qualitative research in higher education

Research in Higher Education

• Open to studies using a wide range of methods, with a special interest in advanced quantitative research methods.
• Covers topics such as student access, retention, success, faculty issues, institutional assessment, and higher education policy.
• Encourages submissions from scholars in disciplines outside of higher education.
• Publishes notes of a methodological nature, literature reviews and 'research and practice' studies.
• Aims to inform decision-making in postsecondary education policy and administration.

This is a transformative journal , you may have access to funding.

• William R. Doyle,
• Lauren T. Schudde

Latest issue

Volume 65, Issue 2

Latest articles

Strategically diverse: an intersectional analysis of enrollments at u.s. law schools.

• Nicholas A. Bowman
• Frank Fernandez
• Nicholas R. Stroup

Promoting Age Inclusivity in Higher Education: Campus Practices and Perceptions by Students, Faculty, and Staff

• Susan Krauss Whitbourne
• Lauren Marshall Bowen
• Jeffrey E. Stokes

Unpacking the Gap: Socioeconomic Background and the Stratification of College Applications in the United States

• Wesley Jeffrey
• Benjamin G. Gibbs

Exploring the Interplay Between Equity Groups, Mental Health and Perceived Employability Amongst Students at a Public Australian University

• Chelsea Gill
• Adrian Gepp

Performance-Based Funding and Certificates at Public Four-Year Institutions

• Junghee Choi

Journal updates

Editorial team changes july 2023.

As of July 1, 2023, the Research in Higher Education editorial team has made several transitions

Editorial board changes - 2021

Effective 1 January 2021, the editorial board of Research in Higher Education will undergo several changes.

Editorial board changes 2011

Effective January 1, 2011, several important changes occurred with the journal Research in Higher Education.

Using qualitative research methods in higher education

• Teachers College, Mary Lou Fulton (MLFTC)
• Educational Leadership and Innovation, Division of

Research output : Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

RESEARCHERS INVESTIGATING ISSUES related to computing in higher education are increasingly using qualitative research methods to conduct their investigations. However, they may have little training or experience in qualitative research. The purpose of this paper is to introduce researchers to the appropriate use of qualitative methods. It begins by describing how qualitative research is defined, key characteristics of qualitative research, and when to consider using these methods. The paper then provides an overview of how to conduct qualitative studies, including steps in planning the research, selecting data collection methods, analyzing data, and reporting research findings. The paper concludes with suggestions for enhancing the quality of qualitative studies.

• applied research
• naturalistic inquiry
• qualitative research
• research methods

ASJC Scopus subject areas

Access to document.

• 10.1007/BF02961475

Other files and links

• Link to publication in Scopus

Fingerprint

• qualitative method Social Sciences 100%
• research method Social Sciences 92%
• qualitative research Social Sciences 90%
• education Social Sciences 35%
• data collection method Social Sciences 31%
• planning Social Sciences 17%
• experience Social Sciences 8%

T1 - Using qualitative research methods in higher education

AU - Savenye, Wilhelmina

AU - Robinson, Rhonda S.

N2 - RESEARCHERS INVESTIGATING ISSUES related to computing in higher education are increasingly using qualitative research methods to conduct their investigations. However, they may have little training or experience in qualitative research. The purpose of this paper is to introduce researchers to the appropriate use of qualitative methods. It begins by describing how qualitative research is defined, key characteristics of qualitative research, and when to consider using these methods. The paper then provides an overview of how to conduct qualitative studies, including steps in planning the research, selecting data collection methods, analyzing data, and reporting research findings. The paper concludes with suggestions for enhancing the quality of qualitative studies.

AB - RESEARCHERS INVESTIGATING ISSUES related to computing in higher education are increasingly using qualitative research methods to conduct their investigations. However, they may have little training or experience in qualitative research. The purpose of this paper is to introduce researchers to the appropriate use of qualitative methods. It begins by describing how qualitative research is defined, key characteristics of qualitative research, and when to consider using these methods. The paper then provides an overview of how to conduct qualitative studies, including steps in planning the research, selecting data collection methods, analyzing data, and reporting research findings. The paper concludes with suggestions for enhancing the quality of qualitative studies.

KW - applied research

KW - naturalistic inquiry

KW - qualitative research

KW - research methods

UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=79953144104&partnerID=8YFLogxK

UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/citedby.url?scp=79953144104&partnerID=8YFLogxK

U2 - 10.1007/BF02961475

DO - 10.1007/BF02961475

M3 - Article

AN - SCOPUS:79953144104

SN - 1042-1726

JO - Journal of Computing in Higher Education

JF - Journal of Computing in Higher Education

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection

COVID-19 and Higher Education: A Qualitative Study on Academic Experiences of African International Students in the Midwest

Ifeolu david.

1 School of Health Professions, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO USA

Omoshola Kehinde

2 School of Social Work, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO USA

Gashaye M. Tefera

Kelechi onyeaka.

3 Masters of Public Health Program, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO USA

Idethia Shevon Harvey

4 Health Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO USA

Wilson Majee

5 Health Sciences and Public Health, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO USA

6 Department of Occupational Therapy, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa

COVID-19 pandemic has harshly impacted university students since the outbreak was declared in March 2020. A population impacted the most was international college students due to limited social networks, restrictive employment opportunities, and travel limitations. Despite the increased vulnerability, there has been limited research on the experiences of African-born international students during the pandemic. Using an exploratory qualitative design, this study interviewed 15 African-born international students to understand their experiences during the pandemic. Thematic analysis revealed that the COVID-19 pandemic influenced participants’ academic life directly via an abrupt shift to online learning and indirectly through disruptions in an academic work routine, opportunities for networking, and career advancement, resulting in lower academic performance and productivity. These experiences were worsened by other social and regulatory barriers associated with their non-immigrant status. The study findings suggest an increased need for institutional and community support for international students as vulnerable populations during a crisis to promote sustained academic success.

On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 outbreak a global pandemic (Dumas et al., 2020 ). As of February 2022, there have been about 430 million cases of COVID-19 worldwide, including about 6 million deaths (Worldometer, 2022 ). Of this number, over 78 million cases have contracted the virus in the USA, with over 926 thousand deaths (CDC, 2021 ). Preventative behaviors such as regular hand washing, mask-wearing, social distancing, partial or total lockdowns, and stay-at-home orders were implemented worldwide (Caponnetto et al., 2020 ; Dumas et al., 2020 ; Vanderbruggen et al., 2020 ). These preventative and seclusive measures have been linked with irritability, anxiety, fear, sadness, anger, and boredom, especially among college students (Ornell et al., 2020 ; Sokolovsky et al., 2021 ).

In 2020 when the COVID-19 pandemic started, the USA was home to 1,075,496 international students (Schwartz, 2020 ). College students have been impacted by the pandemic in different areas, including mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, loneliness, anger, fear (Dumas et al., 2020 ; Yehudai et al., 2020 ), and a negative impact on their education as well (Yehudai et al., 2020 ). The COVID-19 pandemic changed the educational system, as schools worldwide were forced to cancel in-person classes to help prevent the spread of the virus to students, teachers, and staff (Dumas et al., 2020 ) and the community at large. In the USA, academic institutions transition to online learning from mid-March 2020 until the Fall semester of 2021 (Gutterer, 2020 ). While there has been a slow return to face-to-face learning, many universities and colleges have expanded their online courses to provide virtual learning (Fox et al., 2021 ). In addition, traveling due to the pandemic continues to be a challenge for international students (Bielecki et al., 2021 ; CDC, 2022 ) due to COVID-19 testing requirements and quarantine mandates and the potential for their study visas to be suspended if they return to their home countries for lengthy periods.

Among the student population, international students have been harshly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic academically, socially, and economically due to their immigration status (Alaklabi et al., 2021 ). Americans received financial support in the form of emergency funds, COVID-reliefs, stimulus checks, and financial relief programs to relieve the economic burden on Americans during the pandemic (Alpert, 2022 ). However, because international students are not considered permanent residents or American citizens, they were exempted from receiving financial support (Sprintax, 2021 ), yet they faced increased vulnerability because they did not have familial and emotional support. As a result, most international students relied on their host institutions for emotional and financial support. Several studies show that, before the pandemic, international students, especially those from low-income countries (e.g., African countries), had been experiencing stressors due to geographical locations and dealing with financial burdens from living abroad (Choudaha, 2017 ; McGill, 2013 ). Given these existing vulnerabilities, school and business shutdowns during the pandemic exacerbated international students’ social and psychological stress and affected their academic performance and sense of self-worth (Dumas et al., 2020 ; Yehudai et al., 2020 ). Studies found that American college students delayed their graduation dates, withdrew from classes, lost their internship opportunities, and changed academic plans during the pandemic (Aucejo et al., 2020 ). Approximately 24% of undergraduates at a medium-size university either delayed graduation or withdrew from classes (Aucejo et al., 2020 ).

These outcomes align with Tinto ( 1987 )’s theory on student departure, which argues that students are at risk of dropping out when they experience three major determinants: academic difficulties, the inability of individuals to meet their educational and occupational goals, and their failure to become or remain incorporated in the intellectual and social life of the institution (Tinto, 1987 ). According to Tinto, for students to thrive and remain in school, they need a balance of academic performance, faculty/staff interactions, extra-curricular activities, and peer-group interactions (Tinto, 1993). In the study, we will use the theory of student departure to explore how the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted international students’ livelihood resulting in academic difficulties, loss of scholarships or assistantships, internship placements (Aucejo et al., 2020 ), loss of personal interaction(faculty, staff, or peers), and incorporation with their host academic institutions (recreational facilities) – all of which negatively affected their socio-economic well-being and academic performance. The study’s overarching goal is to explore the academic experiences of African international students during the COVID-19 pandemic and highlight relevant lessons for future crisis response. Given the number of international students attending American universities and colleges, insights from the study can enhance our understanding of international students’ needs during crises at three levels: the individual, institutional, and community. At the individual (i.e., student) level, findings could suggest potential opportunities for support during the public health crisis. At the institutional and community levels, findings may inform practitioners on how universities and communities can partner to reduce the vulnerabilities of international students. Findings can also inform the design of international-student friendly national policies.

Research Design and Setting

This paper uses a qualitative research design to explore the academic experiences of African international students during the COVID-19 pandemic. In-depth interviews were conducted by four research team members using a semi-structured interview guide. The study design was chosen to understand the lived experiences of international college students; a population rarely studied during a disaster. The chosen population represented graduate students enrolled in a research institution at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic (Creswell & Poth, 2019 ). We uncovered many unspoken realities of international students’ academic life during the pandemic by applying qualitative inquiry. The study took place at a large research institution in the Midwest. There were 1,931 and 1,455 international students registered at the university during the 2019–2020 and 2020–2021 academic years, respectively. The enrollment rate continued to drop, mainly because of the COVID-19 pandemic and reached 1,436 during the 2021–2022 academic year (University of Missouri, 2021 ). During the study period, international students representing African countries during the pandemic were Nigeria ( N  = 41) and Ghana ( N  = 28) (University of Missouri, 2021 ). Interviews were conducted by Zoom during the pandemic between March and June 2021.

Research Team

Members of the research team were international students from African countries, racially similar but diverse in their gender identifications and student classification. These individuals approached this study with scholarly and personal interests in identity and the meaning and significance of international students. In terms of their roles in this study, the first author, a Ph.D. level behavioral scientist conducted most of the individual interviews, while the second, third, and fourth authors; advanced doctoral & master’s level students at the time worked directly with the first author in conducting interviews, analyzing transcripts, and generating themes. The last two authors hold doctoral degrees in public health; one of the authors guided the research design, data collection, and analysis. Both senior authors served as independent auditors. The independent auditors’ role was to 1) guarantee that multiple perspectives of the data were honored and discussed and 2) help ensure that analysts’ assumptions, expectations, and biases did not unduly influence the findings (Hill et al., 1997 , 2005 ).

Participant Recruitment

Using a mix of purposive and snowball sampling (Edmonds & Kennedy, 2016 ), twenty-four African international students expressed interest in participating in the study. The research team contacted their international student networks and student groups to recruit participants, such as the African Graduate Student Professional Group and the university student’s international office. The inclusion criteria included being an African international student, currently enrolled in a graduate program, 18 years and older, and willing to be audio recorded.

The Institutional Review Board approved the study and related activities at the corresponding author’s institution. A semi-structured interview guide was used to obtain detailed descriptions of academic life during the pandemic. The interview questions were developed in three stages. First, the research team explored existing literature on international students’ well-being to familiarize themselves with international students’ academic experiences. Second, data on the impacts of the pandemic on college students were examined, and finally, a consensus was reached on the interview questions. The interview questions included: “How has the COVID-19 pandemic affected you academically?” and “How has COVID-19 affected your career goals, plans, or timelines?”.

Before the start of each interview, participants were oriented about the aim of the study, confidentiality, and data management practices. All participants gave their consent to participate in the study. The interviews were audio-recorded via Zoom. The interviews lasted approximately 45 min (range 40 –70 min). All interviews were transcribed verbatim by four members of the research team.

Twenty-four African international students were recruited; however, 15 African international students participated in the study (i.e., five females and ten males). Most of the participants were Ph.D. students ( N  = 11), and the remaining were masters-level graduate students ( N  = 4) (see Table ​ Table1). 1 ). Nine students expressed interest in the study but did not participate due to scheduling conflicts.

Participant Demographic information

* Graduate teaching assistant/Graduate research assistant

** Part-time employment

Thematic analysis was used to identify themes and patterns and classify segments of the data under each category (Frost, 2021 ). The research team reviewed the first three transcripts and developed a coding scheme. During the process, members of the research team examined relationships among the initial codes, laid out the potential parent, child, and grand-child codes (Creswell & Poth, 2019 ), discussed and resolved all coding conflicts. Following the development of the coding scheme, four of the authors shared and independently coded the rest of the transcripts using NVivo12 qualitative analysis software. The research team held continuous meetings and virtual engagements to review, define and code the themes, and to finalize the analysis and interpretation. To avoid the risk of overgeneralization in the thematic analysis, attention was focused on producing thorough descriptions and detailed information on each theme. More thorough immersion in the data also helped the research team to develop a good understanding of participants’ experiences and make meaning of the themes (Polit & Beck, 2010 ). Reflexivity and positionality were adopted throughout the research process to minimize the risk of personal beliefs, experiences, and positions that could affect the research findings and conclusions (Palaganas et al., 2017 ). As a research team identified as international students with African origins, they were aware of the potential bias in data interpretation. Hence, the research team remained careful to reduce the impact of their experience, preconceptions, and interests by applying greater sensitivity to the participant’s opinions by presenting thick descriptions and direct quotes (Darawsheh, 2014 ). For example, using multiple researchers during the data collection and analysis (i.e., investigator triangulation) provided various perspectives that were discussed and agreed upon before final coding. Throughout this process, the research team members were able to critically self-reflect on the lived experiences of African international graduate students living in the Midwest USA and how that may have influenced the interpretation of findings (Cooper, 2012 ; Singh, 2013 ).

There were 15 participants, five females (33.3%) and ten males (66.7%), who participated in the study. Almost half of the participants (46.7%) represented early adulthood (23 – 32 years). All participants self-identified as Black, and most of the students were Nigerians (66.7%, n  = 10). Most participants (93.3%, n  = 14) lived in America for two to five years as Ph.D. students (73.3%, n  = 11) and relied on graduate assistantship as their primary source of income (86.7%, n  = 13). Most of the participants (80%, n  = 12) were on F-1 visas, living off-campus in non-university rental properties (66.7%, n  = 10), and single, never married (66.7%, n  = 10; See Table ​ Table1 1 .)

The four major themes from the thematic analysis were challenges with pivoting to online learning, diminished academic performance, disruption of academic timelines, and stolen and missed opportunities.

Theme 1: Pivoting to Online Learning

To limit exposure and the spread of COVID-19 on campus, US colleges and universities moved from in-person classes to online. While the rationale and benefits of this decision were obvious, there were many unintended consequences on the part of African international students ranging from unmet individual preferences to difficult or unsupportive learning contexts.

Learning Format, Context, and Productivity- a Gift and a Curse

Students select learning formats (in-person/online, asynchronous/synchronous) based on their abilities and preferences, with some preferring more interactive formats than seclusive. As a result of campus closure, students had to do academic work from home, which represented a considerable change in their day-to-day living. Most students found the pandemic to be a curse as they experienced difficulties in getting academic work done at home. One participant expressed how her life was impacted by the sudden pivoting to online when she preferred in-person lectures:

So, it has been quite difficult for me personally. On a personal level, I prefer to be in class because of my attention span. Virtual classes are also a problem for me because it is quite difficult for me to sit down in front of the computer for long hours. (Nigerian, female Ph.D. student)

Similarly, another male doctoral student discussed how pivoting to online learning was disruptive – creating enormous challenges for him to complete his research due to the mandatory “stay-at-home” orders.

I guess it [ COVID-19 ] also kind of affected my research because I was trying to get some articles out. Usually, I like going to the office as a routine just to write and come back home because staying home writing can be a problem. (Nigerian male Ph.D. student)

Working from home presents challenges related to workspace, technology, internet availability (i.e., connectivity), and familial responsibilities. For international students, working from home create challenges as they may be tempted to engage in family discussions during study hours. This challenge is common because of time zone differences with their home countries. Similarly, another Ghanaian doctoral student stated that phone calls from family members were a significant source of distraction, “ I have been turning in work late. Sometimes about only one hour or 30 min before the deadline because I have to talk on the phone ( with family members ), and it is mostly helping other people with situations.”

A Nigerian student, referring to the boredom that resulted from the shelter-in-place mandate, remarked, “sometimes I just get tired of being at home” (Nigerian male master-level ), while a Ghanaian female doctoral student experienced difficulties because of her childcare roles interfering with her coursework. She expressed her challenges working on her dissertation while balancing childcare duties,

I just completed my comprehensive exams during the lockdown. I was done with all my classes, and I was doing my dissertation. I did all my defense, and I did my comprehensive exam defense on zoom. I could not do much during the day because my son was also homeschooling online, and I have to monitor him. Every now and then, he needed help with things, so I could not work during the day. At night when everyone else sleeps, I get to work. It kind of slowed me down.

Switching from campus to a home-learning environment impacted student productivity. Most graduate students described how their inability to access workspaces on campus made it difficult to complete their assignments or research. For example, a master-level Nigerian female student stated that “my productivity was low” and “my productivity dropped significantly at some point.” Similarly, a female Cameroonian doctoral student described her experiences with online learning and how it reduced her productivity:

The fact that I had to stay online zooming for about two and a half hours and more every day was a huge stress for me. So, sometimes, apart from the online class, I still have to read articles online, looking at the computer and all, and that brought with it a lot of mental stress for me. And at a point, I felt like I was not very productive.

A female Nigerian doctoral student expressed similar concerns and detailed her challenges with productivity during ‘stay-at-home’ orders:

My area of study, which was library, was kind of closed, and I had my routine already before the pandemic. Eventually, I was not really motivated to work from home, even though I really wanted to be productive, but it has been a little bit more difficult for me to produce anything academically, that is for sure.

However, some other students found the pandemic to be a gift . For such students, the transition to virtual learning provided added familial benefits such as the flexibility to learn from home while fulfilling other familial duties (i.e., cooking and childcare). A master-level female student from Nigeria who is the primary caregiver of her two school-aged children stated.

Initially, it was good. Somehow, I think it has been good. I can always attend classes online. I appreciate the fact that as a mom, I can easily join classes even when I am late. It has really helped my 8 am classes. I can listen and participate more. The fact that I do not have to skip classes or overly stress myself to go to class in person. I prefer the online option.

Asynchronous courses allowed students to set their schedules to engage in course content and provided the opportunity for them to take care of their familial responsibilities during the pandemic. Further, students who were supported with the resources they needed to sustain productivity tended to be more productive. A master-level male Nigerian student studying computer science was able to use his work laptop at home. He stated how pleased he was with his productivity during the pandemic.

It has been very good for me. I have been more productive than ever. I mean, I wake up in the morning, I can do some work any time. I do not have to worry about the time being too early.

Lack of Social Interactions

Social interaction is a powerful vehicle in learning and can aid individuals with organizing thoughts and filling gaps in their reasoning. The participants missed the social interaction aspect of learning and thus shaping the participants’ academic experience during the pandemic. A male Ivorian doctoral student described difficulties in reaching out for assistance (from peers/professors) during the pandemic, unlike pre-pandemic era when it was easy to walk into offices:

I have had to do a lot of that recently ( referring to sending emails), which I just do not like. So many times, some things I am supposed to do stall. Because I have to psych myself to write that email or write several emails to several people, some of them could be very long. I hate that part of the pandemic because you cannot walk into the office.

Another Nigerian male doctoral student reported difficulties in collaborating with other students online and cited an instance when he had a terrible experience with a group project:

My academics was affected with respect to collaborations. I had difficulties with projects because you are in a virtual class and you don’t know your classmates and you are asked to form groups to work on projects……For research, I’ve had to adapt to communicating with people online as compared to moving around to meet someone in the lab when I’m stuck. Now I have to send emails or send messages on the chat and wait till whenever they respond. So sometimes, getting feedback during research has been slowed down.

Other participants expressed disappointment in having to go through academic work alone. For them, the human interaction with professors and other students was an integral part of the learning process, without which the learning experience was not as fulfilling as they had hoped.

I missed that in-person interaction with people. Also, I feel the professors are not able to gauge when you are not really doing well. It takes people away and you may not really know how well they are doing. (Female Nigerian Master’s student) I just miss being in class. I guess I have been missing a lot, I miss class and I miss interacting with other students. (Male Zimbabwean Ph.D. student)

Theme 2: Diminished Academic Performance

The study participants reported diminished academic performance and outcomes. Much of this experience was linked with struggles to keep up with schoolwork as the pandemic progressed, mainly because the pivot to online learning, which was thought to be short-term, turned out to be prolonged. The extended period under the pandemic exacerbated the challenges international students were dealing with and these struggles manifested in students’ academic performance. A female Nigerian doctoral student explained,

I must say that there has been a change in terms of my preparedness since COVD; I have been studying less and having difficulties getting assignments done on time. Overall, I have not been learning; rather, I have just been trying to keep up with schoolwork.

Another female Ghanian doctoral student who had similar experiences and needed extension for some of her papers narrated,

I have called for an extension. When my son’s school called me to pick him up due to another child being infected with the virus. I also had to deal with the death of a loved one during that time. Though COVID-19 may not have been a direct cause, they all piece together or played a role.

She believed that the pandemic indirectly affected her academics due to the added commitments and emotions associated with events during the outbreak, such as childcare, bereavement, and emotions.

Lack of motivation was also cited as a common challenge associated with schoolwork during the pandemic. Most students reported significantly limited academic productivity due to diminishing motivation and procrastination. “ When the COVID-19 first started, you tend to postpone procrastinate a lot, so you lose sight of being in an academic environment .” (Male Nigerian, Ph.D. student) because “ Being at home like all day long, makes you feel like, well I have time, you know so I was less motivated and less organized.” (Male Nigerian, Masters student ) . Another male Ghanian doctoral student elaborated,

I have been procrastinating a lot. And I am in a tight corner. My final project is going to be due soon, and I am still with another paper that I need to write. It is hard to just sit down, manage my time, and get as much done. Just doing 30 minutes of my work sometimes is a big accomplishment. Procrastination has been a big issue for me.

Theme 3: Disruption of Academic Timelines

Disruptions from the COVID-19 pandemic response influenced some aspects of progression and timelines for some participants, especially those pursuing doctoral programs. While academic milestones such as presentations, publications, internships, and comprehensive exams were difficult to achieve given diminished productivity, research activities requiring human/laboratory interactions also stalled. A male Nigerian doctoral student detailed his frustration with disrupted research activities and how that affected his academic progression:

Before the pandemic, my plan was to graduate last year, but the data analysis, publication, and writing got pushed back. We could not have access to the lab, and months were lost. So, I lost about eight months, and I could not graduate at the expected time

Another male Ivorian doctoral student explains how his research activities had slowed down due to communication challenges created by COVID-19-related shutdowns,

You know, when you are stuck on something, you just move to the person sitting down in the lab, but now you have to send emails or send messages on the chat and wait till whenever they respond. So sometimes, you are not getting any feedback which slowed my research.

Echoing the same feelings, another male Nigerian Ph.D. student lamented over lost time, “So instead of four years, it’s looking like it’s going to four and a half now or five years.” For international students, staying on track with their studies is critical as their stay in the USA is determined by various external factors such as the type of visa, sponsor requirements, and their ability to secure employment post-graduation.

Theme 4: Stolen and Missed Opportunities

While participants found the courage to adapt to the changes in academic routine, they were discouraged by the pandemic’s influence on networking and career advancement opportunities, an essential aspect of the international student experience in the USA. Due to social distancing regulations, conferences and college events were canceled or pivoted to virtual. In-person conference participation provides opportunities for students to connect with other students and faculty from various institutions and serves as a platform for sharing and receiving feedback on research projects. A female Nigerian doctoral student described her disappointment as follows, “I had submitted an abstract to a university in China and so we were waiting to go for the conference you know. So, I was going to travel to China for the presentation. But the conference was canceled” Another participant with similar regrets for settling for a virtual event said, “It does affect my conference travel plans, most of my conferences, I had to do virtually” (Female Cameroonian Ph.D. student).

During the pandemic, internship opportunities were limited as many organizations had to shut down or make modifications to offer virtual internships. Unsurprisingly, participants lamented missing internship opportunities, and for some, this had far-reaching implications on their academic timelines and student visa status. A male Nigerian Ph.D. student noted,

I did not have many options for internships because many companies canceled their internship programs. There were one or two companies I was hopeful for: I did not just hear anything from them anymore. So, I had to postpone my internship plans to this year. I have actually secured an internship, and after discussing with my advisor, it is more like, okay it might lead to like one extra year you know.

Because the COVID-19 pandemic created shortages of internship opportunities, screening for the few available internships became extremely competitive as employers preferred USA citizens or green card holders over international students on other visas, as stated by one participant: “you know because most jobs are now asking for either a citizenship or a green card holder. So, it makes it really tough.” (Female Cameroonian doctoral student).

This exploratory study examined the academic experiences of international students during the COVID-19 pandemic. The main findings highlight the range of academic vulnerability among African international students during the pandemic. Pivoting to online learning and its associated disruptions exposed an already vulnerable population to more challenges – amendments to academic timelines, reduced academic productivity, and the inability to participate in practical training opportunities such as internships and conference presentations.

While higher education was no exception to the disruptive effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, international students in USA universities may have been hit the hardest mainly because of a lack of institutional support for a population that has many other disaster risk factors associated with being immigrant students, such as lack of native social network, inability to travel (due to visa regulations and bans imposed to control the spread of the virus), employment restrictive visas/inability to work off-campus, lack of access to recreational resources outside campus, and poor home access to Wi-fi. Because campus closures and the transition to exclusive online learning were abrupt, many college students struggled to adapt to the new way of learning. The study participants mentioned struggles in keeping up with academic work due to a lack of motivation and limited access to help from tutors and fellow students in the absence of human interaction. This finding supports the emerging literature on COVID-19 experiences of college students. In a study conducted among 257 college students in a mid-sized university in the northeast USA, interpersonal disengagement and struggles with motivation were significant issues reported by the participants during the COVID-19 pandemic (Tasso et al., 2021 ). In the same vein, participants reported difficulties participating in and completing online group projects due to virtual communication challenges associated with using email, GroupMe, Zoom, and other online communication channels that lack interpersonal engagement. This supports findings from an Indonesian study where 301 dentistry students asked to evaluate their experiences with online versus in-person classes reported a preference for in-person over online learning (Amir et al., 2020 ). Amir et al. ( 2020 ) found that most students disliked online classes, and 60% thought communication was more difficult with online learning and resulted in less learning satisfaction (Amir et al., 2020 ). Another study among Ghanaian students revealed similar attitudes towards online learning (Aboagye et al., 2020 ). Our findings also resonate with Tinto’s ( 1987 ) hypothesis that perceived academic difficulties could endanger student retention in higher education. In addition to communication challenges, participants in our study further identified the inability to separate schoolwork from their “at home” activities as a recipe for exhaustion and fatigue that contributed to decreased academic productivity. Learning from home meant that student homes became classes and study rooms.

This study supports Meeter et al. ( 2020 ) findings that students had challenges with academic structure and planning because it was hard to separate work and leisure time (Meeter et al., 2020 ). Further, students who relied on on-campus spaces like offices and libraries were more significantly affected because they had to quickly make drastic changes to their home routines. The lack of change in the environment created a monotonous routine of long screen and computer time, resulting in a lack of motivation for intellectual creativity and productivity.

On a peculiar note, participants highlighted how existing vulnerabilities associated with limited social networks within their communities and with family members in their own countries shaped their academic experiences during the pandemic. Similar research found that female students experienced more vulnerabilities (Hagedorn et al., 2021 ; Ipe et al., 2021 ; Staniscuaski et al., 2021 ) due to African gender roles that place the responsibilities of cooking, cleaning, and childcare on women, insights gleaned from our study suggest that female students were burdened with these extra responsibilities. Thus, international female students with research projects or teaching assistant positions had to extensively stretch their capabilities to meet home demands. Although some participants were able to turn this change into opportunities, and a few reported minimal challenges with the transition based on the support from their school departments, the lifestyle change still took some time to adapt to, especially in the absence of familial support.

The study participants also reported delays in academic timelines and milestones. This was primarily due to the inability to conduct research work during the pandemic or challenges in coping with the drastic changes in academic demands. Studies among college students in the US found that delayed graduation dates, withdrawal from classes, and changes in academic plans occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic (Aucejo et al., 2020 ). Approximately 24% of undergraduates at the Arizona State University had either delayed graduation or withdrawn from classes by the end of the spring 2020 semester. Another study among college graduate and undergraduate students in the Appalachia Region reported reduced productivity and missed academic milestones, affecting graduation timelines (Hagedorn et al., 2021 ). The distribution of this experience was also markedly disproportionate, with lower-income students being affected the most (Aucejo et al., 2020 ). International students have minimal financial opportunities, given visa employment restrictions and exclusion from federal COVID-19 financial support. While COVID-19 prevention policies during the pandemic may have intensified the distribution of these academic experiences, researchers fear that the implications of these events could impact international student retention, as predicted by Tinto ( 1987 ).

As with many college students in the USA, the participants expressed disappointment regarding missed opportunities for internships and networking during the pandemic. While more research is needed to quantify the density of this problem among international students, literature among USA undergraduates indicates that 13% of the population reporting loss of internship positions or job offers rescinded during this time (Aucejo et al., 2020 ). With networking being a significant part of the international student academic and cultural experience in the USA, canceling conferences and other academic networking platforms represents tremendous lost opportunities. Some of our study participants had difficulties securing internship positions due to the pandemic, and because this was a major milestone in some academic programs, the resulting delayed graduation timeline is palpable. Hagedorn et al. ( 2021 ) had similar findings when students from their study reportedly missed internship positions required for graduation due to the pandemic. Although the experience is like that of other students in the USA, participants from this study specifically expressed concerns about being less likely to secure an internship position during the pandemic due to the competition for limited internship spots and the fact that some positions specifically exclude international student applicants in their eligibility criteria.

The COVID-19 pandemic influenced the participants’ academic life directly via the shift to online learning and indirectly through disruptions in career advancement and networking opportunities. As international students, their experiences were worsened by other social and regulatory barriers associated with studying in a foreign country. Therefore, more attention needs to be focused on international students as vulnerable populations in higher education.

Implications for Practice

Insights from this study revealed a need for institutional support for international students during pandemics. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the resultant campus closures, and the transition to online learning highlighted pandemic-related vulnerabilities among African international students. These vulnerabilities call for institutional support for international students during crises to ensure their academic success and for the USA to continue to enjoy the economic, social, and cultural benefits international students bring to the economy. In line with Tinto’s (1975) theory, there is a need to minimize academic challenges international students experience, support social integration, and provide adequate institutional support (i.e., financial, technical, and emotional) during the pandemic to create diverse and inclusive learning environments in which all students feel supported to do their best. Universities can establish student-serving disaster preparedness committees that could relate to and ensure that the needs of international students are met. The federal government can also formulate immigrant visa policies that allow flexibility for international students to secure employment outside their universities during crises such as COVID-19. The study findings also suggest a need for quantitative research focused on the experiences of international students during the pandemic to figure out the density and possible mitigation opportunities for the challenges faced by these vulnerable groups of students.

Limitations

Due to the qualitative nature of our study and the limited sample size, our findings may not be generalizable to other international students. Additionally, the study participants constituted students who have been living in the USA for more than two years; thus, their experiences could differ from newly enrolled international students who are likely to have even weaker support systems while struggling with cultural adaptation. Findings should be interpreted with caution because of the lack of gender diversity among the participants. The sample consisted of cisgender participants, and the ratio included more male students than female students (i.e., a 2:1 male to female ratio). Future studies should include the experiences of more African international female students and students who self-identify as transgender or non-binary gender. Including multiple sexual identities would have enriched the study findings as these populations remain understudied. We strongly believe that this study contributes to the emerging knowledge on the academic challenges faced by African international students during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The research team made every effort to maintain rigor and trustworthiness by applying principles of immersion, thoroughness, and reflexivity (Creswell & Poth, 2019 ). Future studies should include a more diverse and representative sample of African international students by educational levels (undergraduates), gender (i.e., female, transgender, and non-binary gender), and sponsorship type (scholarship, assistantship, and out-of-pocket funded students). Future studies should also explore the role of demographics and culture in shaping the experiences of international students.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge fellow students for their participation in this study.

Declarations

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• Aboagye, E., Yawson, J. A., & Appiah, K. N. (2020). COVID-19 and E-learning: the challenges of students in tertiary institutions.  Social Education Research , 1–8. 10.37256/ser.212021422
• Alaklabi M, Alaklabi J, Almuhlafi A. Impacts of COVID-19 on International Students in the US. Higher Education Studies. 2021; 11 (3):37–42. doi: 10.5539/hes.v11n3p37. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Alpert, G. (2022). A breakdown of the fiscal and monetary responses to the pandemic . Retrieved February 18 from https://www.investopedia.com/government-stimulus-efforts-to-fight-the-covid-19-crisis-4799723
• Amir, L. R., Tanti, I., Maharani, D. A., Wimardhani, Y. S., Julia, V., Sulijaya, B., & Puspitawati, R. (2020). Student perspective of classroom and distance learning during COVID-19 pandemic in the undergraduate dental study program Universitas Indonesia. BMC Medical Education , 20 (1). 10.1186/s12909-020-02312-0 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ]
• Aucejo EM, French J, Ugalde Araya MP, Zafar B. The impact of COVID-19 on student experiences and expectations: Evidence from a survey. Journal of Public Economics. 2020; 191 :104271. doi: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104271. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bielecki M, Patel D, Hinkelbein J, Komorowski M, Kester J, Ebrahim S, Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Memish ZA, Schlagenhauf P. Air travel and COVID-19 prevention in the pandemic and peri-pandemic period: A narrative review. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease. 2021; 39 :101915. doi: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101915. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Caponnetto, P., Inguscio, L., Saitta, C., Maglia, M., Benfatto, F., & Polosa, R. (2020). Smoking behavior and psychological dynamics during COVID-19 social distancing and stay-at-home policies: A survey. Health Psychology Research , 8 (1). 10.4081/hpr.2020.9124 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ]
• CDC (2021). CDC COVID-19 data tracker . Retrieved April 12 from https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#cases_casesper100klast7days
• CDC (2022). Domestic travel during COVID-19 information. Retrieved January 12 from https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/travelers/travel-during-covid19.html
• Choudaha R. Three waves of international student mobility (1999–2020) Studies in Higher Education. 2017; 42 (5):825–832. doi: 10.1080/03075079.2017.1293872. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cooper, H. M. (2012). APA handbook of research methods in psychology. Vol. 1, Foundations, planning, measures, and psychometrics . American Psychological Association. 10.1037/13619-000
• Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2019). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches . SAGE Publication Incorporated.
• Darawsheh W. Reflexivity in research: Promoting rigour, reliability and validity in qualitative research. International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation. 2014; 21 (12):560–568. doi: 10.12968/ijtr.2014.21.12.560. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dumas TM, Ellis W, Litt DM. What Does Adolescent Substance Use Look Like During the COVID-19 Pandemic? Examining Changes in Frequency, Social Contexts, and Pandemic-Related Predictors. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2020; 67 (3):354–361. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.06.018. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Edmonds, W. A., & Kennedy, T. D. (2016). An applied guide to research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods . Sage Publications.
• Fox MD, Bailey DC, Seamon MD, Miranda ML. Response to a COVID-19 Outbreak on a University Campus — Indiana, August 2020. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2021; 70 (4):118–122. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7004a3. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Frost, N. (2021). Qualitative research methods in psychology: Combining core approaches 2e . McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
• Gutterer, J. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on international students perceptions . Retrieved April 2 from  https://studyportals.com/intelligence/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-international-students-perceptions/
• Hagedorn RL, Wattick RA, Olfert MD. “My Entire World Stopped”: College Students’ Psychosocial and Academic Frustrations during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Applied Research in Quality of Life. 2021 doi: 10.1007/s11482-021-09948-0. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hill, C., Knox, S., Thompson, B., Williams, E., Hess, S., & Ladany, N. (2005). Consensual qualitative research: An update. Education Faculty Research and Publications, 52 . 10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.196
• Hill CE, Thompson BJ, Williams EN. A Guide to Conducting Consensual Qualitative Research. The Counseling Psychologist. 1997; 25 (4):517–572. doi: 10.1177/0011000097254001. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ipe TS, Goel R, Howes L, Bakhtary S. The impact of COVID-19 on academic productivity by female physicians and researchers in transfusion medicine. Transfusion. 2021; 61 (6):1690–1693. doi: 10.1111/trf.16306. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McGill J. International Student Migration: Outcomes and Implications. Journal of International Students. 2013; 3 (2):167–181. doi: 10.32674/jis.v3i2.509. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Meeter, M., Bele, T., den Hartogh, C., Bakker, T., de Vries, R. E., & Plak, S. (2020). College students’ motivation and study results after COVID-19 stay-at-home orders. 10.31234/osf.io/kn6v9
• Ornell F, Moura HF, Scherer JN, Pechansky F, Kessler FHP, Von Diemen L. The COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on substance use: Implications for prevention and treatment. Psychiatry Research. 2020; 289 :113096. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113096. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Palaganas, E. C., Sanchez, M. C., Molintas, V. P., & Caricativo, R. D. (2017). Reflexivity in qualitative research: A journey of learning. Qualitative Report , 22 (2). 10.46743/2160-3715/2017.2552
• Polit DF, Beck CT. Generalization in quantitative and qualitative research: Myths and strategies. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 2010; 47 (11):1451–1458. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2010.06.004. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schwartz, N. (2020). Number of international students in US declines for first time in over a decade. HigherEdDive.com . https://www.highereddive.com/news/number-of-international-students-in-us-declines-for-first-time-in-over-a-de/589032/
• Singh J. Critical appraisal skills programme. Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapeutics. 2013; 4 (1):76–77. doi: 10.4103/0976-500X.107697. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sokolovsky AW, Hertel AW, Micalizzi L, White HR, Hayes KL, Jackson KM. Preliminary impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on smoking and vaping in college students. Addictive Behaviors. 2021; 115 :106783. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106783. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sprintax. (2021). Nonresident aliens: Your guide to navigating the COVID-19 CARES Act Stimulus Payments . Retrieved February 18 from https://blog.sprintax.com/nonresident-aliens-guide-navigating-covid-19-cares-act-stimulus-payments/#:~:text=No.,a%20dependent%20by%20another%20taxpayer
• Staniscuaski F, Kmetzsch L, Soletti RC, Reichert F, Zandonà E, Ludwig ZMC, Lima EF, Neumann A, Schwartz IVD, Mello-Carpes PB, Tamajusuku ASK, Werneck FP, Ricachenevsky FK, Infanger C, Seixas A, Staats CC, de Oliveira L. Gender, Race and Parenthood Impact Academic Productivity During the COVID-19 Pandemic: From Survey to Action. Frontiers in Psychology. 2021; 12 :663252–663252. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.663252. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tasso, A. F., Hisli Sahin, N., & San Roman, G. J. (2021). COVID-19 disruption on college students: Academic and socioemotional implications . Educational Publishing Foundation. 10.1037/tra0000996 [ PubMed ]
• Tinto, V. (1987). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition . ERIC.
• University of Missouri. (2021). Fast facts 2021: International students . Retrieved February 18 from  https://international.missouri.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/open-doors-mizzou_fast-facts-2021.pdf
• Vanderbruggen N, Matthys F, Van Laere S, Zeeuws D, Santermans L, Van Den Ameele S, Crunelle CL. Self-Reported Alcohol, Tobacco, and Cannabis Use during COVID-19 Lockdown Measures: Results from a Web-Based Survey. European Addiction Research. 2020; 26 (6):309–315. doi: 10.1159/000510822. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Worldometer. (2022). Coronavirus cases . Retrieved February 23 from https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/
• Yehudai M, Bender S, Gritsenko V, Konstantinov V, Reznik A, Isralowitz R. COVID-19 Fear, Mental Health, and Substance Misuse Conditions Among University Social Work Students in Israel and Russia. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 2020 doi: 10.1007/s11469-020-00360-7. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

• English Norsk

Qualitative Research in (Higher) Education (DUH240)

The course is offered partially on web-based platforms in the form of a hybrid course (online+F2F), and we will primarily use Canvas as the course management system. Course materials (e.g., syllabus, weekly readings, and announcements ) will be available on the Canvas site, which will provide interaction and discussion opportunities. The Canvas site is also an important medium for accessing course updates and announcements.

Course description for study year 2023-2024. Please note that changes may occur.

Course code

Credits (ects), semester tution start.

Spring, Autumn

Number of semesters

Exam semester, language of instruction.

The course introduces PhD students to qualitative research methodology and aims to promote knowledge of qualitative research to generate in-depth inquiry in the field of (higher) education. The course also emphasises relevant theories, methods, and qualitative research practices to develop knowledge, skills and competence to engage in planning, conducting and writing up qualitative inquiry.

The course requires critical reading of suggested resources to prepare for in-depth theoretical discussions about qualitative research, qualitative research topics, qualitative designs, data collection strategies, and approaches to data analysis. To this end, the students identify and elaborate on different approaches within qualitative designs and develop qualitative research skills described in the course content through step-by-step, hands-on, and interactive activities. The course will also help develop individual and collaborative qualitative research skills, thus enhancing the ability to create practical as well as theoretical knowledge.

The following broad questions will guide the course:

1. What is qualitative research, and why is it important?

2. How are qualitative research methods chosen and employed?

3. What types of questions initiate qualitative research studies in (higher) education?

4. What are the preliminary assumptions that guide qualitative research in general, and in (higher) education in particular?

5. What are the different types of approaches and methods?

6. What are the analytic techniques used by qualitative researchers?

7. What are some methods and frameworks of discussion?

8. How do qualitative researchers write up and disseminate research?

Course Expectations and Requirements:

- Graduate level performance is expected from all students. At this level, it is assumed that students are, to a great extent, responsible for their own learning. Therefore, the relevant assignments are to be fully and carefully completed PRIOR to the class.

- Class attendance and quality in-class participation is expected.

- Students should complete all assignments on time. All out-of-class assignments should be typewritten, unless otherwise stated. Late submissions will not be accepted.

- Students need to manage their own learning to ensure coverage of the syllabus.

- Students are strongly encouraged to seek regular feedback about their study through face-to-face or online tutorials.

Academic Honesty:

Plagiarism: Students who take this class are urged to avoid plagiarism, i.e., intentionally presenting words, ideas or work of others as your own work. Plagiarism includes copying others’ ? homework, using a portion of or a complete work written or created by another without crediting the source, using your own work completed in a previous class for credit in another class without permission, paraphrasing another’s work without giving credit, and using others’ ideas without giving credit.

Remember: Making references to the work of others strengthens your own work by granting you greater authority and by showing your participation discussion located within an intellectual community. When you make references to the ideas of others, it is essential to provide proper attribution and citation. Failing to do so is considered academically dishonest, as is unacknowledged copying or paraphrasing someone else’s work. The consequences of such behaviour will lead to consequences ranging from failure on an assignment or the course to dismissal from the university. Please ask if you are in doubt about the use of a citation. Genuine misunderstandings can always be prevented or corrected.

The course is taught in English.

Learning outcome

By the end of the course, the student will be able to:

• understand the major approaches to qualitative research in education
• analyse fundamental theories that underline research paradigms
• explain the principles underlying the use of qualitative research methods
• justify qualitative research processes in terms of robustness and rigor
• identify and design research topics for a detailed examination of phenomena
• develop research questions through qualitative methods.
• engage in procedures regarding design, participants, and context
• collect and analyze data from various and multiple methods
• synthesize and integrate multiple data sources
• write up an individual or collaborative qualitative report
• plan, conduct, and evaluate qualitative research as professional development
• develop an understanding of key terms and contemporary issues in qualitative research in (higher) education (e.g., reflexivity, voice, authority, representation, credibility, trustworthiness and ethics.
• develop a critical lens through which to address educational issues
• induce data-driven interpretations to inform educational practices
• gain insights into the challenges of qualitative research

Required prerequisite knowledge

The final evaluation consists of a 20 minute oral exam, online or face-to-face. The exam starts with a 10 min verbal presentation of a self-chosen qualitative research design using a particular approach which includes thick description of context, participants, data collection and analysis as well as validity issues, and proceeds with a collegial discussion about the project. The exam is assessed (pass/fail) with constructive feedback.

Coursework requirements

Course teacher(s), course coordinator:, method of work.

The course is offered partially on CANVAS platform in the form of a hybrid course (online+F2F). Course materials (e.g., syllabus, weekly readings, and announcements) is available on the CANVAS site, which also provides opportunities for communication - access to course content, updates, and announcements as well as submission of the given assignments.

The course consists of lectures led by course tutors and seminars based also on student-led discussions. A detailed timetable and syllabus is made available to the course participants at the beginning of the semester.

Course assessment

• Reference Manager
• Simple TEXT file

People also looked at

Original research article, developing a community of inquiry using an educational blog in higher education from the perspective of bangladesh.

• 1 Institute of Education and Research (IER), University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
• 2 School of Education and Social Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom

Web 2.0 tools such as blogs, wikis, social networking, and podcasting have received attention in educational research over the last decade. Blogs enable students to reflect their learning experiences, disseminate ideas, and participate in analytical thinking. The Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework has been widely used in educational research to understand and enhance online and blended learning platforms. There is insufficient research evidence to demonstrate the impact of educational blogging using the CoI model as a framework. This article explores how blogs can be used to support collaborative learning and how such an interaction upholds CoI through enhancing critical thinking and meaningful learning in the context of higher education (HE). An exploratory sequential mixed-method approach has been followed in this study. A convenience sampling method was employed to choose 75 undergraduate students from Dhaka University for a 24-week blogging project. Every publication on the blog was segmented into meaningful units. Whole texts of posts and comments are extracted from the blog, and the transcripts are analyzed in a qualitative manner considering the CoI framework, more specifically, through the lens of cognitive, social, and teaching presence. In addition, the semi-structured questionnaire is used to collect data from students irrespective of whether blogging expedited students' learning or not. The research findings indicate that cognitive presence, namely, the exploration component, is dominant in blog-based learning activity. Moreover, this research has demonstrated that blogs build reliable virtual connections among students through exchanging ideas and information and by offering opportunities for reflective practice and asynchronous feedback. This study also revealed challenges related to blogging in the context of developing countries, including lack of familiarity with blogs, restricted internet connectivity, limited access to devices, and low levels of social interaction. It is recommended that different stakeholders including policymakers, curriculum developers, and teachers take the initiative to synchronize the utilization of educational blogs with the formal curriculum, guaranteeing that blog activities supplement and improve traditional teaching–learning activities.

1 Introduction

The prevalence of online learning is rapidly expanding and has become more advanced due to ongoing technological improvements ( Seaman et al., 2018 ). Web 2.0 tools, such as blogs, wikis, social networking, media sharing, and podcasting, allow for self-directed, collaborative, and widespread learning by sharing resources, regardless of physical or geographical constraints ( Song and Bonk, 2016 ). For instance, blogs can be used in online and blended learning platforms to foster students' reflective learning ( Milad, 2017 ), developing learning communities through several strategies like posting students' work, exchanging hyperlinks, and so on ( Kerawalla et al., 2009 ). In this connection, several researchers added that blogging has obvious advantages to form the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework and to trigger meaningful learning through improving the social, cognitive, and teaching presence ( Cameron and Anderson, 2006 ; Petit et al., 2023 ). In addition, effective instructional strategies and facilitation of discourse guided by teachers are more significant in creating CoI than any other approach ( Garrison and Akyol, 2013 ). Additionally, Jimoyiannis et al. (2012) argued that properly designed blog activities can help students achieve higher cognitive levels by enhancing their communication and collaboration skills and their critical thinking. However, despite the widespread excitement and curiosity around the learning design framework and online learning environments, there is a lack of research on the educational influence of learning designs ( Bower, 2017 ). Shifting to the reality of the COVID-19 pandemic and the widespread adoption of online learning, the pandemic has initiated a radical and rapid rethinking of the teaching–learning arrangement. The challenge was to provide guidance and support to educators to shift their curriculum to an online environment ( Garrison, 2020 ). The CoI framework may provide a coherent representation of relevant information and the means to navigate between theoretical and practical sources of information ( Garrison, 2020 ). Hence, it is vital to examine how CoI inquiry could be designed and implemented in online environments. Additionally, there is a lack of research evidence to demonstrate the impact of educational blogging when using the CoI model as a framework. Moreover, no research article on the use of educational blogs for a higher education level in Bangladesh has been found yet. The study aims to investigate the potential of the blogging environment in assisting higher education students in their learning process, focusing on key elements of the CoI framework. Hence, the following research questions will be addressed:

i. What is the nature of the students' interaction in the educational blogging practice?

ii. How does participating in blog-based learning activity support students' learning experience?

iii. What problems do the students confront while engaging in educational blogging?

2 Literature review

Blogs can be characterized as a web-based archive displaying contents in reverse chronological entry date. People with little technical knowledge can publish as well as share their thoughts, opinions, and emotions with others using blogs ( Pifarré et al., 2014 ). The use of blogging technologies by students in educational settings is on the rise globally ( Ifinedo, 2017 ). Blogs are commonly advocated as collaborative tools that facilitate active learning among students ( Jimoyiannis and Angelaina, 2012 ). However, the rate of users' participation can diverge from session to session and blog to blog ( Lawrence et al., 2010 ). Blogs can create an online collaborative portfolio for course-related resources, assignments, calendars, events, teaching experiences, open discussions, students' queries, and so on ( Kaya et al., 2012 ). Hence, blogs can play a vital role in establishing the learning community as well as encouraging interpersonal communication among teachers and students of higher education ( Kaçar, 2021 ).

The analysis of the educational use of blogs often involves various methods and frameworks to understand the dynamics, engagement, and impact of the blog content ( Kaul et al., 2018 ). The CoI model is a framework that is particularly relevant for analyzing the educational aspects of blog posts, especially in online learning platforms ( Kim and Gurvitch, 2020 ). CoI was initially developed as a conceptual framework to guide the practice of collaborative learning through asynchronous communication in online settings ( Garrison and Akyol, 2013 ; Shea et al., 2022 ). The origin of the CoI model is grounded in Vygotsky's theory of social development ( 1978 ) and Dewey's practical inquiry and critical thinking model ( 1933 ) ( Garrison and Akyol, 2013 ; Shea et al., 2022 ). The structure depicted in Figure 1 illustrates the three primary components (teaching, cognitive, and social presence) of CoI and their intersection, which are crucial for comprehending the dynamics of profound and significant online learning experiences ( Garrison et al., 2010a ). Subsequently, other research studies focused on collating data related to learning design as well as the evaluation process in the online learning experience to the cognitive dimension to identify and measure three constitutional components of the CoI framework, namely, social presence, teaching presence, and cognitive presence ( Garrison et al., 2010b ; Angeli and Schwartz, 2016 ).

Figure 1 . Community of Inquiry framework [adapted from Akyol and Garrison (2011) ].

Among the three elements of the CoI framework, the role of social presence has been investigated most extensively in online educational settings ( Garrison and Arbaugh, 2007 ). Research has claimed that social presence enhances the learner's satisfaction, while the internet is used as a medium to deliver education ( Cui et al., 2013 ). However, the positive social environments including affective expression, open discussion, and group cohesion lead toward a hidden curriculum of the technological aspects of distance or virtual education ( Moodley et al., 2022 ). In addition, Akyol and Garrison (2011) described cognitive presence as the extent to which learners can construct and confirm meaning through sustained reflection and discourse. Cognitive presence is considered a distinctive outcome of higher education since long rooted in Dewey's (1933) construction of practical inquiry and critical thinking ( Sadaf et al., 2021 ). Akyol and Garrison (2011) implemented cognitive presence in terms of a practical inquiry model and established a four-phase process including triggering, exploration, integration, and resolution in the context of educational settings. However, Marshall and Kostka (2020) emphasized the importance of teaching presence to ensure effective online learning rather than interactions among participants. Teaching presence has been conceptualized to comprise three components: instructional design and organization, facilitating discourse, and direct instruction. Several pieces of literature ( Chakraborty and Nafukho, 2015 ; Chakraborty, 2017 ; Bhatty, 2020 ) highlight the significance of teaching presence in online learning platforms to meet the needs of students, to ensure perceived learning, and to certify the sense of community.

Researchers were likely intrigued by the potential of blogs to foster a sense of community and social presence, which are essential elements of the CoI framework. The exploration of CoI in educational blogs is likely driven by a combination of theoretical considerations, gaps in current research, and practical implications. The research design was meticulously constructed to explicitly address these qualities and offer significant contributions to the field of online education.

3 Theoretical framework: Community of Inquiry (CoI) in educational blogs

Several researchers ( Pifarré et al., 2014 ; Jimoyiannis and Roussinos, 2017 ) have suggested the design of educational blogging activities applying the CoI model as an analysis framework considering students' engagement and presence. The primary approach underlying the design was to integrate an educational blog with both content space and discussion space. The content space encompasses blog posts, articles, multimedia elements, and other sources of information generated by the author or contributors. On the other hand, the discussion space refers to the section of the blog platform where readers and participants can actively participate in conversations, express opinions, ask questions, and offer feedback about the content presented in the content space. This design confirms the collaborative nature of the blog ( Jimoyiannis and Angelaina, 2012 ). Moreover, the CoI model determines indicators to recognize and measure each presence in an educational blog community. Basic components and indicators of CoI are presented in Table 1 considering educational blogs as a collaborative learning platform.

Table 1 . Indicators to recognize and measure each presence in an educational blog [modified from Garrison and Arbaugh (2007) ].

Table 1 provides a more explicit definition of CoI elements, using both indicators and instances. These characteristics have been employed to unambiguously ascertain social presence, cognitive presence, and instructional presence in a blog-assisted educational context. This mapping has been used in laying the groundwork for this research.

4 Methodology

4.1 research context.

Although technology-mediated learning has been introduced at the higher education level in Bangladesh in recent years ( Chowdhury et al., 2018 ), different online-based technologies have yet to be integrated into the curriculum and assessment process ( Arefin et al., 2023 ). In this study, the educational blog was created using Google Sites considering a project-based learning approach, which combines online and in-person instruction to enhance learning by offering guidance, resources, and feedback. The goal of this blog-based activity was to promote for blogs as additional resources in traditional teaching methods, with a focus on developing engaging and efficient instructional materials that are in line with specific learning objectives. This activity also aimed to foster collaborative learning and effective communication among students. However, there was no correlation between student involvement in the blog-based learning activity and the assessment process. Moreover, the curriculum did not provide any guidance on using alternative online platforms like blogs for instructional activities.

This study employed an exploratory sequential mixed-method approach. A convenience sampling method was employed to choose undergraduate students from Dhaka University for a 24-week blogging project. A total of 75 students enrolled in the “Introduction to Computer Course” of the B.Ed. program were invited to participate in this blog-based activities and were assessed on how collaborative learning opportunities contribute to the achievement of learning outcomes. A total of 65 students actively participated in collaborative blog discussions, contributing by uploading content and/or commenting to promote the discourse and reflection.

4.2 Data collection

This study collected both qualitative and quantitative data as part of an exploratory sequential mixed-method research design. Qualitative data were collected from the blogging activities of students and categorized into the following: content posts (e.g., text, image, audio, and video) and comments (e.g., questions, replies to or explanation of previous posts, and new notions). After completing a thorough analysis of the blog's activity, it was ascertained that there were 20 content postings and 71 comments made on the site during the research period. The low level of involvement can be ascribed to students' lack of familiarity with the blogging platform and the optional nature of their participation.

Furthermore, a semi-structured questionnaire, developed on existing research that used the CoI framework in online settings, was employed as an instrument to collect data from the students at the end of the semester to assess whether activities on educational blogs facilitate and contribute to students' learning. The participating students were required to assess quantitative items on a 5-point scale: (1 [strongly disagree], 2 [disagree], 3 [unsure], 4 [agree], and 5 [strongly agree]). They were also asked to provide qualitative responses in an open-text format, expressing their opinions on the effectiveness and challenges of educational blogs.

4.3 Data analysis

To address the first research question, qualitative data (content posts and comments) on the blog were segmented into meaningful units. A meaningful unit refers to a distinct and analyzable segment or component within a content post/comment on the blog. Each meaningful unit is segmented based on the specific characteristics related to cognitive, social, and teaching presence, as outlined in the CoI framework. Afterward, these meaningful data units were categorized according to 13 indicators associated with CoI elements (specified in Table 1 ). Both authors attempted to generate meaningful units from content posts and comments. To evaluate the consistency or agreement between the researchers while assessing the meaningful units, interrater reliability was measured ( Stemler, 2019 ). Subsequently, the researchers employed a consensus-building procedure to address and settle any differences, and this entailed collaborative evaluations of complex instances and deliberations to arrive at mutually acceptable decisions ( Stemler, 2019 ).

In the subsequent phase, students' responses were analyzed to address the second and third research questions. Quantitative data of students' responses were analyzed statistically using descriptive statistics methods (frequency, mean, and standard deviation), whereas qualitative data were analyzed thematically. The qualitative data about blog-based activities were integrated with the quantitative data concerning the students' perspective of blogging to have a more accurate comprehension of the research inquiries. Hence, the validity and reliability of the study were enhanced through cross-verification of results by using both qualitative and quantitative data.

4.4 Ethical consideration

Prior to participation as samples, the participants were provided with an informed consent form about the goal of the study. Subsequently, the participants provided written informed consent to ensure their complete understanding and enable them to make voluntary and well-informed decisions regarding their participation. This study used rigorous measures to guarantee absolute confidentiality and anonymity in both data collection and presentation, thereby safeguarding the privacy of the participants' data. There was no requirement for any type of student identification for the questionnaire. Moreover, the blog activities and analysis of blog publication did not need the use of individual student identities.

The findings were organized into three sections: students' engagement patterns on educational blogs, the impact of blog-based learning activities on students' learning, and the challenges associated with using educational blogs.

5.1 Nature of students' interaction in educational blogging

By converting each content posts and comments into distinct and significant components, a total of 100 meaningful units of units were found. In this specific study, the researchers reached a consensus on 90 out of 100 units, indicating a significant degree of interrater reliability. The results obtained by the researchers reveal a strong correlation across all sets of results, indicating a high level of interrater reliability for the test. Subsequently, after resolving the disagreements through a consensus, meaningful units were categorized in Table 2 according to the 13 indicators of the CoI model.

Table 2 . Blog's Community of Inquiry.

In Table 2 , the analysis of dissimilar proportions among three key presence factors—cognitive, social, and teaching—revealed significant variations. Cognitive presence dominated with 71%, surpassing both social presence (17%) and teaching presence (12%). The feeling of belonging enhanced social presence as individuals had a sense of connection to a collective with common interests and objectives. Within the cognitive domain, the aspect of exploration was prominent, accounting for 43% of the overall presence. Analyzing social presence revealed a fair distribution within this group. Teaching presence referred to a focus on the design and organization aspect, which accounts for 8% of this group. The comprehensive analysis of each category of presence offered a nuanced comprehension of the diverse factors influencing the CoI.

5.2 Blog-based learning activities to contribute and facilitate the way of students' learning

The following sections have highlighted students' responses regarding the blog-based experience.

5.2.1 Influencing factors of blogging experience in terms of perceived learning, community of practice and collaborative learning

The quantitative findings were categorized into perceived learning, community of practice, and collaborative learning and presented in the following sections:

• Perceived learning

It was revealed that students usually hold a favorable impression of using blogs for learning, exhibiting a strong consensus on statements pertaining to enjoyment, knowledge dissemination, and the efficacy of learning ( Table 3 ).

Table 3 . Perceived learning of blogs ( N = 65).

As given in Table 3 , 84.6% of students reported positive attitudes toward using blogs for educational purposes, with a mean score of 3.97 indicating a moderately positive perception and a low level of variability with a standard deviation of 0.59. Similarly, 81.5% of students derived enjoyment from reading and acquiring knowledge from publications on the blog. A significant majority (89.1%) hold the belief that blog conversations are beneficial for exchanging information and expertise with peers. However, a variation in the reactions to accessing the blog more than required was observed, with a significant number of students expressing a neutral position. The average score (M = 2.97) indicated a neutral-to-slightly negative sentiment, and there is a significant range of responses (SD = 0.98). In addition, 89.1% of students strongly asserted that using the blog has facilitated their learning, demonstrating a constant and favorable influence on their educational experience.

• Community of practice

Table 4 illustrated that students perceived positive perceptions of the impact of blog posts on enhanced connectivity, heightened motivation, and greater interaction.

Table 4 . Blogs as a community of practice ( N = 65).

As given in Table 4 , approximately 70.3% of students reported feeling connected when using the blog, suggesting a favorable emotional attachment to the learning environment. The data indicated that a substantial number of students (75.4%) demonstrated a desire to engage with supplementary materials pertaining to the issues mentioned on the blog. This pointed out that the blog can serve as an effective catalyst for encouraging further investigation and study. Approximately 70.4% of students hold the belief that the blog has a role in enhancing the interaction, promoting a feeling of involvement and cooperation within the learning community.

• Collaborative learning

Table 5 demonstrated that the data suggest favorable perceptions regarding the influence of blog posts on the enhancement of skills and the promotion of collaborative learning.

Table 5 . Collaborative learning through blogs ( N = 65).

Approximately 79.7% of students concurred that publications (posts/comments) from peers have been beneficial in enhancing their abilities and knowledge. Likewise, a significant majority of students (75.1%) held the belief that blogging enhances collaborative learning among their peers. Nevertheless, opinions differed regarding the idea that collaborative learning is time-consuming; 36.7% of individuals agreed, while 31.3% remained neutral. The average score was somewhat negative (M = 3.05), and there was a considerable degree of heterogeneity in the replies (SD = 1.06).

• Scale statistics

It was found that students preferred blogs as beneficial for perceived learning use (M = 19.00, SD = 2.078) in comparison to community of practice (M = 11.29, SD = 1.670) and collaborative learning platform (M = 10.63, SD = 1.386). In aggregation, positive experiences were revealed to continue teaching-learning practices using blogs among students ( Table 6 ).

Table 6 . Scale statistics ( N = 65).

5.2.2 Impact of blogging activities on learning experience

The following sections emphasized students' perception of the impact that blog-based learning activities had on their learning experience.

• Flexibility

It was found that more than 75% of the students have mentioned that it is convenient as blogs are easy to access and flexible in timing based on their personal preference even in leisure. However, some of them were worried about the availability of the internet. According to Student 1 ,

“ I can access blog 24/7 anywhere.”

Approximately two-thirds of the students mentioned that blogs give them an opportunity to share learning resources and access different thoughts of a community as well as to develop understanding. Some other students' responses are mentioned below:

“ People learn from reading the comments of different respondents.” (Student 2)     “ Blog helps to develop understanding.” ( Student 3)     “ Blog helps us to know thought of others.” ( Student 4)

Few students mentioned that blogs were a new way of learning collectively and are very fun and interactive. According to Student 5 ,

“ I think it is new way of learning collectively.”

• Feedback

Around half of the students mentioned that they can express themselves through writing, and at the same time, the feedback helps them be motivated as well as accumulate self-confidence. A few of the students reported that they were able to learn many new things through using blogs. According to Student 6 ,

“ Blog makes us confident as it creates opportunities to learn new things.”

• Motivation

Students also demonstrated favorable attitudes toward emotions of connection, motivation for further reading, and apparent enhancement in engagement when using the blog ( Table 4 ).

• Virtual learning communities

Nearly half of the students concurred that blogs had the potential to foster the development of virtual learning communities, facilitating student connectivity, the exchange of experiences, and the provision of mutual support. According to Student 7 ,

“ Blog promotes discussion.”

• Empowerment

Some of the students expressed the view that blogging enables students to assert their thoughts, communicate their viewpoints, and participate in discussions, hence fostering a sense of ownership in their learning experience. According to Student 8 ,

“ As blogs have different people with different perspectives, and I have personally found many thought-provoking ideas in different blogs.”

• Access to resources

A number of students contended that blogs could function as a means for disseminating knowledge, references, and supplementary content, thereby offering benefits to students.

5.3 Challenges of using educational blog

While educational blogs offered numerous benefits, there were also challenges associated with their use in the context of developing countries such as Bangladesh. The subsequent sections delineated several obstacles reported by the students during their use of educational blogs in this study:

• Unfamiliarity of blog

Several students expressed a lack of proficiency in using blogs, which impedes their capacity to successfully explore and use instructional blogs. According to Student 9 ,

“ The problem is that blogs are still unfamiliar.”

• Limited internet access

The majority of the students reported that limited and unreliable access to the internet can hinder the students' ability to participate in blog-based activities. According to Student 10 ,

“ Blogging activity needs internet, and internet is not available everywhere.”

• Limited access to device

The study revealed that several students do not have personal devices such as laptops or smartphones, which presents a difficulty for their involvement in blog activities that require digital interaction. This has the potential to create a digital divide, which could impact the equity of educational opportunities.

• Decreased socialization

It was found that blog users sometimes absorb information alone, not actively participating in social interactions. Furthermore, a few students indicated that, unlike face-to-face contacts, blogs may lack personal connection, resulting in a decreased sense of socialization. According to Student 11 ,

“ It can reduce the tendency of reading the contents carefully and reduce in-person interactions with people.”

6 Discussion

This study has demonstrated that the integration of cognitive, social, and teaching presence is necessary for meaningful learning in online platforms. The results of this investigation are consistent with the conclusions of a prior study ( Fiock, 2020 ). In addition, this study has confirmed that cognitive presence is highly observed in blogging activities, which is similar to the findings of a previous research ( Liu et al., 2022 ). On the contrary, several studies ( Garrison, 2007 ; Galikyan and Admiraal, 2019 ) have found difficulties to move toward higher cognitive and inquiry levels in asynchronous online discussions. This study has confirmed that teaching presence is the least observed in blogging activities, which is similar to the findings of previous research ( Angelaina and Jimoyiannis, 2011 ), where they reported that teaching presence is anticipated to be less tangible in blogging activities while analyzing students' posts using the CoI framework, and it cannot be assumed that all students will actively engage with and read the instructor's posts.

In addition, the majority of the students affirmed that they enjoyed using blogs as a learning tool and have been facilitated through blogs to share knowledge and experience with peers. Furthermore, they added that the presence of conducive academic environments for collaborative learning has spurred their inclination to explore relevant supplementary resources. Similarly, Bener and Yildiz (2019) found blogs as a reflective platform where participants can actively deliberate their thoughts about the topics discussed in the blogs. Students have also uttered that blogging leads toward effective collaboration by creating opportunities for diverse perspectives, which reflects the research outcome of a previous study ( Zawilinski, 2012 ).

The current study indicated that blogs are not familiar enough to the students and that ~15% of them are not interested in posting publications. In addition, approximately one-third of the students were found inattentive to take the maximum advantages of collaboration and feedback due to a lack of technological competency. However, Amichai-Hamburger et al. (2016) noted that individuals who only engage in reading rather than not interested in participating in online discussion may still get the opportunity to learn through passive or indirect participation. In addition, this study revealed that students need clear guidelines, argumentative posts, and constant feedback to optimize learning outcomes in the blogging environment. Similar issues have been mentioned by other research also ( Hansen, 2016 ). This study has revealed that providing constructive feedback can effectively steer students toward enhancing their level of engagement and the quality of their contributions. Additionally, Pifarré et al. (2014) used an exploratory sequential multi-method approach to investigate a blogging project in a secondary class and found that collaborative learning as well as a sense of community were important factors in predicting perceived learning in an online setting. The results of their research align with the results of this study. Hence, it is evident that a supportive community can inspire students to actively participate in the blogging environment and have a sense of belonging. Furthermore, one-third of the students worried about the unfamiliarity and technical difficulties of using blogs. It is to be noted here that this research did not provide any training on blogging. Farmer et al. (2008) emphasized conducting a fully scaffold lab session for ensuring enhanced accessibility as well as providing adequate technical support.

7 Recommendations

This study suggests the following recommendations to leverage students' engagement as well as to enhance learning outcomes through blogging activities:

• Establishing monitoring system: It is recommended to establish a monitoring system to detect the students who may be encountering difficulties with technology or experiencing a lack of involvement.

• Offering training, guidelines, and mentorship: It is imperative to establish comprehensive training programs that focus on technical competency for students, aiming to improve their proficiency in using online platforms. Explicit guidelines or online modules might aid students in comprehending the specific requirements, minimizing ambiguity, and augmenting their capacity to engage actively. Furthermore, offering supplementary aid through individualized guidance, peer mentorship, or supplementary materials can assist these students in surmounting barriers and engaging effectively.

• Fostering open communication: It is suggested to foster a positive environment that encourages students to freely voice their viewpoints, inquire, and engage with their peers, which can serve as a beneficial stimulus to promote active participation.

• Accommodating diverse learning preference: It recommended to focus on designing learning activities that accommodate different diverse learning preferences of the students, guaranteeing that both engaged and unengaged participants can benefit from the blogging platform.

• Redesigning curriculum: It is recommended to synchronize the use of educational blogs with the formal curriculum, guaranteeing that blog activities supplement and improve conventional teaching techniques.

• Redesigning assessment process: It is recommended to establish explicit assessment methods for blog-related tasks, ensuring they are in line with the goals of the course. This study suggests the design of collaborative projects that leverage the interactive features of blogs. Assignments that require group discussions, collaborative projects, or peer evaluations on the blogging platform can enhance collaborative learning and offer exposure to a wide range of ideas.

• Creating awareness: As a social media tool, blogs are still underrated and underutilized, so awareness needs to be created focusing on the impact of blogs to enhance teaching and learning practices.

8 Conclusion

Despite that most of the students were unfamiliar with using blogs, they showed enhanced enthusiasm to participate in the blog activities to boost online learning through posting content and resources, discussing ideas, making queries, and so on. Students' participation in educational blogging practices is characterized by asynchronous collaboration, information exchange, reflection, and constructive feedback. Engaging in a wider dialogue and receiving feedback frequently result in a stronger sense of personal responsibility for one's own learning. Using a blended learning philosophy, well-designed blogs can encompass the students' learning arena beyond the classroom boundaries by combining different approaches to learning. Overall, the findings of this study indicate that blogs are perceived by students as an effective collaborative learning tool. Hence, stakeholders and curriculum developers may emphasize aligning this tool with the existing curriculum to maximize and leverage the potential benefits of blogging. The small sample size and exploratory nature of the study are the major limitations of this study. Further research may be conducted to assess student perception with a larger study group to get a detailed idea about how blogs andragogically or pedagogically can be used to support the creation of a CoI framework that could lead to meaningful and collaborative learning.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

Ethical approval was not required for the study involving human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent was obtained from the individuals for participation in the study and for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author contributions

SC: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MS: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Akyol, Z., and Garrison, D. R. (2011). Understanding cognitive presence in an online and blended community of inquiry: assessing outcomes and processes for deep approaches to learning. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 42, 233–250. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01029.x

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Amichai-Hamburger, Y., Gazit, T., Bar-Ilan, J., Perez, O., Aharony, N., Bronstein, J., et al. (2016). Psychological factors behind the lack of participation in online discussions. Comput. Human Behav. 55, 268–277. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.09.009

Angelaina, S., and Jimoyiannis, A. (2011). “Educational blogging: Developing and investigating a students' community of inquiry,” in Research on e-Learning and ICT in Education (Cham: Springer).

Google Scholar

Angeli, C., and Schwartz, N. H. (2016). Differences in electronic exchanges in synchronous and asynchronous computer-mediated communication: the effect of culture as a mediating variable. Interact. Learn. Environ. 24, 1109–1130. doi: 10.1080/10494820.2014.961484

Arefin, A. S., Chowdhury, S. A., Roy, R. C., Rahaman, M. M., and Cross, B. (2023). Education system in Bangladesh amid COVID-19: traditional scenario, emergency protocols, challenges and a proposed sustainable conceptual framework. Sustainability 15, 8126. doi: 10.3390/su15108126

Bener, E., and Yildiz, S. (2019). The use of blog activities to promote reflection in an ELT practicum. Aust. J. Teach. Educ . 44, 38–56. doi: 10.14221/ajte.2019v44n8.3

Bhatty, M. A. (2020). Impact of Teaching Presence on Learning Outcomes. A Qualitative Study of Perceptions Through the Lens of Online Teachers . Moon Township, PA: Robert Morris University.

Bower, M. (2017). Design of Technology-Enhanced Learning: Integrating Research and Practice . Bingley: Emerald Publishing Limited.

Cameron, D., and Anderson, T. (2006). Comparing weblogs to threaded discussion tools in online educational contexts. Int. J. Instruct. Technol. Dist. Learn. (ITDL) 2006, 3.

Chakraborty, M. (2017). Learner engagement strategies in online class environment (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A & M University, United States.

Chakraborty, M., and Nafukho, F. M. (2015). Strategies for virtual learning environments: Focusing on teaching presence and teaching immediacy. J. Online Learn. Res. Pract. 4. doi: 10.18278/il.4.1.1

Chowdhury, S. A., Arefin, S., and Rahaman, M. M. (2018). Impacts of ICT integration in the higher education classrooms: Bangladesh perspective. J. Educ. pract. 9, 82−86.

Cui, G., Lockee, B., and Meng, C. (2013). Building modern online social presence: a review of social presence theory and its instructional design implications for future trends. Educ. Informat. Technol. 18, 661–685. doi: 10.1007/s10639-012-9192-1

Dewey, J. (1933). How We Think. A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process . D.C. Heath and Company.

Farmer, B., Yue, A., and Brooks, C. (2008). Using blogging for higher order learning in large cohort university teaching: a case study. Austral. J. Educ. Technol . 24. doi: 10.14742/ajet.1215

Fiock, H. (2020). Designing a community of inquiry in online courses. Int. Rev. Res. Open Distrib. Learn. 21, 135–153. doi: 10.19173/irrodl.v20i5.3985

Galikyan, I., and Admiraal, W. (2019). Students' engagement in asynchronous online discussion: the relationship between cognitive presence, learner prominence, and academic performance. Intern. Higher Educ. 43, 100692. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2019.100692

Garrison, D. R. (2007). Online community of inquiry review: social, cognitive, and teaching presence issues. J. Asynchronous Learn. Netw. 11, 61–72. doi: 10.24059/olj.v11i1.1737

Garrison, D. R. (2020). CoI Emergence and Influence . Bronx: The Community of Inquiry.

Garrison, D. R., and Akyol, Z. (2013). The community of inquiry theoretical framework. Handb. Dist. Educ. 3, 104–120. doi: 10.4324/9780203803738.ch7

Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., and Archer, W. (2010a). The first decade of the community of inquiry framework: a retrospective. Intern. Higher Educ. 13, 5–9. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.003

Garrison, D. R., and Arbaugh, J. B. (2007). Researching the community of inquiry framework: Review, issues, and future directions. Intern. Higher Educ. 10, 157–172. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2007.04.001

Garrison, D. R., Cleveland-Innes, M., and Fung, T. S. (2010b). Exploring causal relationships among teaching, cognitive and social presence: student perceptions of the community of inquiry framework. Intern. Higher Educ. 13, 31–36. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.002

Hansen, H. E. (2016). The impact of blog-style writing on student learning outcomes: a pilot study. J. Polit. Sci. Educ. 12, 85–101. doi: 10.1080/15512169.2015.1060887

Ifinedo, P. (2017). Students' perceived impact of learning and satisfaction with blogs. Int. J. Informat. Learn. Technol. 34, 322–337. doi: 10.1108/IJILT-12-2016-0059

Jimoyiannis, A., and Angelaina, S. (2012). Towards an analysis framework for investigating students' engagement and learning in educational blogs. J. Comp. Assist. Learn. 28, 222–234. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2011.00467.x

Jimoyiannis, A., and Roussinos, D. (2017). Students' collaborative patterns in a wiki-authoring project: towards a theoretical and analysis framework. J. Appl. Res. Higher Educ. 9, 24–39. doi: 10.1108/JARHE-05-2016-0034

Jimoyiannis, A., Tsiotakis, P., and Roussinos, D. (2012). “Blogs in higher education: analysing students' participation and presence in a community of blogging,” in Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference e-Learning 2012 (Lisbon).

Kaçar, I. G. (2021). “Interpersonal dimensions of EFL pre-service teachers' blog discourse from the perspective of the systemic functional linguistics,” in Challenge, Create, Innovate: Voices of ELT Professionals from the Virtual Classroom . Paris: Livre de Lyon.

Kaul, M., Aksela, M., and Wu, X. (2018). Dynamics of the community of inquiry (CoI) within a massive open online course (MOOC) for in-service teachers in environmental education. Educ. Sci. 8, 40. doi: 10.3390/educsci8020040

Kaya, S., Özgür, A. Z., and Koçak, N. G. (2012). “Integrating social media into distance learning,” in 4th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies (Barcelona).

Kerawalla, L., Minocha, S., Kirkup, G., and Conole, G. (2009). An empirically grounded framework to guide blogging in higher education. J. Comp. Assist. Learn. 25, 31–42. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00286.x

Kim, G.-C., and Gurvitch, R. (2020). Online education research adopting the community of inquiry framework: a systematic review. Quest 72, 395–409. doi: 10.1080/00336297.2020.1761843

Lawrence, E., Sides, J., and Farrell, H. (2010). Self-segregation or deliberation? Blog readership, participation, and polarization in American politics. Perspect Polit. 8, 141–157. doi: 10.1017/S1537592709992714

Liu, B., Xing, W., Zeng, Y., and Wu, Y. (2022). Linking cognitive processes and learning outcomes: The influence of cognitive presence on learning performance in MOOCs. Br. J. Educat. Technol. 53, 1459–1477. doi: 10.1111/bjet.13193

Marshall, H. W., and Kostka, I. (2020). Fostering teaching presence through the synchronous online flipped learning approach. Tesl-Ej 24, n2.

Milad, M. (2017). Blended learning approach: integrating reading and writing research skills to improve academic writing. Arab J. Appl. Linguist. 3, 23–55.

Moodley, K., Van Wyk, M., Robberts, A., and Wolff, E. (2022). Exploring the education experience in online learning. Int. J. Educ. Dev. Using Inf. Commun. Technol. 18, 146–163.

Petit, M., Babin, J., and Desrochers, M.-È. (2023). Remote supervision of teacher trainee internships: Using digital technology to increase social presence. Front. Educ. 7, 1026417. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.1026417

Pifarré, M., Guijosa, A., and Argelagós, E. (2014). Using a blog to create and support a community of inquiry in secondary education. E-Learn. Digit. Media 11, 72–87. doi: 10.2304/elea.2014.11.1.72

Sadaf, A., Wu, T., and Martin, F. (2021). Cognitive presence in online learning: a systematic review of empirical research from 2000 to 2019. Comp. Educ. Open 2, 100050. doi: 10.1016/j.caeo.2021.100050

Seaman, J. E., Allen, I. E., and Seaman, J. (2018). Grade Increase: Tracking Distance Education in the United States. Babson Park, MA: Babson Survey Research Group.

Shea, P., Richardson, J., and Swan, K. (2022). Building bridges to advance the community of inquiry framework for online learning. Educ. Psychol. 57, 148–161. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2022.2089989

Song, D., and Bonk, C. J. (2016). Motivational factors in self-directed informal learning from online learning resources. Cogent Educ. 3, 1205838. doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2016.1205838

Stemler, S. E. (2019). A comparison of consensus, consistency, and measurement approaches to estimating interrater reliability. Pract. Assess. Res. Eval . 9:4. doi: 10.7275/96jp-xz07

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society. The Development of Higher Psychological Processes . Harvard University Press.

Zawilinski, L. M. (2012). An Exploration of a Collaborative Blogging Approach to Literacy and Learning: A Mixed Methods Study . Stamford: University of Connecticut.

Keywords: web 2.0, Community of Inquiry (CoI), blog, collaborative learning, learning outcome

Citation: Chowdhury SA and Siddique MNA (2024) Developing a Community of Inquiry using an educational blog in higher education from the perspective of Bangladesh. Front. Educ. 9:1302434. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1302434

Received: 26 September 2023; Accepted: 25 March 2024; Published: 09 April 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Chowdhury and Siddique. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Sabbir Ahmed Chowdhury, sabbir.ahmed@du.ac.bd

This article is part of the Research Topic

Psychological Transformation in Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments (TELEs): Focus on Teachers and Learners

• Open access
• Published: 03 April 2024

The environmental awareness of nurses as environmentally sustainable health care leaders: a mixed method analysis

• Olga María Luque-Alcaraz   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1598-1422 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 ,
• Pilar Aparicio-Martínez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2940-8697 3 , 4 ,
• Antonio Gomera   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0603-3017 2 &
• Manuel Vaquero-Abellán   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0602-317X 2 , 3 , 4  

BMC Nursing volume  23 , Article number:  229 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

338 Accesses

6 Altmetric

Metrics details

People worldwide are concerned with the possibility of climate change, microplastics, air pollution, and extreme weather affecting human health. Countries are implementing measures to reduce environmental impacts. Nurses play a vital role, primarily through Green Teams, in the process of promoting sustainable practices and minimizing the environmental footprint of health care facilities. Despite existing knowledge on this topic, assessing nurses’ environmental awareness and behavior, including the barriers they face, is crucial with regard to improving sustainable health care practices.

To analyze the environmental awareness and behavior of nurses, especially nurse leaders, as members of the Green Team and to identify areas for improvement with regard to the creation of a sustainable environment.

A sequential mixed-method study was conducted to investigate Spanish nurses. The study utilized an online survey and interviews, including participant observation. An online survey was administered to collect quantitative data regarding environmental awareness and behavior. Qualitative interviews were conducted with environmental nurses in specific regions, with a focus on Andalusia, Spain.

Most of the surveyed nurses ( N  = 314) exhibited moderate environmental awareness (70.4%), but their environmental behavior and activities in the workplace were limited (52.23% of participants rarely performed relevant actions, and 35.03% indicated that doing so was difficult). Nurses who exhibited higher levels of environmental awareness were more likely to engage in sustainable behaviors such as waste reduction, energy conservation, and environmentally conscious purchasing decisions ( p  < 0.05). Additionally, the adjusted model indicated that nurses’ environmental behavior and activities in the workplace depend on the frequency of their environmental behaviors outside work as well as their sustainable knowledge ( p  < 0.01). The results of the qualitative study ( N  = 10) highlighted certain limitations in their daily practices related to environmental sustainability, including a lack of time, a lack of bins and the pandemic. Additionally, sustainable environmental behavior on the part of nursing leadership and the Green Team must be improved.

Conclusions

This study revealed that most nurses have adequate knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to environmental sustainability both inside and outside the workplace. Limitations were associated with their knowledge and behaviors outside of work. This study also highlighted the barriers and difficulties that nurses face in their attempts to engage in adequate environmental behaviors in the workplace. Based on these findings, interventions led by nurses and the Green Team should be developed to promote sustainable behaviors among nurses and address the barriers and limitations identified in this research.

Graphical Abstract

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The impact of climate change on human society is a global concern, especially with regard to microplastics, resource shortages, air pollution, droughts, and extreme weather. Such consequences affect human health both directly and indirectly, resulting in an increase in pathologies and a deterioration in medical attention [ 1 , 2 ]. In this context, diverse measures aimed at reducing the environmental impact of daily activities and minimizing the ecological footprint thereof [ 3 ] have been implemented by multiple countries [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]; these activities have been framed as environmental regulations in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [ 8 ].

The SDGs are being integrated into governments and a variety of other contexts, including the health care system. Spain is dedicated to such a goal, i.e., that of promoting a greener and more democratic health care transition. To achieve this goal, strategic plans have been developed to mitigate the effects of climate change [ 9 , 10 ]. One specific such program is the Strategic Health and Environment Plan (PESMA) [ 11 ], whose aim is to enhance the synergy between health and the environment innovatively by assessing the impact of the population in terms of 14 environmental indicators [ 12 ].

One such indicator focuses on the resources and support needed for sustainable practices, especially for nurses, due to the impact of the environment on their work [ 13 , 14 ]. The PESMA highlights the fact that health care providers should be included in strategies to reduce carbon footprints, build resilience to address the challenges associated with climate change and embrace a leadership role in the task of promoting sustainable health care practices [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Another critical aspect of PESMA focuses on education, training, and incentives that can promote sustainable behavior among health care workers, especially nurses [ 17 , 18 ]. As frontline health care workers, nurses have a unique opportunity to advocate for sustainable practices and reduce the environmental impact of the health care system. Nurses’ knowledge and behavior are limited despite the fact that nurses have positive attitudes toward environmental sustainability [ 19 ].

This situation stands in contrast to the role of nurses in the creation of more sustainable hospitals via the “Green Team” [ 20 ]. The Green Team, which originated in the United States of America a decade ago, is a committee that is responsible for finding and implementing sustainability projects to decrease the environmental impacts of daily operations. Members of various departments collaborate with sustainability staff to detect opportunities, spread awareness, and promote staff involvement in line with the Committee’s mission [ 21 ]. The team, which typically consists of and is led by nurses, aims to increase awareness of the health care industry’s effect on the environment and to develop tactics to mitigate the adverse environmental effects of hospitals.

In Spain, Green Teams, which span multiple disciplines and usually led by nursing professionals, are committed to sustainable change in health care [ 22 ]. Environmental nursing leaders on Green Teams control environmental sustainability in health care settings and provide education, resources, and support to other professionals with regard to the implementation of sustainable practices [ 23 ]. Accordingly, all nurses can contribute to the tasks of mitigating the impact of climate change on public health outcomes and promoting sustainable health for all [ 24 ]. These actions improve nurses’ knowledge, attitudes, and behavior in terms of sustainability and promote sustainable practices in health care settings, thus leading to a better understanding of the barriers faced by nurses in this context [ 24 , 25 , 26 ].

However, measuring and identifying nurses’ environmental awareness is essential for the promotion of sustainable hospitals [ 27 , 28 ]. Multidimensional indicators have been proposed for this purpose [ 16 ], the responsibility for which lies with nurse leaders on Green Teams. Nurses are responsible for promoting sustainability in health care organizations, as discussed by Kallio et al. (2018) [ 29 ], as well as for promoting nursing competencies related to environmental sustainability [ 30 ]. Several studies, including Harris et al. (2009) and Phiri et al. (2022), have examined nurses’ roles in environmental health and the effects of their leadership on the promotion of sustainability, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, thereby emphasizing the importance of leadership [ 31 , 32 ].

As Ojemeni et al. (2019) discussed, leadership effectiveness in Green Teams, nursing teams and health care organizations must prioritize quality control and health care improvement to ensure sustainable development [ 33 ].

The topic of environmental management in health care organizations has been studied extensively, and an environmental or ecological model of care for promoting sustainability has been proposed [ 34 ]. As environmental creators and leaders on Green Teams, nurses are vital for minimizing hazardous waste in health care settings and improving awareness [ 35 ].

Although nurses have some degree of existing knowledge and awareness of sustainability, it is crucial to assess their proficiency in environmental matters and to gauge their environmental awareness. Such an evaluation can help identify areas for improvement within clinical management units [ 20 , 33 , 36 ]. Education and training programs can effectively promote sustainable behavior among nurses, but interventions should also address the barriers they face in their attempts to implement sustainable practices [ 37 ]. Therefore, it is imperative to examine the factors that foster sustainable behavior among nurses and to identify effective interventions that can promote sustainable health care practices and minimize the environmental footprint of health care facilities. Accordingly, this study aimed to analyze the environmental awareness and behavior of nurses, especially nurse leaders, as members of the Green Team and to identify areas for improvement with regard to creating a sustainable environment.

Study design

A sequential mixed-method study was conducted based on an online survey and interviews with a representative sample of Spanish nurses, including participant observation.

The study was divided into two phases. In the first phase, a cross-sectional, descriptive exploratory analysis was performed; this analysis relied on the results revealed using the Nurse’s Environmental Awareness Tool in Spanish (NEAT-es) [ 38 ], which was divided into three subscales: nursing awareness scale (NAS), environmental behaviors outside the workplace (PEB) and sustainable behaviors in the workplace (NPEB). In the second phase, qualitative interviews with environmental nurses (see Supplementary file 1 ) were conducted in regions featuring specific environmental units that were available in person (Andalusia).

Participants

The participants were recruited from public and private institutions associated with the National Health System, particularly from the nursing staff. The scope of the study focused on Spain, and the sample included all the nursing staff who completed the questionnaire and met the inclusion criteria.

The sampling process focused on the population of nurses in Spain in 2020, which was estimated to consist of 388,153 nurses. Therefore, a random sample of 314 participating individuals was sufficient to estimate the population with 95% confidence and an accuracy of +/- 2% units, which was expected to account for approximately 90% of the overall population. The inclusion and exclusion criteria used for the sample focused on nursing staff, nursing care auxiliary technicians, and students with relevant degrees, as this members of this group have the most significant presence in the health system and engage in direct and daily contact with environmental management in health centers (hospitals, primary care centers, sociosanitary centers and others). The remaining health and nonhealth personnel were excluded.

Additionally, the person from each unit who served as the environmental coordinator and other nurses from the ward who were members of the Green Team were asked to participate in the interviews and observations. The environmental coordinators, most of who were nursing supervisors, were determined based on the number of members of the Green Team and the sampling calculation used for the observational study. The interviews took place after various sessions, talks, or courses pertaining to environmental sustainability at the clinical management units.

Data collection

An intentional sampling process was implemented, and the data collection period spanned from November 2019 to March 2021. The observational data were collected in Spain via messages and posts on social media with the goal of quantifying nurses’ environmental awareness.

The initial sample of qualitative study included five environmental nursing leaders (NLs), 14 registered nurses (RNs), and ten nursing undergraduates. The final sample was reduced when the interviews reached data saturation ( N  = 10, five NLs, and five RNs). Before the interviews, a focal group composed of one nurse, one physician, two engineers and a psychologist was tested using the questions included in this research as part of a pilot study ( Supplementary file 1 ). These interviews were conducted at the beginning of the participant’s shift, usually in the morning, and they featured a median time of 30 min, a minimum of 20 min and a maximum of one hour per participant.

One researcher (O.A.L.) also observed nurses during their daily work after the interview from a position within the ward as an added team member or staff member. Nevertheless, the observer did not highlight mistakes or sustainability issues during the observation process. No other researcher was involved in this step of the ethnographic analysis to avoid bias with regard to observing a variety of tasks ranging from preparing medication to implementing treatments.

The data collected through the interviews were recorded on a Samsung Galaxy 31 A, and observations were collected in a field notebook based on the Google Keep and Evernote mobile applications from November 2019 to mid-March 2021. This study was conducted at a regional level 1 hospital in southern Spain, particularly in various clinical management units (neurosurgery, internal medicine, cardiology, traumatology, and COVID-19 units, among others), and it focused on nursing supervisors, who are the leaders who bear responsibility for environmental awareness (NLs), and registered nurses (RNs) who were members of the Green Team.

Data analysis

The quantitative data were analyzed by reference to descriptive statistics, including the mean, standard deviation (SD), and 95% confidence interval (CI); the relative frequencies of the variables were also analyzed. Normalization tests, Kolmogorov‒Smirnov tests with Lilliefors correction, and Q‒Q tests were used to compare the goodness-of-fit to an average data distribution with regard to continuous or discrete quantitative variables. The comparison of two or three independent means was performed using Student’s t test and analyses of variance for each variable. The Χ 2 test with Yates’ correction was used to compare percentages and Pearson’s correlation (r) coefficients across the quantitative variables. Finally, associations among the NPEB and the other variables were studied through multiple linear regression. Participant observation was used to support the qualitative study of the reflective ethnographic type [ 39 , 40 ], and this process ended when the data reached saturation. Two researchers developed transcripts for the interviews based on the recorded interviews and added descriptions based on the notes from the field notebook. The identification of themes and patrons was based on a process of triangulation among the researchers and by cross-checking the results. The interviews with nurses were analyzed to summarize the content analysis and identify keywords and concurrency among the terms. The themes thus identified included Green Teams, sustainable environmental behaviors, environment awareness, leadership barriers and limitations and areas for improvement.

EPIDAT (version 4.2) and SPSS (version 25) software were used to support the quantitative analysis. The computer program ATLAS.ti (version 22) and the Office Package with Microsoft Word Excel (version 2019) were used for the interviews and the visualization of the keywords based on the themes identified based on the records, observations and field notebooks.

Nurses’ awareness, knowledge, attitudes and skills.

The ages of the Spanish staff, mainly nurses, included in this study ( N  = 314) ranged from 19 to 68, with a mean age of 37.02 ± 12.7, CI = 95%, 35.6–38.4 years); in addition, 76.4% of these participants were women with more than 20 years of working experience (35.1%), and the majority were registered nurses (70.4%). Moreover, 113 (36%) participants worked at a local or regional hospital (30%) and were employees of a public institution (85.3%). Half of the nurses (157) worked only a morning shift (Table  1 ) in Andalusia, Madrid, or Catalonia (62.4%). The diverse autonomous regions on which this research focused were homogenously distributed and structured in line with the population. The analysis of these areas was also based on the specific inclusion of environmental units led by nurses (Andalusia, Madrid, and Catalonia), in contrast with regions featuring undetermined units or leaders related to this topic (such as Valencia) (37.5%).

Regarding nursing awareness, nurses scored higher on the PEB (31.83 ± 8.02 CI 95% 30.94–32.72 with regard to frequency vs. 32.36 ± 7.15 CI 95% 31.57–33.15 with respect to difficulty) than on the NAS (26.13 ± 9.91 CI 95% 25.03–27.23 with regard to knowledge vs. 47.39 ± 5.97 CI 95% 46.73–48.05 with respect to impact) and the NPEB (23.82 ± 6.45 CI 95% 23.10-24.53 with regard to frequency vs. 25.71 ± 6.31 CI 95% 25.01–26.41 with respect to difficulty). These results indicated that environmental knowledge among the Spanish population was limited (55.7%), although the nurses included in this research were aware of their potential impact on the environment (70.4%). The PEB subscale focused mostly on following environmental guidelines in their homes (57.3%) because these sustainable domestic tasks are easier for them (63.1%) than tasks in the professional field. The second subscale, NPEB, indicated that sustainable activities such as recycling were easy for the participants (57.6%), but sometimes they engaged in such activities less frequently than they would like (52.2%) (Fig.  1 and Fig.  2 ).

Representation of the frequency of nursing environmental behavior

Difficulty of engaging in adequate environmental behaviors

The sociodemographic variables indicated differences among the NEAT subscales (Table  2 ). Gender, working experience (with a median value of 10 years), and the position held in the institution and region were relevant with regard to environmental knowledge ( p  < 0.01), environmental behavior outside the workplace ( p  < 0.01), and environmental behavior in the workplace ( p  < 0.01).

The NPEB was associated with the worst scores, thereby reflecting the nurses’ environmental behavior and activities in the workplace (52.23% rarely performed relevant activities, and 35.03% indicated that doing so was difficult) (Fig.  1 and Fig.  2 ). The NPEB values pertaining to environmental behavior were positively linked to age ( r  = 0.412; p  < 0.001), NAS knowledge ( r  = 0.526; p  < 0.001), PEB frequency ( r  = 0. 57; p  < 0.001), PEB difficulty ( r  = 0.329; p  < 0.001), and finally, difficulty performing adequate environmental behaviors ( r  = 0.499; p  < 0.001). Additionally, the value of the NPEB with regard to the difficulty of performing adequate environmental behaviors was positively associated with age ( r  = 0.149; p  = 0.008), NAS knowledge ( r  = 0.249; p  < 0.001), PEB frequency ( r  = 0. 244; p  < 0.001) and PEB difficulty ( r  = 0.442; p  < 0.001).

Based on the relevance of certain sociodemographic variables, the nurses’ environmental awareness (NAS) and their behavior outside the workplace (PEB), linear multiple regression was performed to investigate nursing behavior in the workplace (NPEB). The initial model (square sum = 488.655; p  < 0.0001) indicated that age, the impact of nursing awareness (NAS), and the frequency of sustainable behaviors outside the workplace (PEB) were not relevant to nursing behavior in the workplace (NPEB) in terms of the frequency of performing adequate behavior or the difficulties experienced ( p  > 0.05). Based on these results, the adjusted model was calculated (Table  3 ), indicating that NPEB depends on PEB frequency and NAS knowledge ( p  < 0.01).

Nursing environmental behavior in the context of Green Teams: Barriers and areas for improvement.

The participants in the qualitative study ( N  = 10) included nine women and one man; their median age was 49 years; they exhibited an interval quartile range of 35–60; they had levels of working experience ranging between 20 and 30 years, and they worked only in the mornings (7/10). Furthermore, the group including nurses and nursing supervisors (5/10) exhibited higher levels of education (see Supplementary file 2 ). The themes identified via repetition and associations during the interviews and observations indicated links among nurses’ responsibilities on the Green Team since they conformed to the nature of such teams (i). This team and nursing leaders identified sustainable environmental behavior (ii) that could improve environmental awareness (iii), knowledge, aptitude, and skills. The nurses who are responsible for sustainable changes should be the leaders (iv), and the relevant barriers and limitations (v) and areas for improvement (vi) in diverse areas should be identified simultaneously.

Green teams were linked to nursing responsibilities in the context of environmental sustainability.

In the interviews, the Green Teams, led by environmental leader nurses and comprising various staff members, were identified as crucial committees dedicated to enhancing environmental awareness and knowledge among hospital staff. Participants indicated that these teams facilitated regular meetings to discuss sustainable practices and played a pivotal role in testing behaviors and knowledge related to environmental sustainability. The Green Teams were highlighted as platforms for fostering collaboration and discussion surrounding sustainable practices. Participants noted that these teams facilitated the main purpose of the team and its members to improve the hospital staff’s knowledge and attitudes via meetings (RN 2,3 and NL 1,3). Subsequently, the NL also indicated a key role of the team in the testing of behaviors and knowledge. The behavior of registered nurses should be tested using questions according to the NLs. Also, the NLs are included in disponibility of of proper disposal methods for medical waste:

“So, where is the rubbish bin for medicines, that white one that you showed in the session that is used for the remains of medicines that we do not give to patients?” [(NL5)]

By such comments, it can be inferred that the Green Team not only disseminates information, manages the training and measures knowledge but also ensures that staff members understand and adhere to best practices in waste management. These tasks of the NLs and other RNs in the Green Team contribute to the overall efficiency and effectiveness of environmental sustainability efforts within the hospital.

Sustainable environmental behaviors were emerged by Green Teams.

The results of the analysis indicated some degree of resistance among the nurses working at the clinical management units with regard to their lack of competencies, especially those pertaining to knowledge, skills and attitudes. The comments from the interviews highlighted potential factors contributing to this resistance, including age-related differences, varying levels of awareness, and challenges in applying the principles of reduce, reuse, and recycle (the three Rs). For instance, one repetitive comment expressed a sentiment of uncertainty, stating “It is what is, but we don’t know it or what to do with it” (RN 3,4,5, and NL 2,3).

“We know what the light packing is, and they (maintenance people) installed it to reduce the lights and reduce the expense and cost, but we don’t know what to do with the rubbish bins” [(NL 4)]

This comment highlights a disconnect between awareness of specific sustainable initiatives and the practical knowledge to implement them effectively. All comments reflect the importance of addressing knowledge gaps and providing practical guidance to support nurses in adopting sustainable environmental behaviours. By acknowledging and addressing these challenges, healthcare facilities can enhance their environmental stewardship efforts and promote a culture of sustainability among staff members.

Environmental awareness were drawn from the nursing responsibilities that led to the creation of the Green Team.

The comments indicated that environmental awareness among nurses was influenced by training sessions and courses on environmental sustainability. After receiving training featuring lectures and courses on environmental sustainability, the leaders also reflected on the ways in which nurses put the recommendations made during the environmental sustainability courses into practice. Moreover, the leaders indicated that education should be beyond formal training sessions. The environmental leaders were interested in supplementing these courses with environmental education practices for the general population, as noted, for example, in reports of discharge from patient care or cycling on the ward. These activities indicated the ideal of including a holistic approach to sustainability within the healthcare setting.

Relevant statements included, “We have to separate residues according to the material… light plastic goes to… it is important for the unit and all of us” (NL 2,5). One key point that the referees and registered nurses highlighted pertained to the climate, particularly the lack of water (NL 1–5 and RN 1,2).

“The drought is getting worse; I don’t know how we are going to keep up… we hope it rains soon” [(RN1)]

Overall, the interviews shed light on the efforts to foster environmental awareness among nurses through formal training and practical integration into everyday practices. These observations emphasize the importance of ongoing education and action in addressing environmental concerns within healthcare settings.

Leadership, which was linked by comments to the Green Teams.

The interviews revealed that leadership, particularly within the context of Green Teams, is crucial in promoting environmental awareness and fostering a culture of sustainability among nursing staff. All the participants ( n  = 10) indicated that the presence of adequate knowledge, meetings and awareness among nursing staff were the most important factors. These factors were identified as key drivers in promoting sustainable practices within the healthcare environment. NLs indicated the importance of creating a supportive working environment where nurses feel comfortable asking questions and seeking clarification without fear of negative feedback. Relevant statements included, “It is key to receive feedback from the nurses and provide a good working environment so that they can ask questions and reflect without negative comments” (NL 1,2,4, and RN 1,2). This working environment allowed the registered nurses to ask for help regarding the three Rs:

“Could you remind me (referring to the environmental coordinator) how the sustainable guidelines were included in the discharge report for the continuity of care; I remember some things from the course you gave us, but I want to convey it completely to my patient” [(RN2)]

Barriers and limitations, were drawn from nurses’ responsibilities.

Several nurses indicated that the difficulties they encountered with regard to performing environmental behaviors pertained to the lack of time, adequate bins, and space as well as the limited number of nurses per patient in the wards. Despite these challenges, participants noted a positive outcome in the form of increased awareness of sustainability issues among nurses, indicating a growing recognition of the importance of environmental stewardship within the healthcare setting. One factor that increased the barriers to environmental adequacy was the pandemic, which increased waste and rubbish. Despite these challenges, participants noted a positive outcome in the form of increased awareness of sustainability issues among nurses, indicating a growing recognition of the importance of environmental stewardship within the healthcare setting. Relevant statements included “There are not enough green rubbish bins for COVID waste” (EL 1,4,5 and RN1,2) and “How are we going to recycle if we don’t even have time to care for patients?” (RN 1,2 and NL 3).

All these comments indicated the barriers the nurses faced, but they also suggested possibilities for improvement. The pandemic, despite overloading nurses, also improved their awareness.

Areas subject to improvement emerged from nursing responsibilities, limitations and leadership.

Nurses indicated that despite their general levels of environmental awareness and the courses they had received, participants performed better regarding their recycling behaviors at home than at the hospital. Participants acknowledged performing better in recycling practices within their personal spaces, suggesting a potential gap in translating theoretical knowledge into practical action within the healthcare environment. Relevant statements included “It’s just that I recycle almost everything in my house, especially glass…, but here, there is no time…” (RN 1,4,5).

Moreover, time constraints emerged as a significant barrier impeding nurses’ ability to engage fully in environmental sustainability efforts. Participants cited the demanding nature of their work, particularly in the context of patient care responsibilities, as limiting their capacity to prioritize sustainability initiatives. This highlights the need for strategies to streamline environmental practices and integrate them seamlessly into nurses’ daily routines without adding undue burden.

Some statements also highlighted nurses’ willingness to improve paperwork and records. Nurses recognized the importance of incorporating environmental considerations into patient discharge reports and other documentation processes but sought further guidance on how to effectively implement these practices. Relevant statements included “Can you tell me how the patient’s continuity care report upon discharge was included in the recommendations for environmental sustainability… I want to do the report well with what you gave us in the clinical session the other day…” [(NL4)]

These comments indicated the opportunities for improvement in fostering a culture of environmental sustainability within the hospital setting. By addressing the identified challenges and providing targeted support and guidance, especially the lack of time, nurses can contribute to environmental stewardship efforts more effectively.

The current research highlights the relevance of nurses as promoters of environmentally sustainable behaviors in their roles as members of Green Teams and important leaders. The findings suggest that nurses exhibit acceptable knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors with regard to environmental sustainability both inside and outside the workplace. These results are complemented by a qualitative analysis indicating that such behaviors originate from nursing responsibility, Green Teams, leadership identification of barriers and areas of improvement. Both analyses highlight the fact that environmental nursing behavior in the workplace depends on sustainable behaviors outside the workplace. The qualitative analysis also identifies diverse barriers to the task of promoting sustainable behavior within the workplace, such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the need for more time to be allocated to this process. One key point identified by both analyses is that nurses have acceptable levels of knowledge; however, their attitudes, although as yet imperfect, are improving.

Several studies of nurses’ awareness of environmental sustainability have revealed that nurses exhibit moderate levels of awareness and a considerable degree of concern regarding the health impacts of climate change [ 37 , 42 , 43 ], as reflected in the NEAT-es results.

Interestingly, the participants exhibited a tendency to perform environmentally sustainable behaviors more consistently in their personal lives than in professional settings. These results are consistent with previous research on registered nurse and nursing students [ 36 , 41 , 42 ]. According to Swedish research, nurses generally recognize environmental issues but may lack awareness of the environmental impact of health care [ 43 ]. Polivka Barbara J. et al. (2012) highlighted the gap between nurses’ knowledge of sustainability and workplace behaviors, thereby emphasizing the need for education and training programs to promote sustainable practices [ 44 ]. These issues were also observed in a study conducted in Taiwan, which revealed that while nursing students exhibit positive attitudes toward sustainability, their knowledge and behaviors are inadequate [ 45 ].

By conducting qualitative analysis, this research also identified multiple barriers to the adoption of sustainable practices among nurses, including time constraints, disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, a lack of bins, and a lack of health care personnel. These findings are in line with those reported in other research, but certain barriers (in terms of resources, time, and support) to the implementation of sustainable practices in the workplace remain [ 29 ]. This study suggests that interventions should be designed to address these barriers and promote sustainable behavior among nurses, a suggestion which is consistent with the current research. These findings highlight the importance of comprehending nurses’ perspectives on environmental sustainability in health care contexts as well as the necessity for targeted interventions and support mechanisms [ 46 ]. The tasks assigned to nursing leaders and the Green Team involved addressing these barriers and promoting sustainable practices among nurses in the context of their professional roles. Environmental nursing leaders seem to be crucial with regard to establishing a more environmentally conscious health care environment, which is in line with recommendations to create a greener health care system [ 21 , 31 ]. Despite the results of the interviews, some global qualitative studies of nurses’ views on environmental issues have exhibited variations across countries [ 47 , 48 ]. In Sweden, nurses already exhibit pro-sustainability attitudes before the introduction of the 2030 SDGs [ 16 ]. However, the integration of environmental sustainability education into nursing programs can prepare future nurses more effectively to address the challenges associated with climate change and promote sustainable health outcomes [ 49 ].

Limitations

Although this investigation provides valuable insights, it is important to acknowledge its limitations. First, the study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain, which may have influenced the results due to the unique circumstances and stressors faced by health care workers during this period. Additionally, the assessment of nurses’ environmental awareness was performed on a larger scale, i.e., across multiple regions, and therefore may not accurately reflect individual attitudes and behaviors since the qualitative investigations focused on a specific region. However, this approach was adopted to minimize the risk of the ecological fallacy. Future studies could explore individual perspectives and experiences by reference to more diverse and representative samples.

Despite these limitations, this research is highly relevant because it sheds light on the role of nurses in the task of promoting environmental sustainability in health care settings. The research also emphasized the role of nursing leadership in the tasks of promoting environmental sustainability and providing nurses with the necessary resources and support to implement sustainable practices.

In conclusion, while nurses generally exhibit acceptable levels of knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors regarding environmental sustainability, a notable gap persists in terms of the frequency of sustainable actions within the professional settings in which they operate. This finding highlights the importance of closely aligning nurses’ personal and professional sustainability practices.

The qualitative analysis conducted as part of this study identified several barriers to the adoption of sustainable practices among nurses, including time constraints, disruptions resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, issues with waste disposal, and challenges related to health care personnel. Despite the fact that these findings are in line with those reported in previous research, persistent barriers such as limited resources, time, and support hinder the implementation of sustainable practices in the workplace. Therefore, interventions aimed at addressing these barriers and promoting sustainable behavior among nurses are essential, as highlighted by both current research and the corresponding qualitative insights. Therefore, nursing leaders and Green Teams are pivotal with regard to overcoming these barriers and fostering sustainable practices within health care environments. Environmental nursing leaders in particular are instrumental to the cultivation of a more environmentally conscious health care system, thereby aligning with recommendations for greener health care practices.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed as part of the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Romanello M, Di Napoli C, Drummond P, Green C, Kennard H, Lampard P, et al. The 2022 report of the Lancet countdown on health and climate change: health at the mercy of fossil fuels. Lancet. 2022;400(10363):1619–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01540-9

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Watts N, Amann M, Ayeb-Karlsson S, Belesova K, Bouley T, Boykoff M, et al. The Lancet countdown on health and climate change: from 25 years of inaction to a global transformation for public health. Lancet. 2018;391(10120):581–630. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32464-9

Fadhullah W, Imran NIN, Ismail SNS, Jaafar MH, Abdullah H. Household solid waste management practices and perceptions among residents in the East Coast of Malaysia. BMC Public Health. 2022;22(1):1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12274-7

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Castañeda-Hidalgo H, Visovsky C, Hernández DE, González-Quirarte NH, Compeán-Ortiz L, Campiño SM. Nursing’s contributions to Sustainable Development Goals in Latin America through education, leadership, and partnerships. Int J Nurs Studi. 2021;121:104004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2021.104004

Article   Google Scholar  

Dossey BM, Rosa WE, Beck DM. Nursing and the Sustainable Development Goals: from Nightingale to now. Am J Nurs. 2019;119(5):44–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.NAJ.0000557912.35398.8f

Rosa WE, Dossey BM, Koithan M, Kreitzer MJ, Manjrekar P, Meleis AI, et al. Nursing theory in the Quest for the Sustainable Development Goals. Nurs Sci Q. 2020;33(2):178–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894318420903495

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform. In: Open Working Group proposal for Sustainable Development Goals. 2023. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1579SDGs Proposal.pdf.Accessed 17 Apr 2023.

Sanahuja JA. El Pacto Verde, NextGenerationEU y la nueva Europa geopolítica. In: Fundación Carolina.2022. https://www.fundacioncarolina.es/dt_fc_63/ . Accessed 17 Apr 2023.

Boto-Álvarez A, García-Fernández R. Implementation of the 2030 Agenda Sustainable Development Goals in Spain. Sustainability. 2020;12(6):2546. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062546

Gomera Martínez A,Villamandos, de la Torre F, Vaquero Abellán. M,. Measurement and categorization of environmental awareness in university students: the contribution of the University to strengthen it. Ambientalización curricular y sostenibilidad. Nuevos retos de profesionalización docente. 2012;16(2):215– 28.

Ministerio de Sanidad. Plan Estratégico de Salud y Medioambiente 2022–2026. In: Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico.2021. https://www.sanidad.gob.es/ciudadanos/pesma/docs/241121_PESMA.pdf . Accessed 25 Apr 2023.

Ministerio de Sanidad. Plan Estratégico de Salud y Medioambiente. In: 1 a Programa de Actuación. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico;2022. https://www.sanidad.gob.es/ciudadanos/pesma/docs/1er_PA_PESMA.pdf . Accessed 25 Apr 2023.

Hart J. Health Care without Harm: taking Environmental Action to improve lives and the planet. Integr Complement Ther. 2022;28(5):251–4. https://doi.org/10.1089/ict.2022.29036.pro

Health Care Without Harm. Hospitales que curan el planeta. In: Informe sobre el trabajo de los miembros de la Red Global de Hospitales Verdes y Saludables en América Latina. Red Global de Hospitales Verdes y Saludables en America Latina. 2022. https://saludsindanio.org/sites/default/files/documents-files/7287/Hospitales que curan el planeta 2022-FINAL_web_0 %281%29_0.pdf . Accessed 25 Apr 2023.

McDermott-Levy R. The nurse’s role on green teams: an environmental health opportunity. Pa Nurse. 2011;66(1):17–21.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Schenk E, Johnson S. Nurse-sensitive environmental indicators: a qualitative study. J Nurs Manag. 2022;30(8):4378–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.13861 . Epub 2022 Oct 20.

Eckelman MJ, Sherman JD, MacNeill AJ. Life cycle environmental emissions and health damages from the Canadian healthcare system: an economic-environmental-epidemiological analysis. PLoS Med. 2018;15(7):e1002623. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002623

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Mateen A, Nisar QA, Nasir N. Fostering pro-environmental behaviors in the healthcare organizations: an empirical analysis of psychological and strategic factors. Asia Pac Manage Rev. 2023;28(1):13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmrv.2022.01.004

Michie S, West R. Sustained behavior change is key to preventing and tackling future pandemics. Nat Med. 2021;27(5):749–52. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01345-2

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Mejia EA, Sattler B. Starting a Health Care System Green Team. AORN J. 2009;90(1):33–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aorn.2009.03.001

Practice Green Health. Comparison chart of hospital green teams and their structure. 2019. https://practicegreenhealth.org/sites/default/files/2019-02/Comparison chart of hospitals green team structure_2017.pdf . Accessed 1st Frebuary 2024.

Dickman E, Backler C, Berg CD, Komandt M, Schiller J. Climate change and oncology nursing: a call to action. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2022;26(1):109–13. https://doi.org/10.1188/22.CJON.109-113

de la Gámez J, Padilla Fortes A. Análisis De La producción científica visible en internet de Los técnicos de salud ambiental del Servicio Andaluz De Salud. Rev GeI Inf Doc. 2010;20:409–25.

Google Scholar  

Filho W. Non-conventional learning on sustainable development: achieving the SDGs. Environ Sci Eur. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-021-00525-8 . 33;97.

Filho W, Tripathi S, Andrade Guerra JB, Gine R, Orlovic Lovren V, Willats J. Using the sustainable development goals towards a better understanding of sustainability challenges. Int J Sustainable Dev World Ecol. 2018;26:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2018.1505674

Portela Dos Santos O, Melly P, Joost S, Verloo H. Climate Change, Environmental Health, and challenges for nursing Discipline. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023;20(9):5682. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20095682

Sattler B, Randall KS, Choiniere D. Reducing Hazardous Chemical exposures in the neonatal intensive care unit: a New Role for nurses. Crit Care Nurs Q. 2012;35(1):102–11. https://doi.org/10.1097/CNQ.0b013e31823b2084

Trent L, Law J, Grimaldi D. Create intensive care green teams, there is no time to waste. Intensive Care Med. 2023;49(4):440–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-023-07015-w

Kallio H, Pietilä AM, Johnson M, Kangasniemi M. Environmental responsibility in hospital care: findings from a qualitative study. J Hosp Adm. 2018;7(5):56. https://doi.org/10.5430/jha.v7n5p56

Rosa WE, Catton H, Davidson PM, Hannaway CJ, Iro E, Klopper HC, et al. Nurses and midwives as Global Partners to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals in the Anthropocene. J Nurs Scholarsh. 2021;53(5):552–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnu.12672

Harris N, Pisa L, Talioaga S, Vezeau T. Hospitals going green: a holistic view of the issue and the critical role of the nurse leader. Holist Nurs Pract. 2009;23(2):101–11. https://doi.org/10.1097/HNP.0b013e3181a110fe

Phiri MM, MacPherson EE, Panulo M, Chidziwisano K, Kalua K, Chawanangwa M, Chirambo, et al. Preparedness for and impact of COVID-19 on primary health care delivery in urban and rural Malawi: a mixed methods study. BMJ Open. 2022;12(6):e051125. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-051125

Ojemeni MT, Karanja V, Cadet G, Charles A, Dushimimana E, McMahon C, et al. Fostering nursing leadership: an important key to achieving sustainable development goals and universal health care. Int J Nurs Stud. 2019;100:103421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2019.103421

German E. The environmental or ecological model of care. Nriagu JO. Encyclopedia of Environmental Health. Netherlands:Elsevier Science; 2019. pp. 447–50.

Vasset F, Fagerstrøm L, Frilund M. Sustainable Nursing Leadership in Nordic Health Care Organizations. Scand J Caring Sci. 2021;14(2):2–1527.

Kallio H, Pietilä AM, Kangasniemi M. Environmental responsibility in nursing in hospitals: a modified Delphi study of nurses’ views. J Clin Nurs. 2020;29(21–22):4045–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.15429

Richardson J, Grose J, Bradbury M, Kelsey J. Developing awareness of sustainability in nursing and midwifery using a scenario-based approach: evidence from a pre and post educational intervention study. Nurse Educ Today. 2017;54:51–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2017.04.022

Luque-Alcaraz OM, Gomera A, Ruíz Á, Aparicio-Martinez P, Vaquero-Abellan M. Validation of the Spanish Version of the questionnaire on environmental awareness in nursing (NEAT). Healthcare. 2022;10(8):1420. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10081420

Amezcua M. El Trabajo De Campo Etnográfico En Salud. Index Enferm (Gran). 2000;30:30–5.

Jamali HR. Does research using qualitative methods (grounded theory, ethnography, and phenomenology) have more impact? Libr Inform Sci Res. 2018;40(3):201–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2018.09.002

Cowie J, Nicoll A, Dimova ED, Campbell P, Duncan EA. The barriers and facilitators influencing the sustainability of hospital-based interventions: a systematic review. BMC Health Serv Res. 2020;20(1):588. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-020-05434-9

Kircher M, Doheny BM, Raab K, Onello E, Gingerich S, Potter T. Understanding the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of Healthcare professionals toward Climate Change and Health in Minnesota. Challenges. 2022;13(2):57. https://doi.org/10.3390/challe13020057

Boström M, Andersson E, Berg M, Gustafsson K, Gustavsson E, Hysing E, et al. Conditions for transformative learning for Sustainable Development: A Theoretical Review and Approach. Sustainability. 2018;10(12):4479. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124479

Polivka BJ, Chaudry RV, Crawford JM. Public Health nurses’ knowledge and attitudes regarding Climate Change. Environ Health Perspecti. 2012;120(3):321–5. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104025

Hsieh PL, Chen SH, Chang LC. School nurses’ perceptions, knowledge, and related factors Associated with evidence-based practice in Taiwan. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(9):1845. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091845

Rojas-Perez HL, Díaz-Vásquez MA, Díaz-Manchay RJ, Zeña-Ñañez S, Failoc-Rojas VE, Smith D. Nurses’ environmental practices in Northern Peruvian hospitals. Workplace Health Saf. 2024;72(2):68–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/21650799231163130

Anåker A, Nilsson M, Holmner Å, Elf M. Nurses’ perceptions of climate and environmental issues: a qualitative study. J Adv Nurs. 2015;71(8):1883–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.12655

Kallio H, Pietilä AM, Johnson M, Kangasniemi M. Systematic methodological review: developing a framework for a qualitative semi-structured interview guide. J Adv Nurs. 2016;72(12):2954–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.13031

International Council of Nurses. International Nurses Day 2023 report. Value, protect, respect and invest in our nurses for a sustainable future for nursing and health care.2023. https://www.icn.ch/news/icn-marks-international-nurses-day-launch-its-our-nurses-our-future-campaign . Accessed 25 Apr 2023.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Excellent Official Nursing School and all the professionals who participated in this research for their support.

This research received no external funding; however, the project did receive an award from the Excellent Official Nursing School in Cordoba, Spain, in 2020.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Neurosurgery Department, Hospital Universitario Reina Sofía, Andalusian Health Care System, 14071, Cordoba, Spain

Olga María Luque-Alcaraz

Environmental Protection Office (SEPA), University of Córdoba, Campus Rabanales, 14014, Córdoba, Spain

Olga María Luque-Alcaraz, Antonio Gomera & Manuel Vaquero-Abellán

GE 10 Research Groups of Clinical-Epidemiological Research in Primary Care, University Biomedical Program for Occupational Medicine, Occupational Epidemiology and Sustainability, Maimonides Institute of Biomedicine of Cordoba (IMIBIC), 14071, Cordoba, Spain

Olga María Luque-Alcaraz, Pilar Aparicio-Martínez & Manuel Vaquero-Abellán

Nursing, Pharmacology and Physiotherapy Department, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of Cordoba, 14071, Cordoba, Spain

Pilar Aparicio-Martínez & Manuel Vaquero-Abellán

GA16 Lifestyles, Innovation and Health, Maimonides Institute of Biomedicine of Cordoba (IMIBIC), 14071, Cordoba, Spain

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

A.G. and M. V-A. conceived and designed the study, and O.M. L. and P.A-M. acquired the data, analyzed and interpreted the data, and drafted the article. The publication and supervision of the article were the responsibility of A.G. and M. V-A. All authors contributed equally to the writing and preparation of the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Pilar Aparicio-Martínez .

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval and consent to participate.

Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Reina Sofia Hospital of Cordoba, which is part of the Andalusian Health Care System in Spain (Act No. 267, ref.3605). This research was in line with the Organic Law 3/2018 of December 5 on the Protection of Personal Data and Guarantee of Digital Rights as well as the Nursing Ethics Code and the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. The participants were informed of the study’s purpose before participation; their informed consent was obtained, and they were informed that they were able to withdraw from the study at any stage. All the data were obtained after informed consent was collected; in addition, the data were anonymized and saved securely in a database, thereby maintaining all stipulations of the Personal Data Law.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Supplementary material 2, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Luque-Alcaraz, O.M., Aparicio-Martínez, P., Gomera, A. et al. The environmental awareness of nurses as environmentally sustainable health care leaders: a mixed method analysis. BMC Nurs 23 , 229 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-01895-z

Download citation

Received : 26 June 2023

Accepted : 26 March 2024

Published : 03 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-01895-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Environmental health
• Attitude of health personnel
• Sustainable development
• Health Knowledge, attitudes, and practices
• Organizational Culture

BMC Nursing

ISSN: 1472-6955

• General enquiries: [email protected]