4), 297-324. Retrieved October 22, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42634875

Baumgartner, J. (1977). Notes on Piracy and Slaving in Philippine History. Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, 5(4), 270-272. Retrieved October 22, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/29791568

Cristina E. Torres. (1997). Health Issues and the Quality of Life in Philippine History. Quality of Life Research, 6(5), 461-462. Retrieved October 22, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4035251

Farrell, J. (1954). An Abandoned Approach to Philippine History: John R. M. Taylor and the Philippine Insurrection Records. The Catholic Historical Review, 39(4), 385-407. Retrieved October 22, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25015651

GEALOGO, F. (2013). Reflections of A Filipino Social Historian. Philippine Sociological Review, 61(1), 55-68. Retrieved October 23, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/43486355

MAOHONG, B. (2012). On Studies of the History of the Philippines in China. Philippine Studies: Historical & Ethnographic Viewpoints, 60(1), 102-116. Retrieved October 23, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42634704

Nexis Uni

(October 3, 2020 Saturday). Studies on Philippine history. The Philippine Star. https://advance-lexis-com.eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/api/document?collection=news&id=urn:contentItem:6109-GWY1-JCH9-G1MH-00000-00&context=1516831 .

ABI/INFORM

Filipino history, culture studied in international seminar. (2019, May 16). Business Mirror Retrieved from http://eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/docview/2226338201?accountid=27140

Association For Asian Studies

Totanes, V. R. (2010). History of the Filipino people and martial law: a forgotten chapter in the history of a history book, 1960-2010. Philippine Studies, 58(3), 313–348. http://eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bas&AN=BAS788208&site=ehost-live

Okamura, J. Y. (1996). Filipino American history, identity and community in Hawai’i: in commemoration of the 90th anniversary of Filipino migration to Hawai’i. Honolulu. http://eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bas&AN=BAS515519&site=ehost-live

Association for Asian Studies

Rafael, V. L. (1995). Discrepant histories: translocal essays on Filipino cultures. Philadelphia, Pa. http://eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bas&AN=BAS559630&site=ehost-live

Association for Asian Studies

Pinzon, J. C. (2015). Remembering Philippine history: satire in popular songs. South East Asia Research, 23(3), 423–442. http://eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bas&AN=BAS872861&site=ehost-live

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Essay on Philippines History

Students are often asked to write an essay on Philippines History in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Philippines History

Early history.

Long ago, people from Asia and Borneo came to the Philippines by walking on land bridges. These bridges are now underwater. These people were hunters and gatherers. They used simple tools made from stone and bone.

Trade and Influence

Between 1000 BC and 1521 AD, the Philippines was influenced by many cultures. Traders from India, China, and the Middle East came to the islands. They brought new ideas, goods, and religions. The locals learned to farm, make pottery, and use metal.

Spanish Rule

In 1521, Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived. Spain took control of the islands and named them the Philippines. The Spanish taught the locals Christianity and Spanish. They ruled for over 300 years.

American Period

In 1898, the US fought Spain and won. The Philippines then became a US territory. The US introduced English and modern education. But many Filipinos wanted independence.

Independence

On July 4, 1946, the Philippines became an independent nation. The country faced many challenges like poverty and corruption. But it also made progress in areas like education and healthcare. Today, the Philippines is a vibrant democracy with a rich history.

250 Words Essay on Philippines History

Long ago, the Philippines was not one country but a group of small islands. People from different parts of Asia came to these islands by boat. These people were hunters and food gatherers. They used simple tools made from stone and wood.

Over time, other people came to the Philippines for trade. They brought new ideas and goods. These people were from China, India, and the Islamic world. They influenced the way of life in the Philippines. The locals learned how to farm, make pottery, and weave cloth.

In 1521, a Spanish explorer named Ferdinand Magellan came to the Philippines. The Spanish wanted to control the islands because of their rich resources. They ruled the Philippines for more than 300 years. The Spanish changed many things. They brought their religion, culture, and law to the islands.

In 1898, the United States took control of the Philippines from Spain. The American rule brought new changes. They improved education, health, and infrastructure. But, many Filipinos wanted independence.

On July 4, 1946, the Philippines became an independent nation. It was a big step for the Filipinos. They could now make their own laws and decisions. But, they also faced many challenges. They had to rebuild the country after World War II.

In short, the history of the Philippines is a mix of different cultures and influences. It is a story of change and growth. The Filipino people have shown resilience and strength in the face of challenges. They continue to strive for a better future.

500 Words Essay on Philippines History

The Philippines is a Southeast Asian country with a rich and complex history. The early history of the Philippines dates back to around 50,000 years ago when the first humans arrived from Borneo and Sumatra via boats. These early people were known as Negritos, who were followed by the Austronesians. The Austronesians introduced farming and fishing techniques to the islands.

In the 10th century, trade began with nearby Asian kingdoms, like the Indianized kingdom of Sri Vijaya and the Chinese Song Dynasty. Traders from these regions brought with them religion, culture, and political ideas. The Philippines was heavily influenced by these cultures, adopting Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic beliefs.

Spanish Colonization

In 1521, the explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines and claimed the islands for Spain. This marked the start of over 300 years of Spanish rule. The Spanish brought with them Christianity and a new form of government. They built schools, roads, and hospitals, but they also imposed harsh laws and taxes.

American Rule and Independence

After the Spanish-American War in 1898, the Philippines became a territory of the United States. The U.S. introduced democratic governance and a new educational system. Then, on July 4, 1946, the Philippines gained independence, becoming a sovereign nation.

Post-Independence Era

Post-independence Philippines faced several challenges including political instability and economic issues. Ferdinand Marcos, who became president in 1965, declared martial law in 1972. This period, known as the Marcos Era, was marked by human rights abuses and corruption. Marcos was ousted in 1986 through the People Power Revolution, a peaceful protest that marked a significant moment in Philippine history.

Modern Day Philippines

Today, the Philippines is a democratic country with a growing economy. Despite facing issues like poverty and political corruption, it continues to progress. The country’s rich history and diverse culture are reflected in its traditions, festivals, and the warm spirit of its people.

In conclusion, the history of the Philippines is a story of resilience and adaptability. From its early inhabitants to the modern-day Filipinos, the country has navigated through periods of change and challenges, shaping it into the vibrant nation it is today.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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What Solar Eclipse-Gazing Has Looked Like for the Past 2 Centuries

Millions of people on Monday will continue the tradition of experiencing and capturing solar eclipses, a pursuit that has spawned a lot of unusual gear.

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In a black-and-white photo from 1945, nine men, some in military uniforms, stand in the middle of a New York City street. They are holding a small piece of what looks like glass or a photographic negative above their heads to protect their eyes as they watch the eclipse. The original border of the print, as well as some numbers and crop marks drawn onto it, are visible.

By Sarah Eckinger

April 8, 2024 Updated 12:37 p.m. ET

For centuries, people have been clamoring to glimpse solar eclipses. From astronomers with custom-built photographic equipment to groups huddled together with special glasses, this spectacle has captivated the human imagination.

Creating a Permanent Record

In 1860, Warren de la Rue captured what many sources describe as the first photograph of a total solar eclipse . He took it in Rivabellosa, Spain, with an instrument known as the Kew Photoheliograph . This combination of a telescope and camera was specifically built to photograph the sun.

Forty years later, Nevil Maskelyne, a magician and an astronomy enthusiast, filmed a total solar eclipse in North Carolina. The footage was lost, however, and only released in 2019 after it was rediscovered in the Royal Astronomical Society’s archives.

Telescopic Vision

For scientists and astronomers, eclipses provide an opportunity not only to view the moon’s umbra and gaze at the sun’s corona, but also to make observations that further their studies. Many observatories, or friendly neighbors with a telescope, also make their instruments available to the public during eclipses.

Fredrik Hjalmar Johansen, Fridtjof Nansen and Sigurd Scott Hansen observing a solar eclipse while on a polar expedition in 1894 .

Women from Wellesley College in Massachusetts and their professor tested out equipment ahead of their eclipse trip (to “catch old Sol in the act,” as the original New York Times article phrased it) to New London, Conn., in 1922.

A group from Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania traveled to Yerbaniz, Mexico, in 1923, with telescopes and a 65-foot camera to observe the sun’s corona .

Dr. J.J. Nassau, director of the Warner and Swasey Observatory at Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, prepared to head to Douglas Hill, Maine, to study an eclipse in 1932. An entire freight car was required to transport the institution’s equipment.

Visitors viewed a solar eclipse at an observatory in Berlin in the mid-1930s.

A family set up two telescopes in Bar Harbor, Maine, in 1963. The two children placed stones on the base to help steady them.

An astronomer examined equipment for an eclipse in a desert in Mauritania in June 1973. We credit the hot climate for his choice in outfit.

Indirect Light

If you see people on Monday sprinting to your local park clutching pieces of paper, or with a cardboard box of their head, they are probably planning to reflect or project images of the solar eclipse onto a surface.

Cynthia Goulakos demonstrated a safe way to view a solar eclipse , with two pieces of cardboard to create a reflection of the shadowed sun, in Lowell, Mass., in 1970.

Another popular option is to create a pinhole camera. This woman did so in Central Park in 1963 by using a paper cup with a small hole in the bottom and a twin-lens reflex camera.

Amateur astronomers viewed a partial eclipse, projected from a telescope onto a screen, from atop the Empire State Building in 1967 .

Back in Central Park, in 1970, Irving Schwartz and his wife reflected an eclipse onto a piece of paper by holding binoculars on the edge of a garbage basket.

Children in Denver in 1979 used cardboard viewing boxes and pieces of paper with small pinholes to view projections of a partial eclipse.

A crowd gathered around a basin of water dyed with dark ink, waiting for the reflection of a solar eclipse to appear, in Hanoi, Vietnam, in 1995.

Staring at the Sun (or, How Not to Burn Your Retinas)

Eclipse-gazers have used different methods to protect their eyes throughout the years, some safer than others .

In 1927, women gathered at a window in a building in London to watch a total eclipse through smoked glass. This was popularized in France in the 1700s , but fell out of favor when physicians began writing papers on children whose vision was damaged.

Another trend was to use a strip of exposed photographic film, as seen below in Sydney, Australia, in 1948 and in Turkana, Kenya, in 1963. This method, which was even suggested by The Times in 1979 , has since been declared unsafe.

Solar eclipse glasses are a popular and safe way to view the event ( if you use models compliant with international safety standards ). Over the years there have been various styles, including these large hand-held options found in West Palm Beach, Fla., in 1979.

Parents and children watched a partial eclipse through their eclipse glasses in Tokyo in 1981.

Slimmer, more colorful options were used in Nabusimake, Colombia, in 1998.

In France in 1999.

And in Iran and England in 1999.

And the best way to see the eclipse? With family and friends at a watch party, like this one in Isalo National Park in Madagascar in 2001.

Our Coverage of the Total Solar Eclipse

Anticipation and Anxiety Build: Across parts of the United States, Mexico and Canada, would-be eclipse-gazers are on the move for what could be a once-in-a-lifetime event .

Awaiting a Moment of Awe: Millions of people making plans to be in the path of the solar eclipse know it will be awe-inspiring. What is that feeling ?

The Eclipse Chaser: A retired astrophysicist known as “Mr. Eclipse” joined “The Daily” to explain why these celestial phenomena are such a wonder to experience .

Historic Photos: From astronomers with custom-built photographic equipment to groups huddled together with special glasses, here’s what solar eclipse-gazing has looked like for the past two centuries .

Hearing the Eclipse: A device called LightSound is being distributed to help the blind and visually impaired experience what they can’t see .

Animal Reactions: Researchers will watch if animals at zoos, homes and farms act strangely when day quickly turns to night.

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What Solar Eclipse-Gazing Has Looked Like for the Past 2 Centuries. Millions of people on Monday will continue the tradition of experiencing and capturing solar eclipses, a pursuit that has ...