integrating curriculum a case study of teaching global education

Bringing Schools into the 21st Century pp 137–157 Cite as

Integrating 21st Century Skills into the Curriculum

• Dianne M. Gut 3  
• First Online: 27 December 2010

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Part of the book series: Explorations of Educational Purpose ((EXEP,volume 13))

This chapter stresses the importance of imbedding 21st century skills within content area instruction. It provides a review of the 21st century skills that have been incorporated into lessons created by preservice and inservice teachers, as well as specific recommendations and resources for P–12 educators that can be utilized to incorporate the teaching of 21st century skills as identified by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) into content area lessons. Focus is on integrating in existing curriculum the instruction of 21st century content and themes (global awareness, financial, economic, business, entrepreneurial, and civic literacy, and health and wellness); learning and thinking skills (critical-thinking and problem-solving, communication and collaboration, and creativity and innovation); information, media and technology skills (information literacy, media literacy, and ICT literacy); and life and career skills (flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural interaction, productivity and accountability, and leadership and responsibility).

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Gut, D.M. (2011). Integrating 21st Century Skills into the Curriculum. In: Wan, G., Gut, D. (eds) Bringing Schools into the 21st Century. Explorations of Educational Purpose, vol 13. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0268-4_7

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Why Integrate?: A Case for Collating the Curriculum

There is a strong case to be made for integrating curriculum. It strengthens skills that students encounter in one content area but also practice in another, and it can lead to the mastery of those skills. It is also a more authentic way of learning because it reflects what we experience, both professionally and personally, in the world.And it can be a way to engage students who might otherwise check out when we introduce them to a challenging subject or to one they don't feel is relevant.

Sometimes, if you're really lucky, integrating curriculum can create the conditions in which students discover their passions. They find something they love doing so much that it compels them to persevere through all kinds of personal and academic challenges, to graduate from high school, and to go to college to pursue their dreams. And in the part of Oakland, California, where I work, this achievement often constitutes saving a life.

So when I think about making a case for interdisciplinary studies, I think immediately of George. (All student names in this post are pseudonyms.) I wonder what would have happened to him had Keiko Suda not put a video camera in his hands in seventh grade.

The Curriculum

Keiko Suda was George's seventh-grade math and science teacher. She was charged with teaching cell biology as part of California's seventh-grade standards. At the ASCEND School , where Suda and I taught together, teachers were encouraged to develop curricular units that emphasized depth over breadth and to teach our students how to transfer their acquired knowledge to other contexts. (See this Edutopia.org article and this Edutopia video about the school.)

Suda designed a semester-long study of HIV/AIDS with the guiding question "How does HIV/AIDS affect us physically and socially?" Students learned about the immune system and cell biology and explored what it means to live with HIV/AIDS.

As a culminating project, students wrote, directed, produced, edited, and starred in a movie that answered their guiding question. One class focused on the social implications of living with HIV, while the other class depicted what happens to the immune system.

Evidence of Learning

A skillful teacher must assess an instructional unit while it is under way and afterward, and the evaluation must be based on evidence of learning. Suda's formative and summative assessments provided overwhelming evidence that students had mastered the science standards. This finding, however, was just the beginning.

During that semester, I witnessed students transferring their knowledge of HIV. In the portable classroom next to Suda's, I taught history and English to the same group of students. Our content for that semester was the bubonic plague, and students explored how the plague transformed the social, economic, political, and religious structures of medieval Europe.

When we began the study, a few weeks or so after they'd started studying HIV, one of the first questions from a student was, "Who was scapegoated during the plague?" Based on her understanding of what some HIV-positive people have faced, she predicted that the same experience might have occurred during another epidemic -- and she was right. This was powerful evidence of deep learning.

The culminating project in my class was a dramatic performance. As students applied the concepts they'd learned with Suda to their understanding of the plague, they also practiced and perfected scriptwriting and acting skills for this project.

I credit my own deeper understanding of viruses to the movies students created with Suda. It took Nestor's frightening portrayal of an HIV cell to permanently etch into my mind how HIV operates. In One Strike, he hovers menacingly over the bound and immobilized immune system cell and declares, "You're going to be my host. I will enter you and hijack your nucleus." This statement permanently stuck to some receptor in my brain, whereas before, I had never been able to retain the same information when it was delivered in print.

More evidence of deep learning became apparent once our students had graduated from the ASCEND School and had gone off to high school. In ninth grade, Maria wrote a poem about a young woman who contracts HIV. Her moving poem, one of thousands of entries, won an award in a contest sponsored by author Alice Walker.

Finding One's Footing Through Film

But it is George who comes to mind as overwhelmingly compelling evidence of the power of integrating curriculum. For George, the experience of making a movie for Keiko Suda's class was his first taste of filmmaking. From that moment, he was hooked. Fortunately, he attended an Oakland high school where he received tremendous support to pursue his passion. Over his four years there, he made three movies, taught other students in a filmmaking class, and wrote a guide to filmmaking.

During those years, George also experienced a series of traumatic personal losses. There were numerous times when he told me he just wanted to give up, particularly as he watched many of his cousins and peers drop out of school, join gangs, and have babies. What kept him going, he said, was his desire to be a filmmaker.

In June 2008, George graduated from high school. This fall, he is attending the University of California at Santa Barbara, where he will study filmmaking. At his high school graduation, he spoke of his intention to become a director. His father, an immigrant, wept while watching his only son graduate.

"How do you feel about his decision to study film?" I asked George's father.

He shrugged and responded, "He's discovered his passion. I'm happy for him. What more could a father want?"

As a result of Keiko Suda's brilliant interdisciplinary study, George, who didn't like science, mastered seventh-grade cell-biology standards, strengthened his writing, developed social and interpersonal skills, and discovered a lifelong passion that propelled him through high school and on to higher education.

And that's just one story. Stick around. There will be more.

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Equipping teachers with globally competent practices: A mixed methods study on integrating global competence and teacher education

Shea n. kerkhoff.

a Department of Educator Preparation and Leadership, College of Education, University of Missouri – St. Louis, 1 University Blvd., St. Louis, MO, 63122, USA

Megan E. Cloud

b College of Education, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA

Associated Data

• • The Global Teaching Model is situated locally, integrated with standards, critical framing, and intercultural collaboration.
• • Our data showed that global education was not a part of participants’ current curriculum.
• • However, teachers believed that global competence was important for them and their students.
• • Our findings show that teachers need guidance in translating global education theory to practice.

Education leaders recommend that global competence–global citizenship mentality and knowledge development for global participation–be incorporated into school curricula. This mixed methods study examined teacher’s perceptions and self-reported practices of globally competent teaching. Data was collected from teachers taking a graduate education course infused with global learning. Results suggest teachers value and desire to enact globally competent teaching but need practical direction for classroom effectuation. Data manifest all four dimensions of the Global Teaching Model (i.e., situated relevant practice, integrated global learning, critical and cultural consciousness raising, and intercultural collaboration for transformative action) to differing degrees. This study provides evidence for the Global Teaching Model as a prospective framework and emphasizes the critical dimension when internationalizing teacher education.

1. Introduction

Today’s world is increasingly interconnected, and growth in global migration has led to more diversity in schools worldwide ( Suárez-Orozco, 2001 ). The authors’ home is no exception to this international trend. In Missouri the number of foreign-born residents increased 51 percent from 2000 to 2010 ( Asia Society, 2018 ) and our hometown of St. Louis led the nation in immigrant population growth in 2016 ( Hulsey, 2016 ; US Census, 2017 ).

Education leaders have called for students to develop global competence for our interconnected world ( Rizvi & Lingard, 2009 ; OECD & Asia Society, 2018 ; US DOE, 2018 ). Longview Foundation defines global competence as “a body of knowledge about world regions, cultures, and global issues, and the skills and dispositions to engage responsibly and effectively in a global environment” ( 2008, p. 7 ). To be globally competent, students need global citizenship dispositions and the multiple literacies necessary for participation in a digital, global world ( Kerkhoff, 2017 ). In order for change to occur in education, however, the extant literature shows that teachers must be trained in teaching global competence ( Kerkhoff, Dimitrieska, Woerner, & Alsup, 2019 ; West, 2012 ; Yemini, Tibbitts, & Goren, 2019 ).

Internationalizing teacher preparation can help teachers personally develop global competence and gain the knowledge and resources necessary for teaching global competence to their K-12 students ( Longview Foundation, 2008 ; Zhao, 2010 ). Traveling abroad is one approach; however, cost makes international travel an unrealistic option for many teachers ( Parkhouse, Tichnor-Wagner, Glazier, & Cain, 2016 ) and the Coronavirus pandemic makes international travel unlikely in the foreseeable future. In this study, the authors investigate ways of internationalizing teacher education curricula that do not require travel. Primarily, the purpose of this study was to investigate teachers’ perceptions and practices related to teaching global competence after participating in the first author’s teacher education course framed with the Global Teaching Model (GTM). A secondary purpose was to examine the feasibility of the GTM, operationalized and validated in Kerkhoff (2017) , as a framework for understanding globally competent teaching.

The GTM was developed through a sequential mixed methods process beginning with in-depth interviews with 24 expert global teachers followed by factor analysis to determine if the findings that emerged from qualitative analysis were generalizable to a larger population of 630 teachers. The process yielded a 19-item Teaching for Global Readiness scale (TGRS) and the four factor GTM. The creation of the GTM was framed in critical theory focused on equity worldwide (i.e., Andreotti, 2010 ; Wahlström, 2014 ).

2. Postcolonialism: a critical lens for global teaching

For educators concerned with equity and critical pedagogy, postcolonialism offers a theoretical lens for globally competent teaching ( Masemula, 2015 ; OöConnor & Zeichner, 2011 ). Postcolonialism according to Andreotti (2010) acknowledges that current societal injustices are directly related to the history of colonization. According to Andreotti, “Our stories of reality, our knowledges, are always situated (culturally bound), partial (what one sees may not be what another sees), contingent (context dependent) and provisional (they change)” (p. 236). Her postcolonial take on global education emphasizes a non-coercive inner process where one negotiates for a broader understanding of human experiences. Postcolonialism offers plural epistemologies where multiple truths are recognized because multiple human experiences are acknowledged and valued.

Using postcolonialism as the theoretical lens, Subedi (2013) put forth three approaches to global education: deficit, accommodation, and decolonization. A deficit global curriculum maintains a strict dichotomy between “us and them.” Eurocentrism is viewed as the dominant ideology, cultural ideal, and lens through which all other cultures and peoples are viewed. In this approach, global discussions center on the problems of the non-Westernized world. The fundamental presupposition of the deficit approach is that Western values are superior and, therefore, the answer to global “problems.” When global events or cultures are presented in a deficit curriculum, they are positioned as dangerous, deviant, and “not worthy of serious academic inquiry” ( Subedi, 2013, p. 628 ).

Similarly, the accommodation global curriculum does little to counter the underlying assumptions of Western/European superiority and ignores the ways Western values acquired historical privilege and power; however, it does bring awareness of global perspectives and events into the classroom. Chosen texts expose students to diverse voices from other cultures while still upholding Western values as the norm. Although well-intentioned, the absence of critical and sociocultural awareness perpetuates stereotypes and reifies the dichotomy of the West and the rest.

Decolonizing global curriculum, however, takes a critical approach when examining the social, cultural, and political influences of knowledge production. Decolonizing is the preferred method of global learning specifically because it comes from critical (concerned with power) and resource (as opposed to deficit) frames. When studying global perspectives, decolonization seeks to read, formulate, and address “events from the perspective of marginalized subjects” ( Subedi, 2013, p. 634 ). It advocates for an anti-essentialist curriculum that dispels the notions of monolithic cultures and the justification of hierarchies due to cultural differences.

In addition to decolonizing curriculum, Ndimande (2018) calls for decolonizing research that influences education policy and practice. This research project hopes to contribute to decolonizing efforts in this field. We are aware of the limitations in reaching this goal, however, as our university affiliation implicates us in the legacy of colonialism ( Subedi, 2013 ). Though we may not be able to eliminate all bias or Western influence on our research, we aim to avoid deficit language and “us and them” conceptualizations, and accept plural epistemologies. While we acknowledge that publishing this research benefits us as authors, we hope it will primarily contribute to transformative educational practices that amplify equity and social justice in teacher education.

3. Pedagogies and models for globally competent teaching

O’Connor and Zeichner (2011) describe globally competent teaching as a practice that is simultaneously broad and specific: Broad in that it transcends disciplines and age-levels, and specific in that it should be relevant to local socio-political contexts and students’ cultural identities. In this study, we focused on global competence in teacher education. Specifically, we use Kerkhoff (2017) empirically validated Global Teaching Model (GTM) as a conceptual framework. In the following sections, we review the relevant teacher education research and then synthesize extant literature with the four dimensions of the GTM.

3.1. Curriculum and instruction in global teacher education

Research describes curricula and pedagogies of global teacher education in multidimensional ways. Some colleges of education have integrated global issues and cultures into existing curricula ( Carano, 2013 ; Ferguson-Patrick, Reynolds, & Macqueen, 2018 ; Poole & Russell, 2015 ), while others have created stand-alone global education courses ( Kerkhoff et al., 2019 ; Quezada & Cordeiro, 2016 ). Through an extensive literature review, Yemini and colleagues found that pedagogies in global teacher education research are innovative (but not necessarily new) takes on existing pedagogies ( 2019 ). Mansilla and Chua (2017) call these innovative approaches to global education “signature pedagogies.” Signature pedagogies include engaging teachers in inquiry about the world ( Kerkhoff, 2018 ), participating in intercultural dialogue ( Kopish, Shahri, & Amira, 2019 ; Ukpokodu, 2010 ; Zong, 2009 ), and playing a role in simulations with global content ( Myers & Rivero, 2019 ).

Tichnor-Wagner, Glazier, Parkhouse, and Cain undertook extensive qualitative research on signature pedagogies for globally competent teaching. They produced the Globally Competent Teaching Continuum (GCTC; 2019). The continuum signifies that globally competent teaching is a developmental progression. The continuum includes twelve components organized as knowledge, skills, or dispositions, such as the disposition of empathy and valuing multiple perspectives and the skill to facilitate intercultural and international conversations that promote active listening, critical thinking, and perspective recognition . Although all twelve components (see Table 1 ) are theoretically sound, the number of dimensions in this continuum may impede its use as a heuristic in teacher education.

Comparison of the Globally Competent Teaching Continuum Twelve Components and the Four Factors of the Global Teaching Model.

3.2. Global teaching model

Kerkhoff’s (2017) GTM is based on a mixed methods study with K-12 educators. Because global teaching is contextualized within a nation ( Fujikane, 2003 ), the model was developed for and validated specifically in the U.S. K-12 context. The GTM comprises four factors: situated, integrated, critical, and transactional. These factors served as the conceptual framework for both the course and this study, and provided teachers a heuristic for implementing global teaching. When placed side-by-side, as in Table 1 , all but one (i.e., communicate in multiple languages) of the GCTC’s twelve elements aligned with the four factors of the GTM.

GTM’s first factor is situated practice, meaning teaching is culturally relevant to both students in the class and socio-political issues in the local community. Situated practice includes the dispositions of valuing diversity and students’ voices. Situated practice is culturally relevant ( Ladson-Billings, 2004 ), helps break down stereotypes, and works against essentializing people, places, or times in history ( Apple, 2011 ; Mikander, 2016 ). Situated practice acknowledges local and global connections: Teachers stay current on local and global events and consider multiple perspectives (even those that challenge their own beliefs). Teachers also reflect on their own cultures, assumptions, and biases ( Hull & Stornaiuolo, 2014 ). Most importantly, teachers guide students in doing all of the above.

Integrated, the next GTM factor, means global learning is not a one-off but incorporated across grade levels and disciplines. Teaching and assessment of global learning are part of course objectives. Teachers build a repertoire of resources related to global issues in the discipline/s they teach. Teachers understand how the world is interconnected, and can analyze global challenges and inequities through a disciplinary lens. Integrated global learning requires students to construct knowledge about the world through authentic inquiry and experiential learning ( Choo, 2017 ). Students understand how their actions affect people in other countries and vice versa ( Mikander, 2016 ). Through situated and integrated global learning, teachers show students how both their lives and their studies are already globally interconnected.

The third dimension is critical. Global teaching through a critical frame considers issues of power, privilege, and oppression so that teaching does not recreate hierarchies found in the world ( Delpit, 2006 ; Freire, 1970 ). Critical includes the critical literacy practices of analyzing source reliability and bias, and constructing claims based on evidence from wide-ranging authors. Teachers involve multiple, international, and traditionally marginalized voices and encourage perspective-taking and empathy-building ( Pashby, 2008 ; Tichnor-Wagner et al., 2019). Students listen/read first to understand different perspectives ( Freire, 1970 ) and then write/speak their perspective in ways that demonstrate intercultural and global consciousness ( Pashby, 2008 ). Part of critical framing is reflexivity, or what O’Connor and Zeichner (2011) referred to as “sociocultural consciousness,” where teachers acknowledge they are cultural and political beings and examine their biases. The development of critical literacy is one way to raise sociocultural consciousness.

Fourth, transactional experiences involve international partnerships, through which students engage in intercultural dialogue and construct knowledge about the world ( Kerkhoff, 2018 ). Transactional experiences mean learning with other people through active listening and critical thinking. It also means problem-solving with others in solidarity, rather than solving others’ problems in ways that reinforce colonial power relationships. Transaction means there is an equal give-and-take, and global teaching requires equitable partnerships with global communities ( Wahlström, 2014 ).

The first two factors, situated and integrated, describe how global teaching can be connected to existing curricular structures and instructional practices. The last two factors, critical and transactional, explain how teaching about the world can be approached from a critical frame and commitment to equity.

This article describes a mixed methods self-study of a graduate-level teacher education course called Learning through Inquiry. Self-study involves systematic analysis towards both the improvement of one’s practice and contribution to the field ( Hamilton & Pinnegar, 2000 ). Research questions were: (1) To what degree do participants report implementing global teaching practices in their K-12 classrooms? (2) How do participants understand the role of global competence? (3) According to participants, what influenced how they employed globally competent teaching? With these research questions as the hub ( Maxwell & Loomis, 2003 ), we used concurrent nested mixed methods by collecting both qualitative and quantitative data simultaneously, embedding the quantitative within the qualitative ( Creswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann, & Hanson, 2003 ).

4.1. Context

The study took place during an online masters’ level education course at a U.S. urban university. The course (Learning through Inquiry) was organized into eight modules, including modules on collaborative learning, culturally sustaining pedagogy, and global learning. Each module contained readings on education theory, discussion boards where students interacted, and assignments where students were tasked with translating theory into practice. Instructional plans for the global learning module can be found in Appendix A . The first author was the course instructor, and the second author was the research assistant.

4.2. Participants

All participants were enrolled in the university’s masters of education program. Every student in the first author’s course was invited to participate; 19 consented to analysis of their coursework and four agreed to follow-up interviews. Consent was also obtained from 56 students (focal group = 28, comparison group = 28) for anonymous completion of the Teaching for Global Readiness Scale (TGRS). The focal group consisted of students in the first author’s course, and the comparison group (recruited from a separate online masters education course) consisted of students with no known prior exposure to globally-focused teaching curriculum.

The focus course served both the masters in curriculum and instruction degree and the alternative teaching certification program, so at the time of the study, all participants were inservice teachers, but not all were yet licensed. Years of teaching experience ranged from one to 18. Participants’ schools were spread across the state and spanned the spectrum of public, charter, and private, as well as rural, suburban, and urban. Five participants identified as African American, two as Asian American, one as Latinx, and 12 as white. Grades and subjects taught varied (see Table 2 ).

Profile of Focal Participants.

4.3. Data sources

Self-study requires that the researcher/teacher provides convincing evidence ( Hamilton & Pinnegar, 2000 ). In order to provide copious evidence, we utilized both qualitative and quantitative data sources. Focal group participants contributed both qualitative and quantitative data; quantitative data alone were collected from the control group ( Table 3 ).

Table of data collection.

Qualitative data were collected via course artifacts, i.e., discussions, self-reflections, and lesson plans from the global learning module in Canvas. Students completed lesson plans and personal inquiry projects on topics related to global education and wrote reflections upon completion of each. Focal participants completed the TGRS at the beginning and end of the semester and reflected on their growth, facilitating self-reflection on TGRS-related teaching practices during their qualitative interviews.

One-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with four participants the semester following the course. Due to the participants’ geographic spread, interviews were conducted face-to-face when possible and using Zoom when not. All were recorded and transcribed. The protocol can be found in Appendix B .

Quantitative data were collected anonymously via a knowledge inventory and the TGRS. The knowledge inventory measured participants’ self-reported knowledge level of concepts covered in the course, including the concept of global learning. The survey comprised 21 questions adapted from TGRS, which measures teachers’ attitudes about and frequency of teaching practices that promote global readiness. The original scale ( Kerkhoff, 2017 ) was found to be a reliable and valid measure of global teaching (χ 2 (143) 246.909, χ 2 to df = 1.73, CFI = 0.960, TLI = 0.953, SRMR = 0.061, RMSEA = 0.051, α = 0.88). Cronbach’s alpha showed good reliability of the adapted TGRS ( α = .89). A list of scale items can be found in Table 4 .

Group Means by Teaching for Global Readiness Scale Item.

Note : Parentheses around subscales indicate items that have not yet been validated.

4.4. Quantitative analysis

To inform instruction, the knowledge inventory was given to participants at the beginning of the course. Descriptive data are reported to show participants’ knowledge of global learning before engaging in course material. TGRS was administered to two groups (i.e., focal and control). Group means from individual scale items were analyzed using two-sample independent t -tests. The TGRS was anonymous in order to mitigate instructor’s influence and promote honest self-reflection. Because the TGRS was anonymous, we could not conduct a paired t -test or compare individual’s pre and post tests; instead, we utilized a two-sample independent t -test to compare post result means against a control group. To contribute to validating and operationalizing the GTM model, TGRS post-course responses were then quantitatively compared between the focal and control groups.

4.5. Qualitative analysis

Qualitative data sources were analyzed using a priori and open coding. For a priori coding, we used the GTM four factors, paying particular attention to statistically significant items from quantitative analysis (i.e., using texts written by authors from diverse countries , guided students to examine their cultural identity , constructed claims based on primary sources , and built a repertoire of resources related to global education ).

After coding individually, we met to discuss and reach consensus about coding parameters. We ultimately agreed valuable data were not captured solely by a priori codes; therefore, the next round included a priori as well as open coding. We determined that a hierarchical process was most appropriate for the next step. We converted the four a priori codes into themes and placed related codes under each theme looking for patterns within to create categorical codes.

Within each code, we looked for illustrative key statements (i.e., participant quotes in the data) that answered the research questions. Codes were triangulated by looking at multiple data sources and multiple participants ( Yin, 2014 ). Counter examples were also coded to increase trustworthiness of the findings.

4.6. Ethical considerations

Given that the first author was also the course instructor, we took great care to conduct research in an ethical manner. Institutional Review Board approved protocols were followed for all aspects, including gaining participant consent. Surveys were completed anonymously and, as such, not graded. In addition, one-on-one interviews took place after grades were submitted. These methods were enacted to protect the participants; yet we acknowledge these data cannot be separated from a contextual power difference between the researcher (as professor) and the participants (as her students). It is possible that participants reported what they believed the professor wanted to hear rather than their honest perceptions.

5. Findings

We sought to investigate three research questions: (1) How frequently do participants report implementing global teaching practices in their K-12 classrooms? (2) How do participants perceive the role of global competence? (3) According to participants, what influenced how they enacted globally competent teaching? Quantitative results addressed RQ1 and are reported first, followed by qualitative findings concerning RQ2 and 3.

5.1. Quantitative results

Quantitative results were derived by statistical analyses of data from both the knowledge inventory and TGRS.

5.2. Knowledge inventory

At the beginning of the course, participants complete a knowledge inventory on instructional concepts. Using Google forms, we gave the following instructions: On a scale of 1–5, how well do you know the following instructional concepts? For the item on global learning, only one participant believed that global learning was a current part of their instructional repertoire ( Fig. 1 ).

Participant responses to the knowledge inventory item on global learning.

5.3. Teaching for global readiness scale

Descriptive data are reported in Table 4 . Participants responded to 21 statements. The first 16 inquired about frequency of implementation over the past two weeks using a 1–5 scale (i.e., Never, Once in two weeks, Once a week, 2–3 times a week, Daily ), and five addressed attitudes about practices across a typical semester (i.e., Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neither agree nor disagree, Agree, Strongly agree ).

Focal participants (i.e. teachers exposed to global competence via their graduate teaching course) reported implementing 81 % of TGRS practices more than once over two weeks (control group: 56 %), with statistically significant greater frequency in these specific practices: (a) Using texts written by global authors ( M = 2.68, SD = 1.12; M = 1.86, SD = 1.13; p = .0142); (b) Guiding students to examine their cultural identities ( M = 3.32, SD = 1.12; M = 2.43, SD = 1.50; p = .0197); and (c) Asking students to construct claims based on primary sources ( M = 2.68, SD = 1.25; M = 1.96, SD = 1.22; p = .0434). When reporting on five additional practices used over a typical semester, significant difference was seen between group attitudes on the following item: Focal teachers believed they “[built] a repertoire of global-education resources” more strongly than control teachers ( M = 3.32, SD = 1.02; M = 2.43, SD = 1.31; p = .009). Of the four subscales, significant difference was seen within situated, integrated, and critical, but not within the transactional subscale.

5.4. Qualitative findings

Our qualitative analysis focused on patterns across participants. Key statements that illustrate those patterns are described below, organized around the four dimensions of the GTM (situated practice, integrated global learning, critical framing, and transactional experiences), and followed by challenges related to global teaching that participants perceived.

5.4.1. Situated practice

The factor of situated practice was a frequently coded theme. Under this theme, we noticed two categorical codes: cultivating students’ cultural identity and expanding the definition of relevance.

5.4.1.1. Cultivating students’ cultural identity

Cultivating cultural identity begins with understanding that teaching and learning are cultural practices. Teachers understand themselves to be cultural beings and help students to build the same understanding. For example, after studying the global module, a science teacher created an enduring understanding for a lesson plan: “Students are aware of how differing cultural contexts may affect how a certain mutation can be viewed in society as beneficial or harmful.” This understanding went beyond scientific knowledge of mutations to an understanding of how culture shapes one’s perceptions of scientific concepts. This particular lesson plan involved readings on congenital twins in India and the U.S. and, based on the news reporting, having students consider cultural assumptions regarding the mutation (i.e., beneficial, neutral, or harmful?).

Another participant mentioned she had taken for granted that students would develop cultural identities outside of school. Before the course, she had not utilized reading and writing to support the positive development of her students’ cultural identities. She said:

My classroom is full of diverse learners who speak different languages and come from different cultures. Through this course, the importance of embracing students' cultural identity has become clearer. Before, I was guilty of believing that their cultural identity was examined on their own. However, I am now understanding that a teacher can have a crucial role in encouraging students to celebrate their own and their classmates’ cultural identities.

A different participant noted that, although they had discussed culture in class, they had not connected discussions to their students’ cultural identities. This participant felt that learning about students’ cultures, and linking teaching to those cultures, helped them better connect.

Every unit, my students are analyzing primary and secondary sources from people all around the world. But this course made me think more about my students’ cultures. I am able to communicate better with students from other cultures because I am more aware of it. I never thought about how that could affect a student until now.

Overall, participants perceived the connection to their students’ cultural identities as an important component of global teaching. In addition, participants expanded their capacity to make connections in the classroom by connecting cultures outside of U.S. subcultures and connecting current issues.

5.4.1.2. Expanded definition of relevance

Participants studied culturally sustaining pedagogy during a course module. Our readings addressed diverse racial and ethnic identities within the U.S. While studying global learning, participants expanded their definition of cultural relevance to include the intersection of national, racial, and ethnic identities‒–for example, exposing students to black scientists from the U.S., Brazil, and Nigeria. A science teacher commented:

My students enjoy reading about scientists that look or come from places like them, but it would also be special to hear about other scientists that might not share as obvious similarities. My students are comfortable sharing their experiences and perspectives, so to take their global consciousness to the next level, they would benefit from more global lessons.

In his reflection about TGRS, a different science teacher shared his desire to move his teaching away from a Western-centric education in order to better serve his diverse students.

Participants also expanded their definition of relevance to include timeliness. In a discussion board, an English teacher remarked how two teachers found their students enjoyed studying international current events: “I think we often forget that relatable instruction does not have to be about what is going on in our specific communities, but what is going on in the world.” In this way, international current events became relevant because of the time aspect. Students connected to the events because they were happening now.

As mentioned above, participants reported embracing culturally relevant pedagogy before taking the course but found the expansion of social justice to global issues a welcomed addition. One participant immediately implemented a strategy from the course: She began pairing current events with perspective-taking discussion protocols (e.g., this issue matters to me because , to my friends and family because , and to the world because ) in her classroom. She believed perspective-taking was an important component of critical literacy, and using international current events expanded students’ critical analysis to include global viewpoints. A different teacher self-reflected:

I am constantly thinking about how I can empower students to be agents of change within their community. This module has me thinking about the need for my students to widen their perspective even more in order to include the entire world in their thoughts.

Designing situated practice inclusive of global cultures and international current events was a pattern noticed across grade levels and content areas. Participants perceived that situated practice and global learning could be integrated with their current responsibilities, as described in the next section.

5.4.2. Integrating global learning

At the beginning of the semester, all but one teacher reported that their curricula did not integrate global learning. However, participants came to the course believing that global learning was important, were easily persuaded of its importance, or, at the very least, did not actively resist the idea. As a representation of what most participants shared in the discussion post about global competence, a high school teacher stated: “It is important for them to learn how to inquire about the world, understand cultural and global perspectives, and most importantly interact with their world in a respectful way.” Overall, patterns related to integrated global learning included three codes: navigating tensions, focus teacher education on “the how,” and infusion with current pedagogies.

5.4.2.1. Navigating tensions

At the end of the course, a science teacher shared his perception of the tension between the local and the global: “The heavy focus we get on culturally relevant pedagogy, we have been groomed to prioritize locality, and we still should…but our students need to also see and experience beyond because that is what the world will demand of them as they exit high school and continue into universities, trade schools, and the workforce.”

In addition to the tension between local and global, participants also discussed tension between tested and not-tested content. A charter school beginning teacher articulated the pressure she felt to focus on tests. In response to a peer who was able to integrate global literature because she could choose what her students read, this teacher posted the following:

I certainly understand global readiness and can articulate its value, but I'm actually supportive of my district’s control over what is taught. My students achieve higher than their counterparts. ALL of my students come from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, and I don't think that as a privileged white lady, I should be deciding what my students "need". I think global learning is AWESOME, but I'm not able to implement it any time soon. (capitalization in original)

In response to the same discussion thread, another beginning teacher replied:

Implementing global readiness into my science curriculum is going to be quite challenging—given the breadth of topics I need to cover before End-Of-Course testing. Regardless, if I do so intentionally, I can get students to expand their depth of content knowledge to the levels they need for the questioning and reasoning that an End-of-Course exam can throw at them.

As evidenced by the two quotes, participants felt that global learning is important because of the globally interconnected nature of career, college, and community and because students come from diverse cultures; however they did not feel confident in implementing global learning due to tension with tested content.

5.4.2.2. Focus teacher education on “the how.”

Overall, participants reported that the course’s focus on how to integrate global learning was helpful. For example, a high school teacher stated: “Where I see growth is having a better understanding of HOW to implement global readiness into my classroom. I knew the theoretical importance of doing so but really didn't know exactly HOW to go about it effectively” (capitalization in original). Another participant said: “[Teachers] need to learn a framework of how to make sense of … the unfamiliar.” She perceived that a framework was needed for how to enact global teaching.

5.4.2.3. Infusion with current pedagogies

The two most common ways that participants reported uptake of global teaching were infusion with current curricular activities or with a desired pedagogy. For example, in her final project, an elementary teacher explained how she infused global learning with a webquest, a pedagogy that she had desired to bring into her practice:

Because of this course, my 5th grade science students researched natural disasters to complete a webquest that modeled how the Earth spheres interact. During that webquest, I provided my students with articles and videos about natural disasters across the world. This has helped my students learn global competence.

Since webquest was a new pedagogy she had wanted to use, it provided an opportunity to infuse global learning in the instructional design.

Another way participants reported integrating global learning was through the pedagogical practice of students’ reading texts. Incorporating diverse texts from international authors into their classes was seen across grade levels and disciplines, and as reported in the quantitative results, was significantly higher than the control group. Reflecting on the comparison between beginning and end of the semester TGRSs, one teacher said, “One major change has been the sources that I have incorporated into lessons.” A mathematics teacher reported, “I have changed how I use text and global learning within my classroom.” An English teacher said, “I grew the most in incorporating global texts and authors into my teaching.”

By the end of the semester, participants, with the exception of three math teachers, were able to create global lesson plans that infused global learning with their curricula. One math teacher wrote a lesson plan for a government course; the other two math teachers asked to complete a comparative inquiry on mathematics in other countries in an effort to build more globally connected content knowledge. As one participant stated, “I think creating a stockpile of potential global issues related to math over time could be a way to make integrating global readiness easier in future years.” She perceived that gathering global resources would help her integrate global learning in future lessons.

5.4.3. Critical framing of teaching and learning

The next theme is critical framing. Several participants embraced a decolonizing lens. For example, the science teacher mentioned previously vowed to expand his teaching beyond a Western-centric lens. More often, the critical frame was taken up via course opportunities for reflection and lesson creation. We also found that while some participants believed that they held a critical frame, their ideas on applying global learning in the classroom reflected deficit or assimilation mindsets. Two categorical codes ultimately emerged under critical framing: engaging in self-reflexivity and teaching perspective-taking and empathy-building.

5.4.3.1. Self-reflexivity

Participants demonstrated self-reflexivity when they were reflecting on their beliefs and how those beliefs affected others. The view that teachers do not know everything, and that teachers can learn from and with their students, emerged as a frequent code from the reflections data. One participant stated it was her “civic duty” to be aware of all international events, yet most participants perceived mutual teacher/student inquiry of world events to be a strength of the GTM. A special education teacher shared, “It is important to see how you fit into the equation. How your actions or lack of action impact others and how the actions of entire areas across the globe impact others.” In the discussion board, a mathematics teacher commented, “I love that you acknowledge that sometimes you lack being competent. I have also been guilty of this until … visiting Brazil and actually immersing myself in another culture. I think if people took time to investigate global issues, they would see the world in a different way.” This participant perceived her trip abroad as an integral moment in her ability to see different views and to reflect on her own cultural assumptions.

An intriguing finding was how some participants really valued reflexivity as part of teaching. An elementary teacher stated, “I do consider myself to be a pretty reflective teacher, but having an actual piece [PDF of TGRS results] I filled out two separate times was interesting.” Another teacher reflected, “I liked … the recursive reflective nature. We were constantly absorbing new material from a variety of perspectives and this helped bring these to … my mind over and over, to the extent that I actually could try to apply the ideas and could reflect.” Similarly, a different participant shared:

This class really showed me the importance of incorporating reflective practices into my pedagogy. Being a teacher means taking the time to reflect on personal biases, strengths, weaknesses and instructional methods that can be improved to meet students’ needs.

Reflection on one’s teaching and connection to other people, both in the classroom and around the world, is an important component of global teaching from a critical lens. Once teachers engage in self-reflexivity, the next step is teaching students to examine the world with a critical lens. Some participants asked their students to investigate sociopolitical global issues from a standpoint of power, but most remained at an accommodation stance by focusing their teaching on perspective-taking and empathy-building.

5.4.3.2. Teaching perspective-taking and empathy-building

Participants most commonly discussed taking up global teaching by engaging students in perspective-taking and empathy-building. In a discussion post, a few teachers lamented about the lack of empathy students displayed. One wrote: “Similar to Cecilia (pseudonym), my students take a satisfaction survey every quarter, and often most students say that they don't empathize with their peers or try to learn about their backgrounds and situations.” Another teacher in the discussion thread pushed back at the deficit views by saying:

You will be surprised how students really embrace other students’ differences when their cultural identity is exposed for something more than stereotypes. Sometimes when students are sharing a personal experience or family tradition, the other students find it interesting. This helps students get to know and accept each other. I have been doing lessons on empathy, and I have seen my students grow in this area a great deal.

This teacher taught students with social and emotional disabilities and focused her global learning lesson plan on empathy-building. As her quote above demonstrates, she perceived growth in her students. A social studies teacher said his parents from India taught him the value of perspective-taking, a value he brought to the classroom:

To solve any problem, you first must be able to understand the individual you have the problem with—because once you understand how they think and feel, finding the solution becomes easy. It is important for students to be globally competent so they too can also understand how people feel and think.

The reason global competence is important for students to learn, said a science teacher, is so that they can “understand their own and other perspectives, how to engage in RESPECTFUL dialogue, and finally how to take respectful action” (capitalization original). This teacher went on to say how empathy had become a personal mantra and a value he hopes to instill in his students. Another teacher commented, “Understanding how to listen and respond to a variety of perspectives is essential. Without those skills, we will not be able to work together to solve the problems plaguing our society.” Empathy and perspective-taking were considered important skills for communication and problem solving, not only in the context of future jobs, but also for current relationships and solving global social issues.

5.4.4. Transactional experiences

Transactional experiences involve experiential learning through dialogue and collaboration with people from different cultures and nations. This factor was the least coded in participants’ lesson plans and least reported by participants on the TGRS. Two categorical codes related to the theme are barriers to transactional experiences and bringing the world to the classroom.

5.4.4.1. Barriers to transactional experiences

Lack of international and technological resources were barriers to implementation of transactional experiences. In addition, some participants found the name of the factor difficult to remember. For example, an interview participant said, “ Transactional means working with other countries, right? For sure I’m weakest on that one.” She believed her students would benefit from and enjoy working with students from a different country, but she did not personally have international contacts.

Two participants wrote their global learning lesson plans on Native Americans. One teacher chose Native American culture because she had a personal relationship that served as a resource for the transactional experience factor of her lesson. The other teacher thought Native American issues would be both new and relevant to his students. While Native American nations are indeed sovereign, they are at the same time part of the U.S. Should teacher educators encourage their students to push beyond U.S. borders?

For two different participants, the technology component made transactional experiences difficult to include in their classrooms. One said, “I struggle with technology as well but am hoping to compile a database of resources for students to use during activities. My goal is to make a connection through one of the websites that I found and hope we can have a meaningful connection with another teacher, individual or student from around the world.” The other teacher stated her issue was student access to technology: “I am still not in a place to fully carry out a SUCCESSFUL global lesson plan. My first issue is resources. The lessons I have reviewed require a lot of technology. I can barely access technology for my students to write a paper.” Although lack of resources acted as barriers to transactional experiences, participants became creative as they imagined what could be implemented in their classrooms.

5.4.4.2. Bringing the world to the classroom

Connecting with students in other countries is just one way to incorporate transactional experiences. An English teacher considered bringing in experts from diverse countries to interact with her students, saying:

I hope that by bringing an expert to the classroom to discuss topics, my students will work on their speaking and listening skills, and will gain global perspectives that they have not been exposed to in the past. I plan to bring physical people into the classroom, as well as using online resources to do live interviews.

Another English teacher had a similar idea; however, she stated some concerns:

I need to get better at incorporating expert voices for my students’ projects. I get nervous about the last minute timing of multiple events at my school. On the other side, asynchronous technology would take care of this worry and allow the expert to respond to each question on their own time.

This teacher, and others, were not sure how to find experts from multiple perspectives. Another participant stated, “Without networks of people to call upon in each sub-topic, it was difficult to identify opportunities in which students could speak to a person from another culture or region of the world.” A charter school teacher shared that his school had lists of expert speakers (called Nespris) and a teacher from a culturally diverse school described how she had observed a teacher leveraging cultural and content expertise through her students’ networks. How to best utilize these experts was then negotiated by participants in discussion posts. Participants felt that experts could help students understand their content on a global scale and also give students practice engaging with people from different cultures in ways that “are respectful and celebratory of cultural differences.”

Overall, participants found transactional experiences with international partners the most challenging aspect to implement in their classrooms, and admittedly, we were also unable to include a coveted discussion with international partners during the graduate course. However, participants believed such interactions would be valuable in learning about different perspectives and practicing civil discourse.

6. Discussion

This mixed methods study examined self-report data of teachers’ globally competent teaching practices and perceptions. Quantitative data showed how and with what frequency participants infused global learning into their classrooms; qualitative findings reveal successes and challenges faced by participants when implementing globally competent teaching practices. This study contributes to the research literature the voices of teachers—voices needed for deeper conceptual understanding of translating global education theory to practice ( Kerkhoff, 2017 ).

6.1. Implications for research and practice

Quantitative analyses compared teachers from a business-as-usual graduate teaching course (controls) and teachers whose graduate course specifically infused global competence with its curriculum (focal group). Results revealed that, compared to controls, focal teachers practiced more globally competent teaching strategies in their K-12 classrooms at least once in the recent past (two weeks). Specifically, the following globally competent strategies were used with statistically greater frequency by focal teachers: guiding students to examine their own cultural identities, using texts written by global authors, and asking students to use primary sources when building claims. Across a semester, focal teachers reported building a repertoire of global-education resources with statistically greater frequency than did their control counterparts.

Based on our findings, we propose that exposure to globally competent teaching in teacher education relates to participants’ frequency of global teaching practices in K-12 classrooms. However, because we did not use pre and post paired t -tests, we are unable to infer that the relationship is causal. To ascertain if differences in globally competent teaching practices are caused by course integration of global learning, future studies should use TGRS to collect, pair, and analyze pre- and post- data in students from a globally-competent graduate teaching course and control group.

As a reflection tool for global teaching, TGRS may provide teachers with practical ideas to implement in their classrooms. According to our qualitative data, teachers found GTM a useful framework for translating theory into practice, reporting their ability to implement strategies immediately in their K-12 classrooms. In summary, qualitative data showed how participants implemented global learning by internationalizing existing culturally relevant pedagogical practices or by instituting desired pedagogies that opened a space for introducing global curriculum. Participants internationalized their curricula by infusing cultural understandings of content, teaching perspective-taking, and resisting Western-centric texts. Participants found entry points into global learning through their students’ cultural identities and international current events.

Quantitative data showed the following strategies were implemented in participants’ teaching at the end of the master’s course and with greater frequency than the controls: (a) using texts written by authors from diverse countries including primary sources, (b) reflecting on one's own assumptions and biases, (c) guiding students to examine their cultural identities, (d) discussing international current events, and (e) building a repertoire of resources related to global education. Analysis across quantitative and qualitative data suggests that providing information and examples on situated, integrated, and critical practices holds potential for influencing teachers’ globally competent teaching, but that teachers need more support in order to begin practices related to the transactional factor.

Qualitative results corroborate three well-documented barriers to implementing globally competent education: (a) lack of global resources, (b) mandated curriculum lacking in global competence, and (c) teaching tied to high-stakes tests that do not assess global competence ( Ferguson-Patrick et al., 2018 ; Kopish et al., 2019 ; Rapoport, 2010 ). In addition to the pressures to bring students to grade-level, cover a mandated and crowded curriculum, and ensure students pass high-stakes tests, our participants also felt a tension between the preparation they received from a culturally relevant lens that focused on the local and their perception that globally competent teaching focused solely on the global. The course provided a space to study culturally relevant pedagogy and global teaching side-by-side. Through course readings and discussions, participants were able to negotiate the local-global tension and conclude that many of their local communities were globally interconnected and that the model connected the local with the global rather than separating the two into a false dichotomy. Recognizing opposition to global education as problematic, most participants expressed desire to implement global competence into their teaching practices but needed to learn pedagogical moves that they can employ in K-12 classrooms.

Data from this study reveal the importance of educating teachers on how to enact global competence in K-12 classrooms, corroborating Reimer and McLean finding that teachers need a nuanced understanding of global education situated within classroom contexts ( 2009 ) and providing support for the application of the GTM as a framework for implementing global teaching practices. After extensive review of the literature, Yemini et al. (2019) concluded that there is a “need for comprehensive, dynamic frameworks for [global education in] teacher education to encompass… emerging trends in the literature ([e.g.] …the use of ICTs [information and communication technologies] and political changes)” (p. 88). The GTM includes both ICTs (in the transactional factor) and political relationships (in the critical factor), filling the need assessed by Yemini and colleagues.

6.2. Continued validation of the global teaching model

Validation of psychometric instruments and empirical models is a continuous process. Because of their theoretical importance, we added back to TGRS three items that did not load on the previous factor analysis. This study contributes both quantitative and qualitative support for keeping these three items ( texts by authors from diverse countries, guided students to examine their cultural identity, and reflect on my own assumptions and biases ). The results of this study indicate the four subscales, and the scale as a whole, are reliable according to a test of Cronbach’s alpha ( α = .89).

In the quantitative analysis, participants’ lowest-scoring factor was transactional experiences. This dimension requires experiential learning with different cultures, both face-to-face and through the use of ICTs. In the qualitative analysis, this factor also did not appear frequently. A few participants found it difficult to implement interactions with diverse others and even had trouble remembering the factor’s name. While the word “transaction” was originally chosen to signify the trans formative experiences and socio-political action that are integral components of global learning, this meaning was not effectively transferred through the word “transactional.” In fact, this term has a negative connotation in some education leadership circles (see Bass, 1998 ).

By synthesizing the research literature, the theoretical framework, the Global Teaching Model ( Kerkhoff, 2017 ), and the results of this study, we renamed the fourth dimension and created Fig. 2 as a heuristic for global teaching that works to decolonize curricula and raise sociocultural consciousness.

The Global Teaching Model with four factors: situated, integrated, critical, and intercultural.

The fourth dimension is renamed intercultural collaboration for transformative action. Intercultural means an exchange between two cultures. Transformative implies that the action does not reinforce hegemony. During intercultural collaboration, students engage in egalitarian transactions of different perspectives in order to learn with diverse others ( Wahlström, 2014 ). Teachers, students, and partners work together to critically analyze global issues exposing how inequities occur and then advocate for equity. Students take action towards social justice in both their local and global communities and in solidarity with people who have historically been marginalized by globalization ( Apple, 2011 ; Choo, 2017 ; OöConnor & Zeichner, 2011 ).

Freire (1970) considered praxis, or action based on theory, to be an essential component of critical pedagogy. As O’Connor and Zeichner state, “Merely heightening students’ awareness of global problems without cultivating in them a sense of efficacy to take part in transformative action might in fact make students less likely to become empathetic citizens” ( 2011, p. 532 ). Empowering students to take action on global and sociocultural issues provides space for hope in the curriculum. Without transformative action, students may feel powerless against systematic oppression around the world. Because our data show that intercultural collaboration was difficult for teachers to implement, one implication of our study is that teacher education programs could leverage their university’s international partnerships to introduce teachers to potential partners.

7. Conclusion

Gorski (2008) and Hauerwas and Creamer (2018) warn that, even when global partners or issues are introduced in the classroom, more often than not, schools reinforce rather than dismantle existing hierarchies. Teacher education must not only explain the theoretical reasons why global education is important, but must also model how to implement decolonizing practices and consciousness-raising in ways that teachers can replicate in K-12 settings. Without decolonizing and consciousness-raising, global education may emulate colonial power structures of domination and oppression. It is therefore essential to bring critical theory to the forefront of globally competent teacher education.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Longview Foundation, US.

Appendix C Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the online version, at doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101629 .

Appendix A. 

Going Global Module 6 Instructional Plan

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1KwL3hsNLcVQ9xPEiWvpODyaxcptLsIz-/view?usp=sharing

Appendix B. 

Interview protocol.

• 1) What kinds of knowledge and skills are important for being a globally competent person?
• 2) How did the global learning experiences in our course impact you personally?
• 3) Communicating ideas effectively with diverse audiences was an important learning outcome for the course. What aspects of the course contributed to your working towards this objective?
• 4) In what way has our course helped awaken, expand or strengthen your vision for education for all students? What new ideas do you have for promoting global communication and learning?
• 5) What recommendations do you have to enrich, improve or continue this global learning among future students who are taking education courses?
• 6) Do you think your pre- and post self-assessment on Teaching for Global Readiness was accurate? Explain why or why not.
• 7) Select at least two items in which you feel you made the most progress during this semester. What course experiences and class materials contributed to these changes and learning and why?
• 8) Select at least two items in which you feel like you didn’t make gains or that perhaps you need more work on. For each item reflect on: Why you feel you didn’t show growth in this area?

And any needed follow-up questions for clarification or further information.

Appendix C. Supplementary data

The following is Supplementary data to this article:

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• Published: 24 February 2024

Using design thinking for interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching: a case study in higher education

• Chia-Chi Wang 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  307 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This study investigates the utilization of design thinking by a university instructor in the development and delivery of an interdisciplinary curriculum. It examines the challenges encountered and the coping strategies employed during the process. The research, conducted as a case study of an interdisciplinary program course at a university in southern Taiwan from September to December 2022, involved data collection through field observations, in-depth interviews, and document analysis. All data were transcribed verbatim, coded, and triangulated to enhance research validity. The findings suggest that design thinking serves as an effective methodology for interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching. It emphasizes the integration of practice and application to facilitate students’ interdisciplinary collaboration and co-creation. Additionally, the study evaluates teaching strategies, with a focus on the role of visual tools, communication, and on-site observation. The insights gained from this research provide valuable perspectives on challenges in interdisciplinary teaching, particularly in a post-pandemic context. They guided the development of effective practices in Taiwan and beyond, addressing crucial aspects such as the roles of instructors, resource allocation, and the cultivation of interdisciplinary talent. The study emphasizes the continuous need for adaptation and the prioritization of depth in learning outcomes.

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Introduction.

Individuals and industries worldwide have encountered unprecedented challenges and changes in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. It is crucial for higher education to nurture future professionals capable of effectively addressing increasingly complex societal problems (Berasategi et al., 2020 ). With the proliferation of intricate global issues such as climate change, unemployment, healthcare, immigration, pollution, and safety (Hardy et al., 2021 ), interdisciplinary approaches have emerged as essential strategies. The surge in complex problems underscores the inevitability of interdisciplinary learning. Higher education, in response to these challenges, strives to cultivate skills that transcend traditional boundaries, including interdisciplinary thinking (Spelt et al., 2009 ). Major universities in Taiwan have demonstrated their commitment to promoting interdisciplinary education through mechanisms such as interdisciplinary courses, micro-credit courses, and credit programs. Interdisciplinary education aims to develop students’ boundary-crossing skills, fostering problem-solving, communication, collaboration, critical thinking, entrepreneurship, and innovative practices. The implementation of interdisciplinary cooperation in teaching and learning becomes a key focus in cultivating future talent and enhancing students’ integrated abilities.

Interdisciplinary learning involves transcending the boundaries of a single specific subject or field and providing students with connections and interactions between different subject areas. This interconnectivity helps them to understand the limitations and frameworks of their knowledge or skills and to integrate the knowledge of two or more disciplines to produce a cognitive advancement in ways that would have been impossible or unlikely through single disciplinary means (Spelt et al., 2009 ). It cultivates their ability to integrate different knowledge systems in facing complex problems in their careers or society. Moreover, interdisciplinary curriculum teaching significantly impacts instructors and learners, as compared to single-field curriculum teaching (Chang and Lin, 2019 ; McLaughlin et al., 2022 ; Spelt et al., 2009 ). Through interdisciplinary dialog, instructors can learn from others’ experiences or identify their weaknesses, promoting professional growth, enhancing their teaching and curriculum planning abilities, and guiding students to think and cooperate to solve problems. Meanwhile, students have opportunities for multi-faceted exploration, using their knowledge and skills in their professional fields and collaborating with students from other fields. Interdisciplinary education influences students’ learning styles and thinking patterns as they are exposed to different areas of expertise (Chen et al., 2017 ). Despite these benefits, instructors and learners face challenges in interdisciplinary collaboration. For instructors, the challenge lies in seamlessly integrating the cognitive and ideational aspects of individuals from diverse fields within the classroom, aiming for effective communication (Tsai, 2014 ). For learners, the challenges lie in communication problems arising from the heterogeneity of members’ backgrounds, the ratio of team leaders to experts, how consensus is formed, and the ongoing conceptual analysis and evaluation conducted during the process (Tang and Lin, 2011 ).

Design thinking (DT) represents a 21st-century skill aimed at generating timely solutions to complex and practical problems (Tan, 2017 ). Therefore, in the post-epidemic era, as the trend to cultivate interdisciplinary talent increases, this case study investigates how a university instructor uses design thinking to design and teach a university interdisciplinary curriculum in the context of a university interdisciplinary program. Specifically, we explore the challenges encountered and coping strategies during the development of the interdisciplinary curriculum and teaching practice, and the professional growth and reflection resulting from the process. Our findings can serve as a reference to promote interdisciplinary education.

Literature review

Interdisciplinary teaching models.

The term “interdisciplinary” is widely used to encompass a variety of activities related to communication, interaction, and integration among all disciplines. The dismantling of disciplinary boundaries characterizes interdisciplinary learning, and it can provide students with opportunities to engage and interact with different fields of study. The main objective of this approach is to guide students to gain a deeper understanding of the constraints and frameworks of their knowledge or skills while developing their capacity to comprehend and integrate different knowledge systems (Guo, 2008 ; Spelt et al., 2009 ). Students participating in interdisciplinary programs tend to develop a more holistic perspective and solution-oriented strategies rather than solely gaining content-specific knowledge from a single discipline. Interdisciplinary learning is aimed at cultivating multiple essential professional competencies, to address emerging social and employment challenges (Chang and Lin, 2019 ; Ivanitskaya et al., 2002 ; Repko, 2008 ; Repko and Szostak, 2021 ).

Previously, two inquiry-based teaching approaches, problem-based learning (PBL) and project-based learning (PjBL) were commonly used in interdisciplinary education (Majeski, 2005 ; Modo and Kinchin, 2011 ; Stentoft, 2017 ; Wróblewska and Okraszewska, 2020 ; Yang and Lin, 2015 ). These approaches differ in learning content, problem structure, and learning outcomes. For example, the PBL learning style is more divergent, guiding learners to form different sub-problems by setting out structurally ambiguous problems. On the other hand, PjBL is more convergent, forming sub-problems through perceiving different phenomena or exploring the impact of different variables (Yang et al., 2018 ).

More recently, interdisciplinary project-based learning (IPBL) has emerged. Like the approach businesses use to develop teams in multiple areas, IPBL provides sufficient training for teamwork and collaboration to students from different disciplines, preparing them to engage in complex technical, engineering, educational, and social projects. Students can promote their learning by contributing their strengths and resources (Carpenter et al., 2007 ; Johansen et al., 2009 ; Stozhko et al., 2015 ; Whitney, 2014 ). IPBL can help students develop creativity, overcome the barriers of disciplinary self-centeredness, facilitate the development of knowledge management processes, stimulate their interest and motivation in subject curricula, promote their participation in the learning process, and enhance their cognitive levels and satisfaction with learning outcomes (Biasutti and EL-Deghaidy, 2014 ; Yueh et al., 2015 ). Emphasizing teamwork and collaborative learning in interdisciplinary project teams can improve effective communication and problem-solving skills and prepare students for future community engagement and development in the real world. These benefits highlight the necessity, relevance, and importance of IPBL for interdisciplinary integration. Therefore, IPBL is considered an important model for cultivating relevant skills for students aiming to find their ideal professions (Hsu and Shiue, 2018 ).

However, these PBL learning modes have limitations in meeting students’ learning needs for engagement with increasingly broad and complex challenges. A new emerging interdisciplinary inquiry-based learning approach: design-based learning (DBL) was proposed (Yang et al., 2018 ). DBL was initially proposed by D. Nelson, and its concept is deeply influenced by J. Dewey’s philosophy, emphasizing learning through practical operation and action. It incorporates design concepts such as prototypes into the curriculum, innovating teaching methods to provide students with an integrated learning experience (Nelson, 2004 ). It combines “design thinking” and “design practice”, allowing students to explore and solve real-life problems through reflective learning processes and hands-on doing (Mehalik and Schunn, 2006 ). Design thinking (DT) is an iterative, human-centered approach to solving complex problems that have gained considerate popularity in business, education, medicine, etc. (Dukala et al., 2023 ; Li and Zhan, 2022 ; McLaughlin et al., 2022 ; Skywark et al., 2022 ). DT is frequently defined as the application of a designer’s sensitivity and techniques to align the requirements of individuals with what is technologically possible and what a feasible business strategy can transform into customer value and market opportunity (Brown, 2008 , p. 2). In the practical tasks of DBL, students are required to construct tangible artifacts, fostering higher-order thinking abilities and demonstrating creative, design, and decision-making thinking (Chen and Yang, 2020 ). Compared to PBL and PjBL, DBL places a greater emphasis on humanism, particularly focusing on the human-based problem-solving process, prototype testing, and iterative refinement stages (Wang, 2023 ; Yang et al., 2018 ). Therefore, using DBL as the core of interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching is expected to be a concrete, feasible, and essential pedagogical strategy in the future.

Challenges and strategies in implementing interdisciplinary curriculum

Some interdisciplinary research has shown that implementing an interdisciplinary curriculum impacts instructors and learners significantly (Chang and Lin, 2019 ; McLaughlin et al., 2022 ; Spelt et al., 2009 ). For instructors, interdisciplinary dialog enables them to learn from others and identify their weaker areas, leading to professional growth and the ability to integrate knowledge from multiple fields. These benefits enhance their teaching and curriculum planning abilities and contribute to guiding students in their thinking and collaboration with a view to solving problems. Several aspects need to be considered when developing an interdisciplinary curriculum, including assessing the appropriateness of the course content, balancing different fields, encouraging creativity, collaborating with external partners, and addressing real-world problems and social trends. When designing interdisciplinary project courses, instructors should focus on how to teach the required hard skills for the topic, and as students begin to communicate with others, their need for soft skills becomes apparent. If instructors do not provide sufficient support, communication issues may hinder the development of hard skills. There is no need to distinguish between cultivating soft and hard skills during the learning process, as they are mutually beneficial.

However, without instructors providing scaffolding for these interactive processes, students may not automatically develop soft or hard skills in interdisciplinary project courses. Therefore, instructors engaging in interdisciplinary teaching must carefully consider how to offer guidance and scaffolding to students aiming to develop both hard and soft skills (Vogler et al., 2018 ). For learners, interdisciplinary learning provides opportunities for exploration from multiple perspectives, utilizing knowledge and skills from their field and collaborating with students from other fields. Interdisciplinary approaches prioritize the development of higher-order thinking skills, such as analysis, application, generalization, and forming meaningful connections between different disciplines. Although these approaches may be less effective than traditional methods in building in-depth knowledge of a single subject, they offer unique benefits that cannot be achieved through a single-subject focus (Ivanitskaya et al., 2002 ). Students who have received interdisciplinary education training, influenced by diverse ways of thinking in different fields, will have more diverse learning styles and thinking patterns (Chen et al., 2017 ).

In addition, implementing an interdisciplinary curriculum poses significant challenges. Instructors in higher education institutions often lack training in interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary education, viewing interdisciplinary project activities as intimidating, especially when they cut across different classes and disciplines (Vogler et al., 2018 ). Bridging cognitive and ideational gaps for effective communication among students from diverse fields in the classroom proves challenging (Tsai, 2014 ). Furthermore, successful interdisciplinary teaching requires close collaboration among scholars from different fields, and language and terminological differences between these fields commonly serve as barriers (Repko, 2008 ; Repko and Szostak, 2021 ). The skills involved in interdisciplinary learning are also challenging to teach or understand in the classroom (Katz and Martin, 1997 ). Therefore, instructors must design experiential activities to help students acquire relevant skills through hands-on learning. Learners may face time constraints due to their academic workload, semester schedules, financial support, or the necessity of taking on additional jobs, which can limit their ability to participate in and benefit from teaching activities (Ryser et al., 2009 ). Team collaboration may lead to communication problems arising from the heterogeneous backgrounds of members, the ratio of team leaders to team members, the formation of consensus and conceptual analysis during the process, and the evaluation of the project (Tang and Lin, 2011 ).

Based on the above, this case study delves into the development and delivery of an interdisciplinary curriculum within a university setting. It investigates the various instructional challenges encountered and strategies employed to nurture professional development and reflection, particularly in the unique circumstances of a university interdisciplinary curriculum post-pandemic. The insights derived from this study are intended to provide valuable guidance for the advancement of interdisciplinary education practices in Taiwan and beyond.

Participants

Research field and participants.

This case study focuses on an interdisciplinary-related course offered by an interdisciplinary program at a university in southern Taiwan. The study has received ethical approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee, Taiwan, confirming its adherence to ethical guidelines. The participants included one instructor, one teaching assistant, and 38 students enrolled in the course. In the interests of research ethics, they were asked to fill in the research informed-consent form voluntarily and also to freely decide whether to agree to include the previously collected data in the final research analysis to protect their rights and interests. The case instructor’s areas of expertise include cultural anthropology, material culture, globalization and localization, design and applied anthropology, and design thinking. The case instructor has taught this course for five semesters.

This course aims to cultivate students’ comprehensive abilities to apply design thinking across interdisciplinary domains. This includes solving real-world problems, enhancing communication skills, developing divergent and convergent thinking, understanding various stages of the design thinking process, strengthening empathy, conducting on-site observations, translating insights into practical designs, and acquiring practical skills for production, modification, and presentation of end products. The course has three main learning objectives: design thinking fundamentals, maker skills, and mid- and final-term projects. In the mid-term project, students must use the design thinking techniques learned in class to design games for children. For the final project, students must design creative playground equipment for the community and organize a two-day community play equipment exhibition. This course is a transdisciplinary curriculum primarily focusing on real-world scenarios, such as designing creative play equipment for children.

This study focuses on the dynamic process of designing and implementing interdisciplinary courses and emphasizes the use of design thinking methodology. We conducted classroom observations and interviews and collected documents throughout a semester to analyze and synthesize the data exploring various aspects of interdisciplinary course design and implementation. The research team conducted weekly classroom observations from September to December 2022. The research team interviewed the case instructor three times, and the case instructor recommended one student from each group for an interview. Interview locations were chosen for their quiet and comfortable environment and suitability for recording and note-taking. Open-ended interviews were conducted using semi-structured questions. Table 1 lists the case instructor and student information.

The research team

The research team consisted of a university faculty member, R1 (researcher), who teaches in a department related to education, and a master’s student, R2 (collaborative observer and interviewer), who works in a department related to education. R1 and R2 conducted classroom observations together, and R1 served as the primary interviewer during the interviews, with R2 conducting the collaborative interviews. The team conducted a member check meeting to analyze the data. R1 has 3 years of experience in interdisciplinary course design and teaching (since 2019) and has published two research papers on interdisciplinary course teaching.

The researcher distributed informed consent forms to the case instructor and students and proceeded with data collection only after obtaining their agreement. The data collection process was anonymous, and participants were informed that the collected data would only be used for academic research. The paper-based data would be placed in a locked cabinet, and a password would protect the electronic files to protect the participants’ privacy. The case instructors and students were also free to include previously collected data in the research analysis.

Instruments

Participant observation data.

Before starting the academic term, the researcher consulted with the case instructor to understand the curriculum, teaching context, student characteristics, observation focus and tools, and feedback session arrangements. During the teaching process, the researcher obtained written consent from the case instructor and students before conducting classroom observations and recording factual data about the case instructor’s teaching and student behavior. After the teaching period ended, the researcher held feedback sessions with the case instructor to clarify the ideas and achieve a consensus. The observed data were derived from two sources: (1) observation records and photos taken during class, and (2) non-specific observations, such as incidental behavior or conversations between the case instructor and students during data collection in the classroom.

Interview process and outline

Semi-structured interviews (Table 2 ) were the primary data collection method, and the entire interview process was recorded. The research team conducted interviews about the interdisciplinary course design and teaching experiences. The interviews with the case instructor focused on how to design and teach an interdisciplinary course, address teaching challenges, and professional growth and reflections during the process. The interviews with students focused on the impact of course design and teaching activities on their learning.

The interview content was transcribed verbatim and coded using NVivo 12 software to avoid disclosing the names of the research participants and other related privacy information. We used triangulation (Denzin, 1978 ) to enhance research validity (Maxwell, 1992 ). The data collection methods used to obtain the research data included interviews, observation records, and document data. “Data source triangulation” was adopted, inviting the case instructor, course students, and collaborative observers to participate in the study, to examine the data consistency. In addition, a recording pen was used to record data, to avoid missing or biased information. The researcher recorded interview and observation content in detail, carefully organized document data, and avoided over-inference to present the research’s validity.

Each research subject was given three codes: the first code represented their identity (R1: Researcher 1; TS: instructor S; SY: student Y); the second code represented the data type (I: Interview; O: Classroom observation and reflection); and the third code represented the date. For example, SW_I_20221228 indicates that student W was interviewed on December 28, 2022, and R1_O_20221006 indicates that Researcher 1 conducted classroom observation on October 6, 2022. During the data classification and formation of categories, the research team referred to the relevant literature and compiled primary categories. Sections of a similar nature and content were placed under the same relevant category. At the same time, member checks and peer reviews (Miles and Huberman, 1994 ) were conducted for the interview content. Analysis was stopped when the data began to show patterns and became increasingly stable.

Data analysis began in February 2023 and was divided into two stages. The first stage involved open coding, where the researcher conducted a preliminary analysis of three instructor interview transcripts, six student interview transcripts, nine researcher classroom observation records, and nine co-observer classroom observation records for 27 files. The first level of open coding generated 83 codes. In the second stage, based on the first level of coding, the researcher extracted the main codes through axial coding, resulting in 12 main codes. Examples of the codes are provided in Table 3 .

Results and discussion

Design and planning an interdisciplinary curriculum, using design thinking as a methodology for curriculum design.

Gaining insights into the pedagogical approaches and experiential aspects of design thinking in higher education enables educational institutions to enhance student learning, ensuring alignment with the demands of professionalism, personal development, and civic engagement (McLaughlin et al., 2022 ). The case instructor used the Stanford University D-School design thinking model to design and plan the interdisciplinary curriculum, consisting of five stages: “empathize”, “define”, “ideate”, “prototype”, and “test”. The “empathize” stage helped participants understand the importance of empathy and learn how to cultivate it. The “define” stage clarified the problem through common methods, such as summarizing the key points and establishing connections, making the design goals clearer. The “ideate” stage taught participants ideation techniques to transform problems into solutions. The “prototype” stage proposed ideas closer to the final solution and the creation of prototypes to obtain user feedback. Finally, during the “test” stage, participants were encouraged to implement their prototypes, assess their effectiveness, and verify their solutions, gaining a deeper understanding of the importance of thorough testing (Henriksen et al., 2017 ; Wang and Sung, 2019 ).

The case instructor guided university students through three complete cycles of design thinking across three projects: the “Design Thinking Mini-Workshop,” the “Mid-term Project,” and the “Final Project.” During the first cycle, in the third week of the course, the case instructor-led students in designing a chair for their partners as part of the Design Thinking Mini-Workshop. This phase aimed to familiarize students with two design thinking techniques—divergent and convergent thinking, five steps—empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test, and three criteria—desirability, feasibility, and viability. In the second cycle, the case instructor directed students to use cardboard as the material for designing board games targeting elementary school children. The design thinking process was employed, and children were invited to test and play with the game prototypes. By the end of the course, each group leveraged observations from the game field, interviews with children, and feedback on their gaming experiences to design innovative wooden play equipment for children. This culmination of efforts served as the third cycle, wherein the groups collaborated with “Taiwan Parks & Playgrounds for Children by Children” to organize a two-day park play equipment exhibition in a southern Taiwan administrative district.

As part of the three design thinking cycles, the case instructor set different assignments to help students practice the two techniques, five steps, three criteria, and related design thinking tools (Fig. 1 ). These assignments included observing and documenting children’s toys, observing and documenting children’s game ideas, learning woodworking skills, explaining sketches for the final project, creating prototypes for the final project, designing a poster to introduce the project, and completing a nine-square personal business model.

The correspondence chart of design thinking and interdisciplinary course tasks.

Balancing resources and real-world impact: challenges and strategies in extended interdisciplinary courses

The case instructor has a humanities and social sciences background and has taught this course five times since 2018. He is adept at conducting field observations and interviews in different contexts and has independently studied courses related to design thinking and industrial design. He has a strong interest in design and art and has conducted two years of ethnographic research into the maker community in Taiwan. The case instructor’s expertise lies in guiding students’ observations and interviews to discover the users’ needs. However, to overcome the limitations of his lack of technical expertise, he invited industry experts to co-teach and introduce external resources into the classroom.

TS: If students only stop at the proposing ideas stage, they will not see the final outcome, and the product cannot be iterated. Therefore, I hope that after completion, the students’ work can undergo another market test, and the complete production process can be recorded as an important memory for them. Also, if we want to do this, we need resources, which need to be related to the community if we want to use USR (University Social Responsibility: one project in Taiwan) … These outcomes are very expensive, including both the teaching of certain techniques, as well as giving students the opportunity to practice these techniques, for which you need tools, and every step costs money. If only proposals are made and no prototype is produced, the students’ understanding and perception of the entire project or their understanding of design thinking will not be deep enough. (TS_I_20230104)

As part of university-level interdisciplinary education, students were encouraged to solve real-world problems. The case instructor didn’t want students to only reach the proposal stage; he introduced more time, supported resources, and practical venues to establish a stronger connection between classroom content and the real world. Therefore, this course tended to be longer, and the holidays were often utilized. For example, the regular class time is three hours per week. However, during the later prototype production stage, students often used the holidays to make wooden playground equipment in rented venues. In addition, the resources needed to support classroom activities, such as professional guidance from industry experts, learning woodworking skills, mechanical equipment, wooden materials, and hourly fees, are costly. While balancing classroom learning and not allowing students to spend too much money, the case instructor must also administer the operation of the course before conducting a class. For example, he must apply for government project funding, invite corporate cooperation and sponsorship, contact primary schools for cooperation, and identify exhibition venues to ensure sufficient resources and venues for teaching.

Interdisciplinary teaching strategies and tools

Creating a culture of equitable instructor–student relationships through effective questioning and example-setting to foster classroom discussion.

During the first week of class, the case instructor told the students, “Don’t call me ‘instructor’ or ‘professor’, please call me C (the case instructor’s name) or coach. The reason is that I don’t want you to give up thinking, and I want to create an equal atmosphere in the classroom to encourage you to speak up more (R1_O_ 20220908).” During class, the case instructor is skilled in using questioning as a scaffold for student learning, often using “what”, “why”, and “how” to ask questions. Starting from the students’ experiences, the case instructor connects them to the concepts to be elaborated by the case instructor, to train students to think in more abstract ways.

TS: Have you ever experienced good design? Why was it good? What would happen if that design didn’t exist? How would you use that design to solve a problem if it were you?

TS: Next, I will introduce the inspiration and function of the EAT WELL product (a universal tableware design) through a crowdfunding video, which is mainly designed for patients with dementia. What is special about this tableware? What was the motivation behind creating it? What other special features were mentioned in the video? Was there any reference to the color used in other materials?… (R1_O_20220908)

During the process, the case instructor utilized questioning, scenario simulation, and discussions to facilitate students’ exploration of user needs, identification of underlying reasons, and generation of viable solutions through mutual discussion based on their life experiences or relevant cases. Subsequently, the case solutions were decided with a view to training students’ insights.

(During the class, a student was invited to simulate the perspective of an IDEO researcher role-playing a patient.)

TS: IDEO wants to improve the patient experience in Minnesota hospitals--starting with a change of perspective. (When you spend the whole day lying in bed in the hospital, all you can see is the ceiling.) So, once you change perspectives, what does the person see in the world?

TS: Why should the floor color in the hospital ward be divided into different areas?

TS: People can be in a more comfortable state, just like being at home. Although the hospital is also a public building, we also hope they will want to make patients feel comfortable when they see a doctor. (R1_O_20220929)

Encouraging the use of visual tools and vertical communication to facilitate dialog

The tools and methods commonly used in design thinking include ethnographic methods, personas, journey maps, brainstorming, mind maps, visualization, prototyping, experiments, and others (Micheli et al., 2019 ). These visualization tools allow users to engage in experiential learning and reflect on their actions (Elsbach and Stigliani, 2018 ). Therefore, using visualization tools for communication is crucial in design thinking. Significant disparities may exist due to individuals’ diverse cognitive and linguistic habits, especially in heterogeneous groups. Hence, in the second week of the course, the case instructor helped students establish a habit of using visual communication, extensively employing visual and graphic means to discuss issues, and encouraging students to conduct vertical communication after pasting their data on the wall, thereby making the process of design thinking more three-dimensional (Fig. 2 ).

TS: Please come up to the front with a pen and some sticky notes, and practice sharing and giving feedback to others. This process will help everyone develop the habit of team communication and collaboration.

(Students verbally share their observations on children’s game behaviors, while others give feedback using sticky notes.)

TS: Why do children want to play with this toy? Let’s think about it together. Did this child gain any value from playing with it?

S: This is a 7-year-old girl with a lively and imaginative personality. She plays a role-playing game with her own dolls, pretending to be a teacher and the students, because her mother does not buy her toys very often. (R2_O_20220915)

Peer feedback using sticky notes (R2_O_20220915).

The case instructor also considered explicitly teaching students how to integrate ideas from different sources and imparting basic teamwork skills to provide comprehensive support for interdisciplinary learning. Achieving consensus is often necessary for feedback or teamwork for decision-making. The case instructor suggested that students can use dot stickers to provide their opinions, and when there is disagreement, using them to vote is useful. Subsequently, students often used this method for group discussion in assignments.

The idea is that everyone provides an idea, and if we want to select one, we vote. I think we use voting because C (the case instructor) first taught us a “dot-sticking” method, and then I just changed it to being online and then voting. (SL_I_20221228)

The purpose of the prototype was to generate ideas and solve problems. Regarding communication, a picture is worth a thousand words, and a prototype is worth a thousand pictures (Wang and Sung, 2022 ). Therefore, the case instructor suggested that students use geometric elements such as triangles, circles, and squares to complete a basic three-dimensional structure of the work and only use red, blue, yellow, black, and white colors. The paper version is cut into triangles, circles, and squares for combination (Fig. 3 ).

Low-fidelity to high-fidelity prototypes (R1_O_20221027).

Experiential teaching activities: a study on site observation and user experience

Designers must observe, interview, or experience users’ daily lives to understand the users’ needs. The critical task of design thinking is to transform the observed or interviewed data into insights and create products and services that can improve people’s lives. Through empathy, designers can connect these insights with others’ perspectives and understand and feel the world through their experiences and emotions (Brown, 2009 ). However, this type of learning is not easy to teach or understand in the classroom. In interdisciplinary classrooms, instructors must design experiential activities that allow students to acquire relevant skills through experiential learning (Ryser et al., 2009 ). In this case, the case instructor asked students to observe children’s behavior in the playground (Fig. 4 ), interact with them, and help third and fourth-grade elementary school children design their dream backpacks. These all represent ways whereby students may observe children and explore their play needs.

Observation of children’s play behaviors at a play area (R1_O_20220929).

Progressive practice of the design Point of View (POV)

It is essential to define clearly the problem to be solved, to generate a design point of view (POV). A POV can help designers gain deeper insights into the research object and problem, including the users, needs, and insight elements, by organizing user needs that have not been met from the collected data. With a clear POV, designers can develop focused problem statements and generate high-quality solutions. Therefore, designers must analyze, observe, and discover data, form unique insights through an integrative interpretation of a large amount of data, and help other designers to move to the next stage through an actionable problem statement. There may be multiple insights, and the designer must select the insight that meets the current users’ needs (Liu, 2021 ).

When defining the problem, the case instructor used progressive exercise tasks from existing cases and field data collected by students to enable them to practice forming POVs and improve their problem-solving skills. The case instructor used practical business cases for students to practice writing a POV and compared the differences with a case POV.

TS: Please watch the “Lucky Iron Fish: Shape of Health” video. The locals in Cambodia suffer from iron deficiency, which often causes dizziness, miscarriage, lack of focus in children, osteoporosis, etc. If a method could be found to provide enough iron ions to Cambodians through their typical fish and rice meals, the problem of iron deficiency could be solved. The research discovered that using iron cookware during cooking could release iron ions and address iron deficiency. How can the locals willingly put a piece of iron into the pot during cooking when they cannot afford to use expensive iron pots? Please practice writing the POV for this case. (R1_O__20220929)

After gaining experience writing case-based POVs, students practiced writing POVs using observation data from children’s play areas and from conducting dream backpack design workshops with children (see Fig. 5 ).

POV exercise (R1_O_20221013).

During the practice, the case instructor reminded the students that questioning is crucial to uncovering needs, and observation can reveal other needs. At the same time, the case instructor used questioning to refine the quality of the students’ POVs.

S: The elementary school student’s original backpack is a Transformer with a hard shell. It has compartments on the left and right sides for storing umbrellas and water bottles.

TS: What are his expectations and difficulties in using the backpack?

S: He hopes it can be made easier to carry, as the hard shell makes it feel heavy on his back and waist. He wants it to look like a regular backpack and provide protection against bad guys.

TS: From this perspective, what needs might he have? He may be afraid of bullying and need protection and safety. (R1_O_20221006)

Through a progressive POV exercise, students can quickly discern a child’s play traits and tendencies from the types of games and play equipment they use. For example, a child inventing their own rules for playing a game indicates a more proactive and imaginative nature. A child drawing game equipment that involves shooting or destruction suggests a high need for stimulation. Conversely, more introverted children may require independent play equipment.

S: The elementary school students in our group drew slides, climbing nets, mazes, aggressive equipment, and obstacle courses. Therefore, our insights suggest they enjoy pursuing excitement, challenging limits, and continuous obstacle courses. (R1_O_20221020)

Collecting feedback for prototype testing and refinement

During the testing phase of the design thinking process, the main approach was to collect feedback from others to conduct testing and make revisions. Before testing, the case instructor invited students from other groups to provide feedback and suggestions on the prototype.

(Group feedback and questions after a board game proposal)

S1: Does just moving the cup provide enough hands-on experience for the children? The gameplay may be a bit monotonous; perhaps there could be more variation.

S2: What’s the difference between this and playing ping pong with yourself? What’s the selling point of this device to attract children to play? It feels like it could be made more exciting.

S3: How does the ball drop? Will the size be changed again?

S4: Chopsticks could be added to provide a barrier; otherwise, the ball drops too quickly.

TS: Does someone need to throw the ball from the top and someone catch it at the bottom? Maybe this could be less interactive and physical, and the gameplay could be more diverse. If more of these are made, can children compete and increase the richness of the gameplay? It is also important to spend time testing the spacing and adding unpredictability. (R2_O_20221103)

During the production of the play equipment, a professional carpenter was invited to provide structural recommendations for the student’s production of the 3D prototype of the wooden plank play equipment (Fig. 6 ).

The professional carpenter: This group of students is highly motivated. They encountered a problem with the positioning of the slope and its connection with the hexagonal structure. The slope is placed on a rectangular frame, and there is a possibility that the frame may collapse when children climb on it. One solution is to make the frame square instead of rectangular. For the upper part of the structure, two ladders are used. The thickness of the wood for the ladders needs to be determined. The structure may sag in the middle if the wood is not thick enough. Therefore, support poles may need to be added to the bottom, and the design of the upper wooden board also needs to be considered. (R1_O_20221117)

3D prototype of the creative play equipment designed by a group (R1_O_20221117).

The role of the case instructor: guiding student thinking and providing direction and strategies

In interdisciplinary classrooms, besides teaching professional knowledge, the case instructor played a crucial role in guiding students’ thinking and providing problem-solving strategies and directions.

R1: What is C’s (the case instructor) role?

SG: He tends to play the role of “guiding without being overly directive”. In other words, he would provide us with some resources in the early stages but does not interfere too much with the content we discuss. If we encounter problems, we can discuss them with him. For example, when we were facing the second prototype revision round at one elementary school, he came to discuss it with us. As our entire play equipment was too big, he suggested a direction and guided our discussion toward the idea of “modular play equipment”. (SG_I_20221222)

As interdisciplinary educators, we must be prepared to allow students to feel uncomfortable and uncertain in their learning environments. However, we must also maintain a safe learning environment where students are free to make mistakes and their perspectives are valued and understood (Gardiner, 2020 ). Therefore, when students’ approaches and definitions of problem-solving deviate from the topic, instructors must intervene and guide them while valuing their ideas. The following is a discussion that the case instructor had with group members after class, as they had deviated from the main theme while working on their final proposal for play equipment.

TS: Last week’s successful experience seemed to have limited you to focusing only on game design instead of equipment design, which led you to break out of the original scope of the assignment to design equipment. I do not agree that you violated the assignment rules by making a game. I appreciate your out-of-the-box thinking, but this assignment was not about game design. You could incorporate fighting or obstacle race concepts and create various obstacles, such as throwing actions. I can accept starting with archery or throwing games as a basis for obstacle racing and turning the field into a space of thieves, where breaking through various obstacles can allow the children to complete different missions. (R1_O_20221117)

The challenges and responses of interdisciplinary teaching

Interdisciplinary teaching in practice: addressing technical skill gaps and enhancing learning experiences.

The case instructor has a humanities and social sciences background. Despite being able to introduce external experts and resources to compensate for their lack of technical expertise, some students still feel insufficient time is allocated for learning certain technical skills, such as woodworking.

The case instructor taught some content too quickly, and the time he spent teaching woodworking was very short for those who didn’t know. When he taught, he compressed some content, making me feel that professional learning was insufficient, and I needed to find additional information to understand it. … Although his manual skills were not very good, his biggest help to me was that he would ask us to conduct field investigations, which allowed us to observe many details. (SA_I_20221228)

Ideal interdisciplinary teaching requires close collaboration among scholars from different fields. Regular professional communication and dialog are essential to understand the interrelationships and differences between each other’s subjects and facilitate collaborative teaching with two or more instructors from different disciplines. Joint preparation is also required to discuss the goals, content design, teaching methods, and assessment strategies for interdisciplinary learning (Chang and Lin, 2019 ). However, due to school resources and practical considerations, a single instructor often undertakes interdisciplinary teaching in Taiwan. Therefore, a sole instructor of interdisciplinary courses must engage in interdisciplinary learning to accumulate different forms of professional knowledge and new perspectives. The case instructor must frequently engage in metacognitive reflection on professional limitations, introduce resources from other fields as appropriate, and have a basic understanding of other fields to become a bridge for students to engage in learning from different disciplines.

My major is not in design, so I must resort to some simple methods that students can brainstorm with. At this point, I learned about Bauhaus, a design school from before World War II who influenced design education worldwide. What I learned from Bauhaus was that, with the simplest colors, one could create many basic, minimalist designs. We don’t need to make students do something fancy. Instead, they can start learning about what design is and what form is by being able to decompose or transform the combination of these simple geometric shapes. I think that’s enough. I think the design thinking curriculum is not simply about learning about form but also about solving problems, and that form is just one problem-solving method. (TS_I_20230104)

Most university instructors typically have a single disciplinary background, and to engage in interdisciplinary course instruction, they must be open-minded and capable of reflective thinking. An open-minded attitude is essential in learning about different fields and understanding the professional terminology used in other fields. Additionally, interdisciplinary instructors need specialized knowledge, educational expertise, or teaching skills. They should constantly reflect on the content of the course and its relevance to the real world, finding a balance between reflection and routine and between thinking and action (Zeichner and Liston, 1996 ).

Navigating constraints: challenges in implementing design thinking cycles and community exhibitions in a limited-time academic semester

In a 16-week course with only three hours per week, students were expected to complete three design thinking cycles and organize a public exhibition in the community of their wooden play equipment. Throughout the process, the case instructor and students must overcome resource and funding challenges, work collaboratively in teams, and invest significant time and effort in completing various assignments and tasks. Due to their academic course loads, semester schedules, financial constraints, and the need for additional employment, students might encounter time limitations that may affect their participation in and ability to benefit from all the activities (Ryser et al., 2009 ). While most students showed a strong commitment to learning, the researcher observed that some students could not dedicate additional time outside of class to construct their wooden play equipment due to the required time investment.

For most of the courses I have taken, the requirements usually involve writing a paper or presenting a proposal. If it’s even simpler, like if everyone just wants to pass, we might do a group project where we all contribute information, and one person compiles it all to complete the report. However, in this class, I feel that many complex discussions and divisions of labor are required because we’re not just preparing a report. We also have to assign carpentry work, decide how to make proposals. and allocate labor. (SL_I_20221228)

In Taiwan, a typical university semester lasts 16 to 18 weeks, with each course typically consisting of 2 to 3 classes per week. Different schools have different regulations regarding semester length and course schedules. These regulations often constrain interdisciplinary courses, making it difficult for students to have a coherent or in-depth learning experience. Therefore, the school administration’s cooperation is essential (such as cross-departmental course selection systems, credit granting, and instructor allocation) (Chang and Lin, 2019 ). The case instructor believes that design thinking should have different learning directions at various stages of the academic system and suggests that schools should have more flexible implementation schedules for interdisciplinary courses, allowing instructors to design courses that enable students to have greater involvement and apply what they have learned (TS_I_20230104).

Balancing interdisciplinary teaching content and pedagogical principles: challenges and considerations

This interdisciplinary course requires three cycles of design thinking. Therefore, the case instructor had a busy and full teaching schedule in the classroom, potentially resulting in the omission of some skills instruction. For example, when university students designed dream backpacks with children, the researcher observed that the university students needed to improve their interviewing skills.

In one group of elementary school students working on the design of a dream backpack, the group of university students kept asking the elementary school students questions, which caused them to hesitate in their ideation of the backpack. They were unsure whether it was due to difficulty responding to too many questions, making it difficult to draw their ideas immediately. The university students asked many questions to stimulate the elementary school students’ imagination regarding the backpack design, but the elementary school students did not respond much. (R1_O_20221006)

In interdisciplinary courses, forming student teams is also challenging. The case instructor asked the students to post their expertise on the wall and recruit members with different skills to form teams. The case instructor hoped to have students from different disciplines on each team; this was a modification he made after teaching the course for four rounds. However, one group in which all seven students were from the same discipline remained, and they could not find another group to join. The case instructor compromised on this principle and allowed students from the same field to form a group.

Last year, there was another event where some people couldn’t be grouped due to overly strict grouping, and it seemed like we were exposing some people to exclusion. This year, a few people couldn’t be grouped with anyone else, such as students J, B, or C. It was difficult to divide them up, so I thought giving them a sense of belonging and letting them be in the same group rather than strictly enforcing the grouping was more important. Of course, I asked their opinions, “Are you willing to sacrifice your rights to work with people from other departments or different people?” They said they were willing, so I let them continue in the same group. (TS_I_20230104)

Furthermore, in authentic field-based courses, the case instructor allowed students opportunities for free exploration if they did not deviate too much from the topic. Even if the students had not considered the specific characteristics of the final practical field, they were usually given the freedom to proceed without too many restrictions.

In this group, I feel that they did not consider that the playground equipment should be placed in a park because the playground equipment exhibition is an event. Their initial proposition was “no pressure”, wanting introverted children to hide in the playground equipment alone. However, most of the people who come to play with the equipment in the park are accompanied by their parents, and basically, it is just for children to release their energy. Therefore, this setting is unsuitable, but I wanted to let them try it out. (TS_I_20230104)

Interdisciplinary teaching is a highly complex process that requires instructors to possess a level of interdisciplinary background and teaching knowledge to balance the learning proportion of professional knowledge, interdisciplinary teaching content, and principles in curriculum design. At the same time, they must also have sufficient resources, time, and practical experience to connect classroom content with the real world and consider using different teaching tasks to provide students with guidance scaffolding to develop hard and soft skills (Vogler et al., 2018 ). In addition, interdisciplinary design thinking courses should include growth-oriented reflection, explicit group work skills, and content with a real-world application (Skywark et al., 2022 ). As interdisciplinary instructors, they must also have a degree of flexibility and openness to accept unexpected situations that may arise during the process and afford students the space to try and learn from their mistakes.

Conclusions and suggestions

Conclusions, design thinking as a methodology for interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching.

In higher education, instructors often lack interdisciplinary education and training in using interdisciplinary methods in teaching. Drawing on the case instructor’s interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching experience in this study, we propose that design thinking is a suitable methodology for interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching. Design thinking emphasizes starting from practical situations and problems, exploring users’ potential needs and challenges, and valuing human-centered design and innovative solutions. In interdisciplinary courses, students come from diverse backgrounds and professions, and they can work together using design thinking to integrate their knowledge and skills to solve complex problems.

In interdisciplinary teaching, it is crucial to assess effective methods for fostering teacher-student relationships and promoting classroom discussions. Researching the roles of visual tools and communication in interdisciplinary dialog provides valuable insights, contributing to a deeper understanding of their impact on learning. Additionally, the study explored the influence of on-site observation and user experiences on students, assessing the feasibility of integrating these activities. Analyzing the progressive practice of the design POV sheds light on its effects on students’ problem-solving abilities. The study also emphasized the importance of feedback collection during prototype testing, presenting best practices and improvement recommendations. Lastly, an evaluation of instructors’ roles in interdisciplinary teaching concluded the exploration, offering insights and practical recommendations for enhanced teaching effectiveness.

This case study investigated the development and delivery of an interdisciplinary curriculum within a university setting, exploring instructional challenges and strategies for professional development and reflection, particularly in the unique circumstances of a university post-pandemic. The insights aimed to guide the advancement of interdisciplinary education practices in Taiwan and beyond. The research examined strategies used by instructors to balance disciplinary knowledge acquisition in interdisciplinary teaching, addressing limitations in their professional background and how this balance impacts student expectations. An evaluation assesses the resource and time investment required for interdisciplinary course development, exploring strategies to overcome associated challenges. Emphasizing the intricate connection between interdisciplinary course content and the real world, the study underscores the need for ample resources, time, and practical venues.

Cultivating interdisciplinary talent is crucial in higher education, leading to recommendations for allocating fixed funds in future university academic development plans. Instructors are encouraged to actively seek government research project funds and collaborate with established partners for enduring learning opportunities. Despite increased time investment and potential term-related limitations in interdisciplinary learning, the suggestion is to enhance student learning depth by introducing flexibility into the curricular structure, such as adopting a modular or intensive course system. The ongoing challenge of balancing interdisciplinary teaching content and principles necessitates continuous adjustments. In designing learning tasks, instructors should prioritize depth over breadth, avoiding superficial outcomes. It is crucial to adapt courses based on student feedback to achieve interdisciplinary teaching objectives.

Limitations and suggestions

This study investigated how a university instructor utilizes design thinking in interdisciplinary curriculum design and explored the teaching challenges and coping strategies. Due to space limitations, this study primarily focused on the case instructor’s perspective and did not present the students’ views on interdisciplinary learning. Additionally, to avoid disrupting classroom learning, the researcher and the collaborative observer only observed from the periphery of the classroom and did not observe student interactions during group discussions, so some information could only be obtained through post-interviews.

Furthermore, in this case, the case instructor had a humanities and social science background and thus emphasized observation and interviews. This issue requires further exploration into interdisciplinary curriculum design. The emphasis on interdisciplinary curriculum design could differ if the focus were shifted to instructors or students from a science and technology background. Future research could conduct comparative studies of interdisciplinary teaching among instructors from diverse backgrounds to understand their perspectives on interdisciplinary curriculum design. Finally, future research could also investigate students’ attitudes and opinions on interdisciplinary learning to understand more fully their needs and expectations of interdisciplinary education.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Science and Technology Council of Taiwan under Grant No. NSTC 111-2410-H-017-027-.

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Department of Education, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

Chia-Chi Wang

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Wang, CC. Using design thinking for interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching: a case study in higher education. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 307 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02813-z

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Received : 09 August 2023

Accepted : 06 February 2024

Published : 24 February 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02813-z

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