reliable sources research paper

Researching and Writing a Paper: Reliability of Sources

• Outline Note-Taking
• Summarizing
• Bibliography / Annotated Bibliography
• Thesis Sentences
• Ideas for Topics
• The Big List of Databases and Resource Sources
• Keywords and Controlled Vocabulary
• Full Text Advice
• Database Searching Videos!
• How to Read a Scholarly Article.
• Citation Styles
• Citation Videos!
• Citation Tips & Tricks
• Videos about Evaluating Sources!
• Unreliable Sources and 'Fake News'
• An Outline for Writing!
• Formatting your paper!

Techniques for Evaluating Resources

No matter how good the database you search in is, or how reliable an information website has been in the past, you need to evaluate the sources you want to use for credibility and bias before you use them*. (You may also want to spot fake news as you browse the Internet or other media - not all fake news is online).

This page discusses eight different tools for evaluating sources (there are so many different tools because evaluating the reliability or quality of information is an important topic, because there are many ways to look at the topic, and every librarian wants to help you succeed). Look through these approaches and use the approaches or combinations of approaches that work for you. The tools are:

5Ws (and an H)

A.S.P.E.C.T.

• Evaluating Research Articles
• Lateral Reading  ("what do other sources say?")

The CRAAP Test

We also have a variety of videos about evaluating sources available for your learning and entertainment: Click Here !

* Note: a biased source - and technically most sources are biased - can be a useful source as long as you understand what the bias or biases are. A source that is trying to be reliable will often identify some or all of its biases. (Every person has a limited perspective on the events they observe or participate in, and most of the time their perceptions are influenced by assumptions they may not be aware of. So, even when you have some really solid reasons to trust a source as 100% reliable and accurate, be alert for 'what is not mentioned' and for what biases there might be [this is particularly tricky when you share those biases, and why reviewing your research/paper/presentation with someone else is always a good idea]).

The 5Ws and an H.

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• Who are the authors or creators?
• What are their credentials? Can you find something out about them in another place?
• Who is the publisher or sponsor?
• Are they reputable?
• What is the publisher’s interest (if any) in this information?
• If it's from a website, does it have advertisements?
• Is this fact or opinion?
• Is it biased? Can you still use the information, even if you know there is bias?
• Is the the site trying to sell you something, convert you to something, or make you vote for someone?
• What kind of information is included in the resource?
• Is content of the resource primarily opinion? Is is balanced?
• Is it provided for a hobbiest, for entertainment, or for a serious audience?
• Does the creator provide references or sources for data or quotations?
• How recent is the information?
• Is it current enough for your topic?
• If the information is from a website, when was the site last updated?

Authority Information resources are a product of their creator's expertise and reliability, and are evaluated based on the information need and the context in which the information will be used. Authority is constructed: various communities often recognize different types of authority (knowledge, accuracy). Authority is contextual because you may need additional information to help determine the accuracy or comprehensiveness, and the sort of authority the source contains. (Writing a paper about ' urban myths ' requires different sorts of authority than writing a paper disproving an urban myth.)

Using this concept means you have to identify the different types of authority that might be relevant, and why the author considers themselves reliable, as well as why their community considers them reliable. An author can be a person, journalist, scholar, organization, website, etc. Author is different from authority, authority is the quality that gives an author trustworthiness....and not all authors have the same trustworthiness.

Evaluating research articles

Evaluating research articles: Evaluating evidence-based research articles in scholarly journals requires deep knowledge of the discipline, which you might not acquire until you are deeper into your education. These guiding questions can help you evaluate a research report, even if you are not an expert in the field. Questions include:

• Why was the study undertaken? The aim of the research may be intended to generate income, lobby for policy changes, evaluate the impact of a program, or create a new theory.  These variations in intent influence the research questions, the data collection, the analysis, and how the results are presented. To make best use of the findings for your purposes, you should keep the intent of the study in mind.
• Who conducted the study? It is important to look at who conducted the research, and if the organization or individual in question has the expertise required for conducting research on the topic. Looking to see if the organization is interested in a specific research outcome is also a good practice. The research should be clear about how the different stages of the study were conducted to guarantee its objectivity.
• Who funded the research? It is equally important to look at who sponsored or funded the study because this sometimes affects the objectivity or accuracy of the study. (If, for example, a soap-maker sponsors a study on the efficiency of different soaps, you should be critical of the results, particularly if their brand of soap is the best at cleaning.)
• How was the data collected? In the social sciences, structured interviews and self-completion questionnaires are perhaps the two most common ways of collecting quantitative data. How the people in the study were recruited is essential for determining how representative the results are. (There are two main types of samples, probability and non-probability samples. A probability sample is one in which every individual in the population has the same chance of being included in the study. It is also a prerequisite for being able to generalize the findings to the population. Pretend you survey first-year students by asking student clubs to share the survey on their social media. This non-probability snowball sample is more likely to reach students active in the clubs, therefore the results will not be representative of, or generalizable to, all students.)
• Is the sample size and response rate sufficient? The bigger the sample size the greater the chance that the results are accurate. After a sample size of around 1000, gains in accuracy become less significant. However, limited time and money often make such a large sample not practical. The similarity of the population also affects the desired sample size; a more diverse population requires a larger sample to sufficiently include the different parts of the population. The response rate is a complementary measure to the sample size, showing how many of the suitable individuals in the sample have provided a usable response. (In web surveys, response rates tend to be lower than in other types of surveys, and are therefore less accurate.)
• Does the research make use of secondary data? Data can be collected for the purposes of the study or existing data gathered for a different study can be used. If existing data sets collected for another study are used, reflecting on how usable that data is for the newer study is important.
• Does the research measure what it claims to measure? A commonly used word in statistics to describe the trustworthiness of research is ‘validity’. Validity refers to the extent to which an assumption or measurement is consistent with reality. Does it measure what it intends to measure? For example, a study investigates gender discrimination of faculty and looks at the number of cases of discrimination presented by female faculty. But, if the study does not look at the reason for these discrimination complaints (gender, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, etc.) it cannot be assumed that gender discrimination either increased or decreased.
• Can the findings be generalized to my situation? There is often a tendency to generalize research findings. Two key standards have to be met to do this. First, results apply only to the population of the study. Second, data must be collected via a probability sample, i.e. everyone eligible to be in the study has the same chance of being included in the study. Too often papers do not discuss many of the aspects of the data collection and analysis. Transparently and clearly describing how the research was conducted is essential for the reader to understand the trustworthiness of the research paper in their hands.

Lateral Reading

The Internet has democratized access to information, but the Internet has also been filled with a flood of misinformation, fake news, propaganda, and idiocy, presented as objective analysis. Since any single source is suspect, fact checkers read laterally.  They leave a site in its tab after a quick look around and open up new browser tabs in order to judge the credibility of the original site.

Lateral reading is the process of verifying what you are reading while you are reading it. It allows you to read deeply and broadly while gaining a fuller understanding of an issue or topic and determining whether, or how much, to trust the content as presented.

Vertical reading occurs when the reader simply reads the article or site without going further, assuming that if it ‘looks reliable’ it is reliable. The reader may use some superficial evaluation strategies to determine if the site is credible, such as reading the ‘about’ page, looking at its URL extension (.edu, .org, .com, .gov, etc.), or assessing its advertising. A good start, but there is much more to look at:

• Determine the author's reliability, intents, and biases, by searching for articles by other writers on the same topic (and also looking for other articles by that same author).
• Understand the perspective of the site's analyses. (What are they assuming, what do they want you to assume?)
• Determine whether the site has an editorial process or expert reputation supporting the reliability and accuracy of its content.

Use the strategies and ask the questions that professional fact-checkers use:

• Go beyond the "about" page of the site you are reading.
• Search for articles by other writers on the same topic.
• Search for articles about the site/publication you are reading (and/or articles about the authors featured on the site).

Ask the following:

• Who funds or sponsors the site where the original piece was published? (And who funds/sponsors the site you found the article at?) 
• What do other authoritative sources have to say about that site and that topic?
• When you do a search on the topic of the original piece, are the initial results from fact-checking organizations? (If so, what do they say?)
• Have questions been raised about other articles the author has written or that have appeared on that site?
• Does what you are finding elsewhere contradict the original piece? (If there are contradictions, what is the reliability of those contradicting sites?)

Are reliable news outlets reporting on (or perhaps more important, not reporting on) what you are reading? (Does why reliable news outlets are or are-not reporting on the topic increase or decrease the reliability of the site you are assessing?)

Sometimes the 'good answer' to the above questions is a 'yes', sometimes a 'no', and sometimes 'it's complicated'. Reliable and unreliable sources are everywhere in the information we have access to - some sources are rarely reliable, but even the most 'consistently reliable sources' are sometimes unreliable (everyone has blind spots and biases, and everyone is able to make mistakes). There are no consistent rules for which questions must be answered which way. However, if you ask these questions and find out what the answers seem to be you will have a better understanding of how reliable or unreliable a particular source is.

S.I.F.T. Method

SIFT (The Four Moves)

Use the SIFT method to separate fact from fake when reading websites and other media.

• What is its reputation?
• For deeper research, verify the information.
• Know what you're reading.
• Where is it from? Biases, point of view?
• Understand the context of the information.
• Find the best source on the subject.
• Trace claims, quotes or media back to its original context.
• Was the source you read/viewed an accurate depiction of the original?

More Information about the SIFT method , and a free 3-hour online course (five easy lessons) that will seriously improve your information evaluation skills!

!!! Do you have questions, confusions, or opinons about anything on this page, in this LibGuide, or anything else?      We are happy to Listen to and Answer Your Questions, Concerns, and more ! !!!

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• Last Updated: Mar 13, 2024 1:29 PM
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