tasks of problem solving adolescent

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Why problem-solving skills are important

Everybody needs to solve problems every day. But we’re not born with the skills we need to do this – we have to develop them.

When you’re solving problems, it’s good to be able to:

• listen and think calmly
• consider options and respect other people’s opinions and needs
• negotiate and work towards compromises.

These are  skills for life – they’re highly valued in both social and work situations.

When teenagers learn skills and strategies for problem-solving and sorting out conflicts by themselves, they feel good about themselves. They’re better placed to make good decisions on their own.

Problem-solving: 6 steps

Often you can solve problems by talking and negotiating.

The following 6 steps for problem-solving are useful when you can’t find a solution. You can use them to work on most problems, including difficult choices or decisions and conflicts between people.

If you practise these steps with your child at home, your child is more likely to use them with their own problems or conflicts with others.

You might like to download and use our problem-solving worksheet (PDF: 121kb). It’s a handy tool to use as you and your child work together through the 6 steps below.

1. Identify the problem

The first step in problem-solving is working out exactly what the problem is. This can help everyone understand the problem in the same way . It’s best to get everyone who’s affected by the problem together and then put the problem into words that make it solvable.

For example:

• ‘You’ve been invited to two birthday parties on the same day and you want to go to both.’
• ‘You have two big assignments due next Wednesday.’
• ‘We have different ideas about how you’ll get home from the party on Saturday.’
• ‘You and your sister have been arguing about using the Xbox.’

When you’re working on a problem with your child, it’s good to do it when everyone is calm and can think clearly. This way, your child will be more likely to want to find a solution. Arrange a time when you won’t be interrupted, and thank your child for joining in to solve the problem.

2. Think about why it’s a problem

Help your child or children describe what’s causing the problem and where it’s coming from . It might help to consider answers to questions like these:

• Why is this so important to you?
• Why do you need this?
• What do you think might happen?
• What’s upsetting you?
• What’s the worst thing that could happen?

Try to listen without arguing or debating. This is your chance to really hear what’s going on with your child. Encourage your child to use statements like ‘I need … I want … I feel …’, and try using these phrases yourself. Try to encourage your child to focus on the issue and keep blame out of this step.

Some conflict is natural and healthy, but too much isn’t a good thing. If you find you’re clashing with your child a lot, you can use conflict management strategies . This can make future conflict less likely, and it’s good for your family relationships too.

3. Brainstorm possible solutions to the problem

Make a list of all the possible ways you and your child could solve the problem. You’re looking for a range of possibilities , both sensible and not so sensible. Try to avoid judging or debating these yet.

If your child has trouble coming up with solutions, start them off with some suggestions of your own. You could set the tone by making a crazy suggestion first – funny or extreme solutions can end up sparking more helpful options. Try to come up with  at least 5 possible solutions  together.

For example, if your children are arguing about using the Xbox, here are some possible solutions:

• ‘We buy another Xbox so you don’t have to share.’
• ‘The two of you agree on when you can each use the Xbox.’
• ‘You each have set days for using the Xbox.’
• ‘You each get to use the Xbox for 30 minutes a day.’
• ‘You put away the Xbox until next year.’

Write down all your possible solutions.

4. Evaluate the solutions to the problem

Look at the pros and cons of all the suggested solutions in turn. This way, everyone will feel that their suggestions have been considered.

It might help to cross off solutions that you all agree aren’t acceptable. For example, you might all agree that leaving your children to agree on sharing the Xbox isn’t an option because they’ve already tried that and it hasn’t worked.

When you have a list of pros and cons for the remaining solutions, cross off the ones that have more negatives than positives. Now rate each solution from 0 (not good) to 10 (very good). This will help you sort out the most promising solutions.

The solution you and your child choose should be one that your child can put into practice and that could solve the problem.

If you haven’t been able to find one that looks promising, go back to step 3 and look for some different solutions. It might help to talk to other people, like other family members, to get a fresh range of ideas.

Sometimes you might not be able to find a solution that makes everyone happy. But by negotiating and compromising, you should be able to find a solution that everyone can live with.

5. Put the solution into action

Once you’ve agreed on a solution, plan exactly how it will work. It can help to do this in writing, and to include the following points:

• Who will do what?
• When will they do it?
• What’s needed to put the solution into action?

In the Xbox example, the agreed solution is ‘You each get to use the Xbox for 30 minutes a day’. Here’s how you could plan how the solution will work:

• Who will do what? Your children will have turns at different times of the day.
• When will they do it? One child will have the first turn after they finish their homework. The other child will have their turn after dinner, when their friends are playing.
• What’s needed? You need a timer, so each child knows when to stop.

You could also talk about when you’ll meet again to look at how the solution is working.

By putting time and energy into developing your child’s problem-solving skills, you send the message that you value your child’s input into important decisions and you think they’re capable of managing their own problems. This is good for your relationship with your child.

6. Evaluate the outcome of your problem-solving process

Once your child or children have put the plan into action, you need to check how it went and help them go through the process again if they need to.

Remember that your child will need to give the solution time to work and that not all solutions will work.  Sometimes they’ll need to try more than one solution. Part of effective problem-solving is being able to adapt when things don’t go as well as expected.

Ask your child the following questions:

• What has worked well?
• What hasn’t worked so well?
• What could you or we do differently to make the solution work more smoothly?

If the solution hasn’t worked, go back to step 1 of this problem-solving process and start again. Perhaps the problem wasn’t what you thought it was, or the solutions weren’t quite right.

Try to use these skills and steps when you have your own problems to solve or decisions to make. If your child sees you actively dealing with problems using this approach, they might be more likely to try it themselves.

15 Problem-Solving Activities for Kids & Teens: Critical Thinking

What is one of the most important skills all students must learn? Is it math or coding? Reading? Writing? While all these skills are indeed vital to success, the one skill that underlines all disciplines is problem solving. All lines of work need great problem solvers to find tomorrow’s solutions, and students of any age can be honing their problem-solving skills. Check out some of these fun problem-solving activities for kids and teens below!

Problem-solving activities for elementary school kids (ages 5-10)

From traditional paper-and-pencil activities to online tools, below are some great activities for kids ages 5-10.

1. Coding Courses for Kids

It’s never too early to start learning the foundational concepts of computer programming! There are a number of courses appropriate for young students to start building their problem solving skills, including the award-winning Scratch Ninja course . For the uninitiated, Scratch is a user-friendly colorful drag-and-drop coding tool developed by MIT for making awesome games and animations while learning important coding logic. Or, for students who are visual learners, try a Minecraft Redstone Engineering course to find out how to build awesome inventions! There are many free coding classes to start with, to find your child's interests.

2. Tower Building

Turns out that kindergartners might be better engineers than grownups (at least according to this experiment)! The challenge was as follows: given 20 pieces of spaghetti, a yard of tape, and a yard of string, build the tallest possible tower that can support 1 marshmallow on top. After various groups of people tried it from Stanford and other universities, kindergartners ended up beating them for creating the tallest tower. Challenge your student to see how tall they can make their tower too!

3. Crosswords

Whether taken out of the newspaper or off of the web, crosswords are a useful logic puzzle for kids to work on. Crosswords encourage students to use context clues, as well as their reasoning skills by eliminating possible options as they progress. Plus, it’s easy to vary the difficulty of the puzzles, as well as find fun, themed crosswords for different holidays! There's even a Thanksgiving crossword for your student to try.

4. Jigsaw Puzzles

There’s nothing like a good, ole’ fashioned puzzle to challenge the mind. Each person takes a different approach to puzzle solving, whether they organize their pieces first, find all the corners, or do something totally different. Exploring different strategies for solving puzzles is an effective introduction to independently creating strategies for problem solving. This is a solid choice for students who are visual learners.

An age-old classic, LEGOs are a fantastic way to combine creative skills with problem solving. Students need to follow sequential steps and visualize to create their LEGO designs. It’s even better when students go beyond the kit instructions to create their own LEGO build, as students will have to learn to utilize limited resources while coming up with a structured plan for designing their idea. LEGO Mindstorms is a popular starting point.

Problem-solving activities for middle school tweens (ages 11-13)

Middle schoolers (ages 11-13) will want to be challenged more with their activities, and these are some effective activities for encouraging growth.

6. Middle School Coding Courses

By the time they reach middle school, students will be ready to take on more advanced coding concepts, regardless of their prior coding experience. For those who have no prior coding experience, the Accelerated Scratch course is an excellent option, as it will introduce students to basic coding concepts while allowing them to make their games and animations. Students with some prior coding experience may want to try the Minecraft Code to Mod course, builds upon basic coding concepts like loops, conditionals, and more while building students' creativity and critical thinking.

7. Birthday Ordering

An activity commonly done at summer camps, the silent birthday lineup is an excellent problem-solving activity for groups. The goal is for students to line up in chronological order based on their birthdays, without talking at all. Working in total science requires students to think outside the box to accomplish their goal, and to prioritize teamwork. Try timing the students to see how quickly they can get it done, then let them reflect on the activity afterwards to see what strategies worked and what didn’t.

8. Event Planning

Have students plan their own event, like a fundraiser, a social, or a competition for their coding club . This will require students to collaborate by delegating tasks, coordinating supplies, budgeting, and more. Even planning something as simple as a pizza party still requires some logistical planning, and students will benefit from struggling through the process. Plus, they can get to enjoy the results of their work when the event finally arrives!

Arduino circuit boards are an excellent choice for children interested in engineering. Because Arduino is widely-popular, there are countless tutorials demonstrating its capabilities, such as creating a controller, custom RGB lighting, robotics, or more. Once students learn the basics, they can use Arduino boards to come up with creative solutions to their own problems. This is an excellent idea for highly-motivated kids who like to work by themselves.

Sudoku is an excellent number puzzle and a great problem-solving exercise. It requires students to evaluate multiple possible options as they try to fill in the puzzles, so students need to be able to create an organized approach to be successful. There are various difficulty levels for sudoku, so students can start easy, then advance as they become proficient at solving the puzzles.

Problem-solving activities for high school teens (ages 14+)

High school (14+) is a good time to incorporate group work into the activities, as students will need to learn to work collaboratively for their future in college and beyond.

11. Coding for Teens

Once reaching high school age, students are ready to tackle the complexities of text-based coding. This is where students can focus on their interests, whether it be web design , AI, app design , and more. Create & Learn’s Python for AI course is a good option, as Python is one of the most widely-used programming languages in the world. Students interested in game design might try the Roblox Studio course , which teaches students how to program their own Roblox games (or try the Beginner Roblox Game Coding course if they have limited previous coding experience.)

12. Robotics Club

Many different school programs offer robotics teams and robotics competitions , using tools such as VEX robotics . Robotics is a great way to combine computer science, mechanical engineering, and problem-solving skills. If there is no robotics team at your student’s school, consider trying a robotics kit such as the Makeblock mBot Ranger .

13. Egg Drop

This classic experiment is a lot of fun for students, and makes for a good competition as well. Students must build some sort of structure that will prevent an egg from breaking when dropped from a certain height (like the top of a staircase). It works best when students are restricted with the resources they can use; for instance, define a “ budget ” for parts that they can’t exceed, or give everyone the same materials to work with .

14. Debate Club

Whether deciding public policy or the best ice cream place in town, having the ability to engage in meaningful debate is critical. Debate forces students to self-analyze, listen, and think critically before making decisions. These skills benefit students’ futures by making them strong, independent thinkers. Check out these speech and debate competitions . And here are some tips for starting a debate club .

15. Science Fair

Science fairs pose an excellent opportunity for exploring the scientific method, both through creating personal projects and checking out other students’ presentations. By encouraging students to come up with their own projects, they must identify some question or problem and find a way to solve it. This can be the most challenging kind of problem-solving, as it requires the student to take initiative in finding their own ideas, but also can be the most rewarding. Try the Google Science Fair Competition .

Enjoy problem-solving activities for kids

And there you have it: problem-solving activities for students from elementary through high school age. Of course, there are many more ways to build critical-thinking abilities like problem-solving. For more ideas, check this list of awesome after-school enrichment activities !

Written by Create & Learn instructor Dominic Occhietti. Dominic is a graduate of Michigan State University, where he studied music performance and computer science. He thoroughly enjoys teaching, whether that be coding classes, French horn lessons, or even downhill skiing lessons!

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Tasks of Problem Solving: Adolescent

Tops-2:a companion.

• Grades 7 - 12
• Format 8.5" x 11"
• Product Code 31170 ( MR #065857 )

This is a resource for Test of Problem Solving 2: Adolescent (TOPS-2:A)

*** DISCONTINUED (NO LONGER AVAILABLE) ***

• Sequencing—Organize objects and ideas quickly and logically.
• Asking and Answering Questions—Ask the right questions to gather relevant information. Answer questions appropriately by giving relevant information in the right amount and staying on topic.
• Comparing and Contrasting—Gain deeper understanding for problem-solving by thinking about similarities and differences.
• Identifying Problems—Use clear, specific language to state the problem.
• Detecting Key Information—Improve efficiency in problem solving by identifying the critical information.
• Making Inferences—Students think about what they know from past experiences and personal knowledge to form an inference.
• Expressing Consequences—Determine logical consequences and express them effectively.
• Determining Solutions—Paraphrase the problem and list possible solutions.
• Justifying Opinions—Express opinions and explain or justify them to others.
• Interpreting Perspectives—Understand key factors in evaluating others' perspectives.
• Transferring Insights—Apply knowledge to new situations by asking oneself thoughtful questions.
• Integrating Thinking Skills—Twenty five realistic situations with a photo and a brief description of the situation. Students use their past experience, logic, and general knowledge to answer thought-provoking questions.
• glossary of vocabulary for problem solving
• outline of Richard Paul's higher-order thinking skills
• Art Costa's sixteen attributes of Habits of Mind
• overview of Jean Piaget's Concrete and Formal Operational Stages of Development
• Additional Information

Table of Contents

Sample Pages

• Copyright 2007

Problem-Solving in Teen Organisation Skills Training: A Comprehensive Guide

Adolescence is a period marked by significant changes in cognitive and emotional development, often accompanied by challenges in organizational skills. For instance, consider the case of Sarah, a 15-year-old student who struggles with time management and prioritization. Despite her intelligence and potential, she frequently finds herself overwhelmed by assignments and extracurricular activities, leading to increased stress levels and subpar academic performance. This illustrates the pressing need for effective problem-solving strategies within teen organization skills training programs.

To address these concerns, this article aims to provide a comprehensive guide on problem-solving techniques that can be integrated into existing teen organization skills training programs. Drawing from various research studies and theoretical frameworks, we will explore different approaches that have proven successful in improving adolescent’s ability to tackle challenges related to planning, goal-setting, time management, and task prioritization. By equipping teenagers with practical problem-solving tools, educators and parents can empower them to overcome barriers to success while fostering autonomy and self-efficacy during this critical phase of personal growth.

Understanding the Challenges of Teenagers in Organizing

Teenagers are often faced with numerous challenges when it comes to organizing their time, tasks, and responsibilities. One example that highlights these difficulties is Sarah, a 16-year-old high school student who participates in multiple extracurricular activities while also trying to maintain good grades. Despite her best intentions, Sarah frequently finds herself overwhelmed and struggling to keep track of deadlines, appointments, and commitments.

To fully comprehend the challenges teenagers like Sarah face in organizing, it is essential to consider several key factors:

Time management: Adolescents often struggle with managing their time effectively due to competing demands from academics, social activities, part-time jobs, and family obligations. This can lead to feelings of stress and anxiety as they try to juggle various responsibilities simultaneously.

Task prioritization: With an increasing number of tasks on their plate, teenagers may find it challenging to determine which ones should take precedence over others. This lack of clarity can result in missed deadlines or incomplete assignments.

Distractions: In today’s digital age filled with constant notifications and temptations for entertainment, focusing on important tasks can be difficult for teenagers. Social media platforms, video games, and other forms of instant gratification can easily divert their attention away from productive activities.

Lack of organization skills: Many adolescents have yet to develop effective organizational strategies that would enable them to stay on top of their responsibilities consistently. Without proper systems in place such as calendars or to-do lists, they may feel overwhelmed by the sheer volume of work they need to accomplish.

To further illustrate these challenges visually:

Recognizing these challenges is crucial in order to develop effective strategies for helping teenagers improve their organization skills. By addressing these issues head-on, we can empower them to overcome obstacles and become more efficient in managing their time, tasks, and responsibilities.

Transitioning into the subsequent section about “Key Strategies for Developing Problem-Solving Skills in Teens”, it becomes evident that tackling these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that focuses on equipping teenagers with practical tools and techniques.

Key Strategies for Developing Problem-Solving Skills in Teens

Section Title: Understanding the Challenges of Teenagers in Organizing

Having explored the various challenges faced by teenagers when it comes to organizing, we can now delve into key strategies for developing problem-solving skills in this age group. Before we do so, let us examine a hypothetical scenario that highlights some common difficulties encountered by teens.

Example Scenario: Imagine Sarah, a 16-year-old high school student who is struggling with managing her time effectively and staying organized. With multiple classes, extracurricular activities, and social commitments, she often finds herself overwhelmed and unable to keep track of her assignments and deadlines. This lack of organization has started affecting her academic performance and overall well-being.

To address such challenges, it is important to consider several key strategies:

• Goal Setting: Encouraging teenagers to set clear goals helps them prioritize tasks and focus their efforts on achieving desired outcomes. By defining objectives and breaking them down into smaller steps or milestones, teens can better manage their time and stay motivated towards accomplishing their goals.
• Time Management Techniques: Equipping teenagers with effective time management techniques empowers them to allocate their time wisely across different responsibilities. Tools like creating schedules, using planners or digital apps, setting reminders, and practicing self-discipline are invaluable in helping teens develop organizational habits.
• Problem-Solving Skills: Teaching teenagers how to approach problems systematically allows them to overcome obstacles more efficiently. Strategies such as identifying the issue at hand, brainstorming potential solutions, evaluating options based on pros and cons, selecting the most suitable course of action, and reflecting upon lessons learned contribute significantly to their problem-solving abilities.
• Seeking Support Networks: Adolescents should be encouraged to seek support from peers, mentors, teachers, or family members when facing challenges related to organizing. Having a strong support network provides teens with guidance, encouragement, accountability, and opportunities for collaboration—essential elements for personal growth.

Emotional Response Evoking Strategies:

By implementing these strategies, teenagers like Sarah can develop important problem-solving skills, enabling them to tackle organizational challenges more effectively. In the subsequent section, we will explore effective time management techniques for teenagers, which complement their problem-solving journey in organizing tasks and responsibilities.

Effective Time Management Techniques for Teenagers

Developing Effective Time Management Techniques for Teenagers

Let us explore how incorporating these techniques can help teens navigate their daily routines and responsibilities more efficiently.

To illustrate the practical application of these time management techniques, let’s consider an example of a high school student named Emily. Emily is involved in various extracurricular activities while also maintaining her academic performance. By implementing the following strategies, she was able to effectively manage her time and stay organized:

Prioritize tasks: Encourage teenagers to identify and prioritize their most important tasks by creating a to-do list or using digital task management tools. This helps them allocate appropriate amounts of time for each activity and ensures that urgent tasks are completed first.

Break down larger tasks: Complex assignments or projects may seem overwhelming to teenagers at times. Breaking these tasks into smaller, manageable chunks allows them to tackle one step at a time, reducing stress and enhancing productivity.

Set realistic goals: Teens should set realistic goals based on their individual capabilities and available resources. It is essential for them to recognize their limitations and not overcommit themselves, as this can lead to burnout or subpar results.

Minimize distractions: Distractions such as social media or excessive screen time can significantly impede efficient time management. Encourage teens to create designated study areas free from electronic devices or establish specific periods dedicated solely to focused work without interruptions.

Incorporating these techniques will empower teenagers like Emily with better control over their schedules, enabling them to accomplish tasks effectively and make room for personal growth and relaxation amidst their busy lives.

As we have explored the importance of time management skills, the subsequent section will delve into enhancing decision-making abilities in teenagers. By building on effective problem-solving and time management strategies, teens can further strengthen their organizational skills and make informed choices that align with their goals and values.

Enhancing Decision-Making Abilities in Teenagers

Building upon the effective time management techniques explored earlier, it is crucial for teenagers to also develop their decision-making abilities. By honing this skill, adolescents can navigate through complex situations and make informed choices that align with their goals and values. Let’s delve into some strategies that can enhance decision-making capabilities in teens.

Case Study Example: Imagine a scenario where a teenager named Sarah has been accepted into two prestigious universities. She must decide which one to attend based on various factors such as location, program offerings, financial aid options, and personal preferences. This pivotal moment requires her to carefully analyze information and weigh the pros and cons of each choice.

Strategies for Enhancing Decision-Making Abilities:

Gathering Information:

• Researching different options thoroughly.
• Seeking advice from trusted individuals like parents or mentors.
• Utilizing reliable resources such as books, websites, or professional guidance counselors.
• Considering both short-term and long-term consequences of decisions.

Evaluating Alternatives:

• Making a list of advantages and disadvantages for each option.
• Assessing how well each alternative aligns with personal aspirations and values.
• Applying critical thinking skills to identify potential risks or challenges associated with each choice.

Weighing Prospects:

Reflecting on Intuition:

• Trusting gut instincts when faced with difficult decisions.
• Paying attention to inner voice and emotions without disregarding rational analysis.
• Balancing logical reasoning with personal intuition.

By employing these strategies, teenagers like Sarah can navigate the decision-making process more effectively. Developing this skill empowers them to make choices that align with their aspirations and values.

Strengthening Communication and Collaboration Skills in Teens

In the previous section, we explored strategies for improving decision-making abilities in teenagers. Now, let’s delve into another important aspect of teen organization skills training: strengthening communication and collaboration skills. To better understand this concept, consider the following scenario:

Imagine a group of high school students working together on a project that requires them to make decisions collectively. Each student has different ideas and opinions about how to approach the task at hand. Without effective communication and collaboration, conflicts may arise, hindering progress and potentially leading to an unsuccessful outcome.

To ensure successful teamwork among teenagers, it is crucial to focus on developing their communication and collaboration skills. Here are some key points to consider:

• Active listening: Encourage teenagers to actively listen to one another during discussions or meetings by maintaining eye contact, asking clarifying questions, and summarizing what others have said.
• Respectful dialogue: Teach adolescents the importance of expressing their viewpoints respectfully while appreciating diverse perspectives within the team.
• Conflict resolution: Equip teens with conflict resolution techniques such as compromise, negotiation, and finding common ground.
• Effective feedback: Help teenagers develop the ability to provide constructive feedback that fosters improvement without discouraging others.

To illustrate these concepts further, let’s take a look at a table highlighting potential challenges in communication and collaboration among teens along with corresponding solutions:

By focusing on enhancing communication and collaboration skills, we can empower teenagers to work effectively in teams and achieve their goals.

Transitioning into the subsequent section about “Overcoming Procrastination: Tips for Teenagers,” it is important for adolescents to develop effective time management techniques alongside strong communication and collaboration abilities.

Overcoming Procrastination: Tips for Teenagers

Building on the foundation of effective communication and collaboration skills, another crucial aspect of teen organization skills training is guiding them to overcome procrastination. By learning strategies to manage their time effectively, teenagers can become more productive and achieve their goals efficiently.

Imagine a high school student named Alex who constantly struggles with completing assignments on time due to procrastination. This common scenario highlights the significance of addressing this issue among teenagers. In order to empower teens with the tools they need to combat procrastination, it is essential to provide practical strategies that can be easily implemented into their daily lives.

Strategies for overcoming procrastination:

Set clear goals and deadlines:

• Encourage teens to establish specific objectives for each task or assignment.
• Emphasize the importance of setting realistic deadlines to stay focused and motivated.
• Increased sense of accomplishment
• Reduced stress levels
• Improved time management skills
• Enhanced overall productivity

Break tasks into smaller steps:

• Teach adolescents how breaking down larger projects into manageable chunks can make them feel less overwhelming.
• Foster an understanding that progress made through small steps leads to a greater likelihood of completion.

Create a conducive environment:

• Help teenagers recognize the impact of their surroundings on their ability to concentrate and work efficiently.
• Provide guidance on organizing study spaces free from distractions such as noise, clutter, or electronic devices.

Example table (markdown format):

By offering practical strategies to overcome procrastination, teenagers can develop effective organization skills that will serve them well throughout their academic journey and beyond. As they apply these techniques in their daily lives, teens will experience increased motivation, reduced stress levels, improved time management skills, and enhanced overall productivity. Empowering adolescents with the ability to conquer procrastination sets them on a path toward success in both their personal and professional endeavors.

Related posts:

• Critical Thinking: Teen Organization Skills Training
• Skills Training: Empowering Teens in Organizational Development
• Teen Organisation Skills Training: Time Management Strategies for Success
• Teen Organisations: Skills Training: Public Speaking

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Home » Resources » How Teens Can Improve Problem-Solving Skills

How Teens Can Improve Problem-Solving Skills

• By Signet Education
• December 14, 2022

Parenting a teenager is one of life’s biggest and most important challenges. Sometimes, it can be downright confounding! 

In some ways, teenagers seem like they’re already adults. In other ways, they’re very much just kids, and their brains are still developing . This dichotomy leaves many parents in a constant state of uncertainty, wondering when to offer structured guidance and when to give their teens freedom and agency to make their own decisions. 

With college admissions on the horizon, parents feel significant pressure to ensure that their teens are prepared for the next phase in their lives. 

One common concern parents voice to our team here at Signet is that their kids haven’t yet learned how to problem-solve effectively. They fear their kids are behind in developing this critical skill and wonder what they can do to support them. 

At Signet, our academic coaching service is designed around problem-solving for teens. Let’s take a closer look at why problem-solving is so important for teens to master and how parents and other adults can help. 

Problem-Solving for Teens: Why It’s Important 

Learning how to solve problems is essential during the teenage years because, for the first time in their lives, teens are actually having to make decisions that could have long-term implications. 

The stakes feel incredibly high. College admissions are looming. Grades matter more than ever. Students wonder what the heck they’re going to do with their lives. 

Freshmen and sophomores might not feel the full existential weight of these realities quite yet. However, by the time they reach junior and senior years, they’ll officially be in it —and if they’ve never had to solve a problem on their own up to that point, they might flounder.

Building problem-solving skills as early as possible helps students get to the end of high school prepared to address significant matters with confidence and purpose.  

It’s not that teens who don’t master these skills will be totally unsuccessful. It’s more likely that their parents will drive them through making major decisions, and as a result, they won’t have a good sense of meaning and direction in their lives. These are the young adults who may wake up one day and wonder, in the words of David Byrne, “How did I get here?” 

When Students Struggle to Solve Problems

Problem-solving is about more than simply fixing an issue; it’s about making good decisions. 

Students may struggle to solve problems in various areas of their lives. Contrary to popular belief, many students actually feel more comfortable solving problems in an academic setting than in their personal lives because they have more agency and freedom at school. When parents are too overbearing at home, teens often adopt the mentality that they have no control, so why even bother? 

Similarly, many students perform well in school and get good grades but struggle in their social lives because they lack confidence. 

Of course, some students face difficulties in every area of their lives. For example, kids with ADHD and executive function challenges often feel misunderstood by those around them. The so-called typical approach to problem-solving may not work for them in quite the same way, and they’ll need extra support to become more confident in their abilities. 

Encouraging Teens to Solve Problems Independently 

When encouraging teens to solve problems independently, one tried-and-true strategy academic coaches use is asking open-ended questions. 

Imagine that you—the parent—are shining a flashlight into the dark room of your teen’s problem. What do they see? What happens if they look in that corner over there? Do they perhaps need to turn around and observe the room from a different perspective? The goal is to bring a teen into a state of self-reflection. 

At the end of this exploration, empower your teen by asking them: “ What are you going to do?” Providing them with the solution should be the last resort—and even then, we recommend posing suggestions and encouraging your teen to make their choice.  

Failure is part of the process

Sometimes, students solve a problem inadequately on their own and fail. That’s okay! Building problem-solving skills is a journey. Rather than aiming for perfection right out of the gate, students (and parents!) must trust the process, which involves making a plan, testing it out, and adjusting when something doesn’t work as planned. 

Ultimately, students will learn from their failures and mistakes, and they’ll build confidence and resilience by overcoming difficult situations. 

Providing space for growth 

Another piece of advice we give parents is not to assume they’ve got a better answer to a problem than their teen does! Parents may have an idea of how something should be done and get frustrated because their teen isn’t doing it that way. 

But when you let your teen find their own answers, you’ll be pleasantly surprised at the outcome. It’s extremely rewarding to see a kid put the pieces together and learn to solve a problem or make a decision on their own. With a little bit of space, there is endless potential for growth! 

Building Problem-Solving Skills Through Academic Coaching

Students who need a little extra support in improving their problem-solving skills can benefit significantly from academic coaching . Signet’s academic coaching method focuses closely on developing the executive functions necessary for solving problems and making important decisions independently. 

We empower students to set and work toward goals that matter to them, providing the support they need to be successful. Students leave the experience feeling more motivated, confident, and self-actualized. 

Our student-centered approach doesn’t just show up in our academic coaching services. It guides us in every service we offer, from subject tutoring to test prep to college admissions consulting . We’re committed to helping students build all the critical skills they need to carry them through high school, college, and beyond. 

If you’d like to learn more about academic coaching or one of Signet’s other offerings, we’re only a phone call away. Let’s connect to discuss your student’s goals and develop a plan of action customized to their unique needs. Contact us today to start the conversation ! 

Signet Education

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Anger Management for Teens: Helpful Worksheets & Resources

Used strategically, it can help us pursue our goals and, within limits, drive us to find a happier and healthier life in the long run (Young, 2013).

When misplaced or out of control, it can wreck relationships and even lives. In adolescents, severe angry behavior can lead to chronic mental and physical health conditions over time (Travis, 2012).

It is crucial that teenagers understand the links between how they think, feel, and act (Collins-Donnelly, 2012).

This article introduces some practical resources and worksheets to help teenagers recognize anger and manage emotions to avoid outbursts and destructive behavior.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will enhance your ability to understand and work with your emotions and will also give you the tools to foster the emotional intelligence of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

Anger management for teens explained, 6 anger management worksheets for teens, best resources for helping youth, 4 educational videos for youth and students, positivepsychology.com’s anger management tools, a take-home message.

Anger in children and teens is an upsetting emotion with the potential for long-term damage if left untreated. While crucial to spot early, parents may be unclear of the cause or triggering factors, and left frustrated regarding how best to help their child (Travis, 2012).

Failure to recognize, understand, and resolve this anger can lead to chronic mental health problems, including anxiety and depression (Travis, 2012).

Teenage anger

Anger is typically expressed differently depending on the age of the child. Adolescent teenagers show their anger in more grown-up ways, most likely using their developed language and motor skills.

The behavior can be extreme and potentially includes “engaging in acts of substance abuse, misconduct behavior, assault, verbal threats, and sexual behavior” (Travis, 2012, p. 3).

To help, the caregiver, parent, teacher, or therapist must understand what triggers the anger – whether normal or out of control – and how to teach coping mechanisms to avoid or calm an angry episode. The chemical composition of the teenage brain is in a constant state of change, with research suggesting angry behavior is associated with a lack of neurotransmitters (Travis, 2012).

As there are many potential triggers for teenagers, it is important to observe whether related behavior tends to occur at a particular time, such as:

• After school
• When hungry or tired
• Following changes to routines
• After viewing particular types of TV shows, movies, or online content

Anger-related behavior in teenagers

Adolescent teens are considerably more independent than younger children and express their anger similarly to adults. Behavior can be irritable, defiant, and high risk, involving various unhealthy or unhelpful acts, such as (Travis, 2012):

• Behaving rudely and disrespectfully to adults
• Getting into altercations and fights with other students
• Fits of rage, losing their temper, and becoming highly vindictive in what they say
• Behavior motivated by payback and revenge
• Engaging in substance abuse
• Declining academic standards; falling behind the mean for their age

Note that while frustrating for close family and friends, anger that is out of control rather than normal can indicate serious and deep emotional issues (Travis, 2012).

In her book Anger Management, Judy Dyer (2020) says that it is crucial to break the anger cycle.

Each angry response begins with a triggering event. It might be another person’s actions, an event, or even a memory (Dyer, 2020).

Then, several irrational thoughts start to form, followed by a series of negative emotions .

If nothing happens to break the process, physical symptoms kick in, such as shaking, sweating, or even feeling sick. Then, finally, potentially out of control, angry, aggressive, or destructive behaviors may begin (Dyer, 2020).

While it sounds like a complicated process with several stages, it can escalate from trigger to outburst surprisingly quickly in the young or someone with limited self-control.

Managing teenage anger

Thankfully, there are many ways that teenagers can learn to combat or reduce their degree of anger, including (modified from Travis, 2012; Buckley, 2020):

• Developing healthy and meaningful connections with a parent or guardian
• Forming well-developed social skills
• Having sufficient sleep is crucial at any age. Poor sleeping habits significantly affect our emotions, how we control them, and our overall mental wellbeing. Teenagers between 13 and 18 years old should get around 8.5 hours of sleep per night (Walker, 2018; Travis, 2012).
• Problem solving — Coming up with more than one solution to a problem.
• Anger management — Thinking before taking action and finding creative or physical outlets for anger.
• Self-reflection — Understanding and reframing situations to make a better assessment of events and the environment.
• Emotional awareness and regulation —  Understanding the emotions that impact us and being capable of managing reactions to them.
• Assertiveness – Identifying when to concede ground and when to push for a desired outcome.

The worksheets and resources that follow help promote practical advice and develop better emotional management skills, language skills (becoming more able to talk about and explore feelings), and self-regulatory skills (improving control over emotions and anger).

It can be beneficial to spend time together exploring the following indications that anger is becoming out of control (Travis, 2012):

• Getting angry at everything that causes stress
• Taking anger too far; for example, talking about seeking revenge or getting the person back for perceived wrongdoings
• Holding onto a grudge for too long or staying angry long after an event has passed
• Small events, such as someone being late, escalating and becoming a source of anger

Rather than covering for angry outbursts or giving in to demands, parents should recognize and understand that such behavior is neither normal nor acceptable (Buckley, 2020).

Instead, parents, teachers, and emotionally-focused therapists can “help the child reflect on their behavior and help provide guidance to coping with their anger” (Travis, 2012, p. 31).

In Starving the Anger Gremlin , Kate Collins-Donnelly (2012, p. 9) suggests a cognitive-behavioral therapy approach to managing anger in young people. She bases her guidance on “the premise that how we interpret experiences and situations has a profound effect on our behaviors and emotions.”

The following worksheets explore how to recognize anger, its triggers, and how to adopt healthier alternative coping styles and behavior (modified from Collins-Donnelly, 2012; Travis, 2012):

Understanding My Anger

Anger can appear unannounced, without warning. It can be helpful to recognize what it feels like early and the sort of behavior that can result (Collins-Donnelly, 2012).

Use the Understanding My Anger worksheet to help the teen identify how often they get angry, what it feels like, and the sort of behavior that arises.

• How often do you get angry?
• What does it feel like physically when you are angry?
• How do you react or behave when you feel angry?
• Can you think of three situations that typically make you angry where you could use more healthy behaviors?

Recognizing what it feels like to be angry and understanding that you have options regarding how you behave can be the first steps to gaining control over your anger.

What Makes Me Angry

We typically believe that other people or events make us angry, but it is our thoughts and beliefs that control our anger. We can, with practice, assume control over our feelings (Collins-Donnelly, 2012).

Use the What Makes Me Angry worksheet to encourage the teen to recognize that they have ultimate control over their anger.

Ask them to make a list of what makes them angry. Then consider each point in turn.

Help them understand that the decision to be angry is down to them. “It’s your thoughts and beliefs that make you angry” (Collins-Donnelly, 2012, p. 29).

Anger is about your reaction to the situation, not the situation itself.

Alternative Thoughts

Often, our thoughts about a situation or something that has happened are irrational and unrealistic. Such thinking can be unhelpful and make us emotional and even angry (Peters, 2018).

Use the Alternative Thoughts worksheet to help the teen recognize unrealistic thoughts and how they may blow the situation out of proportion. Then consider more rational, authentic thinking and how it could change the interpretation of the situation.

Ask them to think of three very specific situations that made them feel angry.

For each one, ask them to consider:

• How were you thinking about the situation when you became angry?
• What are the facts about the situation?
• Were your thoughts realistic and rational?
• What would more realistic and rational thoughts look like?

Reframing irrational thoughts can change the emotions and behaviors that arise.

Keep an anger diary

When there is no one around to talk to or ask for additional help, it can be valuable to capture thoughts and feelings, and self-reflect on angry episodes (Collins-Donnelly, 2012).

Use the Anger Diary worksheet to capture events or episodes that have led to feelings of anger.

The teenager reviews the diary once a week. They reflect on how they reacted to the situation and the consequences, and consider opportunities for using distraction techniques.

Impact of My Anger

Becoming angry can be upsetting for all involved. Often the angry person does not consider the impact they have on other people or the emotions they are left with.

Use the Impact of My Anger worksheet to capture examples of angry behavior and consider who has been impacted and how.

This exercise aims to help teenagers understand that the way we behave can upset others and impact how they feel.

Making Amends for My Angry Outburst

“More intimate relationships carry more emotion” (Peters, 2018, p. 104). When we say sorry to someone for our angry behavior, we send them the message that they and the relationship matter to us.

Teaching teenagers to apologize and offer something to make up for their wrongdoing is a valuable life lesson.

Using the Making Amends worksheet helps teenagers revisit what they have done, apologize for their behavior, and make things right.

Ask the teenager the following:

• What was the situation?
• Who did you upset?
• How were they upset? How would they feel?
• How and when could you apologize?
• How could you make amends?

Download 3 Free Emotional Intelligence Exercises (PDF)

These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients understand and use emotions advantageously.

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By filling out your name and email address below.

There are various resources available online that can inspire and educate young minds, help them manage their emotions, and offer essential parenting tips.

• Young Minds This is a practical and helpful resource for teenagers who are keen to better understand the experience and emotions involved in anger. Additional links offer the interested reader additional guidance on depression and anxiety.
• Anger Management for Teens Written for teenagers, this uncomplicated site discusses how anger feels and offers guidance on how it can be managed.
• Deal With Anger This valuable guide for teenagers has practical tools to improve awareness and self-control. The five-step approach to managing anger is particularly beneficial.
• Anger Overload in Children This article offers parents, teachers, or guardians helpful guidance on diagnosing more severe anger issues and practical behavioral and cognitive techniques to assist teenagers in regaining control of their emotions.
• Parenting Angry Teens Try out the six tips for parenting angry teens and recognize that hostile teens are capable of becoming strong, healthy, independent adults.

Several valuable videos are available to help young people maintain or regain control of their emotions and find ways to avoid or reduce angry outbursts.

Try out some of the following with your teenagers:

How to Deal With Anger & Anger Management Tips

This engaging, fun, and insightful video put together with a video game backdrop explores the feelings of anger and the strategies that can help.

5 Keys to Controlling Anger

Anger management specialist Dr. Christian Conte offers helpful anger management tips.

Monitor and Manage Your Anger

Motivational philosopher and HuffPost Rise host Jay Shetty takes the viewer through how to spot, manage, and deal with anger.

Anger Is Your Ally

This excellent TED talk from Juna Mustad explores how to create a healthier relationship with anger through mindfulness techniques.

We have plenty of tools, worksheets, and activities to help anyone recognize angry feelings before they take control and better understand the anger triggers that cause an upset.

• Anger Exit and Re-entry This worksheet helps clients recognize when best to disengage from conflict or difficult conversations, cool down, and re-engage later to facilitate greater insight and joint problem-solving.
• Red Light: Anger! While typically aimed at younger children, this worksheet invites clients to draw pictures of their anger at different intensities and identify early signs of anger using a stop sign analogy.
• The EQ 5-Point Tool This tool can help your clients learn to defuse conflict in an emotionally intelligent way using brief, respectful, and clear communication.
• Spot-Check of Your Anger This worksheet presents a series of questions to help clients mindfully focus on signals of rising anger and consider appropriate actions to take in response.
• Recommended reading This selection of anger management books includes various options and workbooks, just right for helping with teenager problems.

17 Emotional Intelligence Exercises If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others develop emotional intelligence, this collection contains 17 validated EI tools for practitioners. Use them to help others understand and use their emotions to their advantage.

17 Exercises To Develop Emotional Intelligence

These 17 Emotional Intelligence Exercises [PDF] will help others strengthen their relationships, lower stress, and enhance their wellbeing through improved EQ.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

While anger in an appropriate situation can be beneficial, it must be to the “right degree, at the right time, and for the right purpose” (Young, 2013). Otherwise, misplaced or disproportionate anger can be damaging for the individual and those around (Travis, 2012).

At school, children may exhibit anger and adopt risky behavior, break the rules, skip classes, and engage in potentially harmful pranks. Typically, teens with anger issues have not learned appropriate coping mechanisms or been taught the skills needed to manage their anger (Travis, 2012).

Without clear guidelines in place or structures to control their anger, teenagers can have difficulty understanding the impact of their actions on others or themselves.

However, children and young adults can learn skills that help them avoid triggers that lead to angry behavior, assist in managing irate outbursts, and provide the means to restore calm (Collins-Donnelly, 2012).

Teenagers can develop the capacity to understand and cope with their anger-related issues and acquire anger management skills much better than younger children. As language skills develop, soon-to-be adults can be taught to better explain and reflect on their feelings and process their emotions (Collins-Donnelly, 2012).

Learning self-regulatory skills can help control angry impulses, “their retaliations, frustration level, and anger arousal state, and limit their emotional outbursts” (Travis, 2012, p. 394).

Try out some of the worksheets and resources in this article with the teenagers exhibiting anger issues. Crucially, they can help young adults recognize and voice their own emotions and develop the skills needed to manage rather than escalate feelings of anger.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free .

• Buckley, D. (2020, August 27). Strategies for teenagers’ anger management. BetterHelp . Retrieved June 15, 2021, from https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/anger/strategies-for-teenagers-anger-management/
• Collins-Donnelly, K. (2012). Starving the anger gremlin: A cognitive behavioural therapy workbook on anger management for young people . Jessica Kingsley.
• Dyer, J. (2020). Anger management: How to take control of your emotions and find joy in life . Pristine.
• Peters, S. (2018). The silent guides: Understanding and developing the mind throughout life . Lagom.
• Travis, R. L. (2012). Overcoming anger in teens and pre-teens: A parent’s guide . Author.
• Young, E. (2013, February 6). Do get mad: The upside of anger. New Scientist. Retrieved June 15, 2021, https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21729032-700-do-get-mad-the-upside-of-anger/
• Walker, M. P. (2018). Why we sleep: The new science of sleep and dreams . Penguin Books.

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What our readers think.

I have understood now that having anger can be a good thing or a bad thing depending on how you use it. You can use it for protecting yourself or even someone else. But you can also abuse your ability of anger by bullying people, fighting for an unnecessary reason, or even just being a jerk. These are three favorite things to do when I get angry; number one is to take five or ten deep breaths, number two do about 10 or 20 push ups, number three scream or fight your pillow. All of these things will help let all of that anger, stress, and anxiety that has been building up inside of you. You can use these when you feel like you need to calm down and take a breather. Next time someone makes me mad or stressed I know what to do when that time comes, I can either take deep breaths, do push ups, or let it all out on my pillow when I get home. I have also learned how to not take things too seriously. If you take things too seriously no one is going to want to joke around with you because everytime they make a joke you get all in your feelings and start to get upset and angry at the person who made the joke. Also if people know that you can’t take a joke no one is gonna want to be your friend, because no one wants a friend that can make jokes but can’t take jokes, if you get mad that someone is joking with you and you get mad that is not fair to the person that wants to have fun, your not the only one who can make jokes and get away with it, other people want to have fun to, and that is why we all need to control our anger.

Is there a therapist in the Seattle who works with this issues with adoloscents?

Hi Suzanne,

Thank you for your question. As we are not based in the US, it is difficult for us to make recommendations for reliable therapists. I suggest you look for a therapist directory in your area and filter your search.

I hope this helps 🙂

Kind regards, -Caroline | Community Manager

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Are you looking for an exciting new way to empower your students?

Team building activities for teenagers.

• April 11, 2018

Why are Team Building Activities Important?

We most often associate team building activities with adults in a corporate environment. But teens can benefit from participating in these activities too. They’re at at important developmental stage of their lives and honing skills that they may need later on is a great idea.

Skills such as communication, problem solving and collaboration are used in all areas of life. Team building activities empower participants to learn and perfect these, and other, skills. What’s more is that they’ll have fun whilst doing it. These activities get participants laughing and bonding, otherwise they wouldn’t work!

But they won’t be doing it alone. So whilst they are developing new problem-solving skills, they’ll be learning how to collaborate with others. This improves communication; teaching teens to listen and value everyone’s input. It’s especially useful to learn how to work with those you may not gel with.

They may even gain some insight into which career they would like to pursue. It will become clear whether they are comfortable in a leadership role and whether they’re a confident public speaker. They’ll learn whether they excel in problem solving situations and whether they enjoy helping others.

Types of Team Building Activities

There are tons of different group activities that teens can do in order to encourage teamwork. Generally, they can be broken down into categories based on the type of activity itself and the skills that they develop.

• Logic/Problem Solving

These games involve collaborating to solve a puzzle. They can be based on physical activities or sitting down to calculate a strategy. In any case, participants are presented with a scenario or challenge that they must overcome by working as a team. Ideas include an Escape Game or a Survival Game.

Team building activities with a creative spin mean collaborating to produce an end result. They usually take the form of each person contributing something to the project, for example; painting, music or writing. The goal here is to set up a project where everyone must first collaborate to find out which part of the project they want to take and how they can help. They will learn the importance of communicating and providing constant updates on their progress.

• Challenging

You can choose to set a difficult challenge for your teens and find out how they overcome it. One idea is the Faraway Kingdom game. The difference between these types of games and problem solving is that there will be a difficult element of the task to overcome. Rather than working together to solve a puzzle, participants will have to make difficult decisions.

Some team building games are simply fun! By doing a pleasant activity together, the participants will feel positive towards one another and create a bond. This can be as simple as going to the movies or getting lunch together. What makes this different to a friendly outing? The participants are people who need an activity to bond them; they aren’t necessarily friends yet.

Usually based on problem-solving tasks, there are some activities that encourage participants to prove their leadership skills. Even if they find out that they aren’t a natural leader; that’s okay. They will learn that they thrive in an environment where they can contribute, but don’t necessarily make the decisions.

8 Awesome Team Building Activities for Teens

• Escape Game

No preparation is needed for this activity, but, it does cost money. Escape Games have been enjoying a surge in popularity in recent years so it’s a great time to go. This is an especially good option if you have a smaller group of up to 6, as these Escape Rooms will only allow a certain number of participants. They are usually centered around a theme and you have a series of puzzles to solve in order to get to the end. Often, there are several rooms and you need to unlock the clues before moving on to the next. Escape Games encourage teens to use their problem solving skills, work together and delegate tasks.

• Creative Project

If you want to get your teens experimenting with their creative side, you can make a team building activity out of it. Whether they’re drawing, painting, doing pottery or making music. To make it into a team activity, choose a final project that has many elements and have them create the parts. For example, you could have them draw a comic book and each person could draw a page. They would need to get together to work out the story and who takes on which part. By working to a common goal, but creating individual components, they will learn collaboration skills and the importance of communication.

• Murder Mystery

It may seem like a stuffy old game, but you can give the classic Murder Mystery a 21st century makeover. Give your teens a theme such as singers, actors or sports stars and have them get into character. If you plan ahead, you can give them their character a few days in advance and have them make it extra fun by dressing up. You’ll find examples of  organized games which outline the rounds and how to find out who the murderer is. Choose a game where the victim still plays an active role throughout the game, so that everyone’s included.

• Silent Line Up

Simple but effective. In this game, participants are told to organize themselves into a line ordered by a certain characteristic. So you could choose height, shoe size, birthday etc. But the catch is that they can’t talk. It’s interesting to see how teens work together when they can’t simply discuss the facts and act upon that information.

• Paintballing or Laser Tag

For something active that involves teamwork, why not try paintball or laser tag? Paintballing can be a bit too rough for some people, so laser tag is a great alternative. You’ll have two teams and one team has to eliminate the most players from the other team. Or in the case of laser tag, one team has to get the most hits against the other team. Players learn to work together, defend themselves and protect one another in this game. They’ll learn strategic skills as they hide, navigate the course and attempt to target the opposition.

• The Human Knot

A simple idea that involves no preparation and is totally free. Have your teens stand in a circle and then put their hands in the middle. Once they do that, have them hold the nearest hands. They shouldn’t look at whose hand they hold and they should only hold one other hand. The fun part is having them detangle themselves! They will need to work together to go over and under one another, to weave in and out. Once they’re back in an open circle, they’ve completed the challenge.

• Survival Games

Again, this game needs minimal preparation, is free to do and can be done anywhere. Choose a theme such as washed up on a desert island, stranded on the moon or lost in the desert. Create a list of 15 items that players must rank by importance. They should do it individually and then as a team. You’ll find lists that have official rankings online such as NASA’s Moon Landing list or the Coast Guard’s Lost at Sea list. These helpful links allow players to compare their individual rating, team rating and the official ranking. The point is to see how participants react to a situation alone and within a group. By comparing the individual and group lists to the official ones, we can see how players value individual contributions.

• Faraway Kingdom

If you’re feeling particularly brave, you could have your teens play Faraway Kingdom. The reason you’d need to be brave is that half of your teens will end up doing nothing during this task! The idea is that half of the group wait and half have a problem to solve. The first group wait in a room standing in specific positions. Each group has a communicator who should relay information between one another. The second group have puzzles to solve which correspond to the first group’s positions. Once they’ve solved the puzzle, they come in and move the first group around and that’s where the game ends. It seems pointless but the goal here is to see how your teens communicate. Do the second group provide any updates to the first group, do they ask for help?

So with all these ideas in mind, you’ll be well-equipped to get a group of teens working together. Whether they’re in the same class, on a sports team or at a summer camp, they will learn valuable life skills. What’s great is that they will be learning these skills under the guise of having fun. Though these activities are aimed at team building in mind, they’re still fun. Your teens will get so involved that they’ll forget that it’s about developing teamwork skills and they will learn to collaborate naturally.

Kid Power is here to help!

We believe that physical activity in students leads to lifelong increases in mental and social emotional health. That’s why we offer free, fun, and engaging videos that get kids up and moving! From dance routines to sports drills, there’s something for every kid to enjoy. With the power of physical activity and a built-in “give back” component on the platform, we feel confident that kids will want to continue coming back to Get Active and Save Lives!

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• Date: March 9, 2022

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Development of Mastery during Adolescence: The Role of Family Problem Solving *

A sense of mastery is an important component of psychological health and well-being across the life-span; however, relatively little is known about the development of mastery during childhood and adolescence. Utilizing prospective, longitudinal data from 444 adolescent sibling pairs and their parents, our conceptual model proposes that family SES in the form of parental education promotes effective family problem solving which, in turn, fosters adolescent mastery. Results show: (1) a significant increase in mastery for younger and older siblings, (2) parental education promoted effective problem solving between parents and adolescents and between siblings but not between the parents themselves, and (3) all forms of effective family problem solving predicted greater adolescent mastery. Parental education had a direct effect on adolescent mastery as well as the hypothesized indirect effect through problem solving effectiveness, suggesting both a social structural and social process influence on the development of mastery during adolescence.

Mastery, defined as a sense of having control over the forces that affect one’s life, is an important component of psychological health and well-being across the life-span (e.g., Mirowsky and Ross 1999 ; Pearlin et al. 1981 ; Shanahan and Bauer 2004 ; Thoits 1995 ). Research across multiple domains and ages documents a linkage between a sense of control and individual differences in mental and physical health (e.g., Lin and Ensel 1989 ; Pearlin and Schooler 1978 ; Thoits 1995 ). For example, Mirowsky and Ross (1998) find that personal control is associated with a healthier lifestyle. Rosenfield (1989) finds that personal control in the workplace is linked to better mental health. Keyes and Ryff (1998) include ‘environmental mastery’ (managing the demands of daily life) as one of six dimensions of psychological well-being in adulthood. In a review of control-related concepts, Skinner (1996) states “a sense of control is a robust predictor of physical and mental well-being” (549), and for some, perceived control is viewed as a “more powerful predictor of functioning than actual control” (551). Thus, whether labeled mastery, personal control, perceived control or environmental mastery, a sense of mastery is seen as central to how well individuals respond to challenges and situations encountered in everyday life 1 .

In particular, mastery is considered part of an individual’s array of personal resources that enables a person to weather negative life events and other stressful conditions, such as job loss, economic pressure, and relationship problems ( Conger and Conger 2002 ; Mirowsky and Ross 2003 ; Pearlin et al. 1981 ; Wheaton 1985 ). Indeed, “people with high self-esteem and a sense of personal control may have the skills to avoid or prevent negative events or chronic difficulties” ( Thoits 1995 : 62). Conger and Conger (2002) found that adults rated high on mastery actually demonstrated decreasing economic problems over time. Furthermore, mastery may promote good social functioning as demonstrated by a more rewarding job, a healthier lifestyle, and more satisfying relationships, (e.g., Pulkinnen, Nygren, and Kokko 2002 ; Rosenfield 1989 ). Thus, mastery appears to function as an important personal attribute that is both an indicator of positive adaptation and a resource that promotes individual well-being in adulthood.

Despite its central role in people’s lives, there is little understanding of how mastery develops. Such understanding is essential if this important characteristic is to be promoted in an effort to foster individual health and well-being. The limited knowledge regarding the development of mastery likely results from the fact that most studies linking control, stress, and mental health have focused primarily on the adult years (see Avison and Gotlib 1994 , Eckenrode and Gore 1990 ; Thoits 1995 , 2006 ). However, research is increasing on adolescent health and well-being and its implications for adult development (e.g., Colten and Gore 1991 ; Hauser and Bowlds 1990 ; Schulenberg, Maggs, and Hurrelmann 1997 ). For example, Lewis, Ross and Mirowsky (1999) propose that children from higher SES homes will develop a greater sense of control as they move into adulthood due in part to the higher level of problem solving and life skills they develop in such family environments. This view is consistent with a life course perspective which suggests that individual development unfolds in the context of family interactions and family socioeconomic circumstances ( Caspi 2002 ; Elder, 1998 ). The life course notion involving “linked lives” proposes that parents may help their children make good choices (i.e., become more effective agents of change in their own lives) through the acquisition of constructive problem solving strategies. The current study adds to this research by examining the developmental course of mastery during adolescence and the importance of family characteristics and interactions for such development.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MASTERY

Development of mastery over self and social situations is a key element of the self-exploration and self-evaluation that takes place during the adolescent years (e.g., Demo and Savin-Williams 1983 ; Feldman and Elliott 1990 ; Harter 1999 ; Masten et al. 1995 ). Adolescents increasingly take on new social roles as peers, co-workers, and romantic partners, and must develop a sense of control during social interactions. In these roles they are expected to handle challenges and situations that arise in multiple domains such as school, work, and family where interpersonal interactions take place ( Caspi 2002 ; Colten and Gore 1991 ; Gecas and Seff 1990 ; Mortimer and Larson 2002 ). We expect that the quality and consequences of these interactions significantly influence adolescent mastery. Indeed, Lewis and colleagues ( 1999 :1575) propose that, “An individual learns through social interaction and personal experience that his or her choices and efforts are usually likely or unlikely to affect the outcome of a situation.” Consistent with this idea, when adolescents learn that their efforts will affect the course of events and may resolve difficulties in interpersonal relationships, their sense of mastery should increase.

Based on this hypothesis that mastery is acquired in part through social interactions and their outcomes, we propose that social processes in the family significantly influence the development of mastery. We hypothesize that the interactions and negotiations that occur within the family help socialize adolescents’ mastery, and a key dimension of this socialization process involves the nature of family problem solving interactions. Also important and consistent with the life course perspective, however, is the fact that a parent’s approach to socialization practices and problem solving strategies will be influenced by their place in broader social structures. One important marker of socioeconomic status (SES) involves parents’ education, which serves as the single exogenous variable in the conceptual model that guides this study ( Figure 1 ).

THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL

Parents’ education serves as the starting point for the conceptual model because it is an important component of SES that helps identify a family’s social class or position, and social class has been linked to the socialization practices of parents and strategies for handling conflicts in social relationships ( Conger and Dogan 2007 ; Gecas 1979 ; Oakes and Rossi 2003 ). Research suggests that individuals from higher SES backgrounds may have more flexibility and more resources to deal with problems as they arise (e.g., Kohn and Schooler 1982 ; Pearlin et al. 1981 ). Mirowsky and Ross (2003) state that education is the key factor for understanding the link between SES and psychological well-being. For example, people with higher levels of education tend to have greater skills to solve complex problems, jobs with more autonomy and creativity, and more opportunities to make decisions. Parent education also plays an important role in promoting self control as children transition into adulthood ( Lewis et al. 1999 ).

Bradley and Corwyn (2002) suggest that parental education may be the most important marker of SES in terms of socialization practices and child adjustment. Education enables a person to acquire the knowledge and skills (i.e., human capital) that may influence parents’ strategies for childrearing. We would expect, therefore, that more years of education will predict more effective strategies for handling problems that arise between parents and adolescents ( Cox and Paley 1997 ). Based on this reasoning, Figure 1 proposes that (1) parents with more education will engage in more effective problem solving strategies in marital and parent-child interactions, and (2) parental education will positively impact problem solving interactions between siblings as a result of observing more highly skilled parents (see Bandura 1997 ). It is through these interaction processes that family SES indirectly promotes a sense of mastery for adolescents.

Next we build on research which suggests that experiences with parents may play an important role in children’s development of mastery and self-confidence (e.g., Gecas 1989 ; Whitbeck et al. 1997 ). Parents are viewed as the primary agents of socialization through daily interactions (e.g., Demo and Cox 2000 ; Hokoda and Fincham 1995 ). A particularly salient aspect of family interactions for the development of mastery may be conflict resolution or problem solving interactions. Our conceptual model proposes that problem solving interactions within family subsystems (marital, parent-child, sibling) serve as key contexts in which children observe, learn, and practice skills associated with managing problems (e.g., Rinaldi and Howe 2003 ; Rueter and Conger 1998 ; Shantz and Hobart 1989 ).

Research on marital conflict suggests hostility and anger between spouses may have a direct, negative effect on children’s adjustment (e.g., Cummings and O’Reilly 1997 ). When parents fail to amicably resolve conflicts, children will suffer reduced psychological well-being and, presumably, a poorer sense of mastery. Furthermore, poor relationships between parents may create problems between siblings (see Conger and Conger 1996 ) and between parents and children (e.g., Fauber and Long 1991 ; Reese-Weber 2000 ). That is, when marital problem solving skills are compromised, so too are parent-child and sibling problem solving skills; consistent with the paths shown in the conceptual model.

Regarding the parent-child subsystem, we expect that adolescents learn communication skills and strategies such as negotiation and compromise during problem solving interactions with their parents (e.g., Barber 2002 ; Noller et al. 2000 ). Adolescents who perceive their parents as supportive and fair should be more accepting of parental suggestions (e.g., Davies and Cummings 1994 ; Whitbeck et al. 1991 ). Furthermore, constructive, compared to destructive, interactions may impart a sense of confidence about handling problem situations, and promote feelings by parents and children that they can effectively deal with mutual concerns and problems ( Rueter and Conger 1998 ). These feelings of effectiveness are expected to lead to increased mastery for adolescents.

Interactions with siblings also may contribute to the development of mastery. Unlike interactions with parents, which are by definition hierarchical, interactions between adolescent siblings may be more egalitarian due to their more similar stages of verbal, cognitive, and social development ( Furman and Lanthier 1996 ; McGuire et al. 2000 ). Furthermore, adolescent siblings are expected to emulate their parents’ problem solving strategies, and when these strategies effectively resolve disagreements, adolescents will experience increased mastery in dealing with daily difficulties.

The model conceptualizes problem solving as an important skill that is acquired over time and affected by family experiences. Specifically, adolescents exposed to constructive problem solving experiences in multiple family relationships should learn to resolve problems as they arise, contributing to a sense of mastery. Such experiences stand in sharp contrast to letting problems develop into larger, unmanageable difficulties that intensify feelings of helplessness and impede positive mastery development (see Thoits 1994 ). In the following analyses, we empirically evaluate the causal paths proposed in the conceptual model, and consider related issues that may modify or extend the basic conceptual framework.

RELATED RESEARCH ISSUES

Over time adolescents increasingly become active agents in their widening social world, striving to develop an increasing sense of mastery as they assert their place in the family and autonomy from parents (e.g., Barber 2002 ; Steinberg 1990 ; Thoits 2006 ). Thus, chronological age is one factor that determines mastery (e.g., Chubb, Fertman and Ross 1997 ). Another factor is the participation of adolescents in decisions that affect their lives ( Liprie 1993 ). Most parents increasingly involve their adolescents in decisions that concern them, such as buying clothing, family activities, and weekend curfews ( Bulcroft, Carmody, and Bulcroft 1996 ; Conger, Conger, and Scaramella 1997 ). For most individuals then, we would expect to see mastery increasing over the course of adolescence due, in part, to age as well as to experiences in multiple social relationships and situations.

In addition to the effect of age and experience, gender may be associated with the developmental course of mastery. For example, parents typically place fewer restrictions on the behaviors and activities of adolescent boys compared to girls due to concerns about personal safety, sexual activity, and deviant peers ( Brown and Huang 1995 ). Lewis et al. (1999) found that girls, on average, reported a lower sense of control than boys; they suggest that boys perceive a higher sense of control compared to girls as males are typically considered to be an ‘advantaged group’ in American culture. In addition, girls tend to have a “somewhat more dependent relationship with parents during adolescence” ( Brown and Huang 1995 : 154), which may inhibit the sense of control for adolescent females. However, results from other studies of mastery and control, have reported either no effects or inconsistent results related to gender (see Chubb et al. 1997 ; Whitbeck et al. 1997 ). Based on these findings and the fact that gender might modify the impacts of the processes proposed in the conceptual model, we take gender into account in the following analyses.

Participants

The present investigation included a total of 444 adolescent sibling dyads and their parents participating in a study of family functioning and adolescent adjustment in rural Iowa. In 1989, each family included two parents, a seventh grade adolescent (the target), and a sibling within 4 years of age, either younger or older (69% of the pairs were within 2 years of age). For the present study, one of the two siblings in the dyad is treated as the younger sibling (mean age = 13.52 years, range = 10.4 to 15.58); and one as the older sibling (mean age = 15.39 years, range = 13.00 to 18.92). The younger sibling sample was 45% female and older sibling sample was 51% female.

Families were recruited from eight counties in North Central Iowa; 78% of those eligible agreed to participate. Given the ethnic composition of rural Iowa at that time, all families were of European origin. Parents completed 13.52 years of school on average; the range was 10 th grade to post-graduate work. Average per capita income was $8,475, comparable to that observed for two-parent, white families in the United States in 1988 ( U. S. Bureau of the Census, 1989 ).

Interviewers visited each family’s home annually from 1989 (Wave 0) to 1992 (Wave 3). Two 2-hour visits, about two weeks apart, were conducted each year. During the first visit, the four family members completed a set of questionnaires. During the second visit, family members participated in four videotaped interaction tasks which are not used in these analyses. See Conger and Elder (1994) for additional details regarding the study. All cases with at least one wave of data during those years were included in the analyses; 92% of the original sample participated in 1992. In order to preserve the time ordering of the data, we used mastery data for both siblings from 1990 to 1992 (Waves 1, 2, and 3) and used data for the family problem solving variables from 1989 to 1991 (Wave 0, 1, and 2), a one-year lag.

Parent education

The measure was calculated as the average years of school completed by mother and father as of 1989 (Wave 0), the first year of the study. The combined average education was 13.52 years.

We used the 7-item scale developed by Pearlin et al. (1981) ; mastery was defined as “the extent to which people see themselves as being in control of the forces that importantly affect their lives” (p. 340). Each sibling independently responded, 1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree , to items such as “I have little control over the things that happen to me”; “What happens to me in the future mostly depends on me”; and “There is little I can do to change many of the important things in my life”. The average score was used; items were coded so a high score indicated high mastery. Internal consistency ranged from α = .67 in early to α = .80 in later adolescence.

Problem solving behavior in family dyads

Problem solving (PS) was measured in three family subsystems: marital, parent-child, and sibling, using a measure created for this study ( Conger, 1989 ). For sibling PS , the younger sibling reported on his or her older sibling’s behaviors and the older sibling reported on the younger sibling’s PS behaviors. The question prompted, “Now think about what usually happens when you and your sibling have a problem to solve. Think about what your sibling does.” Questions asked how often the sibling: “listened to your ideas”; “just seemed to get angry”; “had good ideas about how to solve the problem”; “criticized you or your ideas”; “showed real interest in helping to solve the problem”; “blamed others”; “insisted that you agree with him or her”; and “changed his or her point of view to help solve the problem”. Participants answered 14 questions, 1 = always to 7 = never , about behaviors their sibling demonstrated when attempting to solve a problem. Typical problems between siblings involved personal items, chores, sharing the bathroom or the computer, and interpersonal style. All items were coded such that a higher score indicated more positive PS behaviors.

Problem solving measures for parent-child and marital dyads were constructed in the same fashion; each person responded to the same set of 14 questions worded specifically for that dyad. For marital PS , wives reported on their husbands’ behaviors and husbands reported on wives’ behaviors and these reports were averaged together for a measure of overall marital PS. For parent-child PS , each child reported on the behavior of first mother and then father (comparable data on parent report on each child was not available); reports were averaged together for a younger sibling report on parents’ PS and an older sibling report of parents’ PS. Cronbach’s alpha for the 14 item PS scale was greater than α = .81 for each dyad type across the years of the study.

Table 1 provides the descriptive statistics for the study variables. As expected, the mean level of mastery increased across time (i.e., by age) for older (3.84 to 3.96) and younger siblings (3.86 to 3.93 on a scale of 5). The time-varying covariates for parent-child and sibling -child PS interactions are shown as the mean level averaged across three measurement occasions (Wave 0, 1, and 2). Correlations (available from the first author) among the study variables were in the expected direction and were consistent with the hypothesized associations.

Means and Standard Deviations for Study Variables

Note. Sample = 444 sibling pairs (888 adolescents) in 1989 (Wave 0); 92% of the original sample participated in 1992 (Wave 3)

Analytic Approach to Model Testing

Hypothesis testing involved a model building process as illustrated in Figure 2 . First, a bivariate unconditional growth model of younger and older sibling mastery was examined. Results (not shown) indicated that both older and younger siblings demonstrated significant variability in their levels (intercepts) of mastery, and there was evidence of growth; therefore estimation of subsequent models with predictors was warranted. The intercept factor for the younger sibling growth model was centered at age 13, and for the older sibling growth model it was centered at age 15, the approximate mean ages in 1990 (Wave 1). While data collection occurred on an approximate yearly basis, mastery over time was modeled as a function of chronological age (in years), utilizing the exact age at each wave of data collection for each adolescent in the sample. For the three-year study period, ages of younger siblings ranged from 10 to 19 years and ages for older siblings ranged from 13 to 21 years. Thus, although the analytic model ( Figure 2 ) appears to suggest that all adolescents were measured at the same three measurement occasions, each adolescent was actually measured at a unique point in time, contributing a minimum of one and a maximum of three measurement points (92% had three points). Growth models are designed to handle this type of unbalanced data ( Bryk and Raudenbush 1992 ), an advantage that allows the current study to model trajectories of mastery on a time scale of chronological age rather than calendar time.

The analytical model showing the associations between parents– education, marital problem-solving, parent-child problem-solving, and sibling problem-solving and adolescent mastery over time (age) controlling for sibling gender

This approach maps on to a traditional hierarchical linear model or linear mixed model and we use the “Level I/II” notation for the equations that follow where Level I represents the within individual variability across time and Level II represents the between individual variability. However, Figure 2 reflects the fact that we specified our growth models in a larger latent variable framework using the Mplus software ( Muthén and Muthén, 2006 ) that allowed us to estimate the growth models for the older and younger siblings simultaneously along with the path analysis relating the various predictors both directly and indirectly to the growth processes.

In the unconditional growth model and all subsequent models, the intercept factors for younger and older siblings were allowed to covary freely, to compensate for the shared variance between the two siblings within each family ( Khoo and Muthén, 2000 ). Both a linear and quadratic growth factor were included in each growth curve model but no random effect was estimated for the quadratic term because no individual child had more than three occasions of measurement. However, since there was a significant quadratic fixed effect for age in the younger sibling growth model, the quadratic factor with zero variance was retained in both the older and younger sibling models for comparison. It was possible to estimate a random linear effect of age but because of the small amount of variability in that effect, all covariances with the two linear slope factors were fixed to zero. The variance structure of random effects (growth factors) for the older and younger sibling models of change in mastery as a function of age is displayed in the Level II equation given below.

Once the effect of age was taken into account (see Level I equations), the family PS variables were added to the model as lagged time-varying predictors. Time-varying predictors are allowed to take on different values at each measurement occasion, but the effects of these time-varying predictors were assumed to be constant over time ( Bryk and Raudenbush, 1992 ). The present model therefore captures year-to-year fluctuations in parent-child and sibling-child PS, while estimating time-invariant effects. Consistent with the conceptual model ( Figure 1 ), the effects of marital PS were modeled as both direct effects on observed mastery at each year, and as indirect effects on mastery through parent-child and sibling-child PS. We also modeled the hypothesized indirect effects of parents’ education on mastery through parent-child and sibling-child PS as well as through marital PS. Finally, for comparison purposes, we estimated the direct effects of parents’ education on mastery at each year.

Initially, the effects of PS (marital, parent-child, and sibling) and parents’ education on mastery were allowed to differ for younger siblings and older siblings. Then, a series of constraints were included to test whether the effects of the variables within each dyad on mastery could be considered equivalent for younger and older siblings. Finally, gender of each sibling was added as a predictor of the intercept and linear growth factors, as indicated in the Level II equations. Thus, the effects of PS and parental education were estimated while controlling for age and gender.

The analytic model for the conditional parallel growth processes is given by the Level I and II equations below. In the interest of space, only the linear equations for the older sibling outcomes at Level I and random effects at Level II are given. The equations for the younger sibling are the same at Level II and at Level I differ only in that the centering for age is at 13 instead of 15.

Level I ( t = 1, 2, and 3 and i = 1,…, n=444):

Results from Growth Modeling

Results for the final model are presented in Table 2 . All models were estimated using full-information maximum likelihood (FIML) under the missing-at-random (MAR) assumption with Mplus V4.0 ( Muthén and Muthén, 2006 ). The results are presented as unstandardized estimates of effects of predictors on growth in mastery. Initial results suggested the younger siblings have a somewhat faster rate of increase in mastery; however, when constrained to be equal, both younger and older siblings demonstrated comparable linear increases in their levels of mastery over time (b = .05). There was a small, significant, negative quadratic effect (b = −.02) in the trajectories of mastery for younger siblings, suggesting a slight deceleration or leveling off in growth of mastery. That is, growth in mastery could still be occurring but at a slower pace than earlier ages.

Conditional Growth Model with Unstandardized Path Analysis Results

LL = −7708.90, # of parameters = 101, n = 444 sibling pairs

Findings in Table 2 show that gender was marginally related to the intercept (b = −.09, p = .06) and was significantly related to the linear slope of mastery for younger, but not older, siblings. Specifically, younger girls demonstrated lower levels of mastery than boys at age 13 (b = −.09) but they increased in mastery at a faster rate over time (b=.05). Next we consider the associations among the hypothesized predictors and mastery. For the time-varying covariates involving family PS, we report a single coefficient for predictors because their effects are held to be equal over time. For example, the relationship between parent-child PS from wave 0 to mastery at wave 1 is constrained to be equal to the same association from wave 1 to wave 2.

Of the remaining covariates, only PS interactions with parents had a significantly different effect on mastery for younger compared to older siblings. For both younger and older siblings, positive PS interactions with parents predicted higher levels of mastery, with the expected change in mastery being larger for younger (b = .18) compared to (b = .11) older siblings. On the other hand, constraining the effects of sibling and marital PS and parents’ education on mastery to be equal for older and younger siblings did not significantly worsen model fit compared with allowing these effects to be freely estimated, based on a likelihood ratio test for nested models (χ 2 = 11.28, df = 7, p = .13) (see Singer and Willett, 2003). Thus, the results in Table 2 are presented with equality constraints for younger and older siblings for these predictors of mastery. Positive PS interactions with siblings equally predicted higher levels of mastery during each subsequent year for older and younger siblings (b = .04). Positive marital PS interactions had a significant positive direct effect (b = .06) on mastery as well as a positive indirect effect through parent-child (b = .03) and sibling interactions (b = .01). Similar results were found for parents’ education which has a significant direct effect on mastery (b = .02) with comparatively small indirect effects through parent-child, sibling-child, and marital PS.

Variations in the parent-child and sibling PS interactions were explained by PS interactions within the marital dyad and by parents’ education (e.g., b = .30 for marital PS predicting parent-child PS). We did not find a significant association between marital PS and parents’ education (b = −.01).

The present study evaluated a conceptual model which proposed that parental education would promote effective family problem solving interactions which, in turn, would foster mastery across the years of adolescence. In addition, we expected that mastery should increase with age and that gender might influence the development of mastery. We consider the findings from the study and their implications in turn.

The Role of Family SES

Consistent with the conceptual model ( Figure 1 ), parent education had an indirect effect on adolescent mastery through its positive association with effective PS interactions between parents and adolescents and between siblings. These results suggest that family social status in the form of parents’ education has a pervasive effect on family interactions that facilitate the development of mastery. Lewis and colleagues (1999) suggest that “better educated parents may … help their children develop skills and habits that make the children more effective” (1578). This tendency of better educated parents to engage in more effective socialization practices is consistent with research on childrearing strategies (e.g., Conger and Dogan 2007 ). Parental education also had a direct relationship with sibling problem solving; this may reflect a process whereby siblings adopt patterns of thought and action similar to those used by their parents.

In addition to the results predicted by the conceptual model, two findings deserve special mention. First, we found a significant direct effect of parents’ education on mastery; this suggests that family PS behaviors do not entirely account for the impact of family SES on the development of mastery. It is possible that if a wider variety of parenting behaviors had been included, the influence of parents’ education might have been largely attenuated. For example, a broader array of socialization practices involving control strategies, direct tutoring and affective processes not considered in this report may be influenced by parental education and also affect the development of mastery (e.g., Conger and Dogan 2007 ). Furthermore, the influence of parental education may be genetically mediated to some degree which could be addressed with a genetically informed research design ( Conger and Donnellan 2007 ). Finally, parental education likely affects the broader social environment to which the adolescent is exposed, and which may affect the development of mastery. These possibilities merit attention in future research.

Second, we did not find a direct effect of parents’ education on marital problem solving. On first reflection this result seems contradictory to the general arguments in the conceptual model. If better educated parents are more skillful and adaptive in handling family problems in a constructive and effective manner, why aren’t these skills reflected in their interactions with one another? The literature demonstrates a robust relationship between parental education and the socialization of children ( Conger and& Dogan 2007 ). In marriage, however, the findings appear to be more complex (see Faust and McKibben 1999 ). It may be that our measure of problem solving may not adequately capture the complexity of PS style between these long married couples (on average 17 years). They may have well developed styles for handling and avoiding problems. It could also be that parents at this stage of the life course are more child-focused and their interactions revolve around helping their offspring face the challenges of adolescence. Finally, the emotional tone expressed by the couples during PS interactions may be important to consider. Further study will be needed to see if these factors help explain the absence of a significant association between parental education and marital problem solving in the present report.

Family Problem Solving and the Development of Mastery

Consistent with expectations, effective marital PS predicted more effective PS interactions between parents and children and between siblings. Marital PS also had a significant indirect effect on adolescent mastery through its effect on PS in both the parent-adolescent and sibling family subsystems. These results are consistent with earlier studies that find an indirect effect of marital conflict on child adjustment through parent-child relations (e.g., Fauber and Long 1991 ; Reese-Weber 2000 ). Our findings extend this research, suggesting not only an indirect effect of marital interactions on adolescent outcomes through the parent-child dyad but also through the sibling dyad. The robust influence of marital PS is also reflected by its direct relationship with adolescent mastery; consistent with studies which find a direct effect of marital dynamics on child adjustment (e.g., Harold et al. 1997 ). These findings suggest that exposure to effective PS between parents indicates to adolescents that difficulties and disagreements can be resolved in relationships in general, thus giving them greater confidence that they can control events in their lives.

Also as predicted, effective PS interactions with parents were related to individual differences in mastery over time for both older and younger siblings. These results suggest that adolescents’ mastery increased when they felt listened to and had an active role in solving problems and making decisions. These findings also are consistent with earlier research documenting that children learn to resolve problems and negotiate solutions most effectively under conditions of warm and supportive family relations ( Davies and Cummings 1994 ; Little and Conger 2007 ; Rueter and Conger 1995b , 1998 ).

Problem solving with parents had a larger effect on younger compared to older siblings’ mastery, perhaps reflecting the fact that parents may provide less guidance to older siblings who are in their late teens and approaching the transition to adulthood. Support for this interpretation comes from previous research which finds that, as adolescents increasingly participate in decisions that affect their lives, their sense of control increases ( Conger et al. 1997 ; Liprie 1993 ; Bulcroft et al. 1996 ).

We also found that PS experiences with siblings explained unique variance in adolescent mastery, which provides new insight on the possible consequences of sibling conflict resolution. Previous studies with younger children have found that most sibling conflicts ended with parental intervention ( McGuire et al. 2000 ) or that siblings’ resolution strategies were inferior to those proposed by parents ( Tucker, McHale, and Crouter 2003 ). The results reported here, however, are supportive of the notion that adolescents’ positive PS interactions with their siblings contribute independently to their sense of mastery. Moreover, results from this study suggest that both older and younger siblings contribute to one another’s development of mastery across the years of adolescence. Future studies should examine reciprocal influences between siblings at different stages of development to further our understanding of this process.

Effects of Age and Gender

As expected, we found that mastery increased throughout adolescence for both older and younger siblings, consistent with prior research which finds that mastery increases with age ( Mirowsky and Ross 1998 , 1999 ). Younger siblings also demonstrated a slowing rate of change in mastery over time. It may be that these younger siblings experience an increase in mastery during early adolescence, when parents begin to grant them more autonomy but that the growth in mastery levels off somewhat as parents retain control over certain areas. In contrast, the rate of change for older siblings does not slow, perhaps reflective of an increasing sense of independence, particularly for those who have left home to attend school or start work. This would be consistent with findings by Lewis et al. (1999) who suggest that the sense of control increases significantly during the transition to adulthood.

Gender was not related to the intercept or rate of change in mastery for older siblings. However, for younger siblings gender was marginally associated with the level and significantly associated with linear growth of mastery. Female younger siblings indicated a slightly lower initial level of mastery (age 13) which may be related to several factors. First, a lower sense of mastery may be related to the generally lower levels of self -esteem that manifest themselves about the time that girls are undergoing the pubertal transition in early adolescence (e.g., Brooks-Gunn and Warren 1985 ; Harter 1990 ). Lower mastery in early adolescence also may be related to stressors encountered during other normative life course transitions such as changing schools, dating, and having conflicts with parents ( Call and Mortimer 2001 ; Colten and Gore 1991 ). However, we did not find this same gender difference for older siblings, thus mastery may increase as girls accommodate to the challenges of early adolescence. This interpretation is based in part on the significant interaction effect of age and gender that suggests that although younger sisters start lower, they demonstrate a higher average linear growth rate compared to that for younger brothers. That is, they tend to catch up with boys over time. This issue deserves further examination in future research.

Contributions, Limitations and Future Directions

This study advances earlier research by examining family influences on the development of mastery at an earlier age than has typically been done in previous research (e.g., Lewis et al. 1999 ). It also specifically investigated family influences that have been presumed to be important in earlier studies but were not directly examined (e.g., Lewis et al. 1999 ). In addition, it is one of the rare studies of mastery during the years of adolescence and the only study of which we are aware that considers sibling as well as parental influence on mastery. Taken together, the findings illustrate one set of processes through which family SES (education) promotes family interactions that advance the development of mastery during the adolescent years. Presumably these early advantages will lay the groundwork for a healthier individual more capable of successfully negotiating the stresses and strains that characterize the life course.

The present study makes promising contributions to our understanding of the links between family experiences and adolescent mastery; however, there are a few limitations that must be noted. Due to data analytic requirements, measures of both mastery and problem solving behaviors for parent-adolescent and sibling dyads employed adolescent self-report which may contribute to some shared method bias (see Lorenz et al. 1991 ). However, the use of independent reports from parents for their education and marital problem solving strengthened our confidence in the results presented here. That is, the associations among these variables cannot be attributed to reliance on a single informant. We were also somewhat limited by having only three time points for assessing adolescent mastery and problem solving interactions. However, the ability to analyze these data by the age of each respondent at each measurement occasion increased our ability to examine the nature of mastery over the second decade of life (i.e., 10 to 21 years of age as opposed to three calendar years, 1990–1992). Finally, we must be cautious in generalizing these results due to the homogeneous sample; however, we note that other findings from this panel study have been replicated in more diverse ethnic and cultural groups (e.g., R. Conger et al. 2002 ; Parke et al. 2004 ; Solantus, Leinonen, and Punamaki 2004 ), which increases our confidence in the potential generalizability of these results as well.

Although these results examined the effects of family problem solving on the development of mastery, it is also likely that a developing sense of mastery may impact a person’s approach to problem solving. That is, the process may be reciprocal, such as the reciprocal relationship between negative life events and young adult mastery found by Shanahan and Bauer (2004) . One can imagine a scenario in which adolescents with higher mastery are more willing to engage in problem solving interactions, which in turn contribute to an increase in their mastery and self confidence (see Pulkinnen et al. 2002 ; Thoits 2006 ). This is consistent with the idea that mastery develops through personal experiences and social interactions ( Skinner 1996 ). Furthermore, adolescents who have more successful problem solving experiences may become better at selecting themselves out of situations where conflicts and negative events may occur (see Thoits 2006 ). Future research would benefit from an examination of the reciprocal effects of mastery and problem solving over multiple time points and in multiple settings across the life course.

The present findings could also have important implications for adolescents’ relationships with peers and romantic partners. In families with high levels of recurring or unresolved conflict, adolescents’ mastery may suffer from repeated failures in conflict resolution ( Forgatch 1989 ; Rueter and Conger 1995a ). These adolescents may feel less confident about resolving problems in close relationships when difficulties arise ( Rosenfield 1989 ; Rueter and Conger 1995b ). An important extension of the present study will be to examine how problem solving experiences in the family of origin and adolescent mastery combine to affect the ability to make a successful transition to adulthood by fostering better relationships with peers, co-workers, romantic partners and one’s own children. Although a small number of studies have begun to examine these issues (e.g. Lewis et al. 1999 ; Rosenfield 1989 ), a great deal of research remains to develop a richer understanding of how family processes and individual mastery affect a successful transition to adulthood.

As noted at the beginning of this article, a long history of empirical research has established the role of mastery in the maintenance of health and well-being during the adult years. The importance of mastery as an individual attribute of great significance is beyond question. With a few exceptions (e.g. Lewis et al. 1999 ), what has been lacking has been research that provides a clear understanding of how family social position and social dynamics foster the development of a strong sense of mastery. With such understanding, social services and policies can be advanced that will promote growth in mastery in subsequent generations of young people. If the results of this study are replicated and extended to more diverse populations, they suggest that social policies which increase educational quality and availability to all members of our society should promote individual mastery and social processes that foster the development of this attribute. The results also suggest specific, mastery-enhancing skills that might be taught to families with regard to the way they handle difficulties and disagreements. Simply put, while the present findings shed theoretical light on the issues investigated, they may also have applied significance of real social importance.

Biographies

Katherine Jewsbury Conger is an Associate Professor in Human Development and Family Studies at the University of California, Davis. Her research focuses on the impact of economic stress on family functioning with a special emphasis on sibling relationships and adolescent health and well being.

Shannon Tierney Williams is a research associate with the University of California, Davis and Zetetic Associates. Her research focuses on the importance of children's interpersonal relationships within the context of families, child care settings, and schools from infancy through adolescence.

Wendy M. Little is a doctoral candidate in Human Development at the University of California, Davis. Her research focuses on family processes, sibling relationships and individual adjustment during adolescence and emerging adulthood.

Katherine Masyn is an Assistant Professor at the University of California, Davis. Her research focuses on the development, refinement, and application of latent variable models for understanding population heterogeneity in longitudinal processes such as growth trajectory, event history, and latent transition analyses.

Barbara Shebloski is a postdoctoral scholar with the Family Research Group and lecturer in Human and Community Development at the University of California, Davis. Her research focuses on parenting and sibling relationship quality, and factors related to continuity and change in intergenerational educational achievement.

* Current support comes from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the National Institute on Drug Abuse, and the National Institute of Mental Health ( {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"HD047573","term_id":"300616611"}} HD047573 , {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"HD051746","term_id":"300619503"}} HD051746 , and {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"MH051361","term_id":"1394622422"}} MH051361 ). Support for earlier years of the study came from multiple sources, including NIMH (MH00567, MH19734, MH43270, MH59355, MH62989, and MH48165), NIDA (DA05347), NICHD (HD027724), the Bureau of Maternal and Child Health (MCJ-109572), and the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Successful Adolescent Development Among Youth in High-Risk Settings. We thank Peggy Thoits, Eliza Pavalko and anonymous reviewers for constructive feedback on earlier versions of this paper.

1 Our study focuses specifically on mastery (personal control), and not self-efficacy. Although self efficacy, the belief that you can perform a specific behavior successfully or achieve a certain outcome falls under the larger umbrella of self-concept, as does mastery, it is a distinct concept and we do not address it in this study. We refer interested readers to the literatures on self-efficacy and self-concept (see Bandura 1997 and Harter 1999 respectively).

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