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The American Educational Research Journal ( AERJ ) is the flagship journal of the American Educational Research Association, featuring articles that advance the empirical, theoretical, and methodological understanding of education and learning. It publishes original peer-reviewed analyses that span the field of education research across all subfields and disciplines and all levels of analysis. It also encourages submissions across all levels of education throughout the life span and all forms of learning. AERJ welcomes submissions of the highest quality, reflecting a wide range of perspectives, topics, contexts, and methods, including interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary work.

Impact Factor : 3.6 5-Year Impact Factor : 5.7

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• AERJ Editor Team Extended Two Additional Years AERA is pleased to announce that the co-editor team for the  American Educational Research Journal  will be extended for two additional years through 2024.  Read more  in the November 2021 AERA Highlights  
• The Centennial Issue of AERJ Available Open Access The special Centennial Issue of AERJ , "Education Research for the Next 100 Years - A Renewed Vision of Interdisciplinarity for the New AERJ ," is available  here .

Early Childhood Education Journal

Early Childhood Education Journal is a professional publication of original peer-reviewed articles that reflect exemplary practices in the field of contemporary early childhood education. Articles cover the social, physical, emotional, and intellectual development of children age birth through 8, analyzing issues, trends, and practices from an educational perspective. The journal publishes feature-length articles that skillfully blend theory, research, and practice; descriptions of outstanding early childhood programs worldwide; as well as quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods research. Early Childhood Education Journal is of interest not only to classroom teachers, child care providers, college and university faculty, and administrators, but also to other professionals in psychology, health care, family relations, and social services dedicated to the care of young children. Detailed instructions for authors and a link to the online submission portal may be found online at https://www.springer.com/journal/10643.

• Patricia A. Crawford

Latest issue

Volume 52, Issue 4

Latest articles

Broadening the notion of peer-to-peer interactions when young children engage with digital technology.

• Andrea Nolan
• Deborah Moore

Pentagon or “Five-Angle Shape”? Exploring the Effects of Shape Names on Young Children’s Geometric Shape Knowledge

• Patrick Pieng
• Lisa M. Weckbacher
• Yukari Okamoto

The Impact of Oral Language and Transcription Skills on Early Writing Production in Kindergarteners: Productivity and Quality

• Cristina Rodríguez
• Juan E. Jiménez
• Jennifer Balade

“What we have done is baking together”: Asian Immigrant Parents’ Perspectives and Experiences Regarding Children’s Mental Health Related to Online Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Changes in stress following wage increases for early childhood educators.

• Randi A. Bates
• Jaclyn M. Dynia

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Journal of Education

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• Description
• Aims and Scope
• Editorial Board
• Abstracting / Indexing
• Submission Guidelines

The mission of the Journal of Education is to disseminate knowledge that informs practice in PK-12, higher, and professional education. We hope to expedite the integration of research, theory, and practice in education. Researchers, scholars, educators, and advanced doctoral students are invited to submit manuscripts that inform the education of PreK-12 learners or pre-service and in-service teachers and other professionals in the field. The Journal prioritizes publication of manuscripts related to PreK-12 education and manuscripts that focus on equity, diversity, inclusion, and access. Consistent with the Journal's mission, every manuscript accepted for review must include a discussion of implications for practice.

• Clarivate Analytics: Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)
• ERIC (Education Resources Information Center)

Submit your manuscript to the Journal of Education here: https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/bujoe . Manuscripts will not be accepted by email.

Guidelines for Authors

The  Journal of Education  is published three times during the calendar year: winter, spring, and fall.  Please carefully read the guidelines below. For specific questions or inquiries, please email: [email protected]

The mission of the Journal of Education is to disseminate knowledge that informs practice in PK-12, higher, and professional education. We hope to expedite the integration of research, theory, and practice in education. Researchers, scholars, educators, and advanced doctoral students are invited to submit manuscripts that inform the education of PreK-12 learners or pre-service and in-service teachers and other professionals in the field. The Journal prioritizes publication of manuscripts related to PreK-12 education and manuscripts that focus on equity, diversity, inclusion, and access. Consistent with the Journal 's mission, every manuscript accepted for review must include a discussion of implications for practice.

Types of Manuscripts

Two types of manuscripts will be considered: reports of original research and explications of theory. Please note, the Journal is no longer accepting unsolicited book reviews.

Reports of Original Research should include the following:

• Abstract – offering a brief overview of the study purpose or aims, methods, results, and implications (the abstract should be unstructured and a maximum of 100 words)
• Introduction – providing brief but relevant background information for the current study, including a clear statement of purpose, a review of relevant literature, a description of the contribution of the study to the research literature, and research aims or questions;
• Methods – presenting specific details about the methods employed, including details a about sampling or recruitment, participants, measurement, and data collection and analysis ;
•  Results (quantitative) or Findings (qualitative) – describing the major findings (i.e., data and analyses) in relation to the research questions or aims, referencing tables or figures (if appropriate); and
• Discussion – articulating key findings related to the identified research questions or aims, important implications in relation to the existing literature, study limitations, and implications for practice.

Explications of Theory focus on conceptual or theoretical work. Manuscripts should include a:

• clear explanation of a theoretical perspective that informs practice;
• description of the historical context;
• justification based on the literature; and
• critical discussion of implications for practice in the broader field of education.

Comprehensive literature reviews are welcome. While there is no required structure for Explications of Theory, authors may consider using the same structure as Reports of Original Research, described above.

Manuscript Submission

Submit your manuscript to the Journal of Education here: https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/bujoe

• The manuscript should represent original work, not published previously in print or electronic form.
• The text should be double spaced, in 12 pt. Times New Roman typeface, and introduced with a 100-word unstructured abstract.
• The page limit is approximately 25 pages for Reports of Original Research and Explications of Theory; the page limit for manuscripts reporting on qualitative research may be extended to 30 pages.
• There should be a one-inch margin on all sides of an 8 ½ x 11-inch page.
• The manuscript should conform to the style specifications of the American Psychological Association as described in the Concise Rules of APA Style, Seventh Edition (2019).
• A reasonable number of clear tables and/or figures may be included at the end of the text.

Consistent with the policy of anonymous review, the author(s)’ name(s), role(s), and institutional affiliation(s) should be listed only on a separate cover page that will be removed before the manuscript is sent to the reviewers. That cover page should include the name of the corresponding author, e-mail and postal addresses, and telephone number. References to the author(s)’ previous work should be listed as Author(s) in the citations and references. Acknowledgment of cooperating scholars or professionals and funding sources should be added to the end of the cover page.

Manuscript Review and Selection

The corresponding author will receive a notice of receipt of the manuscript within two weeks. Once your manuscript is received, it will be read by the editors to determine whether it will be sent for peer review. If accepted for peer review, authors will receive the reviewers’ decision within three months. Four types of decisions are made: Accept as submitted, Accept with revisions, Revise and resubmit, or Not accepted. All manuscripts will be judged on adherence to the Guidelines for Authors, the quality and significance of the content, the inclusion of a valid discussion of implications for practice, and the clarity and cohesion of the text.

Reports of Original Research will be judged, as well, on the significance of the inquiry, the rigor of the methods, and the validity of the findings and implications.

Explications of Theory  will be judged, as well, on the significance of the theory, the clarity of the explication, the quality of the justification, and the validity of the implications.

Upon acceptance of a manuscript, the author(s) will be expected to agree to assign the rights to the copyright to the  Journal of Education , with the authors retaining broad duplication and distribution rights for teaching and related educational uses.

Editorial policies:

Authorship : All parties who have made a substantive contribution to the article should be listed as authors. Principal authorship, authorship order, and other publication credits should be based on the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individuals involved, regardless of their status. their status. A student is usually listed as principal author on any multiple-authored publication that substantially derives from the student’s dissertation or thesis.

Acknowledgements : All contributors who do not meet the criteria for authorship should be listed in an Acknowledgements section. Examples of those who might be acknowledged include a person who provided purely technical help or a department chair who provided only general support.

Funding :  Journal of Education requires all authors to acknowledge their funding in a consistent fashion under a separate heading. Please visit the  Funding Acknowledgements  page on the Sage Journal Author Gateway to confirm the format of the acknowledgment text in the event of funding, or state that: This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors

Declaration of conflicting interests : Journal of Education encourages authors to include a declaration of any conflicting interests and recommends you review the good practice guidelines on the Sage Journal Author Gateway . Please include any declaration separate from the main text, after any acknowledgements, under the heading “Conflicts of Interest.” When making a declaration, the disclosure information must be specific and include any financial relationship that any authors of the article have with any sponsoring organization and the for-profit interests the organization represents, and with any for-profit product discussed or implied in the text of the article.

Publishing policies

Publication ethics : Sage is committed to upholding the integrity of the academic record. We encourage authors to refer to the Committee on Publication Ethics’  International Standards for Authors  and view the Publication Ethics page on the  Sage Author Gateway . Journal policy prohibits an author from submitting the same manuscript for consideration by another journal and does not allow publication of a manuscript that has been published in whole or in part by another journal.

Plagiarism : Journal of Education and Sage take issues of copyright infringement, plagiarism, or other breaches of best practice in publication very seriously. We seek to protect the rights of our authors, and we always investigate claims of plagiarism or misuse of published articles. Where an article, for example, is found to have plagiarized other work or included third-party copyright material without permission or with insufficient acknowledgement, or where the authorship of the article is contested, we reserve the right to take action including, but not limited to: publishing an erratum or corrigendum (correction); retracting the article; taking up the matter with the head of department or dean of the author's institution and/or relevant academic bodies or societies; or taking appropriate legal action.

Prior publication : If material has been previously published, it is not generally acceptable for publication in a Sage journal. However, there are certain circumstances where previously published material can be considered for publication. Please refer to the guidance on the  Sage Author Gateway  or if in doubt, contact the Editor at the address given below.

As part of our commitment to ensuring an ethical, transparent, and fair peer review process, Sage is a supporting member of ORCID, the Open Researcher and Contributor ID. ORCID provides a unique and persistent digital identifier that distinguishes researchers from every other researcher, even those who share the same name, and, through integration in key research workflows such as manuscript and grant submission, supports automated linkages between researchers and their professional activities, ensuring that their work is recognized.

The collection of ORCID iDs from corresponding authors is now part of the submission process of this journal. If you already have an ORCID iD, you will be asked to associate that to your submission during the online submission process. We also strongly encourage all co-authors to link their ORCID ID to their accounts in our online peer review platforms. It takes seconds to do: click the link when prompted, sign into your ORCID account, and our systems are automatically updated. Your ORCID iD will become part of your accepted publication’s metadata, making your work attributable to you and only you. Your ORCID iD is published with your article so that fellow researchers reading your work can link to your ORCID profile and from there link to your other publications.

If you do not already have an ORCID iD, please follow this link to create one or visit our ORCID homepage to learn more.

For additional information, please contact:

Zach Rossetti, Editor

Boston University

Wheelock College of Education & Human Development

Two Silber Way

Boston, MA 02215

617-353-6419

[email protected]

https://journals.sagepub.com/home/jex

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Philosophy of Education

A peer-reviewed journal of the philosophy of education society, issn 2771-9618.

About This Journal

Philosophy of Education publishes a wide range of work that addresses philosophical questions about education, with philosophical and education both construed broadly.  This international peer-reviewed journal welcomes work in ethics, epistemology, politics, and aesthetics, including work in the overlapping domains of race and gender theory, pedagogy, and methodology.  Philosophy of Education is committed to the rigorous and vigorous exploration of questions about curriculum, pedagogy, school policy, higher education, and the school’s relationship with the larger society. 

The journal is produced in 4 issues per year, with a distinctively dialogical aspect.  Articles are paired with responses, which may support, challenge, and/or extend the ideas in the original article.  Philosophy of Education invites readers to consider these pairs as a set, and as a particularly philosophical mode of publication that treats ideas always as the prompt to further conversation.

Philosophy of Education  has always been and will remain a fully Open Access journal. There are no fees or costs involved with publishing in the journal or accessing content. 

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Berkeley Review of Education

A student-led journal committed to diversity, equity, and social justice

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• A Selective List of Journals on Teaching & Learning

The purpose of this list is two-fold:

• To provide sources of current awareness in general and disciplinary teaching and learning scholarship
• To provide suggested venues for publication outside of the literature of library and information science

For instruction librarians in an academic setting, there is value in keeping current with teaching and learning scholarship reported in the literature of library and information science but also higher education and other academic disciplines. In addition, librarians who plan to publish pedagogical articles may find it helpful to identify other journals outside the library field with this focus, in order to speak to teaching faculty. For these reasons, the ACRL Instruction Section Research & Scholarship Committee provides here a selective list of teaching and learning journals that focus on instructional strategies in higher education. Journals included in the list are:

• English language
• focused on higher education
• focused on teaching and learning

This list is updated every three years. The following categories were selected and annotated in 2024. For a listing of journals by discipline, see the list maintained by the Center for Teaching and Learning at UNC Charlotte. 

Categories:

First-year experience

Reading / reading strategies, project-based learning (pbl) and active learning , service learning and community engagement , inclusive teaching.

• Social Sciences

Note: [OA]   = Open Access Publications [POA] = Partial Open Access or Hybrid Publications

• College Teaching [POA]: An interdisciplinary forum on issues in teaching and learning at the undergraduate or graduate level, this journal publishes three kinds of articles, full length articles, quick fix articles, and commentaries. 
• Journal on Empowering Teaching Excellence  [OA]: A bi-annual publication by Utah State University that provides practical and experience-based insights from higher education professionals. Topics include student engagement, teaching and learning evaluation, and instructional design. 
•  Journal on Excellence in College Teaching : Published at Miami University by and for faculty who are interested in sharing innovative pedagogies and in increasing student learning through effective teaching.
• Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning [OA]: Founded by Indiana University’s Faculty Academy on Excellence in Teaching, this journal highlights empirical research, case studies, essays, critiques, and articles of a theoretical/conceptual nature.
• New Directions for Teaching and Learning : Offers a comprehensive range of ideas and techniques for improving college teaching based on the experience of seasoned instructors and the latest findings of educational and psychological researchers.
• College Student Affairs Journal [OA]: Publishes 5500–7000 word original qualitative and quantitative research articles on topics of interest to student affairs practitioners, graduate students and faculty.
• Journal of College Orientation, Transition, and Retention [OA]: Publishes theoretical and empirical articles, how-to articles, and reviews related to the matriculation, orientation, transition, and retention of college students of up to 30 pages. The target audience is higher education professionals working in orientation, transition, retention and student affairs.
• Journal of College Student Development [POA]: Publishes 5-30 page scholarly articles and reviews about college students from student affairs, higher education, sociology, psychology, social work, nursing, business administration, and health sciences.
• Journal of Postsecondary Student Success [OA]:Publishes interdisciplinary peer-reviewed theory, research, policy, and practice related to student success in higher education. The target audience is researchers, practitioners, and policy makers, and articles may be up to 10,000 words depending on type.
• Journal of The First-Year Experience & Students in Transition : Publishes empirical studies of up to 30 pages on student transitions within post-secondary education. The target audience is college educators from all disciplines/backgrounds.
• Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy [POA]: Publishes original research, literature and media reviews, commentaries, and discussions on theory and practice of teaching literacy. Content covers learners from age 12 and up. 
• Journal of College Reading and Learning : Publishes original research articles up to 6,000 words that focus on college students’ experiences with “reading, writing, thinking, and studying,” as well as strategies to teach sub-populations, and program evaluations.
• Journal of Research in Reading [POA]: Publishes empirical research and review articles that focus on the psychological and educational approaches of reading, spoken language and writing. Subjects may be children or adults. 
• Reader: Essays in Reader-Oriented Theory, Criticism, and Pedagogy [POA]: Hosted by Lafayette College, Pennsylvania, this journal publishes research essays and articles from a variety of disciplines, including reading research. 
• Reading Psychology : Publishes original research, experiential or philosophical explorations, theoretical pieces, practitioner accounts, and literary or humorous pieces encompassing the fields of reading, literacy, and associated psychology disciplines. Double-anonymous peer-reviewed.
• Reading Research Quarterly [POA]: Publishes original research articles and commentaries, reviews, and theoretical and methodological essays on reading and literacy. 
• Active Learning in Higher Education [POA]: This international journal, published by Sage, provides a platform for publishing research about effective teaching, learning and assessment across higher education disciplines. It publishes articles, registered reports and replication studies.
• American Society for Engineering Education [OA]: ASEE hosts a variety of conferences focused on engineering education in K-12 and higher education settings, providing a platform for publication on PBL and active learning as related to engineering or scientific educational settings. All papers are published in their PEER repository .
• Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem Based Learning [OA]: Hosted by Indiana University, this journal provides an outlet for research on all aspects of problem based learning in both K-12 and higher education settings. The journal accepts original research from across disciplines that will enhance the understanding of both scholars and practitioners.
• International Journal of Educational Research [POA]: IJER provides a platform for research across the field of Education for practitioners, researchers and policy makers with an emphasis on papers that are of international significance.
• Journal of Problem-Based Learning [OA]: This interdisciplinary journal contains articles on both PBL and related approaches to learning, including research on theory, curriculum design and implementation. It features original research, reviews, analysis, accounts from the field, and guidelines for practitioners and commentaries.
• International Journal of Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement [OA]: Published annually by the International Association for Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement. Publishes research articles, theoretical or conceptual articles, and research reviews that focus on an area of scholarship in one of the five sections of the journal.
• Journal of Community Engagement and Scholarship [OA]: Published by the University of Alabama Division of Community Affairs. Editors welcome a wide variety of academic approaches, writing styles, and methodologies in three peer-reviewed sections (regular manuscript, research from the field, book reviews) and two additional sections (community perspectives, student voices).
• Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement [OA]: Quarterly publication from the University of Georgia. Publishes research articles, reflective essays, descriptions of early-stage university-community projects, book reviews, and dissertation overviews. 
• Journal of Service Learning in Higher Education [OA]: Published by the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, this journal publishes original research about methodologies and pedagogical approaches of institutional-community partnerships.
• Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning [OA]: One of the most well-respected journals in service-learning and community engagement, it focuses on research, theory, and pedagogy in academic service-learning, campus-community partnerships, civic engagement, and engaged or public scholarship in higher education.
• Equity and Excellence in Education [POA]: peer reviewed research articles and analytical essays that advance and/or complicate existing conceptualizations and understandings of equity, excellence, and justice across the field of education in the US or global contexts.
• International Journal of Inclusive Education [POA]: original, multi-disciplinary research on inclusive education, pedagogies, curricula, organizational structures, policy-making, administration and cultures.
• Journal of Diversity in Higher Education : empirical research with a special focus on issues related to diversity, equity, and inclusion as well as issues related to teaching and learning  in post-secondary environments.
• Journal of First-Generation Student Success : focuses on the experiences and outcomes of first-generation college students.
• Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering  [POA]: explores feminist teaching methods, black student/white teacher interactions, and cultural phenomena through the lenses of accessibility and interdisciplinarity.

This document is maintained by the  Research and Scholarship Committee   and was researched and compiled by the 2023-2024 members of the ACRL IS Research & Scholarship Committee. Updated: March 2024

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JTE Highlights

From:  Ed Prep Matters – AACTE blog

Journal of Teacher Education Volume 75 Issue 2 Available Now

Celebrating Milestones in Education: A Look into the Latest Edition of the Journal of Teacher Education

Latest JTE Issue Places Equity Front and Center

AACTE Congratulates Journal of Teacher Education Holmes Fellows

Journal of Teacher Education Welcomes New Editor-in-Residence

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For details about manuscript submission, subscriptions, and advertising, visit the journal’s web site at  http://journals.sagepub.com/home/jte .

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About the JTE Editorial Team

• Mission and Scopes
• Editorial Review Board
• Top JTE Reviewers

In January 2021, AACTE  named  Texas A&M University’s College of Education and Human Development as the incoming editorial host of the  Journal of Teacher Education. The journal is currently led by two coeditors – Cheryl Craig and Valerie Hill-Jackson. Lin A. Goodwin (Boston College) serves as the current Editor in Residence, preceded by Marilyn Cochran-Smith (2022) and Gloria Ladson-Billings (2021). The team is supported by:

Cheryl Craig

Valerie Hill-Jackson

Editor in Residence

A. Lin Goodwin

Associate Editors

Maria Assuncao Flores

Heidi Hallman

Andrew Kwok

Rafael Lara-Alecio

Lily Orland-Barak

Jim Van Overschelde

Assistant Editors

Diane Yendol-Hoppey

Co-Managing Editors

Bugrahan Yalvac

John Williams III

Research Assistant

Cassidy Caldwell

Contact the editors by e-mail at [email protected] and at Journal of Teacher Education, MS 4222, 540 Ross Street, Harrington Tower College of Education and Human Development, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4222. E-mail is their preferred method of communication.

JTE Editorial Aims and Scopes

The editors aim to achieve a strategic balance among the areas of preservice and in-service teacher education practice, policy, and research, bringing those areas to bear on one another in challenging and productive ways. They offer a forum for diverse work of teacher education researchers (university and non-university based), teacher education practitioners (e.g., university, state, district, community college), and policy makers at all levels. Linking research and practice is paramount in their vision for the  JTE .

The mission of the  Journal of Teacher Education , the flagship journal of AACTE, is to serve as a research forum for a diverse group of scholars who are invested in the preparation and continued support of teachers and who can have a significant voice in discussions and decision-making around issues of teacher education. One of the fundamental goals of the journal is the use of evidence from rigorous investigation to identify and address the increasingly complex issues confronting teacher education at the national and global levels. These issues include but are not limited to preparing teachers to effectively address the needs of marginalized youth, their families and communities; program design and impact; selection, recruitment, and retention of teachers from underrepresented groups; local and national policy; accountability; and routes to certification.

JTE  does not publish book reviews, program evaluations, or articles solely describing programs, program components, courses, or personal experiences.

JTE Editorial Review Board

• Trudy Cardinal, University of Alberta, Canada
• Charalambos Charalambous, University of Cyprus, Cyprus
• Ruth Chung Wei, Envision Learning Partners, USA
• Marilyn Cochran-Smith, Boston College, USA
• Julie Cohen, University of Virginia, USA
• Christopher Day, University of Nottingham, UK
• Paige Evans, University of Houston, USA
• Ralph Ferretti, University of Delaware, USA
• Nancy Fichtman Dana, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
• Janet Gaffney, University of Auckland, New Zealand
• Kristin Gansle, Old Dominon University, USA
• Lynsey Gibbons, Boston University, USA
• Drew Gitomer, Rutgers University, USA
• Thomas Good, University of Arizona,USA
• Gary Henry, University of Delaware, USA
• Cody Huie, Raise Your Hand Texas, USA
• Amanda Jansen, University of Delaware, USA
• Rita Kohli, University of California, Riverside, USA
• Okhee Lee, New York University, USA
• Catherine Lewis, Mills College, USA
• Thomas Luschei, Claremont Graduate University, USA
• Jennifer Mueller, St. Cloud State University, USA
• Megan Madigan Peercy, University of Maryland, USA
• Thomas Philip, University of California, Berkeley
• Rachel Pinnow, University of Missouri
• Bethanie Pletcher, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, USA
• Judi Randi, University of New Haven, USA
• Rossella Santagata, University of California Irvine, USA
• Deborah Schussler, The Pennsylvania State University, USA
• Jessica Singer, Early Arizona State University, USA
• Peter Smagorinsky, University of Georgia, USA
• Jennifer Lynn Snow, Boise State University, USA
• Nathan Stevenson, Kent State University, USA
• Jeremy Stoddard, College of William and Mary, USA
• Maria Tatto, Arizona State University, USA
• Roddy Theobald, American Institutes for Research, USA
• Katina Thomas, Prairie View A&M University, USA
• Rebecca West Burns, University of South Florida, USA
• Karl Wheatley, Cleveland State University, USA
• Suzanne Wilson, University of Connecticut, USA
• Theo Wubbels, Utrecht University, Netherlands
• Barbara Ybarra, Bryan Independent School District, USA
• Jemimah Young, Texas A&M University of Education and Human Development, USA
• Peter Youngs, University of Virginia, USA
• Beverly Sande, Prairie View A&M University, USA
• James O’Meara, Texas A&M International University, USA

AACTE would like to acknowledge the top 5% of JTE peer reviewers, including those with 5+ annual reviews, high R scores or two consecutive years of service. These individuals are listed below. Individuals interested in becoming a JTE reviewer are encouraged to complete this brief form .

• Adrienne Johnson, Missouri Western State University
• Alexander Büssing, Leibniz University Hannover
• Ali Karakas, Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University
• Andrew Whalen, Ohio State University
• Angela Kraemer-Holland, National-Louis University
• Anne Cash, University of North Carolina- Charlotte
• Anne Durst, University of Wisconsin
• Anne Fairbrother, State University of New York- Oswego
• Ashley Dallacqua, University of New Mexico
• Beatrice Avalos, University of Chile- Sanriago
• Benita Bruster, Austin Peay State University
• Boris Krichevsky, University of Washington
• Bryan Hains, University of Kentucky
• Bryant Jensen, Brigham Young University
• Caitlin Criss, Georgia Southern University
• Carla Tanguay, Georgia State University
• Carol Donovan, University of Alabama
• Catherine Lewis, Mills College
• Charalambos Charalambous, University of Cyprus
• Charlene Martin, Oral Roberts University
• Charles Ogundimu, Columbia University
• Chelsea Cole, Texas A&M University
• Chloë Lancaster, University of South Florida
• Christa Haverly, Michigan State University
• Christi Edge, Northern Michigan University
• Christina Alston, Rice University
• Christine Ogren, University of Iowa
• Christopher Redding, University of Florida
• Christopher Wagner, Queens College of the City University of New York
• Christy Howard, East Carolina University
• Claire Collins, University of Texas- Austin
• Corey Palermo, North Carolina State University
• Cristina Worley, Texas A&M University
• David Boote, University of Central Florida
• David Bruce, University of Buffalo
• David Cassels Johnson, University of Iowa
• David Marshall, Auburn University
• Delfín Ortega Sánchez, Universidad de Burgos
• Denisse Hinojosa, Michigan State University
• Derek Anderson, Northern Michigan University
• Earl Aguillera, California State University-Fresno
• Edmund Adjapong, Seton Hall University
• Ekaterina Koubek, James Madison University
• Elizabeth Brown, George Mason University
• Elizabeth Labone, The University of Notre Dame Australia
• Elizabeth Skinner, Illinois State University
• Ellen Abakah, University of Ghana
• Eric Richter, University of Potsdam
• Frances Rust, New York University
• Hailey Love, University of Wisconsin- Madison
• Hannah Carter, Boise State University
• Haylen Perines, Universidad Internacional de Valencia, España.
• Heather Camp, Minnesota State University
• Hilary Conklin, DePaul University
• Hilary Dack, University of North Carolina- Charlotte
• Íris Susana Pereira, University of Minho
• Isaac Kola, University of Limpopo
• Jamie Utt, University of Arizona
• Janet Decker, Indiana State University
• Janice Anderson, University of North Carolina- Chapel Hill
• Jeanne Peter, Vanderbilt University
• Jeffrey Bakken, Bradley University
• Jeffrey Carpenter, Elon University
• Jeffrey Keese, Mercer University
• Jennifer Gardner, Lewis-Clark State College
• Jennifer Jacobs, University of South Florida
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• Jeremy Stoddard, University of Wisconsin- Madison
• Jian Wang, Texas Tech University
• John Bogan, Texas A&M University
• Jori Beck, Old Dominion University
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• v.5(1); 2021

Educating for diversity, equity, and inclusion: A review of commonly used educational approaches

Leonor corsino.

1 Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Nutrition, Duke School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA

2 Duke Clinical and Translational Science Institute, Community-Engaged Research Initiative Core, Duke School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA

Anthony T. Fuller

3 Department of Neurosurgery, Division of Global Neurosurgery and Neurology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA

4 Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA

5 Duke Clinical and Translational Science Institute, Center for Pathway Programs, Duke School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA

Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) are fundamentally important concepts for advancing clinical and translational science (CTS) education. CTS education spans a wide range of disciplines from cell biology to clinical and community/population research. This large scope both in terms of intellectual areas and target groups requires an understanding of existing educational approaches for DEI as we translate DEI from mere concepts into equitable actions within CTS education. In this  review, we provide the readers with the most common DEI educational approaches, including cultural humility, bias training, and improving mentoring to diversify the workforce. DEI educational materials can achieve maximal success and long-term impact when implemented as institutional-wide interventions, and the materials are not seen as an isolated or independent curriculum. Approaches, strategies, and programs to achieve this are many. However, many questions remain unanswered about what the best approach, strategies, and programs are to be implemented in institutional-wide education that will be embedded in CTS education.

Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) are fundamentally important concepts for advancing clinical and translational science (CTS) education. In recent years, increased societal consciousness has led to the precipitous rise in the usage of DEI in everyday vernacular. Often, when concepts become ubiquitous, their meanings morph such that individuals may have completely different ideas of the concept’s definition, or they become “code” that can lead some audiences to opt-out.

For the purpose of this review, we use diversity and inclusion as concepts in alignment with the National Institute of Health (NIH) definitions, given the NIH’s position as a major funder of CTSs. Diversity is defined by the NIH as “the range of human differences, including but not limited to race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age, social class, physical ability or attributes, religious or ethical value system, national origin, and political beliefs” [ 1 ]. While inclusion is defined as “involvement and empowerment, where the inherent worth and dignity of all people is recognized” [ 1 ]. For equity, we define this concept as “the state, quality, or ideal of being just, impartial, and fair” [ 2 ].

DEI work in CTS education requires an intentional focus on those already practicing in CTS as well as a focus on the training and education for the next generation of practitioners and investigators. CTS is uniquely positioned to reinforce inequities or entirely reshape and reduce inequities; therefore, the additional focus on trainees allows influence not only on the scientific questions that will be asked but also the scientific environment that they will inhabit. CTS education also spans a wide range of disciplines from cell biology to clinical and community/population research [ 3 ]. This large scope both in terms of intellectual areas and target groups requires an understanding of existing educational approaches for DEI as we translate DEI from mere concepts into equitable actions within CTS education.

CTS education is positioned within an academic environment that will either support or stifle DEI efforts. Environmental factors contributing to the support or stifling of DEI efforts include the makeup of the institution’s faculty, staff, leaders, and students alongside the institution’s evaluation procedures and policies. These environmental factors are distinct from educational materials created specifically to increase an institution’s members’ understanding of DEI. It is entirely plausible that an institution can have high-quality, innovative, and well-intended educational DEI materials within an environment that hinders its impact on its CTS educational community. The converse is also true. This reality is why we believe that within the CTS education community, despite our paper’s focus on DEI educational approaches, we must not only focus solely on the development and implementation of high-quality educational DEI materials, but also invest in cultivating just, equitable, and supportive learning environments.

While preparing for writing this review, we approached the intersection of DEI within CTS education with the broadest scope possible and then began narrowing. Our initial search terms brought up thousands of articles that spanned the spectrum from articles about educational environments to DEI materials. We choose to focus our paper on DEI educational materials and approaches, which narrowed the articles to a more manageable range. Each article in our search was examined to develop a list of the most common DEI educational approaches, and then we dove deeper into each approach to highlight the most salient features for the CTS educational community.

Educational Approaches and Programs

Several approaches have been pursued for educating DEI. In this section, we will provide a summary of some of the existing educational approaches and programs created and developed to enhance cultural humility, ameliorate bias, and improve mentoring to diversify the workforce in science. We recognize that due to the increasing body of literature in this significance and evolving area of research and education, it is impossible to be fully inclusive of all the work that has been done and is ongoing.

Cultural Humility

Cultural humility is defined as a lifelong process of self-reflection and self-critique whereby the individual not only learns about another’s culture, but one starts with an examination of her/his own beliefs and cultural identities [ 4 ]. Cultural humility training, usually referred to as cross-cultural training and education, is commonly offered to an array of professionals. The main goal of this training is to enhance cross-cultural interactions and increase personal awareness of one’s values and beliefs to increase the understanding and acceptance of others [ 5 , 6 ].

Although training in cultural humility is not new and has been implemented for decades, the approaches to implementation and its inclusion in research training are relatively new [ 4 ]. Traditionally, training to increase cultural humility utilizes workshops as its main pedagogical method [ 6 ]. These workshops are usually didactic, delivered for several hours or 1–2 days. This can lead many to perceive them as superficial. Further, those who are compelled to attend may find them divisive and uncomfortable [ 6 , 7 ].

Cultural immersion, based on the principle that immersion in another’s culture, practices, and language is an effective means of learning about oneself “in” another culture, has been utilized as another method to teach cultural humility [ 8 ]. Cultural immersion focuses on (1) increasing students’ capacity for empathy by exposing them to a different worldview, (2) developing critical self-reflection/self-awareness, (3) experiencing traditional cultural practices, and (4) exploring traditional and contemporary values and beliefs, focusing on the culture’s strengths [ 8 ]. Several studies have documented the impact and benefits of cultural immersion as a method to teach cultural humility [ 9 ]. Similarities among the studies include short-term immersion into a culture different than own, reflective journaling, daily writing, and debriefings [ 10 ].

A recently published systematic review looking into cultural immersion educational programs for healthcare professionals reports a total of 9 studies with a total of 94 participants with experiences in 14 culturally diverse environments. The interventions and assessments utilized by each program include didactic lecture, study abroad experience, semi-structured interviews, focus groups, journaling, and reflective papers. The authors concluded that participants in immersion programs demonstrated growth in the cognitive, affective, perpetual, cultural dissonance, and skills/engagement domains. The paper concluded that cultural immersion experiences can produce a positive multidomain effect in its participants.[ 10 ].

New approaches to delivering cultural humility training have been proposed. A group of investigators from the Rush Institute for Healthy Aging proposed the QIAN (Humbleness) curriculum: the importance of self-questioning and critique, bi-directional cultural immersion, mutually active listening, and the flexibility of negotiation curriculum. The QIAN curriculum is based on Chinese philosophy and is inspired by ancient Chinese thinkers. The investigators proposed a model that incorporates the following: (1) Question asking: questions regarding our own assumptions about the world, where the assumptions come from, constant self-questioning and self-critique; (2) Immersion: immersion that goes beyond exposure to other cultures; (3) Active listening: active listening with the body (gestures and body languages), mind (stories and narratives), and soul (feelings and emotions); and (4) Negotiation: willingness to negotiate mutually acceptable alternatives carries equal weight as learning each other’s preference. [ 7 ]

Another approach proposed to deploy cultural humility training includes an art-based curriculum. Art-based training for cultural humility has been proposed as an innovative and creative way of training health professionals. Art-based interventions that highlight self-reflecting artmaking facilitated insight, understanding, awareness, and competency [ 11 ].

Simulation is another method proposed for increasing cultural humility. Simulation for developing cultural humility has been utilized as a new pedagogical approach in nursing [ 12 – 14 ]. A review article published in 2017 looking at Cultural Competency and Cultural Humility in Simulation-Based Education identified a total of 16 studies. Within the 16 studies included in the review, a total of four themes emerged: (1) cultural sensitivity and cultural competence, (2) insight and understanding, (3) communication, and (4) confidence and comfort. However, the methods varied widely within these studies. At the end, the authors concluded that no one study existed at the time that describes the use of simulation to teach cultural humility [ 15 ]. Since the publication of this article, several others have shown the utility and the need of simulation as a new and innovative method to teach cultural humility [ 16 , 17 ].

Bias Training

Bias, conscious, or unconscious has been cited as a major contributing factor in health and health care disparities and underrepresentation of historically minority groups in science and academia [ 18 ]. The term “implicit bias” or “unconscious bias” gained significant attention and has been the subject of many publications. The “unconscious bias hypothesis” which is widely quoted in social psychology research, portends that bias can occur without recognition [ 19 ]. Bias is usually referred to as both stereotypes and prejudices and as “the negative evaluation of one group and its members relative to another” [ 20 ]. While studies have documented bias in health care delivery [ 21 ], additional research has shown the impact of unconscious bias in research, admissions, hiring policies, and underrepresented minorities (URMs) progression in academia [ 22 – 24 ].

To educate for DEI, it is necessary to address the significant impact that bias plays in our day-to-day lives as researchers, health care providers, educators, and leaders. The recognition of the impact of bias in all aspects of academic medicine is the main force behind the increasing number of materials and approaches developed and implemented to increase awareness of bias and its impact. Although it is not possible to eliminate our own unconscious bias, it is potentially possible to ameliorate its impact on our decisions while treating patients, conducting research, interviewing, and leading [ 25 ].

Numerous programs, educational materials, and approaches have been developed to address bias. It is challenging to provide a complete summary of the existing data and publications pertaining to unconscious bias due to the exponential increase in the number of publications within the last decade. However, for the purpose of this review, we will provide the readers with the most common approaches utilized and proposed to increase awareness, knowledge, and skills development to address the impact of bias in all aspects of academia including CTS education.

Awareness, Knowledge, and Skills

To address biases, we need to become aware that they exist and their impact on behavior. Approaches to increased awareness are currently being implemented. One highly utilized tool is the Implicit Association Test (IAT). The IAT is currently the only available objective measurement of unconscious bias. The IAT measures the differential association of two target concepts with attributes. IAT, developed in 1998 by Banjani and Greenland [ 26 ], has been extensively utilized by many studies addressing unconscious bias [ 27 ]. Although the IAT is widely utilized and there is research proving its validity [ 28 ], there is some controversy regarding it’s utility [ 29 ]. One of the main critiques of the test is to what extent awareness predicts behavior [ 30 ]. Despite the limitations of the test, its utility to increase awareness and its free availability makes it a valuable tool for bias awareness.

Research and publications reporting curriculum and programs developed to address the issue of racial bias in academic medicine are vast. The research ranges from programs targeting medical students [ 31 , 32 ], residents [ 33 ], faculty [ 34 ], and search committees [ 35 ]. Overall, commonalities within these programs and educational materials comprise the use of workshops, multimedia presentations, small group discussions, interactive audience polling, self-reflection, and clinical vignettes or case studies.

Educational materials focused on interventions to acquire skills to reduce the impact of bias are less commonly reported. However, some information exists regarding strategies to prevent implicit bias. Four strategies that show potential for reducing implicit bias include: (1) pursuing egalitarian goals by learning to associate minority groups with goals that promote fairness and equity, this potentially helps cutting the stereotype off even before they appeared; (2) identifying common identities by shifting the attention from differences and focus more on common interests and activities; (3) counter-stereotyping by focusing on the individual unique attributes and behaviors; and (4) perspective-taking by taking the perspective of the minority group [ 36 ].

Improving Mentoring to Impact Clinical Translational Science Education

CTS education will not be successfully achieved without deliberate attention to improve mentoring to diversify the workforce. Diversifying the workforce has been recognized as an important and necessary priority to further scientific discoveries, eliminate health disparities, improve minority health, and achieve patient-centered outcomes [ 37 ]. Robust mentorship has been cited as a way to enhance workforce diversity in health sciences and research [ 38 ]. Research has shown that trainees from URM groups receive less mentoring than their White peers [ 39 ]. Further, improving mentoring to increase DEI in research has been identified as a priority by the NIH [ 39 ]. The NIH directly addressed the science of diversity, citing the racial, ethnic, gender, and economic balance of the US biomedical research workforce as limiting the promise of building knowledge and improving the nation’s health [ 40 ]. To that end, the National Research Mentoring Network (NRMN) a nationwide consortium of biomedical professionals and collaborating institutions sponsored by the NIH works to provide all trainees across scientific disciplines with evidence-based mentorship and professional development programming that emphasizes the benefits and challenges of diversity, inclusivity, and culture within mentoring relationships and, more broadly, the research workforce. The goal of the NRMN is to increase the diversity of biomedical research by enhancing the mentorship and career development of individuals from diverse backgrounds, communities, and cultures [ 41 ].

The evidence-based curriculum, activities, and training resources available via the NRMN are grounded in a robust conceptual model, authentically address bias, stereotype threat, and cultural ignorance, focus on the formal preparation of both mentors and mentees, builds upon process-based, community-building approaches to mentor and mentee training, and include established multimodal training formats and proven train-the-trainer efforts that allow for rapid scale-up and sustainability.

Considering the extensive efforts by the NRMN in the development of a publicly available curriculum to train mentors and mentees to improve mentoring practice that will lead to DEI in research, we encourage others to explore and engage in activities to deploy this training widely. We recognized that there are potential limitations experienced by some academic institutions to fully deploy the curriculum, such as lack of time, financial support, and other resources including trained facilitators. However, it is challenging to educate for DEI when diversity in the scientific workforce is not achieved.

The NRMN curriculum has been adapted and implemented successfully by Clinical and Translational Science Awards (CTSAs) around the country. Through the Institute for Clinical and Translational Research (ICTR), the Entering Mentoring training materials were adapted for use with CTSA mentors. In a randomized controlled trial, the entering mentoring materials were implemented at 16 CTSA institutions across the country [ 42 ]. In this study, a total of 283 mentor–mentee pairs were recruited. Mentors were randomized to the 8-hour training group or to the control group. The curriculum is implemented in a small group of mentors that engage in discussions based on case studies and activities. The curriculum was deployed by two facilitators and in four 2 hours sessions. The curriculum focuses on six core competencies: (1) maintaining effective communication, (2) aligning expectations, (3) assessing understanding, (4) addressing diversity (5) fostering independence, and (6) promoting professional development. Evaluation of the curriculum demonstrated improvement in mentors’ skills important for successful mentoring such as communication and evaluation skills [ 43 ].

Implementation, Dissemination, and Evaluation

Increased attention and focus on DEI has led to the development of a wide array of educational materials with varying levels of quality and distinct pedagogical approaches. Sifting through the options to select the best and most impactful approaches requires the same attention to detail and scientific rigor as any other topic in CTS. Practically, this means that deliberate attention is given to the selection of educational materials, to the choice of the faculty, staff, and students who will administer and receive the educational materials, and to the environment in which the materials are being implemented.

DEI educational materials can achieve maximal success and long-term impact when implemented as institutional-wide interventions, and the materials are not seen as an isolated or independent curriculum. DEI education must be viewed as integral and intertwined with the successful mastery of every topic and aspect within CTS. Programs and institutions across the country are at different stages in the process of fully integrating DEI into their curriculum. Most have communicated acknowledgment of DEI’s importance by placing it within their mission statements. Undoubtedly, this is an important step towards full-scale systemic changes in the structures, environment, and educational materials.

As programs and institutions begin their journeys in DEI development and integration, dissemination becomes imperative. Dissemination serves a tripartite purpose by providing a channel for iteration, refinement, and sharing of best practices. The Association of American Medical Colleges’ (AMMC) MedEdPORTAL Diversity, Inclusion, and Health Equity Collection is a good example of a dissemination platform (Table  1 ). Through this and other mechanisms, work being done at a single program or institution can contribute to the growing body of work in this space. Collective knowledge development through dissemination is a key lever for success as programs and institutions grapple with the daunting task of dismantling racism, sexism, ageism, ableism, and a multitude of other isms.

Curriculum and educational approaches and materials resources

Rigorous evaluation of DEI educational interventions is an additional lever for success. There is a desperate need to try to get this “right,” which means there must be a way for CTS educators to know which DEI educational materials are better and what impact are to be expected. Checklists, audits, toolkits, and evaluation surveys have already been created [ 44 ].

Unmet Needs and Barriers

Institutional and program willingness, adequately trained and resourced staff, and receptive students are only part of the complex puzzle of educating for DEI in CTS. Unmet needs are embedded and widespread within each of these areas. Most institutions and programs have a general willingness to engage in DEI work and are faced with resistance [ 45 ].

Across the board exists the need to see the value and then to invest the time, funding, and development of qualified instructors. Until recently, DEI work has been an afterthought or has garnered increased attention due to tragedy and exposure of inequities.

Putting DEI into Practice

Academic institutions and CTSAs within these institutions recognize the value of DEI in the advancement of sciences. As such, implementing approaches to further educate stakeholders for DEI are important. Our simple conceptual framework focused on two distinct ideas: the creation of a conducive environment and the creation and implementation of educational materials and curriculum. The framework highlights the importance of the environment when it comes to fostering DEI. Without a supportive and conducive environment, advancement to ameliorate racism and bias in research and academic institutions is close to impossible.

Although, in this study, we focused mostly on describing some of the most used approaches to educate for DEI as we cannot overemphasize the impact of the environment. To implement training in cultural humility, bias training, and mentoring training, it is critical to have an environment that supports these initiatives. For example, the testing and implementation of mentoring training at several CTSAs around the country were possible with the support from NIH funding and buy-in by CTSAs leadership.

Similarly, training in bias and cultural humility requires dedicated effort to hire, train, develop, and implement new and existing materials. To that end, the creation of diversity and inclusion offices, centers for equity, and institutes dedicated to these efforts are important and, as such, should be fully supported and resourced. Also, the efforts to educate for DEI are no longer isolated and are becoming more and more critical components of research, training, and education. However, more is still needed. For example, validated measurements to assess the short and long-term impact of bias training. In the meantime, to what extent training that aims to change very rooted bias has an impact on research remains unknown. Finally, there is a need to continue the conversation, the creation, implementation, research, and innovation in DEI education.

Educating for DEI and dismantling racism in research and academic institutions is a national priority. Approaches, strategies, and programs to achieve this are many. However, many questions remain unanswered pertaining to what the best approach, strategies, and programs are to implement institutional-wide education that will be embedded in CTS education. Further, as we continue to explore, test, and implement these approaches, strategies, and programs, other questions remain regarding the best assessments to determine their impact.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to thank Ms. Maureen Cullins for her editorial support.

Disclosures

Dr. Corsino receives funding for her role as co-director for the Duke CTSI Community Engagement Research Initiative Core by the CTSA grant UL1TR002553 and received funding for her former role as associate director for the Duke School of Medicine Office of Faculty Mentoring Training by the CTSA grant UL1TR002553. She also received NIH funding for her former role as co-director for the REACH Equity Center Training and Education Core 5U54MD012530-03. Dr. Corsino is a former Diversity Strategist in the Duke School of Medicine Office of Diversity and Inclusion. She is currently a co-investigator in the NIH-funded U01GM132374. Dr. Fuller has no conflicts of interest to declare. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of NIH or the Duke School of Medicine.

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• FIRE: Forum of International Research in Education This open access, peer reviewed journal promotes "interdisciplinary scholarship on the use of internationally comparative data for evidence-based and innovative change in educational systems, schools, and classrooms worldwide."
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• Harvard Educational Review "a scholarly journal of opinion and research in education. It provides an interdisciplinary forum for discussion and debate about the field's most vital issues."
• High School Journal "The High School Journal publishes research, scholarship, essays, and reviews that critically examine the broad and complex field of secondary education."
• IDEA Papers A national forum for the publication of peer-reviewed articles pertaining to the general areas of teaching and learning, faculty evaluation, curriculum design, assessment, and administration in higher education.
• Impact: A Journal of Community and Cultural Inquiry in Education A peer-reviewed, open-access journal devoted to the examination and analysis of education in a variety of local, regional, national, and transnational contexts.
• Instructional Science "Instructional Science promotes a deeper understanding of the nature, theory, and practice of the instructional process and resultant learning. Published papers represent a variety of perspectives from the learning sciences and cover learning by people of all ages, in all areas of the curriculum, and in informal and formal learning contexts." Peer reviewed.
• Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning - IJPBL This open access, peer reviewed journal "publishes relevant, interesting, and challenging articles of research, analysis, or promising practice related to all aspects of implementing problem-based learning (PBL) in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms."
• International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning An Official Publication of the International Society of the Learning Sciences
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• Internet and Higher Education Publishes peer reviewed articles "devoted to addressing contemporary issues and future developments related to online learning, teaching, and administration on the Internet in post-secondary settings."
• Journal for Research in Mathematics Education An official journal of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), JRME publishes peer reviewed research articles and literature reviews, as well as commentaries and book reviews. Concerned with mathematics education at both the K-12 and college level.
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• Journal of Teacher Education The flagship journal of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) publishes peer reviewed articles on teacher education and continued support for teachers.
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• Journal of Vocational Behavior "The Journal of Vocational Behavior publishes empirical and theoretical articles that expand knowledge of vocational behavior and career development across the life span. " Peer reviewed.
• Learning and Instruction This peer reviewed journal from the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI) publishes "advanced scientific research in the areas of learning, development, instruction and teaching."
• Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning - National Council of Professors of Educational Administration (NCPEA) Publishes "papers on all aspects of mentoring, tutoring and partnership in education, other academic disciplines and the professions."
• Merrill-Palmer Quarterly Publishes "empirical and theoretical papers on child development and family-child relationships."
• Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning MJCSL is an open-access journal focusing on research, theory, pedagogy, and other matters related to academic service-learning, campus-community partnerships, and engaged/public scholarship in higher education. Published by the University of Michigan. All articles are free online --don't worry about the "Buy a copy" messages.
• Michigan Reading Journal Open access journal from the Michigan Reading Association.
• NACADA Journal - National Academic Advising Association "The NACADA Journal is the biannual refereed journal of the National Academic Advising Association. It exists to advance scholarly discourse about the research, theory and practice of academic advising in higher education."
• Numeracy Published by the National Numeracy Network, this open access and peer reviewed journal "supports education at all levels that integrates quantitative skills across disciplines."
• Policy and Society A highly ranked open access journal that publishes peer-reviewed research on critical issues in policy theory and practice at the local, national and international levels. Includes articles on Education policy.
• Reading Research Quarterly RRQ publishes peer reviewed scholarship on literacy, including original research, theoretical and methodological essays, review articles, scholarly analysis of trends and issues, as well as reports and viewpoints. Published by the International Literacy Association.
• Review of Educational Research RER "publishes critical, integrative reviews of research literature bearing on education." A blind peer reviewed journal from the American Educational Research Association.
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• Review of Research in Education RRE "provides an annual overview and descriptive analysis of selected topics of relevant research literature through critical and synthesizing essays."
• Science Education "Science Education publishes original articles on the latest issues and trends occurring internationally in science curriculum, instruction, learning, policy and preparation of science teachers with the aim to advance our knowledge of science education theory and practice."
• Scientific Studies of Reading The official Journal of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading "publishes original empirical investigations dealing with all aspects of reading and its related areas, and occasionally, scholarly reviews of the literature and papers focused on theory development. " Uses blind peer review.
• Sociology of Education "SOE publishes research that examines how social institutions and individuals' experiences within these institutions affect educational processes and social development." A blind peer reviewed journal from the American Sociological Association.
• Studies in Science Education This blind peer reviewed journal publishes review articles that offer "analytical syntheses of research into key topics and issues in science education."
• Teachers College Record "The Teachers College Record is a journal of research, analysis, and commentary in the field of education. It has been published continuously since 1900 by Teachers College, Columbia University."
• Theory into Practice "TIP publishes articles covering all levels and areas of education, including learning and teaching; assessment; educational psychology; teacher education and professional development; classroom management; counseling; administration and supervision; curriculum; policy; and technology." Peer reviewed.
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Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne de l'éducation

About the Journal

The Canadian Journal of Education (CJE) is a national peer-reviewed journal sponsored by the membership of the Canadian Society for the Study of Education (CSSE). The CJE prioritizes research and scholarly writing that is of relevance to the Canadian education community. The journal is read by scholars worldwide, and aims to represent the valuable contributions that Canadian scholars in education continue to make to the field. The Journal accepts and publishes both French and English articles and book reviews. CJE on occasion also publishes international papers that shed light on shared issues and that include Canadian authors as references.

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New books (in english) are available for review.

Are you interested in reviewing new publications? The book review editor (Anglophone), Dr. Adam Adler  <[email protected]>, invites you to visit this google document to see the many books available for review. 

Publication primée

Cje has some exciting news to share, current issue, editorial reconsidering and refiguring presences: supporting transformational potential in education.

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Teaching about Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women, Girls, and 2SLGBTQQIA+ People: Implications for Canadian Educators

"sandpaper. yeah.”: educators’ embodied insights into comprehensive sexual health education pedagogy, love and the distance: the role of presence in online learning, digital dashboards for summative assessment and indicators misinterpretation: a case study, les pratiques préconisées en formation pour faire la classe interviennent-elles dans les planifications des futurs enseignants de français , les capacités inférentielles en situation de compréhension de récits : l’importance de s’adapter aux niveaux scolaires considérés, effets du programme « des mots pour les maux » auprès d’élèves à risque ou présentant une dyslexie : une étude pilote, l’effacement des autochtones et du colonialisme de l’école des colons : analyse de la définition du personnel enseignant non autochtone au québec des rapports entre autochtones et non-autochtones, conception d’une grille d’observation de la résolution collaborative de problèmes (rcp).

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Tweets by CJE - RCÉ

Tweets by CSSE - SCÉÉ

ISSN 1918-5979

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All members of The National Association of Special Education Teachers , through an agreement with the American Academy of Special Education Professionals , will now have free access to an online peer reviewed research journal in special education, the Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals ( JAASEP ).

The Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals ( JAASEP ) is an online peer-reviewed journal committed to advancing the professional development of special education professionals through research, policy, and practice.  JAASEP is a multi-faceted electronic journal that seeks new contributions based on original work of practitioners and researchers with specific focus on or implications for the field of special education.

The content of  JAASEP  is likely to be of interest to college or university faculty, school administrators, educational evaluators, psychologists, special education teachers, psychiatrists, medical doctors, directors of special education services, directors of early intervention agencies, infant-toddler service coordinators, transition service coordinators, speech and language pathologists, occupational and physical therapists, educational lawyers, and all other practitioners and professionals in the field of special education.

We hope that you take the time to read the professional literature provided. As always, if you have any questions or comments, please contact us at: [email protected]

JAASEP WINTER 2024 - CLICK HERE

JAASEP Editorial Board of Reviewers

An Overview of the Challenges and Resources Special Education Professionals Reported During the Early COVID-19 Pandemic

Ai kamei, kathryn lubniewski, stacy lauderdale littin, carol mcarthur-amedeo, mary haspel, & wendy harriott, an exploration of pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward including students with autism spectrum disorder (asd) in general education, mary. a. houser, tara s. guerriero, & trevor o’brien, supporting student engagement through the use of various discussion formats in a graduate teacher education course, marla j. lohmann, & kathleen a. boothe, ramping up 504 professional development for all types of educators: going beyond section 504 being a special education responsibility, shawna p. ortogero,  vera glushenko, joan umiokalani jensen, victoria timmerman, & tierney o. barcarse, parent perspectives of transition planning for english learners with disabilities, yi-chen wu, martha thurlow & david johnson, when parents of children with severe autism become their teachers: unique cases from the covid-19 pandemic, sydney bueno, uzeyir ogurlu, lisa bardon, & nikki logan, a rural community's role and process to secure work experiences for youth with disabilities, building communities of practice: initial perceptions of an interdisciplinary preparation program for special education teachers and social workers, robbie j. marsh, heather, baltodano-van ness, & monica brown, parent perceptions of interactions with professionals that improve individualized education program development, kristopher hawk yeager, malarie e. deardorff, belkis choiseul-praslin, wendy r. mitchell, courtney tennell, & brooki beasley, a comparison of teaching efficacy between paraprofessionals and special education teachers working with special education students, cristhian c. altamirano, & dake zhang .

Author Guidelines for Submission to JAASEP

Copyright and Reprint Rights of JAASEP

Download this Issue of JAASEP - Download Page

Jaasep fall 2023 - click here, table of contents, teacher’s perspectives of integrated therapy service deliveries:  a case study, vidya pingale and tina s. fletcher, leadership matters: elementary self-contained autism special education teachers’ perceptions of administrator support, kasey dye and rachel walker, infusing high leverage practices into culturally relevant education to support culturally and linguistically diverse students with disabilities, toni franklin and maria peterson ahmad, a brief report on teacher mask wearing and learning in children with asd, makayla heisler, jennifer gillis mattson, and rachel n. s. cavalari, art therapy and autism: a picture of the literature, caroline guardino, rebekah wallis, arien peppers harrison, and morgan green, teacher perceptions regarding the effects of online learning during the pandemic with regards to the progression or regression of students’ reading levels, rachel palumbo, ready for the world increasing effective post-secondary readiness for students in special education based on educator and practitioner points-of-view, deshanna reed and dr. cruz casiano, to buy or not to buy: understanding how special educators make decisions as consumers of intervention materials for children with disabilities, dr. lesley sylvan, erica goldstein and dina hafez, essential dispositions for inclusive educators: an examination of national standards and guiding principles, joanne m. van boxtel and megan chaney, comparing preservice and inservice teachers’ perceptions and actual knowledge of phonics, cheryl wold, andria l. moon, alan l. neville, and tim houge, download fall 2023 issue of jaasep - download page, jaasep spring/summer 2023 - click here, delphi technique: parents identify protective factors to address problem behaviors in adolescents with and without disabilities, monica r. brown, public k-12 education response to serving special education students during covid: a content analysis, cheryl l. burleigh, andrea m. wilson, and erik bean, experiences of special education teachers in new york state during covid-19 remote instruction, kimberly f. colvin, tammy g. ellis-robinson, and taja r. young, inclusive education and rural middle school general education teacher preparedness, joseph a. hogan, designing appropriate small group intensive instruction within an mtss for students with low incidence disabilities, timothy e. morse, spelling interventions for elementary and secondary students with learning disabilities: a systematic review, reagan murnan, conversation analysis of shared reading with students who have significant support needs, nancy quick, penelope hatch, & karen erickson, teachers’ perceptions of school behavior support systems: a case study, laura n. sarchet, teachers’ instructional language with children with mild and severe language difficulties in self-contained special education classrooms, wenjing zheng, download spring/summer 2023 issue of jaasep - download page, jaasep winter 2023 - click here, the effectiveness of oculomotor rehabilitation on impaired reading skills: a case study approach, jamie l. chichy, julie w. ankrum, and rebecca wincek-bateson, preliminary evaluation of a community-based parent mentor program: empowering families to navigate special education, heidi r. cornell, & jennifer stone, creating trauma-informed spaces for youth in residential programs, aimee j. hackney, nina r. graham, kristine jolivette & sara sanders, retaining special educators with autism expertise in schools, laura j. hall & beth allison pavez, life skill programs: an exploratory survey of school based programming in the public high school setting, kathleen hegarty follis, christina helfrich & allison f. sullivan, facilitating student engagement using optimal trunk support for children with postural dysfunction, thilagha jagaiah & sandra saavedra, the impact of a special education course on pre-service teachers’ knowledge and perspectives about inclusion and inclusive practices, muhammed a. karal, neslihan unluol-unal, & sema tan, strategies and challenges to teaching students with special needs during a pandemic, sarana eyire roberts & yeunjoo lee, experiences of parents and practitioners working with middle school students with asd during the covid-19 school shutdown, kristie asaro-saddler, heather kurto, lisa chelkowski & hedayat ghazali, the numbers don’t lie – or do they small sample size hides lived reality of representation of native american students in special education, cheryl wold, alan neville & pamela monaghan-geernaert, software enabling school improvement through analysis, sharon e. rouse, rose jones & jonnie cleveland, download winter 2023 issue of jaasep - download page, jaasep fall 2022 - click here, a case study of compounding views of paraprofessional roles and relationships in preschool classrooms: implications for practice and policy, tiara saufley brown and tina stanton-chapman, video modeling to support physical activity in children with    autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review, joann p. judge, kristen n. morgan, and angela clifton, practicing teachers’ use of online tools for iep goal writing and instructional support, michael dunn and mary rice, special education in rural mexico: two schools in jalisco, alejandra favela and phyllis petteys, pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward including students with asd in general education, mary a. houser, tara s. guerriero, david l. bolton, and esther smidt, a competency-based education case study: a mathematics intervention for a five-year-old with autism spectrum disorder (asd), meirav tzohar-rozen, yael kimhi, and dalia cohen, lessons from the trenches: special education service delivery and instruction amidst the covid-19 health crisis in california schools, nicole nicholson, choosing a career path: moving beyond the challenges of autism spectrum disorder, vicky g. spencer, and s. lynn cesard, preview-view-review: increasing academic access for students with severe disabilities who are english learners, dolores williamson, tracy spies, kyle higgins, and shannon sparks, beating the odds: how six post-secondary learners overcame common challenges of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, martha l. wise, barbara l. wise, and sarah jones, jaasep spring/summer 2022 - click here, examining general education and special education teacher preparedness for co-teaching students with disabilities, cindy causey, lina soares, catherine s. howerter, and peggy shannon-baker, “i’m not prepared”: experiences of professionals working with students with disabilities and co-occurring mental health disorders, megan fujita, grace l. francis, and jodi duke, i-care: a scaffolded instructional approach to teach teachers and staff self-care practices within juvenile justice facilities, sara sanders, skip kumm, brandis m. ansley, and kristine jolivette, increasing pre-service special education teacher skills on performance feedback, tosha l. owens, melissa e. hudson, and karen s. voytecki, using video self-monitoring to improve teacher implementation of evidence-based practices for students with autism spectrum disorder, selena j. layden, annemarie l. horn, and kera e. hayden, understanding how individuals overcome their dyslexia: struggles, turning points in life, and advice, nai cheng kuo, karin m. fisher, jennifer jones, sara hillis, i-chien chen, and keonna stanley, special educators’ perceptions of high-leverage practices, cynthia ann farley and rhonda s. black, paraeducators: an important member of educational team for students with disabilities, sarah n. douglas, ryan p. bowles, and rebecca kammes, ph.d., individualized rating scales of engagement during group exercise activities for children with multiple and severe disabilities: a process description and case series, eydie kendall, karren streagle, and tania helbert, transforming the narrative identity of a student with extensive support needs using multiliteracies, sudha krishnan, jaasep winter 2022 - click here, structured play groups for children with autism spectrum disorder: a critical review, david adams, scott mcnamara, melissa bittner, jill pawlowski & kelly hangauer, assessing the implementation of differentiated instruction using technology within pre-service teacher education programs, annah l. hill, & mariha k. shields, collaborative inclusive programs: influences of administrators and teacher leaders, jane m. leatherman, enhancing conversational skills among college students with intellectual disabilities within naturalistic settings, jason robinson, tracy gershwin, michelle athanasiou, & dina london, self-determination strategies for students with disabilities from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, yan wei, katrina a. hovey, lydia gerzel-short, rhonda d. miller, jerae kelly, & yun-ju hsiao, mapping review of individuals who are bilingual with autism spectrum disorders, valeria yllades, lauren pierson, lisa bowman-perrott, & claudia dunn, elementary principals’ views on the policies and practices of paraeducators in special education, sarah n. douglas, ryan p. bowles, & rebecca kammes, child find activities between public school personnel: engagement, barriers, and experiences, julie m. lane, & david r. jones, perceptions of the efficacy of classroom management techniques, philip r. mehler, investigating the journal impact factor of special education journals indexed in the social sciences science edition from web of science, funda örnek, ruben miranda, & metin orbay, a uthor guidelines for submission to jaasep, jaasep fall 2021 - click here, educational leaders’ perspectives on their preparation, practice, and professional development in multi-tiered systems of support, jodi drury, michael p. krezmien, kristine a. camacho, and alicia gonzales, where is the paraeducator content in introductory special education textbooks, sarah n. douglas, denise j. uitto, sophia d’agostino, classroom membership: what does that mean exactly, dr. katie heath, teaching middle school students with disabilities to solve multi-step equations using the hands-on equations system, thomas c. hendrickson, & annemarie horn , the impact of a community-university partnership program on special education teacher training in autism spectrum disorder, emily r. shamash & alyson m. martin, the practices of teachers in the development of post-secondary skills in students with learning disabilities, sara taylor, using social stories to decrease negative behaviors in students with autism and other disabilities, vivian c. williams, using technology-based interventions to improve the social-communication skills of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (asd), nicole anthony & cynthia wooten, association of intellectual risk taking with science achievement of gifted students and comparison of their intellectual risk taking in different grades and gender, mustafa serdar köksal, esra açikgül firat & gamze akkaya, applying empathy curriculum to enhance the role of the paraprofessional for students with multiple disabilities, christopher russel & soribel genao, teaching children with sma 1 to expressively communicate using augmentative and alternative communication systems: extending functional communication teaching using a model of verbal behavior, cheryl ostryn, what school psychologists should know about multiple sclerosis, ashley n. phillips & denise e. maricle, increasing independent toileting in children with autism spectrum disorder and other developmental disabilities: a systematic review, vicky g. spencer & meghan ello, jaasep spring/summer 2021 - click here, short-term fun or long-term outcomes the effects of authentic pedagogy on the dispositional development of college students learning about the educational needs of children with disabilities, laura bassette, ph.d., bcba-d, ruth jefferson, ed.d., matthew stuve, ph.d. & anthony mangino, m.a., parental perceptions of the transition to adulthood for their children with disabilities, megan gross, b.s., annamayil manohar, b.s., & katherine k. rose, ph.d., “everything now falls on me”: parent perspectives on services lost and challenges during virtual learning for youth with disabilities, elizabeth g. s. munsell, ms, otr/l, ariel e. schwartz, phd, otr/l, elizabeth k. schmidt, phd, otr/l & jennifer chen, phd, otr/l, the efficacy of rhyme instruction in early childhood special education, lisa a. pufpaff, ph.d., legal issues and parent rights for culturally and linguistically diverse students with disabilities, valeria yllades, claudia dunn & jennifer b. ganz, what the medical doctor knows: medical-educational partnerships for success, michelle curtin, do, faap & christine raches, psyd, hspp, bcba, imh-e, students as causal agents: engagement in course selection, ms. cathy haarstad, ms, dr. evan borisinkoff, ph.d., & ms. rhonda weathers, ms, an examination of the correlation between administrator teacher support and teacher self-efficacy level, shiradon h. kirk, ed.d, aarek w. farmer, ed.d & charles vires, jr., ph.d, enhancing self-determination for students with complex communication needs using the self-determined learning model of instruction, sheida k. raley, m.ed., karrie a. shogren, ph.d. & kathryn m. burke, ph.d., individual education plans and teams: principals' roles and responsibilities, emily n. rutherford, edd. & rachel brown, phd, jaasep winter 2021 - click here, fluency matters: an outline to students becoming fluent readers using research based practices in under an hour: a quasi-experimental research study, nicole vozza, quality of life for individuals with disabilities during the covid-19 pandemic  , shannon l. sparks & sang nam, the influence of teaching assignment on burnout in special education teachers, shannon b. romano, olivia r. hester, lauren h. rollins, & randall e. schumacker, retaining special education graduate students in times of transition, karen m. potter, randa g. keeley & breanna l. sherrow, is practice in a mixed-reality environment better than role play for promoting implementation fidelity of the constant time delay procedure for special education undergraduates, melissa e. hudson, from the golden rule to the platinum rule: strategies for advancing toward cultural proficiency for special educators, rebecca d. daigneault & evan d. borisinkoff, answering wh-questions with the support of graphic organizers: effects on 8th graders with autism spectrum disorder, karin r. kliemann, miriam c. boesch & endia j. lindo, investigating the journal impact factor of special education journals indexed in the social sciences science edition from web of science , funda örnek, ruben miranda & metin orbay, experiences of a student with learning disability in science: supporting students to enhance learning, allison l. mcgrath & marie tejero hughes, the role of effective communication in co-teaching to increase student achievement, kayla y. fells, jaasep fall 2020 - click here, what parents tell their post-secondary students with intellectual and developmental disabilities about money, joanne caniglia, yvonne michali, michelle meadows, & davison mupinga, the perceived effectiveness of using mindfulness as a strategy for special educators in coping with the stress of their work environment  , lisa ciraldo, the influence of introductory coursework on preservice teachers’ sense of self-efficacy towards teaching in an inclusive classroom, moriah smothers, tori colson, nina yssel, & linda taylor, insights gained from special education pre-service teachers interviewing paraprofessionals, rob schulze, experiences of special educators in creating opportunities for students to practice self-determination, kaitlyn m. millen, lori y. peterson, jason robinson, & timothy m. luff, examining the effectiveness of fidgets on attention of elementary students with adhd, leslie a. mathews, kimberly j. osmani, & james e. martin, autism spectrum disorder: a cross-cultural variability in personal identity, dr. aftab khan & dr. michel ferrari, the development of aissend: an observation tool to assess inclusive practices  , randa g. keeley, rebecca alvarado-alcantar, & david w. keeley, exploring factors related to burnout among special education teachers in specialized schools, dr. oksana huk & dr. brian cesario, services for young children with disabilities in romania in the post-communist era, luminita hartle, amanda quesenberry, & sharon doubet, progress in education for students with intellectual disabilities in saudi arabia: evaluating status, khalid h. alshamri, jaasep spring/summer 2020 - click here, effects of mass trials versus distributed trials during a shared story reading for students with moderate to severe disabilities, mona nasir-tucktuck, joshua n. baker, cori more, k. ryan wennerlind, and stephanie devine, a pilot study of a self-determination curriculum on secondary students  , brent a. askvig, melissa naslund, evan d. borisinkoff, and rebecca daigneault, student voices: a qualitative self-awareness study of college students with disabilities, chen-ya juan, penny l. cantley, james martin, and brad mays, effects of physical activity on executive function of children with adhd, jeffery l. hart and david phillips, inclusive book club: perspectives of undergraduate participants, shawnna helf, and debra leach, constructivism, zone of proximal development and target in a multi-dimensional classroom, bradley johnson, ph.d., playgrounds for “all” children, sharon e. rouse, rose b. jones and david w. walker, challenges to collaboration, inclusion and best practices within the special education community, cecilia scott-croff, use of visual performance feedback to increase teacher use of behavior-specific praise among high school students with severe disabilities, michelle l. simmons, robin h. lock, janna brendle, and laurie a. sharp, empowering refugee families of students with disabilities, sadia warsi, and karen fitzgerald, individual education plan considerations for online learning: accommodations, carolyn l. berenson, jaasep winter 2020 - click here, transition programs for individuals with disabilities: a post-secondary college experience leading to greater independence in life and work, karen h. feathers and deborah e. schadler, use of shaping to overcome the fear of entering a restroom: a case study of a preschooler with autism, suja m. george, and tamara soemali, the effects of cra/csa explicit instruction for students with and without disabilities taught in an inclusive setting, vanessa hinton, anna gibbs, and toni franklin, cultural issues: treating & diagnosing adhd, noe ramos, and john lowdermilk, the impact of social communication on employment success for adolescents with asd, beth clavenna-deane, mary pearson, and blake hansen, hopes and hurdles: parents’ perceptions and experiences with transition planning for students with intellectual disabilities, jason robinson, and tracy gershwin mueller, how early experiences in cognitive development improve working memory and processing speed skills of children, heather dube, and sarah sarette, instruction in co-taught secondary classrooms: an exploratory case study in algebra 1, margaret p. weiss and wendy rodgers, the effects of relationship history on student responding in an academic setting, regan weston, tonya davis, and abby hodges, a brief primer of three major counseling theories for use by school-based personnel, samuel f. whitley, jaasep fall 2019 - click here, a systematic review of video modeling interventions to improve the independent living skills of students with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability, kaylee s. wynkoop, daniel r. wissinger, and matthew van horn, what challenges do special education teacher educators encounter while preparing novice special education teachers, laurie a. sharp & frank goode, services and supports for individuals with autism spectrum disorders in the kingdom of saudi arabia, siddiq ahmed, morgan chitiyo, and mohamad al-jaffal, how parents of students with pandas or pans perceive the educational process, patricia rice doran and elizabeth o’hanlon, the changing role of the itinerant teacher of the deaf: a snapshot of current teacher perceptions, holly f. pedersen and karen l. anderson, augmentative and alternative communication in classrooms: special education teacher competences, rashed a. aldabas, overcoming adapted physical education barriers through collaboration among special educators and administrators, scott w.t. mcnamara, lisa silliman-french, valda morgan, and tammy l. stephens-pisecco, perceived effectiveness of classroom management interventions with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, darlene desbrow, theory to practice: implementation achievements and challenges of response to intervention in a rural district, brenda l. barrio, kira j. carbonneau, marcus poppen, darcy miller, michael dunn, and yun-ju hsiao, general educator perceptions of school support in teaching students with an iep, faith kenny, jaasep spring-summer 2019 - click here, use of projective techniques in emotional disturbance evaluations, ryan a. allen, timothy hanchon, & bradley bornancin, developing culturally responsive transition plans using the indicator 13 checklist, meungguk park, morgan chitiyo, changdeog huh, and waganesh zeleke, an assessment of perceived antecedents to attitudes of college students towards children with autism, anthony m. denkyirah, yaw nyadu offei & emmanuel k. acheampong, exploring the effects of the autismate application on a 12 year-old boy with asd: a case study, natalie g. wall, julie ivey, and karen frederick, addressing the need for progress in special education:  understanding endrew f. and the role of special educators, laura kern, heather peshak george, lauren l. evanovich, and stephanie martinez, creating self-efficacious special educators through mentoring during teacher preparation, mary m. lombardo-graves, challenging behavior in students with an intellectual disability: promoting understanding and compassionate educational practice, evelyn bilias-lolis and alyson m. martin, exploring preservice teachers' perceptions of preparedness to teach students with disabilities, linda m. reeves, rebecca m. giles, and todd johnson, but… how helpful is that  parents’ views on the helpfulness of selected resources when making educational decisions for their young children with disabilities, maría isolina ruiz, linda flynn-wilson, lauren giovingo, and philip g. wilson, an investigation of co-teaching to improve academic achievement of students with disabilities: a meta-analysis, mickey losinski, sara sanders, robin parks-ennis, nicole wiseman, jessica nelson, and antonis katsiyannis, evaluation of the rhythmic arts project, a multi-modal rhythm-based perception and action intervention, in a school-based setting in children with autism spectrum disorders, beth a. smith, eddie tuduri, emily mostovoy, denise pannell, and chris landon, jaasep winter 2019 - click here, responding to the endrew’s decision: measuring meaningful educational benefit, deborah w. hartman, social skills for students with moderate to severe disabilities: can community based instruction help, carissa hernandez, m.a. & saili s. kulkarni, ph.d., mobile hearing screening in a rural community school in ghana, an investigation of special education preservice teachers' perspectives and practices of steam education, ashley gess, ph.d.  & nai-cheng kuo, ph.d., increasing teachers' use of behavior-specific praise with the teacher vs. student game, renée e. lastrapes, ph.d. , jennifer n. fritz, ph.d. & robert c. hasson, ed.d., building independence through self-prompting with technology, dana r. reinecke, ph.d., bcba-d, meeting the needs of students with disabilities: characteristics of universal design of instruction in odds-beating middle schools, heather kurto, m.s. ed., kristen c. wilcox, ph.d. & kristie asaro-saddler, ph.d., social skill and self-advocacy goals: an iep study, gregory w. smith, ph.d., k. alisa lowrey, ph.d. & david walker, ed.d., perspectives on current practices and barriers to training for paraeducators of students with autism in inclusive settings, emily eyrolles sobeck, ph. d & rachel robertson, ph.d., bcba-d, poverty and learning: the effects of poverty in the classroom, dr. jessie s. thacker-king, download winter 2019 issue of jaasep - download page, fall 2018 jaasep - click here, understanding the removal of classroom auditory distractors: an interactive design, gregory w. smith, ph.d., audra i. classen, ph.d., paul j. riccomini, ph.d., & robyn r. brewer, graduate student (bcba program), communication in support of students with disabilities attending career technical education, christine powell, ed.d., strategies for supporting students diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders in stem education, amelia k. moody, ph.d., dennis s. kubasko, ph.d. and allison r. walker, ph.d., gifting the ungifted: disproportionality of minority students in gifted education, nicholas catania, m.ed., prompting with wearable technology to increase teaching behaviors of a preservice special education teacher, andrew m. markelz m.ed., jonte c. taylor ph.d., mary catherine scheeler ph.d., paul j. riccomini ph.d., & david b. mcnaughton ph.d., “how am i doing” teaching children with emotional-behavioral disorders to self-manage their behaviors, lael tensfeldt, m.a., amory verroulx, m.a., bcba & jennifer n. mahdavi, ph.d, bcba-d., developing peer mediated interventions for secondary students with emotional and behavioral disorders, danielle feeney, m.ed., fostering reading motivation in self-contained classrooms for students with emotional and behavioral disorders, heidi r. cornell, ph.d., exceptional gifted in west virginia: reflections of a teacher of the exceptional gifted on the state program, dr. patricia coon, the effect of a skills-based behavioral program on raising the self-concept of individuals with mild intellectual disability in uae, dr. ousha almheiri, democratic citizenship education and inclusion: preparing preservice teachers for inclusive social studies, dennis j. urban, jr., spring/summer 2018 jaasep - click here, social skills and students with moderate to severe disabilities: can community based instruction help, carissa hernandez, ma and saili s. kulkarni, ph.d., supporting students with disabilities during group activities: five tools every inclusive mathematics educator needs, benjamin s. riden ph.d., andrew m. markelz ph.d. and m. kathleen heid ph.d., using an alternating treatment design in a co-taught classroom to measure student on-task behavior, randa g. keeley, ph.d., a whole language reading intervention: a case study, matthew glavach, ph.d. and warren pribyl, m.a., common purpose, uncommon results: a literacy collaboration for a preschooler with down syndrome, chelsea t. morris, m.ed. and rachel j. chidester, m.s., educational policy: instruction and assessment, christina m. sorrentino, increasing use of research-based practices: action research report on a college-school partnership to support instruction aligned to middle school common core math standards for students with significant disabilities, katherine trela, ph.d., wendy gladstone-brown, ed.d., norah merritt, ph.d. and leah raftis, ed.d., the impact of assistive technology on autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review, angela bollin, bs tr, ctrs, julia vandermolen, ph.d and taylor bierwagen, effects of video modeling and video modeling plus prompting and reinforcement on the daily living skills of a student with autism, kaylee s. wynkoop. ph.d., rachel e. robertson, ph.d., bcba-d and emily e. sobeck, ph.d., winter 2018 jaasep - click here, supervisory teacher coaching in k-12 classrooms, millicent carmouche and jelisa thompson, factors that may hinder the implementation of the school-wide positive behavior intervention support model, jonathan chitiyo and michael e. may, matching students to augmentative and alternative communication: a single case study, sarah dimeo, mary frances baxter, susan zapf, jane pemberton, and husny amerih, academic experiences of students who are deaf at the university of education, winneba, ghana, alexander m. oppong, joyce adu, daniel fobi, and emmanuel k. acheampong, the effect of video modeling on preschoolers’ learning who are diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis, sanpalei nylla lyngdoh, m.a. and konabe bene, ph.d., autism support teachers’ attitudes about inclusion for children with autism, twila lukowiak, ed.d., james ghareeb, b.s., sarah wadi, b.s., samantha stanis, b.s. & jack walter, disabilities and social engagement: inclusive classroom preparation for pre-service art teachers, alyssia ruggiero, student engagement in an online special education-general education graduate program, laron scott and priyadarshini pattath, mindfulness meditation with high school students who receive special education services: research recommendations from a pilot study, ernest solar, ph.d., fall 2017 jaasep - click here, implementation of a post-secondary inclusive recreation program, chris brown, ph.d., john david johnson, ph.d. & ibrahim z. elsawy, ph.d., strengthening social and emotional intelligences through writing, jeanne hager burth, ed.d. & michelle mcconnell, b.s., let’s get parents ready for their initial iep meeting, helen hammond & lawrence ingalls, preparing preservice teachers for inclusive classrooms: a state-wide survey of teacher education faculty, lucinda anne lang, ph.d. & sherry mee bell, ph.d., are we practicing what we are preaching an evaluation of self-determination instructional components in ieps at a midwestern high school, nancy lopez, ed.d. & julia b. stoner, ed.d., ccc-slp, stretch (students ready to make change): making a difference in the lives of students, effects of activity schedules on challenging behavior for children with autism, dr. rachel scalzo, dr. tonya n. davis, regan weston, elizabeth dukes, dana leeper, nandar min, allen mom, jessica stone & alex weber, alternative approaches to iep conflict: a review of the literature, laura sinkonis, m.ed., evaluating the validity and reliability of a student self-advocacy teacher rating scale, christopher m. walick, ph.d., spring/summer 2017 jaasep - click here, the history of behavioral treatments in autism: from the punitive to the positive, jennifer l. suppo, ed.d., how early experiences in a kindergarten classroom shape the development of self-regulation skills of children, eloisa darcy, ed. d., sarah sarette, ed. d., anna boghigian and marley martin, mothers’ perspectives and experiences of speech generating devices, yeunjoo lee, ph.d. and luis a. vega, ph.d., teachers' pedagogical competence in adapting curricula for children with learning difficulties (ld) in primary schools in ghana, abdul-razak kuyini alhassan and chigorom okechukwu abosi, parents are the experts: understanding parent knowledge and the strategies they use to foster collaboration with special education teams, colby kervick, ed. d, examination of social story format on frequency of undesired behaviors, robyn thompson, ph.d., and susan s. johnston, ph.d., preparing early childhood educators for blending practices in inclusive classrooms, mary donegan-ritter, ph. d. and frank kohler, ph. d., pre-service teachers assisting the transition of the student with autism from school to adulthood, jeanne hager burth, ed.d., pre-service teacher self-efficacy for teaching students with disabilities: what knowledge matters, brooke browarnik, sherry mee bell, r. steve mccallum, kelly smyth and melissa martin, variables affecting the amputees' reactions artificial limbs in the kingdom of jordan, mezyed al-adwan, yahya najjar, maha hdaib and monadel al-khateeb, winter 2017 jaasep - click here, how expert special educators effectively negotiate their job demands, shawna p. ortogero, ph.d., rhonda s. black, ed.d.  and bryan g. cook, ph.d., inclusive concurrent enrollment: a promising postsecondary transition practice for building self-determination among students with intellectual disability, amy l. cook, ph.d., felicia l. wilczenski, ed.d. and laura vanderberg, ph.d., improving outcomes for students with disabilities: identifying characteristics of successful districts, melissa devries, m.ed. and oran tkatchov, m.ed., a comparative study of teachers’ pedagogical competencies in supporting children with learning difficulties in primary schools in ghana and brunei darussalam, okechukwu abosi, ph.d, and abdul razak kuyini alhassan, ph.d., a case study of factors that influenced the attrition or retention of two first-year special education teachers, marquis c. grant, ed.d., significant outcomes in case law in the united states: autism and idea in 2013, transition issues and changes in diagnostic evaluation criteria, doris adams hill, ph.d. and jonte taylor, ph.d., effectiveness of pearson’s successmaker mathematics for students with disabilities, steven k. mckissick, teachers’ methodologies and sources of information on hiv/aids for students with visual impairments in selected residential and integrated schools in ghana, samuel k. hayford and frederick ocansey, managing asthma in elementary and middle schools: adherence to federal laws and national guidelines, ethan j. schilling, ph.d., stacey neuharth-pritchett, ph.d., yvette q. getch, ph.d. and a michele lease, ph.d., use of social narratives as an evidence-based practice to support employment of young adults with asd: practitioner’s guide, jamie thomas, m.s. and susan nix, m.ed., fall 2016 jaasep - click here, examining the attitudes of secondary general education and special education teachers toward inclusion of children with autism in general education classrooms, morghan e. bosch, ed.d., action research report: using objects to increase reading comprehension in students with significant cognitive disabilities, sheila bravo, the redundancy effect on retention and transfer for individuals with high symptoms of adhd, victoria brown, david lewis and mario toussaint, guidelines for the administration of educational programs for students who are deaf/hard of hearing, visually impaired, or deafblind, susan bruce, kay ferrell and john l. luckner, teaching reading comprehension to students with autism spectrum disorders in social studies classrooms: middle school teacher perceptions, lisa burke, wu-ying hsieh, norma lopez-reyna and kathryn servilio, general education and special education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion, david a. hernandez, susan hueck and carmen charley, steps to becoming independent: toilet training challenges facing children with autism spectrum disorder, andrea belyea, herbert neely and julie p. jones, leadership style of head teachers of basic special schools as correlates of retention of special needs educators in southern ghana, felix kwame kumedzro, nelly otube, chomba wamunyi and mary runo, revisiting the regular education initiative: multi-tiered systems of support can strengthen the connection between general and special education, debra leach and shawnna helf, effects of inclusion classrooms on academic achievement of students with learning disabilities and students in general education, sharon ware, spring/summer 2016 jaasep - click here, the implications of a system-wide positive behavioral intervention initiative: from design to successful implementation, vance l. austin, micheline s. malow, nikki l. josephs and andrew j. ecker, creating an environment for pre-service teachers to work with learners with special needs, are we ready to have teachers with learning disabilities a study of school principals' observations, heidi flavian, ph.d., follow-up study to family members’ reactions to the initial special education meeting, dr. lawrence ingalls, dr. helen hammond, mr. carlos paez and mr. ivan rodriguez, perceptions of parents of children with autism spectrum disorders towards their partnerships with teachers, yun-ju hsiao, ph.d., brain gym: pseudoscientific practice, kevin kroeze, bae, keith j. hyatt, ed.d., and m. chuck lambert, ph.d., housing and independent living for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities, debra leach, ed.d., using the “asked” model to contrive motivations and teach individuals with asd to ask wh-questions in natural settings, cheryl ostryn, ph.d., bcba-d, lba, an analysis of factors influencing low enrolment and retention of girls with disabilities in integrated primary schools in embu county, kenya, njeru idah muthoni, dr. nelly otube and dr. samson rosana ondigi, employing case study methodology in special educational settings, angelise m. rouse, ph.d., retraction statement, jaasep winter 2016 - click here, the effects of special education training on educator efficacy in classroom management and inclusive strategy use for students with autism in inclusion classes, lynn d. parsons, ph.d., heather miller, ph.d. and aaron r. deris, ph.d., the effectiveness of using a social story intervention to improve social interaction skills of students with autism, mohammed al zyoudi, oshua al murhairi, enas olimat and abedsalm al zyoudi, preventing and responding to student escalation: combining de-escalation strategies and function-based support, chelsea martel and brian cavanaugh, ed.d., teaching sam to read: an integrated team approach with one child with asd, gail coulter, ph.d. and roger sasnett, ph.d., high stakes testing in the 21st century: implications for students in special education, lola gordon, ed.s., identifying and correcting barriers to successful inclusive practices: a literature review, marquis c. grant, m.ed., ed.d. and kimberly michelle jones-goods, mps, ph.d., cameras in self-contained classrooms: legal, professional and student implications, ashlee ivie, effects of an intervention on math achievement for students with learning disabilities, vivian d. kitchens, ph.d., aaron r. deris, ph.d. and marilyn k. simon, ph.d, crossing borders and building bridges: a video ethnography of special education in nuevo progresso, mexico, john lowdermilk, ph.d., mrs. julie pecina, cheryl fielding, ph.d. and mrs. lisa beccera, evaluating and using literature including people with disabilities in all classrooms, mary ellen oslick, ph.d. and mary pearson, ph.d., a pilot examination of the adapted protocol for classroom pivotal response teaching, aubyn c. stahmer, ph.d., jessica suhrheinrich, ph.d. and san diego state university, principals and teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion in israel, dr. itay hess, dr. sara zamir and ben- gurion, fall 2015 jaasep - click here, elements of good teaching and good teachers: a theoretical framework and effective strategies for special educators, vance l. austin, ph.d, what factors contribute to self-efficacy, hildy straus, ph.d., rhonda bondie, ph.d., co-teaching and collaboration: preservice teachers’ knowledge, attitudes, and perceived sense of efficacy in teaching students with disabilities, tamara m. bowlin, ph.d., sherry mee bell, ph.d., mari beth coleman, ph.d. & david f. cihak, ph.d., creating a common table: using peer mediated intervention to promote social communication skills with at-risk and autism spectrum disorder populations, dr. lesley craig-unkefer & dr. jennifer loncola walberg, home-school collaboration for students with asds: parents’ perspectives, mary a. houser, ed.d., charlotte l. fontenot, ed.d., & john spoede, ph.d., validating an observation protocol to measure special education teacher effectiveness, dr. evelyn s. johnson & dr. carrie l. semmelroth, teaching play skills through the use of assistive technology and instructional strategies: a national survey, susan s. johnston, ph.d. & robyn m. thompson, m.s., student outcomes in a blended preschool program, sybil a. keesbury, ed.d., a meta-analytic review of tactile-cued self-monitoring interventions used by students in educational settings, dr. dennis mcdougall & dr. cecily ornelles, teachers’ knowledge of special education policies and practices, pamela sanders, ph.d., spring/summer 2015 jaasep - click here, table of contents, learning disabilities today: an examination of effective and not-so-effective interventions, vance l. austin, teaching algebraic equations to middle school students with intellectual disabilities, joshua n. baker, christopher j. rivera, joseph john morgan & noelle reese, students with disabilities in the polish educational system after the political changes (2007-2012), danuta apanel, fape and lre in online learning: special education directors’ perspectives, diana greer, ph.d., danna harvey, m.s., paula burdette, ph.d. & james basham, ph.d., a preliminary investigation of the benefits of computer-aided instruction in reading decoding for students with autism spectrum disorder and other developmental disabilities, doris adams hill, phd, bcba-d& margaret m. flores, phd, bcba-d, perspective taking through film: educating pre-service and in-service teachers about autism, jacqueline p. kelleher, comparing student and teacher perceptions of the importance of social skills in a self-contained setting, joseph john morgan ph.d., nicole dobbins, ph.d., yun-ju hsiao, ph.d., nancy brown, m.ed. & kyle higgins, ph.d., inclusive education practice in southwestern nigeria: a situational analysis, samuel olufemi adeniyi, ph.d. & akinkunmi oluwadamilare adeyemi, parent perspectives on home-based intervention for young children with developmental disabilities: the parent-implemented communication strategies (pics) project in illinois, usa, hedda meadan, ph.d., bcba-d, julia b. stoner, ed.d., ccc-slp & maureen e. angell, ph.d., the digital divide and inequities for students with disabilities: needed….a bridge over troubled waters, patricia a. tyson, winter 2015 jaasep - click here, effects of the picture exchange communication system (pecs) on maladaptive behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders (asd): a review of the literature, dana battaglia and mary e. mcdonald, comparing measure of academic progress (map) and piers-harris 2 scores of students with emotional and behavioral disorders, terrence rainer chisolm, perceptions of disability and special education services: the perspectives of korean-american parents of children with disabilities, nari choi and raymond ostendorf, instructional constraints faced by learners with muscular dystrophy: a case of joytown special primary school, thika, kenya, annrose wanjiku wang’ang’a, franciscah irangi wamocho and paul kioy, the perspectives of k-12 stakeholders involved in early implementation of response to intervention (rti), nai-cheng kuo, ph.d., the role of peer guided play for children with autism spectrum disorder, amy m. papacek, ph.d., improving science scores of middle school students with learning disabilities through engineering problem solving activities, leyf peirce starling, ya-yu lo and christopher j. rivera, service delivery for high school students with high incidence disabilities: issues and challenge, edward schultz, cynthia simpson, jane c. owen and christina janise mcintyre, teaching children with autism to ask questions, katie e. squires and alyssa bickel, the principals' impact on the implementation of inclusion, carmelita thompson, fostering special education certification through professional development, learning communities and mentorship, mitzi p. trahan, dianne f. olivier and donna e. wadsworth, fall 2014 jaasep - click here, speech-language services in public schools: how policy ambiguity regarding eligibility criteria impacts speech-language pathologists in a litigious and resource constrained environment, lesley sylvan, ed.d, ccc-slp, are parents really partners in their child’s education, clarissa e. rosas, ph.d. and kathleen g. winterman, ed.d, vocational rehabilitation counselors’ perceived influences on the secondary transition planning process and postsecondary outcomes of students with disabilities, vickie miller-warren, ed.d., gender differences in emotional or behavioral problems in elementary school students, amanda malfitano, african american parental beliefs about resiliency:  a delphi study, vita jones, ph. d., kyle higgins, ph.d., randall boone, ph.d., susan p. miller, ph.d., & nancy sileo, ed.d., blending common core standards and functional skills in thematic units for students with significant intellectual disabilities, karena cooper-duffy and glenda hyer, effects of peer tutoring and academic self-monitoring on the mathematics vocabulary performance of secondary students with emotional or behavioral disorders, brittany l. hott, anya evmenova and frederick j. brigham, teaching multiplication with regrouping using the concrete-representational-abstract sequence and the strategic instruction model, margaret m. flores and toni m. franklin, student and teacher perceptions of the five co-teaching models: a pilot study, randa g. burks-keeley, m.a. and monica r. brown, ph.d., students with disabilities’ perspectives of stem content and careers, kimberly e bryant davis, a researcher’s story of assessing motor skills of children with autism spectrum disorder, casey m. breslin and alice m. buchanan, the impact of video modeling on improving social skills in children with autism, dr mohammed alzyoudi, professor  abedalziz. sartawi and dr. osha almuhiri, spring-summer 2014 jaasep - click here, using e-readers to improve reading for students with mild disabilities, amy camardese, m. eileen morelli, yehuda peled and maile kirkpatrick, importance of quality of life issues: a pilot comparison of teachers and parents of children with autism spectrum disorders, julie ivey-hatz and karen frederick, effects of early childhood education on children with hearing impairments in special schools in kiambu, murang’a and nyeri counties, kenya, chege loise w, franciscah  i. wamocho and john aluko orodho, bringing aba into early childhood routines to meet the needs of young children with asd, perceptions of pre-service teachers as they relate to professional practice, emily williams, elissa poel, miguel licona, elsa arroyos and alma meraz-rodriguez, effectiveness of transitional and follow-up programmes to community integration of young adults with intellectual disabilities (yawid) in kiambu county, kenya, margaret w. makanya, mary runo and violet wawire, family communication: strategies for building effective partnerships and working relationships, emily r. shamash and alyson m. martin, adhd in preschool:  approaches and teacher training, ajay singh and jane squires, practitioners' perceptions of their knowledge, skills and competencies in online teaching of students with and without disabilities, diana l. greer, sean j. smith and james d. basham, effects of environmental and instructional factors on student motivation and self-directed learning, anne d. burkhalter, denise a. rich-gross, ph.d., winter 2014 jaasep - click here, preservice teachers’ attitudes toward inclusive education policy in the united states, paul m. ajuwon, ph.d., effie laman, ed.d., & john c. earle, ph.d., autism spectrum disorders and implications for teachers, crystal echaniz, m.a. &  kathleen a. cronin, ph.d., stop the blame game: teachers and parents working together to improve outcomes for students with behavior disorders, melissa davis, positive and negative aspects of inclusion services, christye hayes, m.ed., ed.s., teacher perceptions of response to intervention implementation, j. kevin jenkins, ed.d  &  dia sekayi, ph.d, supporting preschool children with autism spectrum disorders (asd) and their families, dr. jin-ah kim, dr. nancy cavaretta & krystle fertig, ma, adolescence: a period of transition, leena jo landmark  &  trina geye, students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder participating in recess, matthew d. lucas, ed.d, michael  j. justice & kelly m. rosko, issues and concerns of assessment for english language learners with learning disabilities, blanca pichardo, maximizing the potential of our youth with intellectual disabilities: rethinking functional curriculum, trust and communication: perspectives of mothers of children with disabilities on the role and importance of communication in trusting relationships with teachers, julia b. stoner ed.d., ccc-slp  &  maureen e. angell, ph.d., fall 2013 jaasep - click here, responses to positive versus negative interventions to disruptive classroom behavior in a student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd), renee b. brown, a comparison of two curricular models of professional development to increase teacher repertoires for instructing students with autism, information needs and information seeking behavior of teachers of special education in shillong, india, bikika laloo and jocica l. buhril, helping preservice special educators scaffold the reflection process, elissa wolfe poel, monica r. brown, luis-vicente reyes, and cristóbal rodríguez, preparing preservice teachers to address bullying through cartoon lessons, audrey c. rule, stephanie r. logan, and frank w. kohler, special educator evaluation: cautions, concerns and considerations, carrie semmelroth, evelyn johnson, and keith allred, working together for learning together: supporting students and teachers with collaborative instruction, cynthia t. shamberger and marilyn friend, general education teachers’ knowledge of and attitudes toward students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders: are they still being overlooked and underserved, roben wallace taylor and ravic p. ringlaben, should i stay or should i go revisiting influencing factors of sped teacher attrition & retention: a review of the literature, raschelle theoharis and michael fitzpatrick, spring-summer 2013 jaasep - click here, using a four-point scaled writing rubric: improving the quantity and the quality of the writing in a first grade specialized 8:1:1 classroom, lynn carlson, effective inclusion strategies for professionals working with students with disabilities, kathleen a. hogan, marla lohmann, and rose champion, professional development to support students with disabilities in multi-tier classrooms:  a case study, brooke blanks, integrated education in contemporary poland, the effects of self-graphing on oral reading fluency for a student with e/bd within an alternative education school, sara c. mcdaniel, kristine jolivette and robin parks ennis, applied behavior analysis: current myths in public education, cheryl fielding, john lowdermilk, lauren l. lanier, abigail g. fannin, jennifer l. schkade, chad a. rose, and cynthia g. simpson, application of the rti model in learning disability diagnosis: perceptions of current practices by new jersey special education administrators, pamela e. lowry, an exploratory study of successful paperwork management techniques for novice special education teachers, richard l. mehrenberg, factors influencing teacher behavior with students with diverse learning and behavioral needs, edward k. schultz and cynthia g. simpson, educational outcomes for students with special needs: the impact of support and resources on teachers’ perceptions, traci y. sharpe, winter 2013 jaasep - click here, identifying and integrating relevant educational/instructional technology (e/it) for culturally and linguistically diverse (cld) students with disabilities in urban environments, implementing and monitoring the response to intervention process: the special educator perspective, leigh k. gates,  john c. fischetti, and amelia moody, nature and causes of locomotor disabilities in india, santoshi halder and arindam talukdar, the over identification of minority males in middle school special education programs: examining the rti modely, nicole anderson-irish, literacy based behavioral interventions and video self-modeling with students with autism spectrum disorder (asd), debra leach and jennifer rodecki, m.ed., students with speech impairments participating in recess, matthew d. lucas and carolyn r. watson, writing ieps for the audience of teachers, parents, and students: the case for the communicative individual education program, richard j. lucido, comparison of gifted and advanced students on motivation toward science learning and attitude toward science, mustafa serdar köksal, exploring the experiences of special educators following the joplin tornado, allyson palmer, addressing the shortage of speech-language pathologists in school settings, katie squires, fall 2012 jaasep - click here, factors that affect the success of students with emotional and behavioral disorders in inclusive placements, naomi arseneau m.s. ed, theoretical frameworks for math fact fluency, katherine arnold, liberty university, fape model of exceptional student education leadership, dr. russell g. dubberly, working towards math facts mastery, anne durham, district-wide pbis team questions related to using the pbis framework to transition students with challenging behaviors from an alternative school to a neighborhood school, kristine jolivette, nicole c. swoszowski, nikki l. josephs, sara c. mcdaniel, & robin parks ennis, students with obsessive compulsive disorder participating in recess, matthew d. lucas, ed.d. c.a.p.e. & amanda l. sturgis, current issues in teaching bilingual children with autism spectrum disorder, amelia m. medina and judy t. salamon, an evaluation of inclusive education of students with visual impairment in schools and university in beira, mozambique, lawrence nhemachena, samuel kusangaya, & isaiah gwitira, transition knowledge of high school special education teachers in a midwestern school district, christine peper, & kristen mcmaster, the competency based community assessment: a five step process, laura a. roberts, ph.d., & orv c. karan, ph.d., download this issue of jaasep - ( aasep members login to access download ), spring/summer 2012, resilience theory: risk and protective factors for novice special education teachers, thomas l. benjamin & rhonda s. black, the ability-achievement model versus the response to intervention model:  which model is more accurate in the assessment of diagnosing students with learning disabilities, debra camp-mccoy, a program evaluation of an inclusive model for training pre-service general education teachers to work with students with special needs, joanna e. cannon, nicole c. swoszowski, peggy gallagher & susan r. easterbrooks, evaluation of push-in/integrated therapy in a collaborative preschool for children with special needs, stephen j. hernandez, students with multiple sclerosis participating in recess, matthew d. lucas, ed.d. c.a.p.e. & jamie brentlinger, perspectives of parents who have a child diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder, lori a. kalash, ed.d. & myrna r. olson, ed.d., high fructose corn 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©2024 National Association of Special Education Teachers. All rights reserved

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 22 April 2024

What does it mean to be good at peer reviewing? A multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis study of behavioral indicators of peer feedback literacy

• Yi Zhang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7153-0955 1 ,
• Christian D. Schunn 2 &
• Yong Wu 3  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  21 , Article number:  26 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Peer feedback literacy is becoming increasingly important in higher education as peer feedback has substantially grown as a pedagogical approach. However, quality of produced feedback, a key behavioral aspect of peer feedback literacy, lacks a systematic and evidence-based conceptualization to guide research, instruction, and system design. We introduce a novel framework involving six conceptual dimensions of peer feedback quality that can be measured and supported in online peer feedback contexts: reviewing process, rating accuracy, feedback amount, perceived comment quality, actual comment quality, and feedback content. We then test the underlying dimensionality of student competencies through correlational analysis, Multidimensional Scaling, and cluster analysis, using data from 844 students engaged in online peer feedback in a university-level course. The separability of the conceptual dimensions is largely supported in the cluster analysis. However, the cluster analysis also suggests restructuring perceived and actual comment quality in terms of initial impact and ultimate impact. The Multi-Dimensional Scaling suggests the dimensions of peer feedback can be conceptualized in terms of relative emphasis on expertise vs. effort and on overall review quality vs. individual comment quality. The findings provide a new road map for meta-analyses, empirical studies, and system design work focused on peer feedback literacy.

Introduction

Peer review, as a student-centered pedagogical approach, has become widely used in higher education (Gao et al., 2023 ; Kerman et al., 2024 ). In recent years, higher education research has begun to investigate peer feedback literacy (Dawson et al., 2023 ; Little et al., 2024 ; Nieminen & Carless, 2023 ). Peer feedback literacy refers to the capacity to comprehend, interpret, provide, and effectively utilize feedback in a peer review context (Dong et al., 2023 ; Man et al., 2022 ; Sutton, 2012 ). It supports learning processes by fostering critical thinking, enhancing interpersonal skills, and promoting active engagement in course groupwork (Hattie & Timperley, 2007 ). To date, conceptualizations of peer feedback literacy have primarily been informed by interview and survey data (e.g., Dong et al., 2023 ; Woitt et al., 2023 ; Zhan, 2022 ). These methods have provided valuable insights into learners’ knowledge of and attitudes towards peer feedback. However, they have not generally examined the behavioral aspect of peer feedback literacy, especially the quality of the feedback that students with high feedback literacy produce (Gielen et al., 2010 ). Knowledge and attitudes to not always translate into effective action (Becheikh et al., 2010 ; Huberman, 1990 ), and the quality of feedback that students actually produce play an important role in their learning from the process (Lu et al., 2023 ; Topping, 2023 ; Zheng et al., 2020 ; Zong et al., 2021a , b ).

In order to make progress on behavioral indicators of peer feedback literacy, it is important to recognize a lack of agreement in the literature in defining the key aspects of “quality” of peer feedback. In fact, collectively, a large number of different conceptualizations and measures have been explored (Jin et al., 2022 ; Noroozi et al., 2022 ; Patchan et al., 2018 ; Tan & Chen, 2022 ), and their interrelationships have not been examined. Further, much of the literature to date has investigated peer feedback quality at the level of individual comments and ratings. Individual comments and ratings can be driven by characteristics of the object being studied, moment-to-moment fluctuations in attention and motivation, as well as feedback literacy of the reviewer. To understand the dimensionality of feedback literacy, investigations of reviewing quality must be conducted at the level of reviewers, not individual comments. For example, specific comment choices may have weak or even negative relationships based upon alternative structures (i.e., a reviewer might choose between two commenting strategies in a given comment), but at the individual level (as a reviewer) the same elements might be positively correlated reflecting more general attitudes or skills.

Integrating across many prior conceptualizations and empirical investigations, we propose a new conceptual framework that broadly encompasses many dimensions of reviewing quality. We then present an empirical investigation using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis of the dimensionality of peer reviewing quality at the reviewer level (i.e., the behavioral component of peer feedback literacy), utilizing a large peer review dataset in a university-level course.

Literature review

While most studies of peer reviewing quality have tended to focus on one or two specific measures, a few authors considered peer reviewing quality more broadly. In building a tool for university computer science courses that automatically evaluates peer feedback quality, Ramachandran et al. ( 2017 ) proposed conceptualizing peer feedback quality in terms of six specific measures such as whether the feedback is aligned to the rubric dimensions, whether the feedback has a balanced tone, and whether the feedback was copied from another review. Since their focus was on tool building, they did not consider the dimensionality of the specific measures.

More recently, Zhang and Schunn ( 2023 ) proposed a five-dimensional conceptual framework for assessing the quality of peer reviews: accuracy, amount, impact, features, and content. The larger framework was not tested, and only a few specific measures were studied in university biology courses. Using a broader literature review, here we expand and refine this framework to include six dimensions: reviewing process, rating accuracy, amount, perceived comment quality, actual comment quality, and feedback content (see Table  1 ).

The first dimension, reviewing process , pertains to varying methods students use while reviewing, significantly affecting feedback quality. This includes aspects like time devoted to reviewing or use of drafting of comments. Studies conducted in a lab and on MOOCs found a positive correlation between efficient time management and improved review accuracy (Piech et al., 2013 ; Smith & Ratcliff, 2004 ). However, such easily-collected process measures may not accurately represent effective processes. For instance, time logged in an online system may not reflect actual working time. Indeed, another study found that spending slightly below-average time reviewing correlated with higher reliability (Piech et al., 2013 ). To address this concern, Xiong and Schunn ( 2021 ) focused on whether reviews were completed in extremely short durations (< 10 min) instead of measuring the total time spent on a review. Similarly, numerous revisions while completing a review could signify confusion rather than good process. Methods like eye-tracking (Bolzer et al., 2015 ) or think-aloud techniques (Wolfe, 2005 ) could provide additional measures related to peer reviewing processes.

The second dimension, rating accuracy , focuses on peer assessment and the alignment between a reviewers’ ratings and a document’s true quality. True document quality is ideally determined by expert ratings, but sometimes, more indirect measures like instructor or mean multi-peer ratings are used. Across varied terms like error, validity, or accuracy, the alignment of peer ratings with document quality is typically quantified either by measuring agreement (i.e., distance from expert ratings—Li et al., 2016 ; Xiong & Schunn, 2021 ) or by measuring evaluator consistency (i.e., having similar rating patterns across document and dimension—Schunn et al., 2016 ; Tong et al., 2023 ; Zhang et al., 2020 ). Past studies typically focused on specific indicators without examining their interrelations or their relationship with other dimensions of peer reviewing quality.

The third dimension, amount , can pertain to one peer feedback component (i.e., the number or length of comments in a review) or broadly to peer review (i.e., the number of reviews completed). Conceptually, this dimension may be especially driven by motivation levels and attitudes towards peer feedback, but the amount produced can also reflect understanding and expertise (Zong et al., 2022 ). Within amount, a distinction has been made between frequency—defined by the number of provided comments or completed reviews as a kind of behavioral engagement (Zong et al., 2021b ; Zou et al., 2018 )—and comment length, indicating cognitive engagement and learning value (Zong et al., 2021a ). While comment length logically correlates with quality dimensions focused on the contents of a comment (i.e., adding explanations or potential solutions increases length), its associations with many other dimensions, like accuracy in ratings, reviewing process, or feedback content, remain unexplored.

The fourth dimension, perceived comment quality , focuses on various aspects of comments from the feedback recipient’s perspective; peer feedback is a form of communication, and recipients are well positioned to judge communication quality. This dimension may focus on the initial processing of the comment (e.g., was it understandable?; Nelson & Schunn, 2009 ) or its ultimate impact (e.g., was it accepted? was it helpful for revision? did the recipient learn something?; Huisman et al., 2018 ), typically measured using Likert scales. Modern online peer feedback systems used in university contexts often incorporate a step where feedback recipients rate the received feedback’s helpfulness (Misiejuk & Wasson, 2021 ). However, little research has explored the relation between perceived comment quality and other reviewing quality dimensions, especially at the grain size of a reviewer (e.g., do reviewers whose comments are seen as helpful tend to put more effort into reviewing, produce more accurate ratings, or focus on critical aspects of the document?).

The fifth dimension, actual comment quality , revolves around the comment’s objective impact (e.g., is it implementable or what is processed by the reviewer?) or concrete, structural elements influencing its impact (e.g., does it provide a solution, is the tone balanced, does it explain the problem?). This impact, or feedback uptake (Wichmann et al., 2018 ), typically pertains to the comment’s utilization in revisions (Wu & Schunn, 2021b ). However, as comments might be ignored for reasons unrelated to their comment content (Wichmann et al., 2018 ), some studies focus upon potential impact (Cui et al., 2021 ; Leijen, 2017 ; Liu & Sadler, 2003 ; Wu & Schunn, 2023 ). Another approach examines comment features likely to influence their impact, like the inclusion of explanations, suggestions, or praise (Lu et al., 2023 ; Tan & Chen, 2022 ; Tan et al., 2023 ; Wu & Schunn, 2021a ). Most studies on actual comment quality have explored how students utilize received feedback (van den Bos & Tan, 2019 ; Wichmann et al., 2018 ; Wu & Schunn, 2023 ), with much less attention given to how actual comment quality is related to other dimensions of feedback quality, particularly at the level of feedback providers (e.g., do reviewers who provide more explanations give more accurate ratings?).

The last dimension, feedback content , shifts from the structure of the comment (e.g., was it said in a useful way?) to the semantic topic of the content (i.e., was the comment about the right content?). Content dimensions explored thus far include whether the review comments were aligned with the rubric provided by the instructor (Ramachandran et al., 2017 ), whether they covered the whole object being reviewed (Ramachandran et al., 2017 ), whether they attend to the most problematic issues in the document from an expert perspective (e.g., Gao et al., 2019 ), whether they focused on pervasive/global issues (Patchan et al., 2018 ) or higher-order writing issues (van den Bos & Tan, 2019 ) rather than sentence level issues, whether the comments were self-plagiarized or copied from other reviewers (Ramachandran et al., 2017 ), or whether multiple peers also referred to these same issues (Leijen, 2017 ), which indicates that many readers find it problematic. It is entirely possible that reviewers give many well-structured comments but generally avoid addressing the most central or challenging issues in a document perhaps because those require more work or intellectual risk (Gao et al., 2019 ). It could be argued that high peer feedback literacy involves staying focused on critical issues. However, it is unknown whether reviewers who tend to give well-structured comments when provided a focused rubric tend to give more accurate ratings or address critical issues in the documents they are reviewing.

The present study

In the current study, we seek to expand upon existing research on peer reviewing quality by examining its multidimensional structure, at the reviewer level, in essence developing behavioral dimensions of peer review literacy. This exploration is critical for theoretical and practical reasons: the dimensionality of peer reviewing quality is foundational to conceptualizations of peer feedback literacy, sampling plans for studies of peer feedback literacy, and interventions designed to improve peer feedback literacy.

To make it possible to study many dimensions and specific measures of peer feedback quality at once, we leverage an existing dataset involving a university-level course in which different studies have collectively developed measures and data for a wide range of reviewing quality constructs. We further add a few measures that can be efficiently added using mathematical formulas. As a result, we are able to study five of the six dimensions (all but feedback content) and specifically eighteen specific measures. Our primary research question is: What is the interrelationship among different dimensions and measures of peer reviewing quality at the reviewer level? Specifically, we postulate that the five dimensions—reviewing process, rating accuracy, amount of feedback, perceived comment quality, and actual comment quality—are interconnected in strong ways within a dimension and in relatively weaker ways across dimensions.

Participants

Participants were 844 students enrolled in an Advanced Placement course in writing at nine secondary schools distributed across the United States. Participants were predominately female (59%; 4% did not report gender) and Caucasian (55%), followed by Asian (12%), African American (7%), and Hispanic/Latino (7%; 19% did not report their ethnicity). The mean age was 17 years ( SD  = 1.8).

The Advanced Placement (AP) course is a higher education course aimed for advanced high school students who are ready for instruction at the higher education level, similar to cases in which advanced high school students attend a course at a local university. This course is typically taken by students who are only 1 year younger than first-year university students, the point at which this specific course is normally taken, and by students who are especially likely to go on to university and wanting to be able to get credit for university-level courses to reduce their university degree time and costs. Since student enrollment in higher education and studies of their behavior focus on their general level of proficiency rather than age, students in this course should be thought of as more similar to entry-level university students than they are to general high school students. Further, the course is designed and regulated by a national organization, the College Board, to be entirely equivalent to a university course in content and grading.

The AP English Language and Composition course focuses on argument and rhetorical elements of writing, equivalent to the first-writing course that is required at most universities in the US (College Board, 2021 ). For a study on peer feedback within this course context, students from a school were taught by the same teacher, interacting online for peer feedback activities. Nine eligible teachers with experience in teaching this AP course were recruited. The selected teachers met the following eligibility criteria: 1) they had previously taught the course; 2) they were teaching at least two sections of the course during the study period; 3) they agreed to participate in training on effective use of the online peer feedback approach and study requirements; 4) they were willing to assign a specific writing assignment to students and require peer feedback on that assignment using the online system; and 5) they collectively represented a diverse range of regions in the US and student demographics.

All data were collected via an online peer-reviewing system, Peerceptiv ( https://peerceptiv.com ; Schunn, 2016 ), a system predominantly used at the university level (Yu & Schunn, 2023 ). The system provided access to data organized by research ids to protect student privacy, and the Human Research Protection Office at the University of Pittsburgh approved research on this data.

The task involved analyzing rhetorical strategies in a provided persuasive essay, with the specific prompt from a prior year’s end-of-year test. Students needed to: 1) submit their own document using a pseudonym; 2) review at least four randomly-assigned peer documents and rate document quality using seven 7-point rubrics, along with providing comments supported by seven corresponding comment prompts; 3) back-evaluate the helpfulness of received comments using a 5-point scale; and 4) submit a revised document. Half the students used an experimental version of the system that necessitated the use of a revision planning tool to indicate which received comments would be implemented in the revision and their priority, on a 3-point scale.

Measures of reviewing quality

This study examined 18 measures of peer reviewing quality in five categories (see Table  2 ), utilizing both simple mathematics calculations (like mean rating and word count) and labor-intensive hand-coding for comment content analysis. The hand-coding was aggregated from four prior studies (Wu & Schunn, 2020a , b , 2021a , b ). This analysis introduces new elements: novel measures (priority, agreement measures, number of features), integration of measures not previously examined together, and an analysis of the data aggregated to the reviewer-level data. The detailed hand coding processes are described in the prior publications. Here we give brief summaries of the measures and their coding reliabilities.

The amount and mean perceived comment quality measures were directly calculated by computer from the raw data. All the remaining measures involving data coded by a trained pool of four undergraduate research assistants and six writing experts (all with years of experience teaching writing and familiarity with specific writing assignment and associated reviewing rubrics used in the study). A given measure involved either undergraduate assistants or expertise depending upon the level of expertise required. Artifacts were coded by two individuals to assess reliability; discrepancies were resolved through discussion to improve data quality. Coding on each dimension for both research assistants and experts involved a training phase in which coders iteratively coded a subset of artifacts and discussed discrepancies/revised coding manuals until acceptable levels of reliability were obtained.

Before all hand-coding procedures, comments were segmented by idea units by a research assistant if a given textbox included comments about two or more different issues, resulting in 24,816 comments. Then, given the focus of the writing assignment on learning complex elements of writing, comments about low-level writing issues (i.e., typos, spelling, grammar) were excluded from further coding and data analysis, resulting in 20,912 high-level comments.

Reviewing process

The duration of the review process was determined by the recorded time interval between the point at which a document assigned for review was downloaded and the point at which the completed review was submitted. Reviews completed within a duration of less than 10 min were likely expedited, given the need to attend to seven dimensions, even for the expert evaluators (Xiong & Schunn, 2021 ). Here we used the converse, Not speeded, to refer to positive feedback quality.

Rating accuracy

As a reminder, both students and experts rated the quality of the documents submitted for peer review based on seven 1-to-7 scales. Accuracy was separately defined in terms of both rating agreement and rating consistency (Tong et al., 2023 ; Xiong & Schunn, 2021 ) and in regard to the standard of expert judgments and mean peer judgments. Expert judgments are considered the gold standard of validity, but mean peer judgments are often the only available standard in studies with very large datasets. In practice, expert ratings and mean peer ratings are often highly correlated (Li et al., 2016 ).

Expert agreement was calculated as the negative sum absolute value of the difference between the true document quality (assessed by the trained experts; kappa = 0.73) and each reviewer’s judgment of the document quality across the seven dimensions and documents. The peer agreement was calculated in the same way but used the mean ratings across the peers rather than the expert judgments. The negation was applied to the absolute error to create an accuracy measurement in which higher values indicated higher accuracy. A constant of 42 (maximum difference 6 * 7 dimensions) was added to minus the absolute error to make most values sit between 0 and 42, with 42 reflecting high accuracy.

The expert consistency was calculated as the linear correlation between true document quality (assessed by the trained experts) and each reviewer’s judgment of document quality across the seven dimensions. The peer consistency was calculated in the same way, but again using mean ratings across the peers instead of expert ratings. Values logically could vary between -1 and 1 (though rarely were valued negatively), with higher consistency values indicating higher accuracy.

Students were assigned a fixed number of documents to review but sometimes did not complete all the required reviews and sometimes completed extra reviews. Within a review, students had to give at least one comment for each of the seven dimensions, but they could give more than one comment for each dimension, and there was no required minimum or maximum length for a given comment. As a result, students could provide one or several comments, each consisting of a single word or several paragraphs. Prior research on peer feedback has found that comments involving more than 50 words typically include useful information for receivers (Wu & Schunn, 2020a ) and tend to produce more learning for comment providers (Zong et al., 2022 ). Also, there may be a tradeoff in that students could submit fewer longer comments or more total comments. Thus, we also calculated the percentage of long comments: the total number of long comments (i.e., having more than 50 words) divided by the total number of comments. To capture the three main ways in which amount varied, we included the number of reviews completed for the peer assessment task ( #Reviews ), the mean number of comments ( #Comments ), the percentage of long comments ( %Long comments ).

Perceived comment quality

All students were required to judge the helpfulness of the comments they received on a 1-to-5 scale, and students using the experimental revision planning interface had to select the priority with which they would implement each comment on a 1-to-3 scale. Both sources of data address perceived comment quality, with one involving a mixture of the value of comments for revision and for learning, and the other focusing exclusively on whether comments were useful for revision. Thus, two measures were created, one based on mean comment helpfulness and the other based on mean comment implementation priority.

Actual comment quality

The measures of actual comment quality were based upon hand-coding by the experts and trained research assistants. The first approach to actual comment quality focused on the usefulness of the comments. The experts coded feedback in terms of implementation in three ways: implementable (Kappa = 0.92), implemented (Kappa = 0.76) and improvement (Kappa = 0.69). Implementable ( N  = 14,793) refers to whether the comments could be addressed in a revision (i.e., was not pure praise or just a summary of the author’s work). By contrast, implemented refers to whether the comment was incorporated in the submitted document revision: a change in the document was made that could be related to the provided comment ( N  = 11,252). Non implementable comments were coded, by definition, as not implemented.

The improvement value of comments was coded by the experts for how much the comment could improve document quality ( N  = 1,758; kappa = 0.69). The two points were given when addressing a comment would measurably improve the document’s quality on the given rubrics (e.g., moving from a 5 to a 7 on a scale). One point was awarded when addressing a comment could improve document quality in terms of the underlying rubric dimensions, but not by enough to be a measurable change on the 7-point rubric scale. No points were given when addressing a comment would not improve document quality, would make the document worse, or would involve both improvements and declines (Wu & Schunn, 2020b ). Improvement was only coded for implementable comments.

Another approach to actual comment quality focused on specific feedback features that typically are helpful for revision or learning (Jin et al., 2022 ; Tan & Chen, 2022 ; Wu & Schunn, 2020a ). Research assistants coded the comments for whether they provided a specific solution (Kappa = 0.76), gave a more general suggestion for how to address the problem but not an exact solution (Kappa = 0.79), explicitly identified the problem (Kappa = 0.81) and explained the problem (Kappa = 0.80). Separate measures were created for each feature, calculated as the percentage of comments having each feature. There was also an aggregate features measure, calculated as the mean number of features contained in each comment ( #Features ).

Data analysis

Table 4 in Appendix shows the descriptive information for all the measures of peer reviewing quality at the reviewer level. Because of the different data sources, N s varied substantially across measures. In addition, some of the measures tended to have relatively high means with negative skews, like # of reviews, rating agreement and rating accuracy measures, and helpfulness. Other measures had low means and positive skews, like the specific comment features, %implemented, and mean improvement.

The peer reviewing measures were first analyzed for reliability across reviews. Conceptually, this analysis examines whether reviewers tended to give reviews of similar quality on a given measure across the reviews they completed on an assignment. It is possible that the reviewing quality was heavily influenced by characteristics of the object being reviewed (e.g., it is easier to include solutions for weaker documents), and thus not a measure of peer feedback literacy. Other incidental factors such as order of the reviews or presence of a distraction could also have mattered, but those factors likely would influence the reliability of all the measures rather than just isolated measures.

Reliability was measured via an Intraclass Correlation Coefficient ( ICC ). There are many forms of ICC. In terms of the McGraw and Wong ( 1996 ) framework, we used ICC(k) , which represents the agreement reliability (meaning level of deviation from the same exact rating) across k ratings (typically 4 in our data) using a one-way random analysis, because each reviewer was given different documents to review from a larger population of possible documents (Koo & Li, 2016 ). We used the Landis and Koch ( 1977 ) guidelines for interpreting the ICC values for the reliabilty of the measures: almost perfect for values above 0.80; substantial for values from 0.61 to 0.80; moderate for values of 0.41 to 0.60; fair for values of 0.21 to 0.40; slight for values of 0.01 to 0.20, and poor for values less than 0.

Finally, to show the interrelationship among the variables, we conducted a three-step process of: 1) pairwise correlation among all measures with pairwise rather than listwise deletion given the high variability in measure N s (see Figure 3 in Appendix for sample sizes); 2) multidimensional scaling (MDS) applied to the correlation data to visualize the relative proximity of the measures; and 3) a hierarchical cluster analysis applied to the results of the correlation matrix to extract conceptual clusters of measures. We conducted the analyses in R: pairwise correlations using the “GGally” package, multidimensional scaling using the “magrittr” package, and hierarchical clustering using the “stats” package. For the correlational analysis, we applied both linear and rank correlations since there were strong skews to some of the measures. The two approaches produced similar results. 

Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a statistical technique employed to visualize and analyze similarities or dissimilarities among variables in a dataset (Carroll & Arabie, 1998 ). While factor analysis is typically used to test or identify separable dimensions among many specific measures, MDS provides a useful visualization of the interrelationship of items, particularly when some items inherently straddle multiple dimensions. It also provides a useful visualization of the interrelationship of the dimensions rather than just of the items (Ding, 2006 ). The outcome of MDS is a “map” that represents these variables as points within a lower-dimensional space, typically two or three dimensions, while preserving the original distances between them as much as possible (Hout et al., 2013 ). In the current study, we chose two dimensions based on a scree plot of the eigenvalues associated with each MDS dimension (see Figure 4 in Appendix )—two dimensions offered a relatively good fit and is much easier to visualize. We expected measures within each conceptual dimension to sit close together on the MDS map.

Hierarchical cluster analysis, a general family of algorithms, is the dominant approach to grouping similar variables or data points based on their attributes or features (Murtagh & Contreras, 2017 ). It can accurately identify patterns within even small datasets (e.g., a 18*18 correlation matrix) since it leverages pairwise distances between all contributing measures. Further, it requires no assumptions about cluster shape, while other common algorithms like K-means assume that clusters are spherical and have similar sizes. However, we note that a K-means clustering algorithm produced similar clusters, so the findings are not heavily dependent upon the algorithm that was used. We expected to obtain the five clusters of dimensions as proposed in Table  2 .

We first focus on the reliability of each peer reviewing quality (defined by agreement in values across completed reviews). As shown by the blue cells along the main diagonal in Fig.  1 , the measures #Comments , %Long comments, and %Suggestions showed perfect reliability [0.81, 0.95], and the rest of measures of peer reviewing quality, except Improvement , showed moderate to substantial reliability [0.48, 0.79]. Only the Improvement measure showed only a slight level of measure reliability across reviews. It is possible that Improvement is primarily driven by the document, perhaps because some documents have limited potential for improvement or that the scope for improvement relies heavily on the match between what the reviewer can perceive and the specific needs of the document. Taken together, all but one measures fell within the required range to be considered reliable, and the results involving the Improvement measure may be inconsistent due to measurement noise.

Measure reliability (diagonal cells and white font; / = NA) and linear inter-correlations (bold values for p  < .05, and italic values for not significant values), organized by proposed peer feedback literacy dimension

The linear measure intercorrelation shown in Fig.  1 revealed that, except for Peer agreement , almost all measures were significantly and positively correlated with one another. Based on the patterns, one of the measures— %Long comment was removed from the amount dimension in the analyses that follow. Focusing on the rating accuracy measures, except for the correlations of Peer agreement with Expert consistency and Peer consistency with Expert agreement , all the correlations were positive and statistically significant. Further, the correlations with measures in other dimensions were often non-significant and always small: Peer agreement , Max out group  = 0.18; Peer consistency , Max out group  = 0.18; Expert Agreement , Max out group  = 0.31; and Expert consistency , Max out group  = 0.26. The largest cross-dimension correlations occurred for the two expert accuracy measures with actual comment quality measures such as %Implementable and Improvement . The results supported treating these measures as one dimension, even though the intercorrelations within the dimensions are relatively weak.

Turning to the amount dimension, we again note that %Long Comments only had weak correlations with #Reviews and #Comments ( r  = 0.15 and r  = 0.1) compared to the relationship between #Reviews and #Comments ( r  = 0.63). After removing %Long Comments from the amount dimension, the in-group correlation ( r  = 0.63) was much higher than the out-group correlations ( #Reviews , Max out group  = 0.14; #Comments , Max out group  = 0.20). Thus, the support for treating amount involving #Review and #Comment as a dimension was strong.

The support for a perceived quality dimension, as originally defined, was weak. The two measures correlated with one another at only r  = 0.22. Correlations with measures in the amount and accuracy dimensions were also weak, but correlations with actual quality measures were often moderate. The results suggest some reorganization of the perceived and actual comment quality dimensions may be required.

Finally, the eight measures in the actual comment quality dimension were generally highly correlated with one another. Compared with out-group correlations, %Implementable (Min in group  = 0.32 > Max out group  = 0.31), %Implemented (Min in group  = 0.41 > Max out group  = 0.34), #Features (Min in group  = 0.51 > Max out group  = 0.39) and %Identifications (Min in group  = 0.34 > Max out group  = 0.25) were well nested in this group. However, some measures blurred somewhat with measures in the perceived comment quality dimension: Improvement (Min in group  = 0.22 < Max out group  = 0.28), %Solution (Min in group  = 0.22 < Max out group  = 0.28), %Suggestions (Min in group  = 0.34 = Max out group  = 0.34), %Explanation s (Min in group  = 0.34 < Max out group  = 0.36). Overall, the correlation results revealed some overlap with perceived comment quality, particularly for %Solutions .

Further, to better understand the similarities among these measures, MDS and hierarchical cluster analysis were conducted based on measure intercorrelation data. The MDS results are shown in Fig.  2 . Conceptually, the y-axis shows reviewing quality measures reflecting effort near the bottom (e.g., #Reviews and #Comments ) and reviewing quality measures reflecting expertise near the top (e.g., the rating accuracy group and Improvement ). By contrast, the x-axis involves review-level measures to the left and comment-level measures to the right. This pattern within the intercorrelations of measures illustrates what can be learned from MDS but would be difficult to obtain from factor analysis.

A map of peer feedback literacy based upon MDS and cluster analysis

The clustering algorithm produced five clusters, which are labeled and color-coded in Fig.  2 . The five clusters were roughly similar to the originally hypothesized construct groups in Table  1 , especially treating rating accuracy, amount, and reviewing process as distinct from each other and from perceived/actual comment quality. However, perceived and actual comment quality did not separate as expected. In particular, %Long comments and %Solutions were clustered together with helpfulness and priority. We call this new dimension Initial Impact , reflecting comment recipients’ initial reactions to feedback (without having to consider the feedback in light of the document). The remaining measures that were all proposed to be part of the actual comment quality dimension clustered together. We propose calling this dimension Ultimate Impact , reflecting their closer alignment with actual improvements and the aspects of comments are most likely to lead to successful revisions.

General discussion

Understanding the fundamental structure of peer review literacy from a behavioral/skills perspective, rather than a knowledge and attitudes perspective, was a fundamental goal of our study. With the support of online tools, peer feedback is becoming increasingly implemented in a wide range of educational levels, contexts, disciplines, course types, and student tasks. As a form of student-centered instruction, it has great potential to improve learning outcomes, but then also critically depends upon effective full participation by students in their reviewing roles. Thus, it is increasingly important to fully conceptualize and develop methods for studying and supporting peer feedback literacy.

Our proposed framework sought to build a coherent understanding of peer reviewing quality in terms of six dimensions—reviewing process, rating accuracy, feedback amount, perceived comment quality, actual comment quality, and feedback content—offering a unified perspective on the scattered and fragmented notions of peer reviewing quality (Ramachandran et al., 2017 ; Yu et al., 2023 ). Consolidating the disparate measures from the literature into dimensions serves many purposes. For example, when university educators understand the intricacies of the reviewing process, they can provide clearer guidance and training to students, improving the quality of feedback provided. Similarly, understanding the dimensional structure can organize investigations of what dimensions are shaped by various kinds of supports/training, and which dimensions influence later learning outcomes, either for the reviewer or the reviewee.

Unlike previous studies that primarily explored relationships among reviewing quality dimensions at the comment level (Leijen, 2017 ; Misiejuk et al., 2021 ; Wu & Schunn, 2021b ), our work focuses on the reviewer level, as an approach to studying the behavioral elements of peer feedback literacy, complementing the predominantly knowledge and attitudes focus of interview and survey studies on peer feedback literacy. This shift in level of analysis is important because reviewing quality measures at the comment level might exhibit weak or even negative relationships due to varied structures or intentions. However, at the reviewer level, these measures may exhibit positive correlations, reflecting overarching strategies, motivations, or skills.

Our findings, as illustrated by the linear intercorrelation analysis, illuminate the interconnectedness of various factors shaping peer feedback literacy. The overarching theme emerging from the analysis is inherent multidimensionality, a facet of peer review literacy that has been previously highlighted in the literature (Winstone & Carless, 2020 ). The findings from the current study also suggest that peer feedback literacy can be organized into relative emphasis on expertise vs. effort and relative focus on review level vs. comment level aspects. It will be especially interesting to examine the ways in which training and motivational interventions will shape those different behavioral indicators.

It is important to note that survey-based measures of peer feedback literacy find that all of the dimensions identified within those studies were strongly correlated with one another (e.g., Dong et al., 2023 ) to the extent that the pragmatic and theoretical value of measuring them separately could be questioned. For example, feedback-related knowledge and willingness to participate in peer feedback were correlated at r  = 0.76, and all the specific indicators on those scales loaded at high levels on their factors. Within our framework, those factors could be framed as representing the expertise vs. effort ends of the literacy continuum, which our findings suggest should be much more distinguishable than r  = 0.76. Indeed, we also found dimensional structure to peer feedback literacy, but the correlations among dimensions are quite low, and even the correlations among different measures within a dimension were modest. If survey measures are going to be used in future studies on peer feedback literacy, it will be important to understand how well they align with students’ actual behaviors. Further, it may be necessary to extend what kinds of behaviors are represented on those surveys.

Our findings also suggest a strong separation of ratings accuracy from the impact that comments will have on their recipients. While there is some relationship among the two, particularly when focusing on expert evaluations of ratings accuracy and expert judgments of the improvement that comments will produce, the r  = 0.26 correlation is quite modest. Both constructs represent a kind of expertise in the reviewer. But ratings accuracy represents attending to and successfully diagnosing all the relative strengths and weaknesses in a submission (i.e., having a review level competence), whereas improvements offered in comments can involve more focus on particular problems, not requiring a reviewer to be broadly proficient (i.e., having a comment level competence). In addition, especially useful comments require not only diagnosing a major problem but also offering strategies addressing that problem.

Our findings also help to situate specific measures of feedback quality that have drawn increasing attention given their pragmatic value in data collection and data analysis: comment helpfulness ratings and %long comments. On the one hand, they are central measures of the larger landscape of peer feedback quality. On the other hand, the only represent one dimension of peer feedback literacy: the initial impact of the comments being produced. Adding in rating accuracy measures like peer agreement or peer consistency and amount measures likes # of reviews and # of comments, would provide a broader measurement of peer feedback literacy while still involving easy to collect and analyze measures. To capture the ultimate impact dimension, studies would need to invest in the laborious task of hand coding comments (which is still much less laborious than hand coding implementation or expensive than expert coding of improvement) or perhaps turn to innovations in NLP and generative AI to automatically code large numbers of comments.

Limitations and future directions

We note two key limitations to our current study. First, the exclusion of the feedback content dimension potentially left out a critical element of the peer reviewing process, which future research should aim to incorporate, possibly being implemented with larger datasets like the current study through automated techniques like Natural Language Processing (Ramachandran et al., 2017 ). Such technological advances could reveal hidden patterns and correlations with the feedback content, potentially leading to a more comprehensive understanding of peer reviewing quality.

Furthermore, the geographical and contextual constraints of our study—specifically to an introductory university writing course in the US using one online peer feedback system—may limit the generalizability of our findings. Past meta-analyses and meta-regressions suggest minimal impact of discipline, class size, or system setup on the validity of peer review ratings or the derived learning benefits (Li et al., 2016 ; Sanchez et al., 2017 ; Yu & Schunn, 2023 ). However, it is important to replicate these novel findings of this study across various contexts.

Our investigation sought to investigate the dimensionality of peer feedback literacy, a common concern in ongoing research in this domain. In previous studies, the dimensionality of peer feedback literacy has been largely shaped by data from interviews and surveys (e.g., Dong et al., 2023 ; Zhan, 2022 ). These approaches offered valuable insights into domains of learners’ knowledge and attitudes towards peer feedback (e.g., willingness to participate in peer feedback is separable from appreciation of its value or knowledge of how to participate). But such studies provided little insight into the ways in which the produced feedback varied in quality, which can be taken as the behavioral dimensions of peer feedback literacy (Gielen et al., 2010 ). It is important to note that knowledge and attitudes do not always lead to effective action (Becheikh et al., 2010 ; Huberman, 1990 ). Further, the actual quality of feedback generated by students is crucial for their learning through the process (Lu et al., 2023 ; Topping, 2023 ; Zheng et al., 2020 ; Zong et al., 2021a , b ). In the current study, we have clarified the dimensionality of the behavioral dimension, highlighting motivational vs. expertise elements at review and comment levels. These findings can become the new foundations of empirical investigations and theoretical development into the causes and consequences of peer feedback literacy.

The current findings offer actionable recommendations for practitioners (e.g., instructors, teaching assistants, instructional designers, online tool designers) for enhancing peer review processes. First, our findings identify four major areas in which practitioners need to scaffold peer reviewing quality: rating accuracy, the volume of feedback, the initial impact of comments, and the ultimate impact of comments. Different approaches are likely required to address these major areas given their relative emphasis on effort vs. expertise. For example, motivational scaffolds and considerations (e.g., workload) may be needed for improving volume of feedback, back-evaluations steps for improvement of initial impact, training on rubric dimensions for improvement of rating accuracy, and training on effective feedback structure for improvement of ultimate impact. Secondly, when resources are very constrained such that assessing the more labor-intensive dimensions of feedback quality is not possible, the multidimensional scale results suggest that length of comments and helpfulness ratings can be taken as an efficiently assessed proxy for overall feedback quality involving a mixture of effort and expertise at the review and comment levels.

Availability of data and materials

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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This study was supported by the Philosophy and Social Sciences Planning Youth Project of Guangdong Province under grant [GD24YJY01], and The National Social Science Fund of China [23BYY154].

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Scree plot for MDS

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Zhang, Y., Schunn, C.D. & Wu, Y. What does it mean to be good at peer reviewing? A multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis study of behavioral indicators of peer feedback literacy. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 21 , 26 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-024-00458-1

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• Tristan McIntosh, Elizabeth Pendo, Heidi A. Walsh, Kari A. Baldwin, Patricia King, Emily E. Anderson, Catherine V. Caldicott, Jeffrey D. Carter, Sandra H. Johnson, Katherine Matthews, William A. Norcross, Dana C. Shaffer, and James M. DuBois, What Can State Medical Boards Do to Effectively Address Serious Ethical Violations?, 51 J.L. Med. & Ethics 941-953 (2024).
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Elizabeth Pendo, J.D., is the Kellye Y. Testy Professor of Law and Senior Associate Dean for Academic Administration at the University of Washington School of Law.  She also serves as a member of the executive council of the UW Population Health Initiative .

Professor Pendo is an expert in disability law and theory, health law and policy, and bioethics and the law, and a specialist on the Americans with Disabilities Act, the Affordable Care Act, disability health equity, and legal obligations of providers, institutions, insurers, and employers under anti-discrimination laws. Her research appears in high-impact interdisciplinary publications including Health Affairs , NEJM , Yale Journal of Health Policy and Ethics , Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics , and The Hastings Center Report , and in leading law reviews including Wake Forest Law Review, Utah Law Review , Arizona State Law Journal, and UC Davis Law Review. She is also a co-author of the influential casebook, Health Law: Cases, Materials and Problems , 9th ed. (West).  

Professor Pendo engages in collaborative, interdisciplinary work designed to improve health and well-being for people with disabilities and other marginalized populations. S he participates in policy advising with federal agencies and advocacy groups, and her work recently was cited by the U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services and the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services in proposed federal regulations. Professor Pendo was also commissioned as the lead author of a report on the role of law in promoting health and well-being for people with disabilities for the Healthy People 2020 Law and Health Policy Project, a partnership between the HHS Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, the CDC, and the CDC Foundation funded through a grant from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.

As Senior Associate Dean for Academic Administration, Professor Pendo brings a breadth of experience to her work with students, faculty, staff, and university and community partners. She has been active in national legal and academic organizations, including as an elected member of the American Law Institute, a Fellow of the ABA, Chair of the AALS Section on Law, Medicine and Health Care, and through service on the ABA Commission on Disability Rights.

Prior to joining the faculty at UW Law in 2023, Professor Pendo was a member of the faculty at Saint Louis University School of Law and its top-ranked Center for Health Law Studies (ranked #1 for 16 of the prior 17 years). After graduating from UCLA and UC Berkeley School of Law, Professor Pendo clerked at the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, and practices as an associate at Reboul, MacMurray, Hewitt & Maynard (later merged with Ropes & Gray) and in the legal department of MetLife in New York.  She is a member of the State Bars of California and New York.

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• Elizabeth Pendo & Jennifer D. Oliva, Disability Discrimination by Clinical Algorithm, 102 N. Carolina L. Rev. __ (forthcoming 2024).
• Lisa I. Iezzoni, Michael McKee, Michelle A. Meade, Megan A. Morris and Elizabeth Pendo, Have Almost 50 Years of Disability Civil Rights Laws Achieved Equitable Care?, 41 Health Affairs 1371-1378 (Oct. 2022).
• Lisa I. Iezzoni & Elizabeth Pendo, Physicians’ Knowledge of the ADA: The Authors Reply, 41 Health Affairs 609 (2022).
• Kelly K. Dineen & Elizabeth Pendo, Engaging Disability Rights Law to Advance Racial and Disability Justice for People with Substance Use Disorder, 50 J. Law Med. & Ethics 38-51 (2022).
• Lisa I. Iezzoni, Sowmya R. Rao, Julie Ressalam, Dragana Bolcic-Jankovic, Nicole Agaronnik, Tara Lagu, Elizabeth Pendo & Eric G. Campbell, U.S. Physicians Knowledge About the Americans with Disabilities Act and Accommodation of Patients with Disability, 41 Health Affairs 96-104 (2022).
• Tristan McIntosh, Elizabeth Pendo, Heidi Walsh, Kari Baldwin, & James M. DuBois, Protecting Patients from Egregious Wrongdoing by Physicians: Consensus Recommendations from State Medical Board Members and Staff, 107 J. Med. Reg. 5-18 (2021).
• Elizabeth Pendo, Equal Access to Organ Transplantation for People with Disabilities, 51 Hastings Center Report 4-6 (2021).
• Kelly K. Dineen & Elizabeth Pendo, Ending the War on People with Substance Use Disorders in Health Care, Peer Commentary, 21 Amer. J. Bio. 20-22 (2021).
• Elizabeth Pendo, Disciplining Physicians Who Inflict Harm: New Legal Resources for State Medical Board Members: Foreword, 15 St. Louis U. J. Health L. & Pol'y 1-7 (2021).
• Elizabeth Pendo, Tristan McIntosh, Heidi A. Walsh, Kari Baldwin, and James M. DuBois, Protecting Patients from Physicians Who Inflict Harm: New Legal Resources for State Medical Boards, 15 St. Louis U. J. Health L. & Pol'y 7-54 (2021).
• Kelly K. Dineen & Elizabeth Pendo, Substance Use Disorder Discrimination and The CARES Act: Using Disability Law to Inform Part 2 Rulemaking, 52 Ariz. St. L. J. 1143-1165 (2021).
• Elizabeth Pendo, Robert Gatter & Seema Mohapatra, Resolving Tensions Between Disability Rights Law and COVID-19 Mask Policies, 80 Md. L. Rev. Online 1-12 (2020).
• Elizabeth Pendo & Lisa I. Iezzoni, The Role of Law and Policy in Achieving Healthy People’s Disability and Health Goals around Access to Health Care, Activities Promoting Health and Wellness, Independent Living and Participation, and Collecting Data in the United States 1-73 (Rockville (MD). Dept. of Health and Human Services, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) Mar. 12, 2020).

Books or Treatises

• Brietta R. Clark, Erin C. Fuse Brown, Robert Gatter, Elizabeth McCuskey & Elizabeth Pendo, Health Law: Cases, Materials and Problems (9th ed. West 2022) ( abridged version, American Casebook Series). 1133 pages.
• Brietta R. Clark, Erin C. Fuse Brown, Robert Gatter, Elizabeth McCuskey & Elizabeth Pendo, The Law of Health Care Organization and Finance; Health Care Quality, Patient Safety, and Liability; Bioethics: Health Care Law and Ethics (9th ed. West 2022) (3 volume paperback edition).
• Robert Gatter, Sandra H. Johnson, Elizabeth Pendo & Robert L. Schwartz, Bioethics and Law in a Nutshell (2d ed. West 2016) (Nutshell Series). 334 pages.

Book Chapters

• Elizabeth Pendo, People with Disabilities, in Essentials of Health Justice: Law, Policy, and Structural Change (Elizabeth Tobin-Tyler & Joel Teitelbaum, eds., 2d ed. 2022).
• Elizabeth Pendo, Protecting the Rights and Wellbeing of People with Disabilities during the COVID-19 Pandemic, in COVID-19 Policy Playbook: Legal Recommendations for a Safer, More Equitable Future 223-228 (Scott Burris, Sarah de Guia, Lance Gable, Donna E. Levin, Wendy E. Parmet, Nicolas P. Terry eds., 2021).
• Elizabeth Pendo, COVID-19 Employee Health Checks, Remote Work, and Disability Law, in Work Law Under COVID-19 (Sachin S. Pandya & Jeffrey M. Hirsch eds., 2021).
• Elizabeth Pendo, Protecting the Rights of People with Disabilities (Part I), in Assessing Legal Responses to COVID-19 Ch. 34, 246-51 (Scott Burris, et al, eds., Boston: Public Health Law Watch 2020).

Professional Publications

• Elizabeth Pendo, Public Health Law and Civil Rights Laws Must Work Together to Rise to the Challenge of Long COVID, Bill of Health (March 21, 2023).
• Panelist, "Healthcare Equity from a Voter’s Lens", Loyola University Chicago School of Law (November 7, 2023)
• Speaker, "Engaging Disability Rights Law to Address Intersectional Harms", University of Washington School of Law (October 20, 2023)
• Speaker, "Reconceptualizing Health Law Toward Health Equity", Brocher Foundation (July 6, 2023)
• Panelist, "The State of Equitable Care for Persons with Disabilities: Fifty Years after Civil Rights Laws", ADA National Network Learning Session, Pacific ADA Center (February 23, 2023)
• Speaker, "The Impact of Long COVID in the Health Care Workplace", SLULAW Health Law Association and Employment Law Association (February 16, 2023)
• Speaker, "Engaging Disability Laws to Improve Educational Outcomes for Students with Neurological Conditions", California Institute on Law, Neuroscience and Education, UC Law San Francisco (January 27, 2023)
• Panelist, "Health Care Through the Lens of Health Equity", American University Washington College of Law, Medicine & Ethics (January 27, 2023)
• Speaker, "Engaging Disability Rights Law to Address Harms at Intersection of Race, Disability and SUD", UC Law San Francisco (January 25, 2023)
• Speaker, "Engaging Disability Rights Law to Address Harms at Intersection of Race, Disability and SUD", University of Washington School of Law (January 17, 2023)
• Panelist, "Reimagining Law and Policy Affecting Individuals with Substance Use Disorders", AALS Annual Meeting, (January 6, 2023)
• Panelist, "Disability Health Justice", Solomon Center for Health Law and Policy, Yale Law School (November 8, 2022)