hypothesis examples social sciences

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Chapter 3: Developing a Research Question

3.4 Hypotheses

When researchers do not have predictions about what they will find, they conduct research to answer a question or questions with an open-minded desire to know about a topic, or to help develop hypotheses for later testing. In other situations, the purpose of research is to test a specific hypothesis or hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement, sometimes but not always causal, describing a researcher’s expectations regarding anticipated finding. Often hypotheses are written to describe the expected relationship between two variables (though this is not a requirement). To develop a hypothesis, one needs to understand the differences between independent and dependent variables and between units of observation and units of analysis. Hypotheses are typically drawn from theories and usually describe how an independent variable is expected to affect some dependent variable or variables. Researchers following a deductive approach to their research will hypothesize about what they expect to find based on the theory or theories that frame their study. If the theory accurately reflects the phenomenon it is designed to explain, then the researcher’s hypotheses about what would be observed in the real world should bear out.

Sometimes researchers will hypothesize that a relationship will take a specific direction. As a result, an increase or decrease in one area might be said to cause an increase or decrease in another. For example, you might choose to study the relationship between age and legalization of marijuana. Perhaps you have done some reading in your spare time, or in another course you have taken. Based on the theories you have read, you hypothesize that “age is negatively related to support for marijuana legalization.” What have you just hypothesized? You have hypothesized that as people get older, the likelihood of their support for marijuana legalization decreases. Thus, as age moves in one direction (up), support for marijuana legalization moves in another direction (down). If writing hypotheses feels tricky, it is sometimes helpful to draw them out and depict each of the two hypotheses we have just discussed.

Note that you will almost never hear researchers say that they have proven their hypotheses. A statement that bold implies that a relationship has been shown to exist with absolute certainty and there is no chance that there are conditions under which the hypothesis would not bear out. Instead, researchers tend to say that their hypotheses have been supported (or not). This more cautious way of discussing findings allows for the possibility that new evidence or new ways of examining a relationship will be discovered. Researchers may also discuss a null hypothesis, one that predicts no relationship between the variables being studied. If a researcher rejects the null hypothesis, he or she is saying that the variables in question are somehow related to one another.

Quantitative and qualitative researchers tend to take different approaches when it comes to hypotheses. In quantitative research, the goal often is to empirically test hypotheses generated from theory. With a qualitative approach, on the other hand, a researcher may begin with some vague expectations about what he or she will find, but the aim is not to test one’s expectations against some empirical observations. Instead, theory development or construction is the goal. Qualitative researchers may develop theories from which hypotheses can be drawn and quantitative researchers may then test those hypotheses. Both types of research are crucial to understanding our social world, and both play an important role in the matter of hypothesis development and testing.  In the following section, we will look at qualitative and quantitative approaches to research, as well as mixed methods.

Text attributions This chapter has been adapted from Chapter 5.2 in Principles of Sociological Inquiry , which was adapted by the Saylor Academy without attribution to the original authors or publisher, as requested by the licensor, and is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 License .

Research Methods for the Social Sciences: An Introduction Copyright © 2020 by Valerie Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Methodology
• How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples

How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Shona McCombes .

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection.

Table of contents

What is a hypothesis, developing a hypothesis (with example), hypothesis examples, frequently asked questions about writing hypotheses.

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.

A hypothesis is not just a guess – it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).

Variables in hypotheses

Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more variables . An independent variable is something the researcher changes or controls. A dependent variable is something the researcher observes and measures.

In this example, the independent variable is exposure to the sun – the assumed cause . The dependent variable is the level of happiness – the assumed effect .

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Step 1: ask a question.

Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.

Step 2: Do some preliminary research

Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what your research will find.

At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to identify which variables you will study and what you think the relationships are between them. Sometimes, you’ll have to operationalise more complex constructs.

Step 3: Formulate your hypothesis

Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.

Step 4: Refine your hypothesis

You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain:

• The relevant variables
• The specific group being studied
• The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis

Step 5: Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if … then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.

In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.

If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find between them.

Step 6. Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing , you will also have to write a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H 0 , while the alternative hypothesis is H 1 or H a .

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

A hypothesis is not just a guess. It should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (‘ x affects y because …’).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses. In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2022, May 06). How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 14 May 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/hypothesis-writing/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, operationalisation | a guide with examples, pros & cons, what is a conceptual framework | tips & examples, a quick guide to experimental design | 5 steps & examples.

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

How to Write a Great Hypothesis

Hypothesis Definition, Format, Examples, and Tips

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Alex Dos Diaz

• The Scientific Method

Hypothesis Format

Falsifiability of a hypothesis.

• Operationalization

Hypothesis Types

Hypotheses examples.

• Collecting Data

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. It is a preliminary answer to your question that helps guide the research process.

Consider a study designed to examine the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance. The hypothesis might be: "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-deprived."

At a Glance

A hypothesis is crucial to scientific research because it offers a clear direction for what the researchers are looking to find. This allows them to design experiments to test their predictions and add to our scientific knowledge about the world. This article explores how a hypothesis is used in psychology research, how to write a good hypothesis, and the different types of hypotheses you might use.

The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method

In the scientific method , whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area, a hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment. The scientific method involves the following steps:

• Forming a question
• Performing background research
• Creating a hypothesis
• Designing an experiment
• Collecting data
• Analyzing the results
• Drawing conclusions
• Communicating the results

The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. At this point, researchers then begin to develop a testable hypothesis.

Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your hypothesis should always explain what you  expect  to happen.

In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore numerous factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment  do not  support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.

In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might hypothesize: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."

In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk adage that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

So how do you write a good hypothesis? When trying to come up with a hypothesis for your research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:

• Is your hypothesis based on your research on a topic?
• Can your hypothesis be tested?
• Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the  journal articles you read . Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

How to Formulate a Good Hypothesis

To form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:

• Collect as many observations about a topic or problem as you can.
• Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
• Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
• After you have developed some possible hypotheses, think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.

In the scientific method ,  falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In order to test a claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could be proven false.

Students sometimes confuse the idea of falsifiability with the idea that it means that something is false, which is not the case. What falsifiability means is that  if  something was false, then it is possible to demonstrate that it is false.

One of the hallmarks of pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false.

The Importance of Operational Definitions

A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and measurable. However, the researcher must also define how the variable will be manipulated and measured in the study.

Operational definitions are specific definitions for all relevant factors in a study. This process helps make vague or ambiguous concepts detailed and measurable.

For example, a researcher might operationally define the variable " test anxiety " as the results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. A "study habits" variable might be defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.

These precise descriptions are important because many things can be measured in various ways. Clearly defining these variables and how they are measured helps ensure that other researchers can replicate your results.

Replicability

One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable.

Replication means repeating an experiment in the same way to produce the same results. By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.

Some variables are more difficult than others to define. For example, how would you operationally define a variable such as aggression ? For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward others.

To measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without harming others. The researcher might utilize a simulated task to measure aggressiveness in this situation.

Hypothesis Checklist

• Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
• Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
• Can you manipulate the variables?
• Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?

The hypothesis you use will depend on what you are investigating and hoping to find. Some of the main types of hypotheses that you might use include:

• Simple hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests there is a relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
• Complex hypothesis : This type suggests a relationship between three or more variables, such as two independent and dependent variables.
• Null hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests no relationship exists between two or more variables.
• Alternative hypothesis : This hypothesis states the opposite of the null hypothesis.
• Statistical hypothesis : This hypothesis uses statistical analysis to evaluate a representative population sample and then generalizes the findings to the larger group.
• Logical hypothesis : This hypothesis assumes a relationship between variables without collecting data or evidence.

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the  dependent variable  if you change the  independent variable .

The basic format might be: "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples of simple hypotheses:

• "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
• "Students who experience test anxiety before an English exam will get lower scores than students who do not experience test anxiety."​
• "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."
• "Children who receive a new reading intervention will have higher reading scores than students who do not receive the intervention."

Examples of a complex hypothesis include:

• "People with high-sugar diets and sedentary activity levels are more likely to develop depression."
• "Younger people who are regularly exposed to green, outdoor areas have better subjective well-being than older adults who have limited exposure to green spaces."

Examples of a null hypothesis include:

• "There is no difference in anxiety levels between people who take St. John's wort supplements and those who do not."
• "There is no difference in scores on a memory recall task between children and adults."
• "There is no difference in aggression levels between children who play first-person shooter games and those who do not."

Examples of an alternative hypothesis:

• "People who take St. John's wort supplements will have less anxiety than those who do not."
• "Adults will perform better on a memory task than children."
• "Children who play first-person shooter games will show higher levels of aggression than children who do not." 

Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis

Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive research and experimental research.

Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research such as  case studies ,  naturalistic observations , and surveys are often used when  conducting an experiment is difficult or impossible. These methods are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.

Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a  correlational study  can examine how the variables are related. This research method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.

Experimental Research Methods

Experimental methods  are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable).

Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship—whether changes in one variable actually  cause  another to change.

The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or experiment. In situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, the research still has value. Such research helps us better understand how different aspects of the natural world relate to one another. It also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in the future.

Thompson WH, Skau S. On the scope of scientific hypotheses .  R Soc Open Sci . 2023;10(8):230607. doi:10.1098/rsos.230607

Taran S, Adhikari NKJ, Fan E. Falsifiability in medicine: what clinicians can learn from Karl Popper [published correction appears in Intensive Care Med. 2021 Jun 17;:].  Intensive Care Med . 2021;47(9):1054-1056. doi:10.1007/s00134-021-06432-z

Eyler AA. Research Methods for Public Health . 1st ed. Springer Publishing Company; 2020. doi:10.1891/9780826182067.0004

Nosek BA, Errington TM. What is replication ?  PLoS Biol . 2020;18(3):e3000691. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000691

Aggarwal R, Ranganathan P. Study designs: Part 2 - Descriptive studies .  Perspect Clin Res . 2019;10(1):34-36. doi:10.4103/picr.PICR_154_18

Nevid J. Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadworth, 2013.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Define and describe the scientific method.
• Explain how the scientific method is used in sociological research.
• Describe the function and importance of an interpretive framework.
• Describe the differences in accuracy, reliability and validity in a research study.

When sociologists apply the sociological perspective and begin to ask questions, no topic is off limits. Every aspect of human behavior is a source of possible investigation. Sociologists question the world that humans have created and live in. They notice patterns of behavior as people move through that world. Using sociological methods and systematic research within the framework of the scientific method and a scholarly interpretive perspective, sociologists have discovered social patterns in the workplace that have transformed industries, in families that have enlightened family members, and in education that have aided structural changes in classrooms.

Sociologists often begin the research process by asking a question about how or why things happen in this world. It might be a unique question about a new trend or an old question about a common aspect of life. Once the question is formed, the sociologist proceeds through an in-depth process to answer it. In deciding how to design that process, the researcher may adopt a scientific approach or an interpretive framework. The following sections describe these approaches to knowledge.

The Scientific Method

Sociologists make use of tried and true methods of research, such as experiments, surveys, and field research. But humans and their social interactions are so diverse that these interactions can seem impossible to chart or explain. It might seem that science is about discoveries and chemical reactions or about proving ideas right or wrong rather than about exploring the nuances of human behavior.

However, this is exactly why scientific models work for studying human behavior. A scientific process of research establishes parameters that help make sure results are objective and accurate. Scientific methods provide limitations and boundaries that focus a study and organize its results.

The scientific method involves developing and testing theories about the social world based on empirical evidence. It is defined by its commitment to systematic observation of the empirical world and strives to be objective, critical, skeptical, and logical. It involves a series of six prescribed steps that have been established over centuries of scientific scholarship.

Sociological research does not reduce knowledge to right or wrong facts. Results of studies tend to provide people with insights they did not have before—explanations of human behaviors and social practices and access to knowledge of other cultures, rituals and beliefs, or trends and attitudes.

In general, sociologists tackle questions about the role of social characteristics in outcomes or results. For example, how do different communities fare in terms of psychological well-being, community cohesiveness, range of vocation, wealth, crime rates, and so on? Are communities functioning smoothly? Sociologists often look between the cracks to discover obstacles to meeting basic human needs. They might also study environmental influences and patterns of behavior that lead to crime, substance abuse, divorce, poverty, unplanned pregnancies, or illness. And, because sociological studies are not all focused on negative behaviors or challenging situations, social researchers might study vacation trends, healthy eating habits, neighborhood organizations, higher education patterns, games, parks, and exercise habits.

Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but also to interpret and analyze data. They deliberately apply scientific logic and objectivity. They are interested in—but not attached to—the results. They work outside of their own political or social agendas. This does not mean researchers do not have their own personalities, complete with preferences and opinions. But sociologists deliberately use the scientific method to maintain as much objectivity, focus, and consistency as possible in collecting and analyzing data in research studies.

With its systematic approach, the scientific method has proven useful in shaping sociological studies. The scientific method provides a systematic, organized series of steps that help ensure objectivity and consistency in exploring a social problem. They provide the means for accuracy, reliability, and validity. In the end, the scientific method provides a shared basis for discussion and analysis (Merton 1963). Typically, the scientific method has 6 steps which are described below.

Step 1: Ask a Question or Find a Research Topic

The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question, select a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study within a geographic location and time frame. “Are societies capable of sustained happiness?” would be too vague. The question should also be broad enough to have universal merit. “What do personal hygiene habits reveal about the values of students at XYZ High School?” would be too narrow. Sociologists strive to frame questions that examine well-defined patterns and relationships.

In a hygiene study, for instance, hygiene could be defined as “personal habits to maintain physical appearance (as opposed to health),” and a researcher might ask, “How do differing personal hygiene habits reflect the cultural value placed on appearance?”

Step 2: Review the Literature/Research Existing Sources

The next step researchers undertake is to conduct background research through a literature review , which is a review of any existing similar or related studies. A visit to the library, a thorough online search, and a survey of academic journals will uncover existing research about the topic of study. This step helps researchers gain a broad understanding of work previously conducted, identify gaps in understanding of the topic, and position their own research to build on prior knowledge. Researchers—including student researchers—are responsible for correctly citing existing sources they use in a study or that inform their work. While it is fine to borrow previously published material (as long as it enhances a unique viewpoint), it must be referenced properly and never plagiarized.

To study crime, a researcher might also sort through existing data from the court system, police database, prison information, interviews with criminals, guards, wardens, etc. It’s important to examine this information in addition to existing research to determine how these resources might be used to fill holes in existing knowledge. Reviewing existing sources educates researchers and helps refine and improve a research study design.

Step 3: Formulate a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an explanation for a phenomenon based on a conjecture about the relationship between the phenomenon and one or more causal factors. In sociology, the hypothesis will often predict how one form of human behavior influences another. For example, a hypothesis might be in the form of an “if, then statement.” Let’s relate this to our topic of crime: If unemployment increases, then the crime rate will increase.

In scientific research, we formulate hypotheses to include an independent variables (IV) , which are the cause of the change, and a dependent variable (DV) , which is the effect , or thing that is changed. In the example above, unemployment is the independent variable and the crime rate is the dependent variable.

In a sociological study, the researcher would establish one form of human behavior as the independent variable and observe the influence it has on a dependent variable. How does gender (the independent variable) affect rate of income (the dependent variable)? How does one’s religion (the independent variable) affect family size (the dependent variable)? How is social class (the dependent variable) affected by level of education (the independent variable)?

Taking an example from Table 12.1, a researcher might hypothesize that teaching children proper hygiene (the independent variable) will boost their sense of self-esteem (the dependent variable). Note, however, this hypothesis can also work the other way around. A sociologist might predict that increasing a child’s sense of self-esteem (the independent variable) will increase or improve habits of hygiene (now the dependent variable). Identifying the independent and dependent variables is very important. As the hygiene example shows, simply identifying related two topics or variables is not enough. Their prospective relationship must be part of the hypothesis.

Step 4: Design and Conduct a Study

Researchers design studies to maximize reliability , which refers to how likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced. Reliability increases the likelihood that what happens to one person will happen to all people in a group or what will happen in one situation will happen in another. Cooking is a science. When you follow a recipe and measure ingredients with a cooking tool, such as a measuring cup, the same results is obtained as long as the cook follows the same recipe and uses the same type of tool. The measuring cup introduces accuracy into the process. If a person uses a less accurate tool, such as their hand, to measure ingredients rather than a cup, the same result may not be replicated. Accurate tools and methods increase reliability.

Researchers also strive for validity , which refers to how well the study measures what it was designed to measure. To produce reliable and valid results, sociologists develop an operational definition , that is, they define each concept, or variable, in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The operational definition identifies an observable condition of the concept. By operationalizing the concept, all researchers can collect data in a systematic or replicable manner. Moreover, researchers can determine whether the experiment or method validly represent the phenomenon they intended to study.

A study asking how tutoring improves grades, for instance, might define “tutoring” as “one-on-one assistance by an expert in the field, hired by an educational institution.” However, one researcher might define a “good” grade as a C or better, while another uses a B+ as a starting point for “good.” For the results to be replicated and gain acceptance within the broader scientific community, researchers would have to use a standard operational definition. These definitions set limits and establish cut-off points that ensure consistency and replicability in a study.

We will explore research methods in greater detail in the next section of this chapter.

Step 5: Draw Conclusions

After constructing the research design, sociologists collect, tabulate or categorize, and analyze data to formulate conclusions. If the analysis supports the hypothesis, researchers can discuss the implications of the results for the theory or policy solution that they were addressing. If the analysis does not support the hypothesis, researchers may consider repeating the experiment or think of ways to improve their procedure.

However, even when results contradict a sociologist’s prediction of a study’s outcome, these results still contribute to sociological understanding. Sociologists analyze general patterns in response to a study, but they are equally interested in exceptions to patterns. In a study of education, a researcher might predict that high school dropouts have a hard time finding rewarding careers. While many assume that the higher the education, the higher the salary and degree of career happiness, there are certainly exceptions. People with little education have had stunning careers, and people with advanced degrees have had trouble finding work. A sociologist prepares a hypothesis knowing that results may substantiate or contradict it.

Sociologists carefully keep in mind how operational definitions and research designs impact the results as they draw conclusions. Consider the concept of “increase of crime,” which might be defined as the percent increase in crime from last week to this week, as in the study of Swedish crime discussed above. Yet the data used to evaluate “increase of crime” might be limited by many factors: who commits the crime, where the crimes are committed, or what type of crime is committed. If the data is gathered for “crimes committed in Houston, Texas in zip code 77021,” then it may not be generalizable to crimes committed in rural areas outside of major cities like Houston. If data is collected about vandalism, it may not be generalizable to assault.

Step 6: Report Results

Researchers report their results at conferences and in academic journals. These results are then subjected to the scrutiny of other sociologists in the field. Before the conclusions of a study become widely accepted, the studies are often repeated in the same or different environments. In this way, sociological theories and knowledge develops as the relationships between social phenomenon are established in broader contexts and different circumstances.

Interpretive Framework

While many sociologists rely on empirical data and the scientific method as a research approach, others operate from an interpretive framework . While systematic, this approach doesn’t follow the hypothesis-testing model that seeks to find generalizable results. Instead, an interpretive framework, sometimes referred to as an interpretive perspective , seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants, which leads to in-depth knowledge or understanding about the human experience.

Interpretive research is generally more descriptive or narrative in its findings. Rather than formulating a hypothesis and method for testing it, an interpretive researcher will develop approaches to explore the topic at hand that may involve a significant amount of direct observation or interaction with subjects including storytelling. This type of researcher learns through the process and sometimes adjusts the research methods or processes midway to optimize findings as they evolve.

Critical Sociology

Critical sociology focuses on deconstruction of existing sociological research and theory. Informed by the work of Karl Marx, scholars known collectively as the Frankfurt School proposed that social science, as much as any academic pursuit, is embedded in the system of power constituted by the set of class, caste, race, gender, and other relationships that exist in the society. Consequently, it cannot be treated as purely objective. Critical sociologists view theories, methods, and the conclusions as serving one of two purposes: they can either legitimate and rationalize systems of social power and oppression or liberate humans from inequality and restriction on human freedom. Deconstruction can involve data collection, but the analysis of this data is not empirical or positivist.

As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/1-introduction

• Authors: Tonja R. Conerly, Kathleen Holmes, Asha Lal Tamang
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: Introduction to Sociology 3e
• Publication date: Jun 3, 2021
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/2-1-approaches-to-sociological-research

© Jan 18, 2024 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.

PSC/SOC 340/JS 504: Social Science Research Methods

• Getting Started
• The Scientific Method
• How to Read Scientific Articles
• Research vs Review Articles
• Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
• Books About Research Process
• Lit Review & Research Question

What is the difference between a theory & a hypothesis?

An example of how to write a hypothesis.

• Research Design
• Research Instrument
• Find Articles, Reports & Documents
• How do I find a Quantitative article?
• Find Statistics
• Find Poll & Survey Results
• Evaluate Your Sources
• Cite Your Sources

The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in everyday use. However, the difference between them in scholarly research is important, particularly when using an experimental design. A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested hypotheses that are widely accepted [e.g., rational choice theory; grounded theory].

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, an experiment designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states, "We predict that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety." Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.

The key distinctions are:

• A theory predicts events in a broad, general context;  a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
• A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among scholars; a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Cherry, Kendra. Introduction to Research Methods: Theory and Hypothesis . About.com Psychology; Gezae, Michael et al. Welcome Presentation on Hypothesis . Slideshare presentation.

A worker on a fish-farm notices that his trout seem to have more fish lice in the summer, when the water levels are low, and wants to find out why. His research leads him to believe that the amount of oxygen is the reason - fish that are oxygen stressed tend to be more susceptible to disease and parasites.

He proposes a general hypothesis.

“Water levels affect the amount of lice suffered by rainbow trout.”

This is a good general hypothesis, but it gives no guide to how to design the research or experiment . The hypothesis must be refined to give a little direction.

“Rainbow trout suffer more lice when water levels are low.”

Now there is some directionality, but the hypothesis is not really testable , so the final stage is to design an experiment around which research can be designed, a testable hypothesis.

“Rainbow trout suffer more lice in low water conditions because there is less oxygen in the water.”

This is a testable hypothesis - he has established variables , and by measuring the amount of oxygen in the water, eliminating other controlled variables , such as temperature, he can see if there is a correlation against the number of lice on the fish.

This is an example of how a gradual focusing of research helps to define how to write a hypothesis .

• << Previous: Theory
• Next: Research Design >>
• Last Updated: Oct 27, 2023 11:09 AM
• URL: https://libguides.mssu.edu/PSC340

This site is maintained by the librarians of George A. Spiva Library . If you have a question or comment about the Library's LibGuides, please contact the site administrator .

3 Social science theories, methods, and values

Learning Objectives for this Chapter

After reading this Chapter, you should be able to:

• understand, apply, and evaluate core social science values, concepts, and theories, which can help inform and guide our understanding of how the world works, how power is defined and exercised, and how we can critically understand and engage with these concepts when examining the world around us.

Social science theory: theories to explain the world around us

As we have discussed in previous chapters, social science research is concerned with discovering things about the social world: for instance, how people act in different situations, why people act the way they do, how their actions relate to broader social structures, and how societies function at both the micro and macro levels. However, without theory, the ‘social facts’ that we discover cannot be woven together into broader understandings about the world around us.

Theory is the ‘glue’ that holds social facts together. Theory helps us to conceptualise and explain why things are the way they are, rather than only focusing on how things are. In this sense, different theoretical perspectives, such as those discussed in this Chapter, act as different lenses through which we can see and interpret the world around us.

Theory testing and generation is also an important part of social scientific research. As shown in the image below, different theories are rooted in different philosophical foundations. That is, various theories arise in accordance with different ways of seeing and living in the world, as well as different understandings about how knowledge is understood and constructed. As we learned earlier in the book, these concern both ontological and epistemological considerations, but also axiological considerations; that is, questions about the nature of value,  and what things in the world hold value (including in relation to one another). While theory is rooted in these philosophical foundations, however, it also gives way to different ways of doing research, both in terms of the methodology and methods employed. Overall, using different theoretical perspectives to consider social questions is a bit like putting on different pairs of glasses to see the world afresh.

Below we consider some foundational social science theories. While these are certainly not the only  theoretical perspectives that exist, they are often considered to be amongst the most influential. They also provide helpful building blocks for understanding other theoretical perspectives, as well as how theory can be applied to guide and build social scientific knowledge.

Structural functionalism

Structural functionalism is a theory about social institutions, ‘social norms’ (i.e., the often unspoken rules that govern social behaviours), and social stability. We talk more about social institutions in the next Chapter of this book, but essentially they are the ‘big building blocks’ of society that act as both repositories and creators/instigators of social norms. These include things like school/education, the state (often called a meta-institution), the family, the economy, and more. In this regard, structural functionalism is considered a macro theory; that is, it considers macro (large) structures in society, and concerns how they work in an interdependent way to produce what structural functionalists believe to be ‘harmonious’ and stable societies. Structural functionalists are particularly concerned with social institutions’ manifest and latent functions, as well as their functions and dysfunctions (Merton [1910-2003]).

Manifest functions of social institutions include things that are overt and obvious. By contrast, latent functions of social institutions are those that are more hidden or secondary. For instance, a manifest function of the social institution of school is to teach students new knowledge and skills, which can assist them to move into chosen careers. Alternatively, we might also argue that school has other latent functions, such as socialisation and conformity to social norms, and building relationships with peers.

In addition to manifest and latent functions, structural functionalists are also concerned with the  functions  and  dysfunctions  of social institutions. They believe, for instance, that dysfunctions play just as much of an important role as functions, because they enable social institutions to identify and punish them, thereby making an example of dysfunctional elements (e.g., punishing those committing crime). This serves to reinforce social norms around how society should function.

Reflection exercise

Take a piece of paper and, in your own words, write down a brief definition of structural functionalism. Then re-read the above sub-section. How does your understanding fit with the information above?

Structural functionalism: want to learn more?

If you’d like to reinforce your understanding of structural functionalism, the below video provides a good summary that might be helpful.

Functionalism (YouTube, 5:40) :

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is the study of our experiences and how our consciousness makes sense of the phenomena (be they objects, people or ideas) around us. As a methodology or approach in the social sciences it has garnered renewed interest in the last few decades to better understand the world around us by studying how we experience the world in a subjective and often individual manner. It is, thus, considered a ‘micro’ theory.

This philosophical approach was developed by Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), and his students and critics in France and Germany (key figures were philosophers Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) and Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)) and later made it to the US via influential sociologists, such as Alfred Schütz (1899–1959).

Phenomenologists reject objectivity and instead focus on the subjective and intersubjective, the relations between people, and between people and objects. So, rather than trying to come to some objective truth, they are more interested in relationships and connections between the individual and the world around them. Indeed, there is a strong centering of and focus on the individual and their experiences of the world that phenomenologists believe can tell us about society at large. The individual is also key, as there is a focus on the sensory and the body both as instruments of enquiring as well as enquiry. Thus, we are always already part of the world around us and have to make sense of being here, but also want to go beyond ourselves by understanding others and how they relate to the world. The body features as a key site for such enquiries as it is the physical connection we have with people and objects around us. Further, there is a focus on everyday, mundane experiences as they have much to tell us about how society operates. This background environment in which we as people operate is called a lifeworld,  the shared horizon of experience we share and inhabit. It is marked by linguistic, cultural, and social codes and norms.

One key method inherent to Husserl’s early approaches is ‘bracketing’ , the process of standing back or aside from phenomena to understand it better. Such processes of ‘reflexivity’ and understanding our taken for granted attitudes and beliefs about certain phenomena are crucial to enable the social sciences to better understand the world around us. Debates in philosophy continue around whether such a bracketing is ever fully possible, especially considering that we as humans remain trapped in our minds and  bodies. Nonetheless, phenomenology has had a profound impact in most social sciences to redirect the focus towards the intersubjective nature of life and the lifeworld, within which we experience the world around us.

Take a piece of paper and, in your own words, write down a brief definition of phenomenology. Then re-read the above sub-section. How does your understanding fit with the information above?

Phenomenology: want to learn more?

If you’d like to reinforce your understanding of phenomenology, the below video provides a good summary that might be helpful.

Understanding Phenomenology (YouTube, 2:59) :

Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionism is related to phenomenology as it is also a theory focused on the self. In this regard, it’s also a micro theory – it has particular focus on individuals and how they interact with one another. Symbolic interactionists say that symbolism is fundamental to how we see ourselves and how we see and interact with others. George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) is often regarded as the founder of this theory and his focus was on the relationship between the self and others in society. He considered our individual minds to function through interactions with others and through the shared meanings and symbols we create for the people and objects around us. Mead’s best known book Mind, Self, Society, was posthumously put together by his students and demonstrates how our individual minds allow us to use language and symbols to make sense of the world around us and how we construct a self based on how others perceive us.

Charles Cooley’s (1864-1929) concept of the “ looking glass self ” points out, for instance, that other peoples’ perceptions of us can also influence and change our perceptions of ourselves. Other sociologists, such as Erving Goffman (1922-1982), have built on this understanding, suggesting that ‘all of life is a stage’ and that each of us play different parts, like actors in a play. Goffman argued that we adapt our personality, behaviours, actions, and beliefs to suit the different contexts we find ourselves in. This understanding is often referred to as a ‘dramaturgical model’ of social interaction; it understands our social interactions to be performative – they are the outcomes of our ‘play acting’ different roles.

In explaining this theory, Goffman also referred to what he called ‘impression management’. As part of this, for instance, Goffman drew a crucial distinction between what he referred to as our ‘ front stage selves ‘ and our ‘ backstage selves ‘. For Goffman, our ‘front stage selves’ are those that we are willing to share with the ‘audience’ (e.g., the person or group with whom we are interacting). Alternatively, our ‘backstage selves’ are those that we keep for ourselves; this is the way we act when we are alone and have no audience.

Goffman also pointed to the important role that stigma can play in how we see ourselves and thus, how we act and behave in relation to others. Stigma occurs when “the reaction of others spoils normal identity”. Goffman argued that those who feel stigmatised by others (e.g., through public discourses and ‘frames’ of social issues that vilify certain groups of people) also experience changes in the way they see themselves – that is, their own sense of self-identity is ‘spoiled’. This can lead to other negative effects, such as social withdrawal and poorer health and wellbeing.

Take a piece of paper and, in your own words, write down a brief definition of symbolic interactionism. Then re-read the above sub-section. How does your understanding fit with the information above?

This exercise is to be conducted in small groups. First, get into a small group with other students. Then, do the following:

• Think about your daily life, activities, and interactions with others.
• Take a few moments to identify at least three examples of social symbols that you and other group members frequently use to interpret the world around you.
• Talk about how each of the group members interprets/responds to these symbols. Are there similarities? Are there differences?

Students should share/discuss their thoughts within the group, and if undertaken in a class environment, then report back to the class.

Symbolic interactionism: want to learn more?

If you’d like to reinforce your understanding of symbolic interactionism, the below videos provide good summaries that might be helpful.

Symbolic Interactionism (YouTube, 3:33) provides an easy-to-understand summary of symbolic interactionism:

What does it mean to be me? Erving Goffman and the Performed Self (YouTube, 1:58) provides a helpful summary of Erving Goffman’s conception of the ‘performed self’ – including his notions of a ‘front stage’ and ‘backstage’ self:

Conflict theories

Conflict theories focus particularly on conflict within and across societies and, thus, are particularly interested in power: where it does and doesn’t exist, who does and doesn’t hold it, and what they do or don’t do with it, for example. These theories hold that societies will always be characterised by states of conflict and competition over goods, resources, and more. These conflicts can arise along various lines, though

this group of theories emanate from the work of Karl Marx (1818-1883), who saw the capitalist economy as a primary site of conflict.

In Marx’s view, social ills emanated particularly from what he described as an upper- and lower-class structure, which had been perpetuated across multiple societies (e.g., in ancient societies in terms of slave owners/slaves, or in pre-Enlightenment times between the feudal peasantry/aristocracy). He saw capitalism as replicating this upper/lower class structure through the creation of a bourgeoisie (upper class, who own the means of production) and proletariat (lower class, who supply labour to the capitalist market). Marx also talked about a lumpenproletariat , an underclass without class consciousness and/or organised political power. Classical Marxism takes a macro lens: it is particularly concerned with how power is invested in the social institution of the capitalist economy. In this sense, classical Marxism represents a structural theory of power.

Marx argued that the only way for society to be fairer and more equal was if the proletariat was to rise up and revolt against the bourgeoisie; to “smash the chains of capitalism”! Thus, he strongly advocated for revolution as a means of creating a fairer, utopic society. He stated, “Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point is to change it” (Marx 1968: 662). Nevertheless, a series of revolutions in the early 20th century that drew on Marxist thinking resulted in power vacuums that made way for violent, totalitarian regimes, as political philosopher Hannah Arendt (1906-1975) argued in On the Origins of Totalitarianism . On this basis, subsequent conflict theorists (and critical theorists) have tended towards advocating for more incremental reforms, as opposed to revolution.

Take a few moments to watch the below two videos, which explain conflict theory in greater detail.

Key concepts: Conflict theory – definition and critiques (YouTube, 2:49) :

Political theory – Karl Marx (YouTube, 9:27) :

After watching these videos, take a piece of paper and, in your own words, write down a definition of conflict theories. After doing so, re-read the above sub-section. How does your understanding fit with the information in the above sub-section, and in the videos? Was anything missing? Is anything still unclear?

Critical theories

Marx saw the capitalist economy as a primary site of oppression, between the working class and the property owning class. Marx advocated for revolution, where the proletariat were urged to rise up and break the chains of capitalism by overthrowing the bourgeoisie. Marx saw this as being necessary for ensuring the freedom of the working classes. Critical theory develops from the work of Karl Marx, supplementing his theory of capitalism with other sociological and philosophical concepts.

Gramsci and cultural hegemony

In addition to Marx, critical theory utilised the work of Italian political philosopher Antonio Gramsci, specifically his concept of ‘Cultural Hegemony’. When we refer to ‘hegemonic’ social norms, we’re referring to social norms that are regarded as ‘common sense’ and thus, which overshadow and suppress alternative norms. Hegemonic norms typically reflect the values of the ruling classes (in Marxist terms, the bourgeoisie). To learn more, you might like to watch the video below:

Hegemony: WTF? An introduction to Gramsci and cultural hegemony (YouTube, 6:25)

Developing from this, critical theory also considers how power and oppression can operate in more subtle ways across the whole of society. Critical theory does not seek to actively bring about revolution, as the possibility for a revolution in the years post-World War Two was unlikely. Whilst critical theorists are by no means opposed to revolution, their focus lies more in identifying how capitalist society and its institutions limits advancement of human civilisation. In this respect, conflict theorists see more opportunities for praxis than classical Marxists.

Critical theory observes how the Enlightenment ideals of freedom, reason, and liberalism have developed throughout the first half of the 1900s. Ultimately, critical theorists see that reason has not necessarily progressed in a positive way throughout history. In fact, reason has developed to become increasingly technical, interested in classifying, regulating, and standardising all aspects of human society and culture. German philosopher Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) thought that Nazi Germany and the holocaust is a devastating example of the potential evils of rationality if developed without a critical perspective.

Another, less extreme, example of this tendency toward standardisation is in the production of art and culture. Big budget films, typically in the superhero or science fiction genre, all appear to be virtually identical: extravagant special effects, epic soundtracks, and relatively simple plots. However, this is not to say that such films are of a poor quality. Rather the similarity and popularity of these films indicates a homogenisation of culture. If culture is merely the reproduction of the same, how can society progress beyond its current point?

This critique of the development of reason throughout the 20th century does not mean that we must abandon reason entirely. To do so would be to discount the vast wealth of knowledge that humanity has come to grasp, as well as prevent further knowledge production. Instead, critical theorists argue that reason should be critiqued to uncover what has been left out of its development thus far, as well as open up the possibility for a more free, progressive form of society.

At its core, then, critical theory can be thought about as being an additional theoretical lens through which we can look at and understand the social world around us. In tune with Flyvbjerg’s (2001) conception of phronetic social science, critical theorists are also concerned with disrupting the systems they observe as a means of achieving social change. Critical theory urges us to recognise, understand and address how capitalist society reproduces itself and limits the free organisation of human beings.

Take a few moments to watch Critical theory definition and critiques (YouTube, 3:26) , which explains critical theory in greater detail.

Take a piece of paper and, in your own words, write down a brief definition of critical theories. Then re-read the above sub-section. How does your understanding fit with the information above and the video?

Critical theory can be applied in myriad different ways to better understand the world around us. In  Critical theory and the production of mass culture (YouTube, 2:12) , critical theory is adopted as a lens to understand and critique the production of mass culture. Watch the video and then consider the questions below.

• Can you think of examples where you could argue that the primary objective of producing art is to preserve the economic structure of the capitalist system?
• Do you agree with the proposition that mass-consumed entertainment, like popular television shows, are only  produced as a source of light entertainment and escapism from work, and thus serve to placate and pacify the worker? Why or why not? (What other  purposes might such entertainment serve, if any?)
• Do you agree with Adorno’s proposition that the products of the ‘culture industry’ are not only the artworks, but also the consumers themselves? Why or why not?

Critical race theory

Critical race theory applies a critical theory lens to the notion of race, seeking to understand how the concept of race itself can act as a site of power and oppression. Arising from the work of American legal scholars during the 1980s (including key thinkers like Derrick Bell [1930-2011] and Kimberlé Crenshaw [1959-]), it originally sought to understand and challenge “the ways in which race and racial power [were]… cosnstructed and represented in American legal culture and, more generally, in American society as a whole.” (Crenshaw et al. 1995: xiii) In particular, it questioned whether the civil rights afforded to African Americans in the aftermath of the civil rights movement had made a substantive impact on their experiences of social justice. Critical race theorists argued that more needed to be done; that civil rights had not had the desired impacts because (amongst other reasons) they:

• were imagined, shaped and brought into being by (predominantly) white, male middle- or upper-class lawyers, and thus, were only imagined within the bounds of white ontology,
• did not move beyond race – race still mattered, and
• implicitly perpetuated white privilege (e.g. they were constrained to only imagine redress and justice within the existing oppressive, white hegmonic system).

Crenshaw (1995: xiii) writes that, although critical race scholars’ work is heterogenous, they are nevertheless united by the following common interests:

• “The first is to understand how a regime of white supremacy and its subordination of people of color have been created and maintained in America, and, in particular, to examine the relationship between that social structure and professed ideas such as ‘the rule of law’ and ‘equal protection’.”
• “The second is a desire not merely to understand the vexed bond between law and racial power but to change it.”

In Australia, scholars have also taken up aspects of a critical race lens to understand how privilege is bound up with race. As Moreton-Robinson (2015: xiii) puts it, in Australia:

Race matters in the lives of all peoples; for some people it confers unearned privileges, and for others it is the mark of inferiority. Daily newspapers, radio, television, and social media usually portray Indigenous peoples as a deficit model of humanity. We are overrepresented as always lacking, dysfunctional, alcoholic, violent, needy, and lazy… For Indigenous people, white possession is not unmarked, unnamed or invisible; it is hypervisible…

Crenshaw has been crucial in also stressing the key importance of understanding how race can also intersect with other aspects of social identity, such as gender, to produce a ‘double’ or ‘triple’ oppression. In Australia, Professor Aileen Moreton-Robinson’s 2000 book, Talkin’ up to the white woman, was also crucial in understanding how Australian feminism could also be oppressive of Indigenous Australian women by not seeing and hearing them or the specific issues they face/d. She called for the need for “white feminists to relinquish some power, dominance and privilege in Australian feminism to give Indigenous women’s interest some priority” (Moreton-Robinson 2000: xxv). This emphasised that an intersectional lens was needed to acknowledge the different but cumulative impacts of both racial oppression and sexism. At the centre of this argument is the reality that “all white feminists [in Australia] benefit from colonisation; they are overwhelmingly represented and disproportionately predominant, have the key roles, and constitute the norm, the ordinary and the standard of womanhood in Australia” (Moreton-Robinson 2000: xxv).

Uproar over critical race theory

During 2020, racial sensitivity training in the USA prompted widespread discussion about critical race theory. Former US President, Donald Trump, posits in the video below that the theory, and the kinds of racial sensitivity training it promotes, are fundamentally racist – against white people. Others argued that this represented a deep misunderstanding of the theory, but also an ignorance of the extent and power of white privilege.

For an example of former President Trump’s views, watch  Trump: Racial sensitivity training on white privilege is ‘racist’ (YouTube, 3:16) :

Postmodern critique of critical race theory

Postmodernists have levelled critique at critical race theory on the basis that understanding/explaining power as being rooted in racial difference has the consequence of reinforcing and perpetuating the validity of ‘race’. Postmodernism, however, rejects the distinct, conceptual bounds of ‘race’ and racialised identities. Instead, it sees race itself as a social construction, which should be questioned and disrupted, thereby leading to new insights that aren’t constrained by socially constructed definitions of race.

Kwame Anthony Appiah, for example, seeks to “probe the very definitions of race itself. He bypasses the empirical question of whether racism exists to ask the theoretical question of what race and racism are” (in Chong-Soon Lee 1995: 441)

Take a piece of paper and, in your own words, write down a brief definition of critical race theory . Then re-read the above sub-section. How does your understanding fit with the information above?

Putting theory into action: rethinking crime through a critical lens

Critical criminologists apply a critical theory lens to the study of crime and criminality. In this regard, critical criminology is concerned with understanding how the criminal justice system can act as a site of power and oppression; a perspective that tends to sit in contrast with western (non-critical) criminology, which sees the criminal justice system as a natural social institution that has the primarily purpose of protecting society against deviants (criminals) and making an example of those who fail to comply with hegemonic social norms. (This non-critical view draws parallels, for example, with the perceived ‘functions’ of the criminal justice system under a structural functionalist perspective, and its role in making examples of ‘dysfunctional’ elements of society.)

Critical criminologists in Australia have considered the role of the criminal justice system as a key site of oppression under, for example, Australian settler colonialism. For instance, Indigenous Australians are, per capita, the most incarcerated peoples in the entire world ( Anthony & Baldry 2017 ) and these incarceration rates are rising, not reducing (ABS 2018). In using a critical lens to understand the difference between incarceration rates for Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, however, we can seek better insight into how the criminal justice system operates as a site of oppression, perpetuating white settler colonial norms and values, which seek to punish alternative ontologies and epistemologies. Lynch (cited in Cunneen and Tauri 2016: 26) argued,

In short, criminology is one of the disciplines that established the conditions necessary for maintenance of the status quo of power. It can only do so by oppressing those who would undermine the status quo. In this sense, criminology must be viewed as a science of oppression.

In part, this oppression operates through the construction of knowledge and truth within (positivist) criminology (which relates to Foucault’s conception of power-knowledge, as we touched on last week). In turn, this also involves what Cunneen and Tauri (2016: 26) describe as “the ideologically driven dismissal of Indigenous knowledge about the social world as ‘subjective’, ‘unscientific’, and/or at best ‘folk epistemology’… which in turn paves the way for excluding other ways of knowing from the Western, criminological lexicon”.

In their book, Decolonising criminology, Blagg and Anthony (2019: 22-23) set out a taxonomy for what they see as a decolonised criminology (noting, though, that Blagg and Anthony themselves are non-Indigenous researchers, though they have worked closely with Indigenous peoples and communities for decades).  In their taxonomy (which we have included an adapted version of below), they include the following probing comparisons between a positivist (largely uncritical) criminology and a decolonised (critical) criminology:

A table comparing positivist and decolonial approaches to criminology.

Source: Authors’ adaptation from Blagg & Anthony (2019: 22-23 )

The probes and questions that Blagg & Anthony pose in the above taxonomy are critical in their focus and intent; they seek to critique the criminal justice system as a site of colonial power, but they also seek to change it — through research that produces knowledge about these truths. This is, in essence, a reframing (to use Bacchi’s term) of the nature of criminological research towards a richer, and more historically and culturally contextualised understanding of the Australian criminal justice system. As a result, this produces different knowledge about crime and justice in Australia: knowledge that shifts blame away from the individual (the ‘bad’ Indigenous citizen, to use Moreton-Robinson’s [2009] language) to the structures, history and continuation of colonial oppression.

Critical or radical criminology?

Radical criminology is rooted in the Marxist conflict tradition and sees the capitalist economy as being central to the definitions of crime (arrived at by the bourgeoisie) that constrict, control and suppress the working classes (proletariat).

In contrast (or in addition to), critical criminology is interested in more than just class relations and also sees different opportunities for praxis – tending to favour a more incremental approach to social change as opposed to widespread revolution ( Bernard 1981 )

Drawing on a critical criminology and decolonising perspective, consider the below graph, which shows the over-representation of Indigenous Australians in prisons, indicating an upward trend from 2008-2018. Then consider, from a critical criminology standpoint, what kinds of ‘truths’ might you draw on to help explain this trend?

(To guide your thinking, you may like to revisit the above taxonomy by Blagg and Anthony.)

Watch the below short clip of Senator Patrick Dodson talking in March 2021 about the issue of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in custody. Consider LNP Senator, Amanda Stoker’s response to Senator Pat Dodson, in particular her comment that she “understand[s] the outrage is real… because the lives of every person, though our justice system are important, no matter the colour of their skin.”

In #Estimates , @SenatorDodson fires up over a lack of action on deaths in custody. @stoker_aj ‘s response: “I understand the outrage is real…because the lives of every person, through our justice system are important, no matter the colour of their skin.” #Auspol @SBSNews @NITV pic.twitter.com/jgsb8y9YcD — Naveen Razik (@naveenjrazik) March 26, 2021

What do you think about Senator Stoker’s response to Senator Dodson? How might you analyse her response, through a critical race theory lens?

Choose one of the following social issues:

• The gender pay gap
• The workplace ‘stress’ epidemic
• Homelessness
• Childhood obesity

Consider how your chosen social issue might be explained by drawing on the different theoretical perspectives outlined earlier in this Chapter. Record your thoughts in a short, written explanation.

Reflection exercise: a critical reading of meritocracy

Kim and Choi (2017: 112) define meritocracy as “a social system in which advancement in society is based on an individual’s capabilities and merits rather than on the basis of family, wealth, or social background.” According to Kim and Choi (2017: 116), meritocracy has two key features: “impartial competition” and “equality of opportunity”.

The notion of meritocracy has arisen over the past few centuries primarily in response to feudalism and absolute monarchy, where power and privilege are handed down on the basis of familial lines (‘nepotism’) or friendships (‘cronyism’). This kind of system could (and often did) place people into positions of power, regardless of whether they were the most appropriate or ‘best’ person for the job. In essence, then, the notion of meritocracy is intended to tie social advancement to merit; that is, the focus is supposed to be on ‘what you know’ rather than ‘who you know’, which seems a noble cause, right? Many have argued, however, that a blinkered belief in meritocracy leaves a lot of things out of the ‘frame’.

The belief in meritocracy, and its focus on ‘what you know’ rather than ‘who you know’, can have both positive and negative impacts. Take a piece of paper and write a short list of each.

If critical theory operates according to the broad Marxist understanding of history as class struggle, post-structuralism is a theory that attempts to abandon the idea of grand historical narratives altogether. Fundamentally, post-structuralism differs from other social theories in its rejection of metanarratives , its critique of binaries, and its refusal to understand all human action as being shaped solely by universal social structures. Whilst there is much disagreement between post-structuralist thinkers, these three broad trends help us to understand this social theory.

Post-structuralism

Post-structural accounts of conflict and power can take a macro and micro lens. They see power as transcending social structures, like social institutions (e.g., the state, the economy) and instead being all around us at all times. Michel Foucault (1926-1984), for example, argued that power is everywhere and acts upon us to shape our identities, bodies, behaviours, and being. In terms of a liberal democratic society, therefore, where coercive (‘sovereign’) power is only exerted by the state under certain specific circumstances, Foucault argued that the state otherwise uses its power to create ‘responsibilised’ citizens who absorb hegemonic (i.e. authoritative/dominant) social norms and use these to govern themselves . This relates to what Fairclough (1995: 257) referred to as power by consent:

We live in an age in which power is predominantly exercised through the generation of consent rather than through coercion… through the inculcation of self-disciplining practices rather than through the breaking of skulls (though there is still unfortunately no shortage of the latter).

Foucault was also particularly interested in the link between power and knowledge. He argued that those who hold the power tend to construct knowledge and ‘truth’ in certain ways, which can reinforce their power by, for example, perpetuating certain social norms. This is elaborated on by Watts and Hodgson (2019) in reading 5.2, where they describe Foucault’s conception of power/knowledge as follows:

Truth is not neutral or objective, and is not simply a thing that can be verified scientifically because its ‘truth value’ is dependent on the operation and circulation of power (think, for example, the oft-quoted phrase that ‘truth is whatever the powerful say it is’). In the context of the human and social sciences, power creates knowledge and is also a force for the translation of knowledge of and about human beings into practice… For example, the moment we speak into existence the concept of something as commonplace as ‘human being’ or ‘human rights’ or ‘social justice’ we are using some form of power (truth) to render such things thinkable and knowable as things in the world (Watts and Hodgson 2019: 85-86).

Take a piece of paper and, in your own words, write down a brief definition of Foucault’s post-structural concept of power. Then, re-read the above account. Does your definition align with the information above?

Beck and Risk Society

The notion of risk society is outlined by Ulrich Beck in his 1992 book ‘Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity’. Where society was once organised around wealth distribution based on scarcity, Beck argues that society is becoming increasingly based on the distribution of risks. Risks are defined as “a systematic way of dealing with hazards and insecurities induced and introduced by modernization itself” (Beck 1992: 21). Beck argues that the process of modernisation is no longer focused exclusively on the creation of new technologies, but rather the focus lies in the management of risks of potential technologies. As such, modernisation is becoming increasingly reflexive, involved not only in the production of technologies to meet needs, but rather investigating the often unknown side-effects of technologies. For example, a nuclear energy plant might be built in order to meet society’s increasing energy demand. However, this solution to a specific problem then must deal with the new issue of disposing of this radioactive waste that modernisation itself has produced. This is just one example of the ecological risks inherent with the development of new technologies, which often have unintended side-effects, that must themselves be uncovered and solved.

Postmodernism

Before we can get to postmodernism, we need to define modernism to see what postmodernism wants to supersede. Modernism describes the social upheaval and major changes of 20th century life. It is marked by processes of industrialisation, rationalisation and bureaucratisation – in short a world in which the sciences seemed to provide ever more answers and ultimate truths about the world and us. Modernism or modernity was also about hope for a new society, unfettered technological and material progress and, with advances in scientific fields, led to longer lives and new and exciting materials to make new things to make life easier (think household machines). It was also punctured by some key social movements that brought the world to the brink of destruction in the epic fight over what ultimate truth should prevail. The key political ideologies of fascism, socialism and liberalism clashed in the second World War over their different visions for a new world order. In the post war climate of a new stand-off between socialism/communism and liberalism or the Soviet bloc and ‘the West’ many writers, academics and artists became disillusioned with the modernist project. Slowly critiques of these universalising truths and meta-narratives came to think of this time as a time of postmodernism. Jean-François Lyotard (1924-1998) defined postmodernism as the ‘incredulity towards meta-narratives’, by which he meant that increasingly people were no longer persuaded by grand or master narratives about themselves, a particular nation, people or even humanity. The singular, stable, coherent modern subject was thrown into a void and thus becomes fragmented, fluid and plural in the postmodern. No one truth exists anymore and the certainty of facts becomes disputed and muddied once more. Thus, postmodernity is about scepticism, deconstruction and questioning rather than offering answers and solutions. This has made it a controversial theory or topic as it offers little in the way of hope for a better world, indeed it is often seen as dystopic. Inherent in many postmodern critiques of current society is a critique of (late) capitalism and consumer or mass culture that pervade every aspect of our lives, whilst others focus on technology and its pervasive intrusion into our daily lives.

Resources for further learning

• Moreton-Robinson, A. 2015. ‘Introduction: white possession and Indigenous sovereignty matters.’ In. Moreton-Robinson, A.  The White Possessive: property, power and Indigenous sovereignty,  pp. xi-xxiv.
• Powers, C. 2009. Sociology as a coherent discipline: unifying themes. In. Powers, C. Making sense of social theory , Chapter 16.
• Watts, L. and Hodgson, D. 2019. ‘Power and knowledge’. In. Watts, L. and Hodgson, D. Social justice theory and practice for social work, Chapter 5.
• Cunneen, C. and Tauri, J. 2016. ‘Towards a critical Indigenous criminology.’ In. Cunneen, C. and Tauri, J. Indigenous criminology, pp. 23-43.
• Kim, C.H. and Choi, Y.B. 2017. How meritocracy is defined today – contemporary aspects of meritocracy. Economics and Sociology, 10(1): 112-121.
• Flyvbjerg, B. 2001. ‘Values in social and political inquiry.’ In. Flyvbjerg, B. Making social science matter, Chapter 5.

Other resources:

• Watego, C. 2021.  ‘Who are the real criminals? Making the case for abolishing criminology.’ (YouTube, 1:35:01),
• Anderson, E. 2017. ‘How good social science can and ought to be value-laden’ (YouTube, 17:00) .
• Zigon, J. and Throop, J. 2021. ‘ Phenomenology ‘ Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology .

Introduction to the Social Sciences Copyright © 2023 by The University of Queensland is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

• Science Notes Posts
• Contact Science Notes
• Todd Helmenstine Biography
• Anne Helmenstine Biography
• Free Printable Periodic Tables (PDF and PNG)
• Periodic Table Wallpapers
• Interactive Periodic Table
• Periodic Table Posters
• How to Grow Crystals
• Chemistry Projects
• Fire and Flames Projects
• Holiday Science
• Chemistry Problems With Answers
• Physics Problems
• Unit Conversion Example Problems
• Chemistry Worksheets
• Biology Worksheets
• Periodic Table Worksheets
• Physical Science Worksheets
• Science Lab Worksheets
• My Amazon Books

Hypothesis Examples

A hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of a test. It forms the basis for designing an experiment in the scientific method . A good hypothesis is testable, meaning it makes a prediction you can check with observation or experimentation. Here are different hypothesis examples.

Null Hypothesis Examples

The null hypothesis (H 0 ) is also known as the zero-difference or no-difference hypothesis. It predicts that changing one variable ( independent variable ) will have no effect on the variable being measured ( dependent variable ). Here are null hypothesis examples:

• Plant growth is unaffected by temperature.
• If you increase temperature, then solubility of salt will increase.
• Incidence of skin cancer is unrelated to ultraviolet light exposure.
• All brands of light bulb last equally long.
• Cats have no preference for the color of cat food.
• All daisies have the same number of petals.

Sometimes the null hypothesis shows there is a suspected correlation between two variables. For example, if you think plant growth is affected by temperature, you state the null hypothesis: “Plant growth is not affected by temperature.” Why do you do this, rather than say “If you change temperature, plant growth will be affected”? The answer is because it’s easier applying a statistical test that shows, with a high level of confidence, a null hypothesis is correct or incorrect.

Research Hypothesis Examples

A research hypothesis (H 1 ) is a type of hypothesis used to design an experiment. This type of hypothesis is often written as an if-then statement because it’s easy identifying the independent and dependent variables and seeing how one affects the other. If-then statements explore cause and effect. In other cases, the hypothesis shows a correlation between two variables. Here are some research hypothesis examples:

• If you leave the lights on, then it takes longer for people to fall asleep.
• If you refrigerate apples, they last longer before going bad.
• If you keep the curtains closed, then you need less electricity to heat or cool the house (the electric bill is lower).
• If you leave a bucket of water uncovered, then it evaporates more quickly.
• Goldfish lose their color if they are not exposed to light.
• Workers who take vacations are more productive than those who never take time off.

Is It Okay to Disprove a Hypothesis?

Yes! You may even choose to write your hypothesis in such a way that it can be disproved because it’s easier to prove a statement is wrong than to prove it is right. In other cases, if your prediction is incorrect, that doesn’t mean the science is bad. Revising a hypothesis is common. It demonstrates you learned something you did not know before you conducted the experiment.

Test yourself with a Scientific Method Quiz .

• Mellenbergh, G.J. (2008). Chapter 8: Research designs: Testing of research hypotheses. In H.J. Adèr & G.J. Mellenbergh (eds.), Advising on Research Methods: A Consultant’s Companion . Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing.
• Popper, Karl R. (1959). The Logic of Scientific Discovery . Hutchinson & Co. ISBN 3-1614-8410-X.
• Schick, Theodore; Vaughn, Lewis (2002). How to think about weird things: critical thinking for a New Age . Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 0-7674-2048-9.
• Tobi, Hilde; Kampen, Jarl K. (2018). “Research design: the methodology for interdisciplinary research framework”. Quality & Quantity . 52 (3): 1209–1225. doi: 10.1007/s11135-017-0513-8

Related Posts

Chapter 8: Inference for One Proportion

Hypothesis testing (1 of 5), learning objectives.

• When testing a claim, distinguish among situations involving one population mean, one population proportion, two population means, or two population proportions.
• Given a claim about a population, determine null and alternative hypotheses.

Introduction

In inference, we use a sample to draw a conclusion about a population. Two types of inference are the focus of our work in this course:

• Estimate a population parameter with a confidence interval.
• Test a claim about a population parameter with a hypothesis test.

We can also use samples from two populations to compare those populations. In this situation, the two types of inference focus on differences in the parameters.

• Estimate a difference in population parameters with a confidence interval.
• Test a claim about a difference in population parameters with a hypothesis test.

In “Estimating a Population Proportion,” we learned to estimate a population proportion using a confidence interval. For example, we estimated the proportion of all Tallahassee Community College students who are female and the proportion of all American adults who used the Internet to obtain medical information in the previous month. We will revisit confidence intervals in future modules.

Now we look more carefully at how to test a claim with a hypothesis test. Statistical investigations begin with research questions. We begin our discussion of hypothesis tests with research questions that require us to test a claim. Later we look at how a claim becomes a hypothesis.

Research Questions about Testing Claims

Let’s revisit some of the research questions from examples in the module Types of Statistical Studies and Producing Data that involve testing a claim.

Is the average course load for community college students less than 12 semester hours? This question contains a claim about a population mean. The question contains information about the population, the variable, and the parameter. The population is all community college students. The variable is course load in semester hours . It is quantitative, so the parameter is a mean. The claim is, “The mean course load for all community college students is less than 12 semester hours.”

Do the majority of community college students qualify for federal student loans? This question contains a claim about a population proportion and information about the population, the variable, and the parameter. The population is all community college students. The variable is Qualify for federal student loan (yes or no). It is categorical, so the parameter is a proportion. The claim is, “The proportion of community college students who qualify is greater than 0.5” (a majority means more than half, or 0.5).

In community colleges, do female students and male students have different mean GPAs? This question contains a claim that compares two population means. Again, we see information about the populations, the variable, and the parameters. The two populations are female community college students and male community college students. The variable is GPA . It is quantitative, so the parameters are means. The claim is, “The mean GPA for female community college students is different from the mean GPA for male community college students.” Notice that the claim compares the two population means, but there is no claim about the numeric value of either mean.

Are college athletes more likely than nonathletes to receive academic advising? This question contains a claim that compares two population proportions: college athletes and college students who are not athletes. The variable is Receive academic advising (yes or no). The variable is categorical, so the parameters are proportions. The claim is, “The proportion of all college athletes who receive academic advising is greater than the proportion of all nonathletes in college who receive academic advising.” Notice that the claim compares two population proportions, but there is no claim about the numeric value of either proportion.

In the case of testing a claim about a single population parameter, we compare it to a numeric value. In the case of testing a claim about two population parameters, we compare them to each other.

Learn By Doing

Identify the type of claim in each research question below.

Next Steps: Forming Hypotheses

We already know that in inference we use a sample to draw a conclusion about a population. If the research question contains a claim about the population, we translate the claim into two related hypotheses.

The null hypothesis is a hypothesis about the value of the parameter. The null hypothesis relates to our work in Linking Probability to Statistical Inference where we drew a conclusion about a population parameter on the basis of the sampling distribution. We started with an assumption about the value of the parameter, then used a simulation to simulate the selection of random samples from a population with this parameter value. Or we used the parameter value in a mathematical model to describe the center and spread of the sampling distribution. The null hypothesis gives the value of the parameter that we will use to create the sampling distribution. In this way, the null hypothesis states what we assume to be true about the population.

The alternative hypothesis usually reflects the claim in the research question about the value of the parameter. The alternative hypothesis says the parameter is “greater than” or “less than” or “not equal to” the value we assume to true in the null hypothesis.

Stating Hypotheses

Here are the hypotheses for the research questions from the previous example. The null hypothesis is abbreviated H 0 . The alternative hypothesis is abbreviated H a .

Is the average course load for community college students less than 12 semester hours?

• H 0 : The mean course load for community college students is equal to 12 semester hours.
• H a : The mean course load for community college students is less than 12 semester hours.

Do the majority of community college students qualify for federal student loans?

• H 0 : The proportion of community college students who qualify for federal student loans is 0.5.
• H a : The proportion of community college students who qualify for federal student loans is greater than 0.5.

When the research question contains a claim that compares two populations, the null hypothesis states that the parameters are equal. We will see in Modules 9 and 10 that we translate the null hypothesis into a statement about “no difference” in parameter values. We revisit this idea in more depth later.

In community colleges, do female students and male students have different mean GPAs?

• H 0 : In community colleges, female and male students have the same mean GPAs.
• H a : In community colleges, female and male students have different mean GPAs.

Are college athletes more likely than nonathletes to receive academic advising?

• H 0 : In colleges, the proportion of athletes who receive academic advising is equal to the proportion of nonathletes who receive academic advising.
• H a : In colleges, the proportion of athletes who receive academic advising is greater than the proportion of nonathletes who receive academic advising.

Here are some general observations about null and alternative hypotheses.

• The hypotheses are competing claims about the parameter or about the comparison of parameters.
• Both hypotheses are statements about the same population parameter or same two population parameters.
• The null hypothesis contains an equal sign.
• The alternative hypothesis is always an inequality statement. It contains a “less than” or a “greater than” or a “not equal to” symbol.
• In a statistical investigation, we determine the research question, and thus the hypotheses, before we collect data.

The process of forming hypotheses, collecting data, and using the data to draw a conclusion about the hypotheses is called hypothesis testing .

• Concepts in Statistics. Provided by : Open Learning Initiative. Located at : http://oli.cmu.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution

Privacy Policy

Scientific Hypothesis Examples

• Scientific Method
• Chemical Laws
• Periodic Table
• Projects & Experiments
• Biochemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Medical Chemistry
• Chemistry In Everyday Life
• Famous Chemists
• Activities for Kids
• Abbreviations & Acronyms
• Weather & Climate
• Ph.D., Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee at Knoxville
• B.A., Physics and Mathematics, Hastings College

A hypothesis is an educated guess about what you think will happen in a scientific experiment, based on your observations. Before conducting the experiment, you propose a hypothesis so that you can determine if your prediction is supported.

There are several ways you can state a hypothesis, but the best hypotheses are ones you can test and easily refute. Why would you want to disprove or discard your own hypothesis? Well, it is the easiest way to demonstrate that two factors are related. Here are some good scientific hypothesis examples:

• Hypothesis: All forks have three tines. This would be disproven if you find any fork with a different number of tines.
• Hypothesis: There is no relationship between smoking and lung cancer. While it is difficult to establish cause and effect in health issues, you can apply statistics to data to discredit or support this hypothesis.
• Hypothesis: Plants require liquid water to survive. This would be disproven if you find a plant that doesn't need it.
• Hypothesis: Cats do not show a paw preference (equivalent to being right- or left-handed). You could gather data around the number of times cats bat at a toy with either paw and analyze the data to determine whether cats, on the whole, favor one paw over the other. Be careful here, because individual cats, like people, might (or might not) express a preference. A large sample size would be helpful.
• Hypothesis: If plants are watered with a 10% detergent solution, their growth will be negatively affected. Some people prefer to state a hypothesis in an "If, then" format. An alternate hypothesis might be: Plant growth will be unaffected by water with a 10% detergent solution.
• Scientific Hypothesis, Model, Theory, and Law
• What Are the Elements of a Good Hypothesis?
• What Is a Hypothesis? (Science)
• Understanding Simple vs Controlled Experiments
• Six Steps of the Scientific Method
• What Is a Testable Hypothesis?
• Null Hypothesis Definition and Examples
• What Are Examples of a Hypothesis?
• Theory Definition in Science
• How To Design a Science Fair Experiment
• Science Projects for Every Subject
• Null Hypothesis Examples
• What 'Fail to Reject' Means in a Hypothesis Test
• Middle School Science Fair Project Ideas
• Effect of Acids and Bases on the Browning of Apples

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• My Account Login
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 13 May 2024

Exploring the effects of audience and strategies used by beauty vloggers on behavioural intention towards endorsed brands

• Mukta Garg   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2162-5144 1 &
• Apurva Bakshi 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  621 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

1 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Business and management
• Cultural and media studies

Influencer marketing has become a potent and dynamic force in the digital age, changing the face of marketing in a variety of sectors. Even though social media influencers are still important in corporate communication strategies, there are still unresolved issues concerning what exactly makes an influencer powerful and how that influence impacts the behaviour of their followers. This research investigates the role of interactional elements used by beauty vloggers on the purchase intentions of consumers. In addition to the influence of beauty vloggers, there are inherent aspects that impact consumer purchasing behaviour. The present study also examines the impact of audience characteristics in forming consumer attitudes towards beauty vloggers that result in shaping favourable consumer behaviour. The study was carried out on individuals aged 16 to 45 years, who use social platforms regularly. Data obtained from 367 respondents from North India was analysed using structural equation modelling with the SmartPLS software. The outcome of the study demonstrates that interactional elements used by beauty vloggers impact the behaviour of consumers. The results also showed that perceived influence serves as a partial mediator in the relationship between interactional elements and consumers’ purchase intention. Moreover, findings indicate that when consumers hold favourable attitudes towards beauty vloggers, the impact of self-concept and personality congruence enhancement on consumer behaviour is amplified, showcasing the mediating role of consumer attitude. The study’s findings offer insights that can assist industrial marketers and cosmetic company practitioners in strategically selecting influencers to boost sales.

Similar content being viewed by others

Exploring the impact of beauty vloggers’ credible attributes, parasocial interaction, and trust on consumer purchase intention in influencer marketing

Exploring the dynamics of consumer engagement in social media influencer marketing: from the self-determination theory perspective

COBRAs and virality: viral campaign values on consumer behaviour

Introduction.

In an era marked by the pervasive influence of digital technologies, social media platforms have risen as influential tools shaping both consumer attitudes and marketing strategies (Lee and Watkins, 2016 ; Kim and Kim, 2021 ; Lee and Lee, 2022 ). The proliferation of social media users has revolutionised the way individuals engage with each other (Manchanda et al., 2022 ). Not only is there a notable surge in social media users, but there is also a significant growth in the number of content creators as well on different social media platforms (Ladhari et al., 2020 ). Once content creators amass a significant following, they are referred to as opinion leaders (Ki and Kim, 2019 ) or in general “influencers” or “social media influencers” (Lou and Yuan, 2019 ). Here, the term social media influencer (SMI) refers to an individual who serves as an independent representative having garnered significant virtual presence by sharing factual, cognitive, emotional, and often personalised insights using hashtags, texts, videos, etc (Garg and Bakshi, 2024 ; Freberg et al., 2011 ). Many SMIs create content in numerous categories, including lifestyle, gaming, food, travel, food, and technology (Sokolova and Kefi, 2020 ). However, those who precisely provide beauty content like cosmetic product reviews or product instructions are commonly identified as “beauty vloggers” or “beauty influencers” (Manchanda et al., 2022 ) or “beauty gurus” (Ladhari et al., 2020 ).

Consumers are currently consuming a greater volume of information from social media platforms compared to traditional media sources (Lee and Watkins, 2016 ). This seismic shift in media consumption and communication has created a dynamic landscape that calls for a deeper understanding of the relationships between influencers, their audiences, and consumer decision-making processes. Previous studies (Manchanda et al., 2022 ; Djafarova and Rushworth, 2017 ; Kim and Kim, 2021 ; Sokolova and Kefi, 2020 ) have shown the use of social media influencers as a promotional tactic to affect customer behaviour. Nevertheless, there have been concerns about the efficacy of vlogger-driven marketing (Sánchez-Fernández and Jiménez-Castillo, 2021 ; Hughes et al., 2019 ), prompting a necessity to improve understanding of the factors that contribute to its success.

A burgeoning body of literature has explored the impact of social media influencers’ credibility (Garg and Bakshi, 2024 ; Kim and Kim, 2021 ; Sokolova and Kefi, 2020 ), attractiveness (Ki and Kim, 2019 ; Torres et al., 2019 ; McGuire, 1985 ; Lee and Watkins, 2016 ; Ki and Kim, 2019 ) and importance of vlogger popularity (Manchanda et al., 2022 ; Ladhari et al., 2020 ). Yet, in this realm, a notable gap persists in our understanding, particularly concerning the establishment of relationships between consumers and social media influencers, and how this dynamic influences’ consumer purchasing behaviour. There is a scarcity of research emphasising the elements that facilitate beauty vloggers in fostering robust connections with their audiences, insights that marketers could leverage to promote their brands. Furthermore, past literature has shown the significance of alignment in personality between celebrity endorsers and products (Mishra et al., 2015 ; Xu and Pratt, 2018 ; Belanche et al., 2021 ). However, the importance of self-concept and congruence between the personality of the consumer and celebrity in shaping consumer behaviour has been overlooked. In this research, we aim to provide a comprehensive and timely exploration of the subject, shedding light on its relevance in the contemporary digital marketing landscape.

This study provides a comprehensive examination of the intricate mechanisms through which beauty vloggers exert influence over consumers by using four interactional elements (parasocial interactions, emotional attachment, meaning transfer, and informational value). These elements are used by beauty vloggers to increase their influential power over consumers contributing to shaping consumers’ ultimate purchase intentions towards the brands endorsed by them. Subsequently, this research examines the theoretical aspects of consumers’ perception of beauty vloggers, specifically in regard to their self-concept and the impact of consumer-influencer personality congruence in forming a favourable consumer attitude towards beauty vloggers that leads to increased purchase intention.

This study is motivated by the recognition that despite the widespread use of influencer marketing in marketing campaigns (Lee and Watkins, 2016 ; Djafarova and Rushworth, 2017 ; Lou and Kim, 2019 ), there remains a considerable amount of knowledge still to be uncovered and comprehended about the fundamental processes that propel consumer behaviours within this domain. This study aims to analyse the relationships between interactional elements and audience characteristics, as well as the mediating variables, viz. perceived influence and consumer attitude, so as to understand the effect of vlogger marketing upon purchase intention. Influencer marketing is a multifaceted phenomenon that involves numerous factors, and this research seeks to shed light on a crucial aspect of it. Therefore, the main objectives of the present study are listed below:

O1: To investigate how interactional elements that beauty vloggers employ affect buyers’ inclination to make purchases.

O2: To investigate the effect of perceived influence in enhancing the relationship between interactional elements and the purchase intention of consumers towards the products/brands they endorse.

O3: To examine the effect of audience characteristics on the purchase intention of consumers.

O4: To investigate how consumer attitude influences the association between audience characteristics and buying intention.

This research uses social exchange theory (Homans, 1958 ) and self-congruence theory (Sirgy, 1985 ) to examine the influence of beauty vloggers on consumers’ inclination to purchase cosmetic products. This study demonstrates how interactional elements (parasocial interactions, emotional attachment, meaning transfer, and informational value) used by beauty vloggers, along with audience characteristics (self-concept and user-influencer personality congruence), affect the purchase intention by taking perceived influence and consumer attitude, respectively, as mediating variables. The conceptual model, illustrated in Fig. 1 ., delineates the intricate relationships within this framework and forms the basis for our analysis.

Proposed conceptual framework using the interplay of various variables.

Theoretical background and hypothesis development

Interactional elements.

Interactional elements refer to the many strategies that beauty vloggers use to enhance audience engagement and increase their following on social media platforms. The current research integrates parasocial interactions, emotional attachment, meaning transfer, and informational value as constituents of interactional elements to examine their influence on consumers’ purchase intention. The present research sought a more comprehensive understanding of consumer-influencer relationships by linking these interactional elements with social exchange theory to gain a deeper understanding of the persuasive mechanisms behind influencer marketing.

Social exchange theory

Several studies have used social exchange theory to evaluate the “exchange of activities” (Homans, 1958 ). Initially, social exchange theory focused on employment connections. This theory now applies to sociology, anthropology, and psychology (Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ; Coco and Eckert, 2020 ). Given the broadening ambit of social exchange theory, its applicability extends to elucidating the dynamics inherent in the influencer-follower paradigm, along with the persuasive strategies employed by influencers to shape the behaviour of their followers. Effectively navigating resource exchange between stakeholders, namely influencers and followers in our investigation, engenders the cultivation of psychological bonds and incentivizes the perpetuation of their relationship (Ahmad et al., 2023 ). Both parties’ profit from investing resources. Therefore, social exchange theory provides an appropriate theoretical foundation for beauty vlogging or influencer marketing. Cropanzano and Mitchell ( 2005 ) suggested that the exchange of resources encompasses both tangible and symbolic aspects, including elements like status, affection, services, information, monetary assets, and tangible goods within its purview. This philosophy uses cost and reward to build long-term partnerships (Kim and Kim, 2021 ). Beauty vloggers interact with their audiences on a daily basis. These interactions are usually one-sided in which vloggers talk about their personal lives, hence known as parasocial interactions (Horton and Wohl, 1956 ). Parasocial interactions have given beauty vloggers social influence as viewers rely on them for product suggestions and other useful information (Kim et al., 2020 ). In exchange their fans subscribe, like, share, and comment to show their love for their favourite beauty vlogger. With respect to social exchange theory, these are perceived as rewards for vloggers (Kim and Kim, 2021 ). From an economic standpoint, having more followers and views translates into financial benefits for the vlogger.

Status and power are also stressed in social exchange theory. Blau ( 1964 ) advanced this notion by introducing the theoretical framework of “exchange and power,” which pertains to the capacity of one party to exert influence over another party, compelling the latter to undertake specific actions. Individuals take voluntary actions that are motivated by the returns which are expected for successful exchange behaviour. If the influential party provides informational content, the other party will become dependent on it (Emerson, 1976 ; Cook and Emerson, 1978 ). Beauty vloggers and their audience rely on each other for social interaction (Cook and Yamagishi, 1992 ). Interdependence between influencers and followers has a societal effect. Vloggers build viewer dependency and social influence by delivering helpful information and aesthetic content (Jiménez-Castillo and Sánchez-Fernández, 2019 ).

The principle of reciprocity can also find application within social exchange theory, which posits that social exchange benefits ought to be equitable (Chia et al., 2021 ). In other words, trading parties should get equal incentives (Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). Influencers update viewers on their lives, joyful and sad times, and new purchases to enhance participation that is adored by their audience and gets views on their profiles, demonstrating the reward’s worth by developing an emotional attachment (Coco and Eckert, 2020 ). If the influencer posts stuff their audience likes, the engagement rate will rise until both sides reach a balance (Molm et al., 2007 ). Psychologically, reciprocity motivates parties to continue connections, building trust and changing behavioural attitudes (Kim and Kim, 2021 ). The process of exchange unfolds as a perpetual cycle wherein one party initiates an action, prompting reciprocal responses from the other party, thus initiating a fresh iteration of the exchange cycle (Ahmad et al., 2023 ). Additionally, the meaning transfer occurs when people embrace vloggers’ attitudes and views via constant participation. Moreover, audiences relate some symbolic meanings like values and beliefs associated with vloggers (Holiday et al., 2021 ) with the products/brands that vloggers endorse (Torres et al., 2019 ). This helps viewers to perceive similar attributes in the brands/products hence resulting in increased purchasing intentions. Moreover, connections that are established based on the acknowledgement and mutual exchange of shared interests serve as fundamental components of communities (Holiday et al., 2021 ). Cropanzano and Mitchell ( 2005 ) also revealed that the reciprocity principle requires similar cultural expectations for successful social exchange between consumers and influencers. Taking into account these variables, this study seeks to investigate whether the distinctive elements employed by beauty vloggers can serve as mechanisms of social exchange, fostering long-lasting relationships that precipitate shifts in consumer attitudes toward the products endorsed by influencers. Drawing upon theoretical frameworks, particularly social exchange theory, this research posits that perceived influence and purchase intention represent efficacious outcomes resulting from the exchange of various activities (such as parasocial interactions, emotional attachment, meaning transfer, and informational value) between consumers and influencers.

Parasocial interaction (PSI) characterises the bond between celebrities and their audience (Horton and Wohl, 1956 ). In PSI, individuals engage with well-known figures such as actors, singers, and athletes, perceiving a sense of lively presence and a mutually beneficial relationship (Garg and Bakshi, 2024 ). The notion of emotional attachment pertains to forming a relationship that is distinct to a specific individual, which is established via the connection of emotions between individuals. It facilitates the sustenance of a durable connection between the involved parties, which may then be used to influence behaviour and foster a feeling of psychological proximity and accessibility (Thomson, 2006 ). Sánchez-Fernández and Jiménez-Castillo ( 2021 ) describe informational value as an important cue for influencing the behaviour. If viewers perceive that the information provided is accurate and true, and the information is enhancing their knowledge, it will improve the quality of communication resulting in higher perceived influence between the audience and vloggers. McCracken ( 1989 ), revealed the three stages of meaning transfer. In the first stage, a symbolic meaning is created in an individual based on the role assigned/done by the individual in the past. The same meaning is then transferred to the product he/she endorses. In the last stage, the same meaning is consumed by the customers when they make the purchase decision for the product. In relation to beauty vlogger endorsements, these four interactional elements (parasocial interactions, emotional attachment, informational value, and meaning transfer) are exchanged by vloggers for enhanced perceived influence and purchase intention for the brands/products they endorse.

There is currently a scarcity of research examining the collective influence of all interactional elements on purchase intention. Moreover, previous scholars have examined interactional components, especially meaning transfer (Mccracken, 1989 ; Miller and Allen, 2012 ; Knoll et al., 2016 ) and parasocial interactions (Horton and Wohl, 1956 ; Rubin et al., 1985 ), within the realm of celebrity endorsement. However, with the advancement in technology, individuals are increasingly allocating a significant amount of their time to social media platforms. This is primarily attributed to these platforms to facilitate user engagement with vloggers for entertainment and information acquisition purposes. Therefore, we propose the following two hypotheses:

H1: Interactional elements used by beauty vloggers have a positive impact on followers’ perceived influence .

H2: Interactional elements used by beauty vloggers have a positive impact on purchase intention .

Perceived influence and its mediating role

Social exchange theory posits the notion of exchange of activities which leads to behavioural change. In the effective communication process, it is important to establish connectedness between the two parties. Perceived influence refers to the subjective view held by the audience of an endorser, whereby they believe that the endorser has the ability to affect opinions, behaviours, or buying choices (Wang and Lin, 2011 ). In the field of consumer behaviour, if the listener feels that a message is delivered by an opinion leader or a renowned personality (famous beauty vlogger), it might change the perception of the listener about a particular product/brand (Jiménez-Castillo and Sánchez-Fernández, 2019 ). Moreover, the process of meaning transfer has the potential to increase the perceived level of influence, since it involves aligning the personal brand of the influencer with the values and goals of their audience. When individuals see the influencer as embodying their desired values or beliefs, they tend to be swayed by their suggestions (Holiday et al., 2021 ). This can also lead to increased purchase intention towards that particular product. By providing valuable and useful information in an amusing and pleasing manner, beauty vloggers wield influential power over their audiences. Their audiences seek their advice before making a purchase decision (Sánchez-Fernández and Jiménez-Castillo, 2021 ). Moreover, in this technology-driven environment, consumers consider online information as more reliable than other sources (Lee and Lee, 2022 ; Manchanda et al., 2022 ). Also, previous literature witnesses the effectiveness of using influencer marketing for positive outcomes (purchase intention) (Djafarova and Rushworth, 2017 ; Sokolova and Kefi, 2020 ; Lou and Yuan, 2019 ). Hence, perceived influence is regarded as the outcome of many factors, including parasocial interactions, informational value, emotional connection, and meaning transfer. When influencers successfully develop these relationships, their perceived influence within their followers inherently grows.

Additionally, vloggers perform numerous interactional activities to increase familiarity and similarity with their audience which can result in establishing a long-term relationship between the two (Lee and Watkins, 2016 ; Lou and Kim, 2019 ). Vloggers share their personal lives on their social media handles to create an emotional bond which can be used to influence audiences’ behaviour towards purchasing the recommended products/brands (Ladhari et al., 2020 ; Lee and Lee, 2022 ). Influencers are often seen as those who have significant influence and are considered opinion leaders within their respective domains. They play a crucial role in spreading genuine and trustworthy information about various products (Manchanda et al., 2022 ). When followers get knowledge about the advantages and characteristics of a certain product or service from an influencer, they have faith in, they become more educated and perhaps more inclined to make well-informed purchasing choices (Lou and Yuan, 2019 ; Sokolova and Kefi, 2020 ). Moreover, if followers see a congruence between the influencer’s viewpoints and choices and their own beliefs and preferences, they may be inclined to adopt similar consumer behaviours (Choi and Rifon, 2012 ; Jiménez-Castillo and Sánchez-Fernández, 2019 ). Consequently, higher perceived influence can lead to higher intention to purchase the endorsed products/brands by the followers (Sánchez-Fernández and Jiménez-Castillo, 2021 ). By examining how interactional elements affect perceived influence and subsequently influence purchase intention, we can infer that perceived influence acts as a mediator between preceding factors and individual actions. Therefore, the researchers put forward the following two hypotheses:

H3: Perceived influence has a significant impact on buying intention .

H4: Perceived influence acts as a mediator in the association between interactional elements and buying intention .

Audience characteristics

The interactional elements employed by beauty vloggers determine consumers’ behavioural outcomes. Additionally, an individual’s notions of himself also frame their attitude towards a particular product/brand. This concept is explained by self-congruency theory, which is rooted in the theoretical framework of the self-concept (Plewa and Palmer, 2014 ). Sirgy ( 1982 ) has given two main dimensions of self-concept: actual self-concept and ideal self-concept. Actual self-concept is the perception that one holds about himself whereas ideal self-concept describes the aspirational image that one wants to embody. When the actual self-concept matches with the ideal self-concept, self-congruency is achieved (Sirgy, 1985 ). Self-concept is an intrinsic motivating factor that plays a vital role in framing a favourable attitude and marketing outcome (purchase intention). Also, self-concept helps in shaping the attitude towards influencers as it helps in identifying with influencers (Choi and Rifon, 2012 ; Zogaj et al., 2021 ). For example, an individual who has a robust sense of self-identity as an environmentalist may have a greater propensity to adhere to and support influencers who advocate for sustainability and the adoption of eco-friendly behaviours. Hence buying the same things as influencers helps build a satisfying self-concept (Xu and Pratt, 2018 ). Moreover, the main proposition of self-congruency theory demonstrates that customers choose items or brands that align with their self-concepts. Consumers shape their self-image via brand purchases and consumption. Hence, we can say that self-concept describes audience characteristics. Initially, researchers have revealed the impact of self-concept with respect to celebrity endorsement (Choi and Rifon, 2012 ; Mishra et al., 2015 ). However, with the advancement in technology, a similar phenomenon can be observed in influencer marketing (Shan et al., 2019 ). Additionally, previous literature also supports the positive impact of self-concept towards the intention change especially in the field of tourism (Pradhan et al., 2023 ; Xu and Pratt, 2018 ). For checking the robustness of vlogger-led marketing, it is important that we should consider self-concept as one of the variables in this investigation.

Another sub-construct of audience characteristics is the user-influencer personality congruence. It is the congruency between the personality of consumers with that of the influencer (Belanche et al., 2021 ). Within the parameters of consumer behaviour, various studies have been conducted showing the congruence between brand personality and endorser personality and its effect on purchase intention (Mishra et al., 2015 ; Malodia et al., 2017 ; Tafheem et al., 2022 ). However, congruence between endorser and consumer personality is yet to be explored. Choi and Rifon ( 2012 ) reveal that if the congruency between the personalities of consumers and celebrities matches, it helps in framing behavioural changes as the customer is expected to evaluate the advertising more positively and express stronger intentions to make a purchase. Balabanis and Chatzopoulou ( 2019 ) also discovered similar findings, demonstrating that a higher degree of influencing power may be achieved when the personality of a blogger aligns with that of an information seeker. Moreover, a recent study undertaken within the domain of tourism literature reveals that visitors are inclined to adopt the attitudes and behaviours advocated by a celebrity endorser when they see a congruence between the endorser’s personality and their own personality (Pradhan et al., 2023 ). Similarly, in the social media context, if there is congruency between the personalities of users and influencers, it can help in changing the consumer attitude towards influencers that further leads to changes in the behavioural outcome of the consumers (purchase intention). Additionally, this phenomenon is more effective in influencer marketing than celebrity endorsement as consumers perceive influencers as people “like you and me” (Mettenheim and Wiedmann, 2021 ). This is because, users see influencers as inspirational figures and aspire their lifestyle to be like them (Ki and Kim, 2019 ). Taking both self-concept and user-influencer personality congruence under the bracket of audience characteristics we propose the following two hypotheses:

H5: Audience characteristics have a positive impact in framing consumer attitudes towards beauty vloggers .

H6: Audience characteristics have a positive impact on purchase intention .

Consumer attitude and its mediating role

Attitude is the perception that one makes for others (Chetioui et al., 2020 ). If an individual creates an attitude towards a particular product/brand or even a person, it will last for a long time (Taillon et al., 2020 ). One’s attitude has a significant role in determining their level of attraction toward a specific object, thereby impacting their intent to acquire that product (Chanana, 2015 ). Prior research has demonstrated that celebrities possess a notable ability to attract the attention of consumers. Consequently, if consumers hold a favourable attitude towards these celebrities, it is likely to enhance their intention to purchase products endorsed by them (Zhu et al., 2019 ). This is due to the celebrities’ role in heightening awareness about the endorsed products (Chanana, 2015 ). However, in this technologically advanced era, consumers have a tendency to align themselves more with influencers that possess common personality qualities, a lifestyle that aligns with their own, or similar tastes as compared to traditional celebrities (Djafarova and Rushworth, 2017 ). A greater level of congruence between influencers and prospective consumers indicates favourable attitudes towards influencers, leading to heightened intentions to make purchases (Zhu et al., 2019 ). Therefore, it is imperative to integrate consumer attitudes within the scope of the present study.

Additionally, the audience characteristics of consumers help in forming positive attitudes towards the vloggers resulting in increased purchase intention. Vloggers do various interactional activities to engage more with their audiences so that consumers can match their personalities with them. If the audience’s self-image matches with the vlogger’s self-image, consumers will form a favourable attitude towards vloggers (Zhu et al., 2019 ). Consequently, a positive match between their personalities creates an attitude towards a vlogger that further helps in increasing purchase intention (Taillon et al., 2020 ). Therefore, consumer attitude towards beauty vloggers acts as a mediating variable between audience characteristics and purchase intentions. Hence, we put forward the following two hypotheses:

H7: Consumer attitude has a positive impact on buying intention .

H8: Consumer acts as a mediator in the association between audience characteristics and purchasing intention .

Research methodology

Measurement scale.

The questionnaire was derived from multiple academic sources found in existing literature. The items for parasocial interactions are taken from the scale used by Lou and Kim ( 2019 ) and Lee and Watkins ( 2016 ). The items for emotional attachment are adapted from two studies (Choi and Lee, 2019 ; Ladhari et al., 2020 ). The items for informational value were drawn and adapted from three distinct research (Ki and Kim, 2019 ; Lou and Kim, 2019 ; Lee et al., 2014 ). The items for meaning transfer are self-constructed using the previous literature (Roy and Jain, 2017 ; Jain and Roy, 2016 ). Self-concept items are self-constructed and modified for our research using existing literature (Malhotra, 1981 ; Goñi et al., 2011 ). The items for user-influencer personality congruence originated from three different studies (Ki and Kim, 2019 ; Casaló et al., 2020 ; Belanche et al., 2021 ). The items pertaining to mediating variables, perceived influence and consumer attitude were taken and modified from two distinct researches (Chanana, 2015 ; Jiménez-Castillo and Sánchez-Fernández, 2019 ) respectively. Purchase intention is the endogenous variable and its items were generated using several researches (Jiménez-Castillo and Sánchez-Fernández, 2019 ; Meng and Wei, 2020 ; Lou and Kim, 2019 ). The indicators have been evaluated by employing a 5-point Likert Scale, where 1 indicates strongly disagree and 5 indicates strongly agree. Detailed information on all the indicators can be found in Appendix 1 (refer to additional information given in supplementary materials).

Sample of the study

This study focused on individuals who regularly watch videos created by beauty influencers on YouTube or similar websites, to determine their likelihood of purchasing cosmetic products endorsed by these vloggers. Data collection for the investigation of the current study spanned between June 2022 and March 2023. The questionnaire was circulated electronically to individuals aged 16 to 45 who identify as consumers. Since the characterisation of such virtual consumers and determination of the exact user population is tough, convenience sampling was employed (Lee and Lee, 2022 ; Djafarova and Rushworth, 2017 ). Initially, 500 respondents from northern India were administered the survey. Subsequently, refined data came from individuals who underwent thorough examination, satisfying the criteria of regularly following beauty influencers and actively consuming material from those influencers between 1 to 3 h every day. Ultimately, we obtained 367 responses, resulting in a participation rate of 73.4%. In Table 1 we provide an overview detailing the demographic details of the respondents.

SmartPLS 4.0 was used to analyse the final data using partial least square structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). This strategy is excellent for complicated latent variables (Agyapong, 2021 ). The relationship between endogenous and exogenous variables is better understood by PLS-SEM, which combines factor analysis and regression (Sarstedt et al., 2017 ; Hair et al., 2020 ; 2019 ; 2017 ). Additionally, PLS-SEM is more effective when applied to distribution-free data and obviates the requirement for strict adherence to assumptions of multivariate normality. Interactional elements and audience characteristics are higher-order constructs (HOC), and PLS-SEM is more flexible in complicated models (Hair et al., 2020 ; 2019 ).

Statistical analysis

Assessment of lower order construct’s (loc’s) measurement model.

Reliability and validity are the main evaluation criteria for the measurement model. In relation to the repeated indicator approach that was applied, LOC and HOC represent the two divisions of the conceptual framework (Sarstedt et al., 2019 ). The validity and reliability pertaining to LOC has been examined first. All findings are presented in accordance with the stipulated protocols outlined in the PLS-SEM manual (Sarstedt et al., 2019 ; Hair et al., 2019 ; 2017 ). To ensure the reliability of a construct, it is recommended that the outer loadings of the prevailing reflective variables surpass the minimum value of 0.708 (Hair et al., 2020 ; 2017 ). Table 2 and Fig. 2 depict that most values exceed threshold values. We removed 1 indicator from self-concept (SC1), 1 indicator from consumer attitude (CA5), as well as 4 indicators from PSI (PARA INT.3,6,8,9) to improve the assessment framework. Similarly, Cronbach’s alpha remained within acceptable limits, i.e., 0.70–0.95. The values of composite reliability and Henseler’s rho-A are above 0.70 indicating internal consistency in the proposed model (Hair et al., 2020 ; 2017 ). The (AVE) average variance extracted, which indicates the amount of variance in dependent constructs explained by independent constructs, is assessed to determine convergent validity. The AVE values of all the constructs were above 0.50 (Hair et al., 2019 ; 2017 ; Sarstedt et al., 2017 ; Cohen, 1988 ), establishing the whole measurement model valuation.

Source: Self-constructed using SmartPLS 4.0 version.

The research next investigates discriminant validity to ensure the uniqueness of the constructs (Sarstedt et al., 2022 ). The Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio of correlation criteria is used to demonstrate discriminant validity for each component. According to the latest criteria, the liberal HTMT inference approach suggests that all HTMT ratio values should be below 1 (Garg and Bakshi, 2024 ). However, for more stringent criteria, the HTMT ratio should ideally fall between 0.85 (Henseler et al., 2015 ) and 0.90 (Gold et al., 2001 ). In our research, most measurements fall below acceptable standards, as demonstrated in Table 3 .

Assessment of HOC’s measurement model

After investigating the assessment framework of LOC, the latent variable scores derived for the four sub-constructs relating to interactional elements and two sub-constructs of audience characteristics are integrated into the main dataset to examine the HOCs in the anticipated framework utilising the repeated indicator technique. Since the prospective framework model (as shown in Fig. 2 ) represents a Type 1 higher-order model, the repeated indicator technique is deemed suitable for measurement (Garg and Bakshi, 2024 ; Agyapong, 2021 ; Perez-Vega et al., 2018 ; Becker et al., 2012 ). The outcomes of the higher-order constructs are documented in Table 4 . In the present study, there are two HOCs namely, interactional elements and audience characteristics. The Cronbach α for interactional elements is 0.884. The composite reliability (rho-c) and Henseler’s rho-a are 0.920 & 0.890 respectively. Audience characteristics have only two items, hence the Cronbach α value of 0.526 is justified (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994 ). However, the value of composite reliability is 0.805 which establishes the internal consistency of the construct. The AVE value for both the higher-order constructs is above the threshold value of 0.5. In the proposed model, the path coefficients of LOCs serve as indicators for HOCs, serving as outer loadings for the HOC. In this model, outer loadings related to all sub-constructs exceed the acceptable threshold of 0.708 (Hair et al., 2020 ).

Next, we investigate the discriminant validity using the similar approach used in LOCs. Although most HTMT ratios are between 0.85 (Henseler et al., 2015 ) and 0.90 (Gold et al., 2001 ), the ratio between interactional elements and audience characteristics is over 0.90, hence a liberal approach is utilised. For doing so, confidence intervals for HTMT inferences are obtained using bootstrapping (Shiva et al., 2020 ; Hair et al., 2022 ). The HTMT value is 0.968, which is within the confidence intervals hence establishing uniqueness between the constructs. The results of HTMT ratios along with confidence intervals are displayed in Table 5 .

Structural model assessment

Once the measurement model has been validated, the structural framework is assessed to ascertain the relationships between variables and to evaluate their predictive ability (Hair et al., 2017 ). Multicollinearity between constructs must be checked first. We evaluate each construct as a formative factor and examine the tolerance and VIF (Variance Inflation Factor) of the inner model and these measurements are found to be below 3, ensuring no construct multicollinearity issue (Shiva et al., 2020 ; Diamantopoulos, 2008 ). Subsequently, the coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) was examined for every predicted latent variable. The R 2 value elucidates the inherent variance relating to predicted variables attributed to antecedent factors. Notably, the R 2 values for the dependent constructs, Consumer Attitude (0.266), Perceived Influence (0.507), and Purchase Intention (0.581), were found to exhibit moderate significance depicted by Fig. 2 . and Table 6 . In social sciences, R 2 0.20 or more is considered significant since we measure behaviour (Hair et al., 2017 ; Rasoolimanesh et al., 2017 ). Bootstrapping at 10,000 SmartPLS subsamples is done to assess path coefficient significance and relevance for hypothesis testing. The interactional elements and audience characteristics are HOCs, while the path coefficient of their sub-constructs serves as factor loadings as displayed in Fig. 3 (Shiva et al., 2020 ). Table 6 indicates that the majority of the values are statistically significant at the 5% level, thereby supporting hypotheses H1–H5 and H7. However, no significant explicit relationship was found between audience characteristics and purchase intention, hence rejecting H6 ( β  = 0.055, t  = 0.972, p  = 0.331). The present study employs Standardised Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) for evaluating the fitness of the model, which cannot exceed 0.08. The SRMR measurement for the current study is 0.063, hence indicating sufficient explanatory power of the model (Henseler et al., 2016 ). Table 6 . lists all p -values, path coefficient values, t -statistic values, and SRMR values.

To test model predictive relevance, Q 2 predict values are computed. The Q 2 predict values of endogenous variables consumer attitude (0.259), perceived influence (0.503), and purchase intention (0.465) are larger than 0, establishing predictive relevance. Moreover, for estimating predictive error metrics for endogenous variables’ indicators, PLSpredict uses tenfold sample-based predictions (Shmueli et al., 2016 ). Table 7 shows that Q 2 predicted values for each indicator are less than 0. RMSE (Root mean square error) measurements are assessed to determine the model’s predictive relevance as errors are symmetrically distributed. Most of the items yield fewer prediction errors in the PLS model than in the linear model, resulting in moderate predictive relevance of the model (Singh and Bala, 2020 ; Shmueli et al., 2019 ).

Analysis of mediating variables

The results suggest that confirming Hypotheses 1 and 3 substantiates the function of perceived influence as a mediator in linking offers interactional elements to buying intention. In the light of empirical evidence supporting Hypothesis 2, a comparative investigation of interactional elements’ direct and indirect effects on purchase intention is necessary. The study found a β -value of 0.257, establishing a direct linkage between interactional elements and consumer purchasing intention. Moreover, perceived influence mediation increases β to 0.292 (Hypothesis 1 * Hypothesis 3: 0.712*0.411). These results reveal interactional elements directly affecting buying intention. However, this impact is increased when perceived influence mediates, showing a complementary partial mediation effect (Zhao et al., 2014 ; Garg and Bakshi, 2024 ). In the case of audience characteristics, acceptance of H5 and H7 indicated a mediation effect. However, rejection of H6 revealed no explicit relation between audience characteristics and consumer purchasing intention ( p  = 0.331), indicating the case of full mediation (Zhao et al., 2014 ).

The present study aims to examine the combined impact of interactional elements used by beauty vloggers and audience characteristics on purchase intention using two mediating variables. The findings obtained from the application of PLS-SEM support almost all the hypotheses (H1–H5, H7, H8) except one (H6). The outcomes of the study indicate that interactional elements used by beauty vloggers help in creating buying intention for the merchandise used/promoted by beauty influencers. Additionally, empirical evidence does not suggest a strong linkage between audience characteristics and purchase intention. The extensive literature suggests that consumers with a strong self-concept or high degree of congruence with an influencer’s personality have a higher chance of purchasing merchandise endorsed by the said influencer (Zogaj et al., 2021 ; Mishra et al., 2015 ; Choi and Rifon, 2012 ), this finding may seem counterintuitive. This shows the complexity of consumer buying behaviours.

The present research used social exchange theory to explain influencer marketing dynamics. The application of this theory helps us understand how two parties interact with each other by exchanging perceived costs and benefits (Kim and Kim, 2021 ). According to social exchange theory, people associate and interact with the anticipation of getting reciprocal advantages in exchange for their own efforts. In relation to influencer marketing, the aforementioned theoretical framework postulates that customers actively interact with influencers with the expectation of deriving value or advantages, especially in the form of entertainment and knowledge. The nature of the relationship established between influencers and their followers is shaped by the ongoing process of exchange and the mutually obtained benefits. In instances where a sequence of exchanges occurs, discerning the specific exchange that precipitated the formulation of a robust relationship becomes notably challenging. The present study used four sub-constructs of interactional elements namely, parasocial interactions, emotional attachment, meaning transfer, and informational value. The results reveal that all four sub-constructs have almost similar empirical impacts. PSI was formerly used by media outlets including TV and radio and media consumers (Horton and Wohl, 1956 ). Similarly, meaning transfer was initially studied from a celebrity endorsement’s perspective. However, with the rise of social media and technology, influencers have become the new reference group for consumers with whom they can identify themselves more easily as compared to traditional celebrities. Hence, PSI and meaning transfer have expanded beyond conventional media as beauty vloggers build an influential, illusionary relationship with their audience. Moreover, the analysis underscores the significance of parasocial interactions in influencer-audience dynamics, fostering reciprocity. Social exchange theory suggests that followers may reciprocate the attention and engagement offered by influencers by valuing and adopting their recommendations, thereby amplifying the perceived influence of the influencer towards the brands endorsed by them. Furthermore, meaning transfer emerges as a salient mechanism through which influencers enhance their perceived influence by associating products or brands with positive attributes or values. Influencers have unique identities and personal brands that are constructed based on their beliefs, lifestyles, and areas of expertise (Holiday et al., 2021 ). When a brand partners with an influencer, its objective is to capitalise on the favourable meanings linked to the influencer’s character and then convey those meanings to the products. Social exchange theory posits that individuals are motivated to maintain relationships that enhance their self-image or social status. When followers perceive that using a product endorsed by their favourite beauty vlogger aligns with their desired identity or values, they are more likely to adopt the product, thereby reinforcing the influencer’s authority and influence. This phenomenon underscores the power of influencers not only to shape consumer preferences but also to influence broader cultural narratives and norms through the products and brands they endorse. Emotional attachment and informational value also play a vital role in creating influential roles for beauty vloggers. Sánchez-Fernández and Jiménez-Castillo ( 2021 ) revealed the significant impact of informational value and emotional attachment in creating a perceived influence on consumer’s buying intention, hence signifying the role of perceived influence as a mediator. Additionally, they also showcased the interdependence between influencers and their followers, examining it through the lens of social exchange theory. They found that followers are likely to reciprocate favourable thoughts, emotions, and actions towards the brands/products suggested by influencers when they perceive a benefit from their connection with the influencer. Hence, social exchange theory asserts that consumers need to acknowledge the importance of informational value for creating trust and emotional attachment in online communities. These connections are established and nurtured by continuous, interactions that revolve around meaningful shared values (Holiday et al., 2021 ). Overall, the insights gleaned from this study highlight the multifaceted nature of perceived influence in influencer marketing, with parasocial interactions, emotional attachment, meaning transfer, and informational value each playing distinct yet interconnected roles in shaping followers’ perceptions of influencers’ authority and influence. By elucidating these mechanisms through the theoretical framework of social exchange theory, this study offers valuable insights for marketers seeking to leverage influencer relationships to drive consumer behaviour and brand engagement in an increasingly competitive digital landscape.

Another antecedent proposed in the current study is audience characteristics, consisting of two sub-constructs namely, self-concept and user-influencer personality congruence. The study examined the impact of audience characteristics on purchase intentions using self-congruency theory. The results demonstrate that there is no significant direct relationship between audience characteristics and purchase intention. Previous literature also supports the connotation that there is no direct impact of self-concept and user-influencer personality congruence on consumer behaviour (Zogaj et al., 2021 ; Pradhan et al., 2016 ; Choi and Rifon, 2012 ). However, the findings reveal that there is a significant indirect relationship between audience characteristics and purchasing intention using consumer attitude. When customers develop a favourable perception of influencers, it reduces communication barriers between the two parties. This phenomenon leads to an increased intention to make purchases, as consumers tend to emulate the actions of their role models with whom they see a sense of likeness (Mettenheim and Wiedmann, 2021 ). Thus, it bridges the gap between audience characteristics and purchase intention. Additionally, if consumers have favourable attitudes towards beauty vloggers, the impact of self-concept and personality congruence affects consumer behaviour, hence showing the satisfying mediating role of consumer attitude. The results of the present study are in line with the study conducted by Pradhan et al. ( 2023 ). Overall, the audience’s self-concept and the congruence between the personality of the vlogger and that of the audience indirectly influence their purchasing decisions. By identifying with the vlogger’s personality and finding alignment with their own self-concept, consumers are more likely to form a favourable attitude towards them such that they trust the vlogger’s recommendations and get influenced to purchase the endorsed products.

Implications, limitations, and future research directions

Theoretical contribution.

This investigation has produced noteworthy intellectual insights. Using 2 independent theoretical frameworks, i.e., social exchange and self-congruence, to demonstrate the reciprocal influence of the two frameworks on customers’ buying intention. Previous academicians have used the credibility model (Djafarova and Rushworth, 2017 ), the source attractiveness model (Kim and Kim, 2021 ), the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Sokolova and Kefi, 2020 ), persuasion knowledge (Myers et al., 2024 ), uses and gratification theory (Dolan et al., 2016 ), and many others to show the effect of influencer mechanism on consumer behaviour. However, the current study is the first that has used social exchange theory in the context of interactional elements used by beauty vloggers. The rise of beauty vlogger marketing in digital spaces necessitates an extension of social exchange theory to incorporate the dynamics of online interactions. While traditional applications of social exchange theory focus on face-to-face exchanges, the prevalence of influencer-follower interactions mediated through digital platforms calls for a nuanced understanding of how digital interactions influence reciprocity and perceived influence (Ahmad et al., 2023 ). Consequently, this study makes a valuable contribution to the existing literature on the emerging phenomenon of influencer marketing. Secondly, the application of social exchange theory to influencer marketing could benefit from a deeper examination of the evolving power dynamics between influencers and followers. Influencers often wield significant power over their audiences due to their persuasive abilities and large followings. Understanding how these power dynamics fluctuate over time and in response to factors such as content authenticity, engagement strategies, and brand partnerships could enrich social exchange theory’s explanatory power in the context of influencer marketing. Third, the cultural and contextual factors shaping influencer marketing relationships present opportunities for extending social exchange theory. While the theory primarily emphasises individual-level exchanges within dyadic relationships, influencer marketing operates within broader cultural and contextual contexts that influence interactions and perceptions. Modifications to social exchange theory could involve integrating cultural norms, societal values, and platform-specific dynamics to better understand the complexities of reciprocity and perceived influence in influencer marketing relationships across diverse cultural and contextual settings. Fourth, the study highlights the need to examine long-term relationship dynamics in influencer marketing. While social exchange theory focuses on short-term exchanges and transactions, influencer marketing campaigns often aim to cultivate long-term relationships between influencers and followers. Future research could explore how social exchange processes unfold over time within these sustained relationships, including factors such as loyalty, commitment, and relationship maintenance strategies employed by influencers and brands. Fifth, the previous literature has only shown the effectiveness of credibility and its direct and indirect effect on consumer behaviour, however, the present study emphasizes the role of audience characteristics, particularly self-concept and user-influencer personality congruence, in influencing customer attitudes that lead to purchase intention. This approach offers a more intricate theoretical framework for the impact of the congruence between an individual’s self-identity and an influencer’s image on consumer decision-making. Another notable theoretical contribution is the proposition for the incorporation of mediating variables, specifically consumer attitudes, into the framework of self-congruency theory. While traditional self-congruency theory emphasizes the explicit linkage between audience characteristics and buying intention, our findings reveal a significant indirect pathway mediated by consumer attitudes towards beauty vloggers. This suggests that the effect of audience characteristics on buying intention is not solely driven by direct alignment with influencer personality traits but is also mediated by consumers’ perceptions and attitudes towards the influencers. Therefore, future researchers should explore the importance of consumer attitudes more extensively within the framework of self-congruency theory to gain a deeper understanding of the mechanisms driving consumer behaviour in influencer marketing contexts.

Practical implications

In addition to theoretical implications, this study also holds practical significance. First, owing to the increasing usage of social media and absorbing more online content, the study provides an alternative to traditional celebrity endorsers. Beauty vloggers are regarded as opinion leaders and consumers relate more with them as compared to traditional celebrities. Second, the results of this research provide a valuable understanding of the process of influencer selection in practical contexts. Marketers can identify influencers whose self-concept and personality qualities coincide with their intended target audience, hence augmenting the authenticity and efficacy of influencer marketing efforts. Third, the results reveal the importance of meaning transfer. This study can assist marketers in making informed decisions regarding investment in beauty vloggers whose values and beliefs align with their products, thereby enhancing customer consumption. Fourth, the current study underscored the significance of emotional attachment. Consequently, marketers should refrain from solely relying on metrics such as follower count, likes, and comments to gauge the popularity of influencers. Instead, they should prioritise investing in influencers who possess the ability to forge emotional connections with their audience, thereby enhancing the persuasive effectiveness of their followers. Fifth, the primary objective of influencer marketing is to generate revenue via increased sales. The purchasing intent of customers may be favourably influenced when they possess a favourable attitude towards an influencer and the products/brands they advocate. Consumers may have a greater propensity to experiment with or buy products that are promoted by influencers whom they admire. This enhances the usage of influencer marketing. In addition to marketers, this research incorporates interactional elements that promote the establishment of likeness and familiarity with their target audiences. Consequently, the current study has potential value for emerging influencers seeking to enhance their engagement rates across various social media platforms.

Limitations and future research directions

Despite our diligent endeavour, the researchers were incapable of eradicating all research flaws. This research is subject to sample-based limitations, as is common in empirical studies. Due to the demographic patterns of beauty vlogger viewership, with relatively few viewers over the age of 45, the majority of data was gathered from individuals aged 18 to 30 years old. Future studies might compare influencer marketing’s effects on different age groups. Second, the data used in this research originated from a developing nation like India. However, it’s important to note that findings may differ across diverse countries due to cultural variations, which could impact the characteristics of the target audience. Third, this study only examined beauty vloggers’ interactional aspects to persuade customers, as well as audience factors influencing consumer attitudes about vloggers and their impact on purchase intention. However, future researchers may examine how sponsored marketing and the disclosure hashtag affect customer perception. This study was limited to the product categories pertinent to beauty vloggers only, primarily cosmetics. Future researchers may apply the vlogger marketing approach to health, gaming, food, and travel vlogging.

Data availability

The dataset collected and/or analysed during the present study is not publicly accessible due to confidentiality agreements with participants. The participants had furnished personal data and agreed to answer probing questions in the questionnaire upon the precondition that none of their data would be shared subsequently, except in case of extremely reasonable requirements. Hence, the dataset can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Agyapong D (2021) Analyzing financial risks in small and medium enterprises: evidence from the food processing firms in selected cities in Ghana. Int J Entrep Behav Res 27(1):45–77. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-05-2020-0269

Article   Google Scholar  

Ahmad R, Nawaz MR, Ishaq MI, Khan MM, Ashraf HA (2023) Social exchange theory: Systematic review and future directions. Front Psychol 13:1015921. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1015921

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Balabanis G, Chatzopoulou E (2019) Under the influence of a blogger: The role of information‐seeking goals and issue involvement. Psychol Mark 36(4):342–353. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21182

Becker J-M, Klein K, Wetzels M (2012) Hierarchical latent variable models in PLS-SEM: guidelines for using reflective-formative type models. Long Range Plan 45(5-6):359–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2012.10.001

Belanche D, Casaló LV, Flavián M, Ibáñez-Sánchez S (2021) Understanding influencer marketing: the role of congruence between influencers, products and consumers. J Bus Res 132:186–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.03.067

Blau PM (1964) Exchange and power in social life. Wiley, New York

Google Scholar  

Casaló LV, Flavián C, Sánchez SI (2020) Influencers on Instagram: antecedents and consequences of opinion. J Bus Res 117:510–519

Chanana N (2015) Consumer attitude toward celebrity endorsement. Innov Market Strateg Sustain Growth

Chetioui Y, Benlafqih H, Lebdaoui H (2020) How fashion influencers contribute to consumers’ purchase intention. J Fash Mark Manag Int J 24(3):361–380. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFMM-08-2019-0157

Chia K-C, Hsu C-C, Lin L-T, Tseng HH (2021) The identification of ideal social media influencers: Integrating the social capital, social exchange, and social learning theories. J Electron Commer Res 22(1):4–21

Choi SM, Rifon NJ (2012) It is a match: the impact of congruence between celebrity image and consumer ideal self on endorsement effectiveness. Psychol Mark 29(9):639–650. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20550

Choi W, Lee Y (2019) Effects of fashion vlogger attributes on product attitude and content sharing. Fash Text 6(6):1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40691-018-0161-1

Coco SL, Eckert S (2020) #sponsored: consumer insights on social media influencer marketing. Public Relat Inq 9(2):177–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/2046147X20920816

Cohen J (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2nd edn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, New Jersey, New York, 10.4324/9780203771587

Cook KS, Emerson RM (1978) Power, equity and commitment in exchange networks. Am Sociol Rev 43(5):721–739. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094546

Cook KS, Yamagishi T (1992) Power in exchange networks: a power-dependence formulation. Soc Netw 14(3-4):245–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(92)90004-Q

Cropanzano R, Mitchell MS (2005) Social exchange theory: an interdisciplinary review. J Manag 31(6):874–900. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206305279602

Diamantopoulos A (2008) Formative indicators: introduction to the special issue. J Bus Res 61(12):1201–1202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.01.008

Djafarova E, Rushworth C (2017) Exploring the credibility of online celebrities’ Instagram profiles in influencing the purchase decisions of young female users. Comput Hum Behav 68:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.009

Dolan R, Conduit J, Fahy J, Goodman S (2016) Social media engagement behaviour: a uses and gratifications perspective. J Strateg Mark 24(3-4):261–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/0965254X.2015.1095222

Emerson RM (1976) Social exchange theory. Annu Rev Sociol 2(1):335–362

Article   MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Freberg K, Graham K, McGaughey K, Freberg LA (2011) Who are the social media influencers? A study of public perceptions of personality. Public Relat Rev 37(1):90–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2010.11.001

Garg M, Bakshi A (2024) Exploring the impact of beauty vloggers’ credible attributes, parasocial interaction, and trust on consumer purchase intention in influencer marketing. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11(235):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02760-9

Gold AH, Malhotra A, Segars AH (2001) Knowledge management: an organizational capabilities perspective. J Manag Inf Syst 18(1):185–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2001.11045669

Goñi E, Madariaga JM, Axpe I, Goñi A (2011) Structure of the Personal Self-Concept (PSC) Questionnaire1. Int J Psychol Psychol Ther 11(3):509–522

Hair JF, Howard MC, Christian N (2020) Assessing measurement model quality in PLS-SEM using confirmatory composite analysis. J Bus Res 109:101–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.11.069

Hair JF, Hult GT, Ringle CM, Sarstedt M (2017) A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), 2nd edn. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, California, United States

Hair JF, Hult GT, Ringle CM, Sarstedt M (2022) A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), 3rd edn. Sage Publication, Thousand Oaks, California

Hair JF, Risher JJ, Sarstedt M, Ringle CM (2019) When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. Eur Bus Rev 31(1):2–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203

Henseler J, Hubona G, Ray PA (2016) Using PLS path modeling in new technology research: updated guidelines. Ind Manag Data Syst 116(1):2–20. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMDS-09-2015-0382

Henseler J, Ringle CM, Sarstedt M (2015) A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. J Acad Mark Sci Vol 43(1):115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8

Holiday S, Densley RL, Norman MS (2021) Influencer marketing between mothers: the impact of disclosure and visual brand promotion. J Curr Issues Res Advert 42(3):236–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/10641734.2020.1782790

Homans G (1958) Social behavior as exchange. Am J Sociol 63(6):597–606. https://doi.org/10.1086/222355

Horton D, Wohl RR (1956) Mass communication and para-social interaction. Psychiatry 19(3):215–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1956.11023049

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Hughes C, Swaminathan V, Brooks G (2019) Driving brand engagement through online social influencers: an empirical investigation of sponsored blogging campaigns. J Mark 83(5):78–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022242919854374

Jain V, Roy S (2016) Understanding meaning transfer in celebrity endorsements: a qualitative exploration. Qual Mark Res Int J 19(3):266–286. https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-03-2015-0020

Jiménez-Castillo D, Sánchez-Fernández R (2019) The role of digital influencers in brand recommendation: examining their impact on engagement, expected value and purchase intention. Int J Inf Manag 49:366–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2019.07.009

Ki C‐W, Kim YK (2019) The mechanism by which social media influencers persuade consumers: The role of consumers’ desire to mimic. Psychol Mark 36(10):905–922. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21244

Kim DY, Kim H-Y (2021) Trust me, trust me not: a nuanced view of influencer marketing on social media. J Bus Res 134:223–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.05.024

Kim J, Kang S, Lee KH (2020) How social capital impacts the purchase intention of sustainable fashion products. J Bus Res 117:596–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.10.010

Knoll J, Matthes J, Münch A, Ostermann M (2016) How long does celebrity meaning transfer last? Delayed effects and the moderating roles of brand experience, celebrity liking, and age. Int J Advert 36(4):588–612. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2016.1213062

Ladhari R, Massa E, Skandrani H (2020) YouTube vloggers’ popularity and influence: the roles of homophily, emotional attachment, and expertise. J Retail Consum Serv 54:102027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.102027

Lee JE, Watkins B (2016) YouTube vloggers’ influence on consumer luxury brand perceptions and intentions. J Bus Res 69(12):5753–5760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.04.171

Lee MR, Yen DC, Hsiao CY (2014) Understanding the perceived community value of Facebook users. Comput Hum Behav 35:350–358

Lee M, Lee H-H (2022) Do parasocial interactions and vicarious experiences in the beauty YouTube channels promote consumer purchase intention. Int J Consum Stud 46(1):235–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcs.12667

Lou C, Kim HK (2019) Fancying the new rich and famous? Explicating the roles of influencer content, credibility, and parental mediation in adolescents’ parasocial relationship, materialism, and purchase intentions. Front Psychol 10:2567. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02567

Lou C, Yuan S (2019) Influencer marketing: how message value and credibility affect consumer trust of branded content on social media. J Interact Advert 19(1):58–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/15252019.2018.1533501

Malhotra NK (1981) A scale to measure self-concepts, person concepts, and product concepts. J Mark Res 18(4):456–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800407

Malodia S, Singh P, Goyal V, Sengupta A (2017) Measuring the impact of brand-celebrity personality congruence on purchase intention. J Mark Commun 23(5):493–512. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2017.1322125

Manchanda P, Arora N, Sethi V (2022) Impact of beauty vlogger’s credibility and popularity on eWOM sharing intention: the mediating role of parasocial interaction. J Promot Manag 28(3):379–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/10496491.2021.1989542

Mccracken G (1989) Who is the celebrity endorser? Cultural foundations of the endorsement process. J Consum Res 16(3):310–321. https://doi.org/10.1086/209217

McGuire WJ (1985) Attitudes and attitude change. In: Gardner L, Aronson E (eds.), The handbook of social psychology. vol. 2. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, USA. pp. 233–346

Meng F, Wei J (2020) Scale design of opinion leaders’ impact on online consumers’ purchasing intention. J Intell Fuzzy Syst 39(2):1937–1949. https://doi.org/10.3233/JIFS-179964

Mettenheim WV, Wiedmann K-P (2021) The complex triad of congruence issues in influencer marketing. J Consum Behav 20(5):1277–1296. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.1935

Miller FM, Allen CT (2012) How does celebrity meaning transfer? Investigating the process of meaning transfer with celebrity affiliates and mature brands. J Consum Psychol 22(3):443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.11.001

Mishra AS, Roy S, Bailey AA (2015) Exploring brand personality–celebrity endorser personality congruence in celebrity endorsements in the Indian context. Psychol Mark 32(12):1158–1174. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20846

Molm LD, Collett JL, Schaefer DR (2007) Building solidarity through generalized exchange: a theory of reciprocity. Am J Sociol 113(1):205–242. https://doi.org/10.1086/517900

Myers S, Sen S, Syrdal H, Woodroof P (2024) The impact of Persuasion knowledge cues on social media engagement: a look at pet influencer marketing. J Mark Theory Pract 32(1):43–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/10696679.2022.2093224

Nunnally JC, Bernstein IH (1994) Psychometric theory. 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill, Ed. New York

Perez-Vega R, Taherib B, Farrington T, O’Gorman K (2018) On being attractive, social and visually appealing in social media: the effects of anthropomorphic tourism brands on Facebook fan pages. Tour Manag 66:339–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.11.013

Plewa C, Palmer K (2014) Self-congruence theory: towards a greater understanding of the global and malleable selves in a sports specific consumption context. Int J Sports Mark Spons 15(4):26–39. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-15-04-2014-B004

Pradhan D, Moharana TR, Malik G (2023) Influence of celebrity, destination and tourist personality on destination attachment and revisit intention: moderating roles of endorsement embeddedness, destination crowding and gender. J Destination Mark Manag 27:100754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2022.100754

Pradhan D, Duraipandian I, Sethi D (2016) Celebrity endorsement: How celebrity—brand—user personality congruence affects brand attitude and purchase intention. J Mark Commun 22(5):456–473

Rasoolimanesh SM, Jaafar M, Kock N, Ahmad AG (2017) The effects of community factors on residents’ perceptions toward World Heritage Site inscription and sustainable tourism development. J Sustain Tour 25(2):198–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1195836

Roy S, Jain V (2017) Exploring meaning transfer in celebrity endorsement: measurement and validation. Asia-Pac J Bus Adm 9(2):87–104. https://doi.org/10.1108/APJBA-06-2016-0058

Rubin AM, Perse EM, Powell RA (1985) Loneliness, parasocial interaction, and local television news viewing. Hum Commun Res 12(2):155–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1985.tb00071.x

Sánchez-Fernández R, Jiménez-Castillo D (2021) How social media influencers affect behavioural intentions towards recommended brands: the role of emotional attachment and information value. J Mark Manag 37(11-12):1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2020.1866648

Sarstedt M, Hair JF, Cheah J-H, Becker J-M (2019) How to specify, estimate, and validate higher-order constructs in PLS-SEM. Australas Mark J 27(3):197–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ausmj.2019.05.003

Sarstedt M, Hair JF, Pick M, Liengaard BD, Radomir L, Ringle CM (2022) Progress in partial least squares structural equation modeling use in marketing research in the last decade. Psychol Mark 39(5):1035–1064. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21640

Sarstedt M, Ringle CM, Hair JF (2017) Partial least squares structural equation modeling. In: Homburg C, Klarmann M, Vomberg A (eds.) Handbook of market research. Springer International Publishing, Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 587–632. 10.1007/978-3-319-57413-4_15

Shan Y, Chen K-J, Lin J-S (2019) When social media influencers endorse brands: the effects of self-influencer congruence, parasocial identification, and perceived endorser motive. Int J Advert 39(5):590–610. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2019.1678322

Shiva A, Narula S, Shahi SK (2020) What drives retail investors‟ investment decisions? Evidence from no mobile phone phobia (Nomophobia) and investor fear of missing out (I-FoMo). J Content Community Commun 11(6):2–20. https://doi.org/10.31620/JCCC.06.20/02

Shmueli G, Ray S, Estrada JM, Chatla SB (2016) The elephant in the room: Predictive performance of PLS models. J Bus Res 69(10):4552–4564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.03.049

Shmueli G, Sarstedt M, Hair JF, Cheah J-H, Ting H, Vaithilingam S, Ringle CM (2019) Predictive model assessment in PLS-SEM: guidelines for using PLSpredict. Eur J Mark 53(11):2322–2347. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-02-2019-0189

Singh S, Bala R (2020) Mediating role of self-efficacy on the relationship between conscientiousness and procrastination. Int J Work Organ Emot 11(1):41–61. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJWOE.2020.109422

Sirgy MJ (1982) Self-concept in consumer behavior: a critical review. J Consum Res 9(3):287–300. https://doi.org/10.1086/208924

Sirgy MJ (1985) Using self-congruity and ideal congruity to predict purchase motivation. J Bus Res 13(3):195–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(85)90026-8

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Sokolova K, Kefi H (2020) Instagram and YouTube bloggers promote it, why should I buy? How credibility and parasocial interaction influence purchase intentions. J Retail Consum Serv 53:101742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.01.011

Tafheem N, El-Gohary H, Sobh R (2022) Social media user-influencer congruity: an analysis of social media platforms parasocial relationships. Int J Customer Relatsh Mark Manag 13(1):1–26. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJCRMM.289213

Taillon BJ, Mueller SM, Kowalczyk CM, Jones DN (2020) Understanding the relationships between social media influencers and their followers: the moderating role of closeness. J Prod Brand Manag 29(6):767–782. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBM-03-2019-2292

Thomson M (2006) Human brands: Investigating antecedents to consumers’ strong attachments to celebrities. J Mark 70(3):104–119. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.70.3.104

Torres P, Augusto M, Matos M (2019) Antecedents and outcomes of digital influencer endorsement: an exploratory study. Psychol Mark 36(12):1267–1276. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21274

Wang S-m, Lin JC-C (2011) The effect of social influence on bloggers’ usage intention. Online Inf Rev 35(1):50–65. https://doi.org/10.1108/14684521111113588

Article   MathSciNet   CAS   Google Scholar  

Xu X, Pratt S (2018) Social media influencers as endorsers to promote travel destinations: an application of self-congruence theory to the Chinese Generation Y. J Travel Tour Mark 35(7):958–972

Zhao J, Wang Y, Kong F (2014) Exploring the Mediation Effect of Social Support and Self-Esteem on the Relationship Between Humor Style and Life Satisfaction in Chinese College Students. Pers Individ Differ 64:126–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.026

Zhu X, Teng L, Foti L, Yuan Y (2019) Using self-congruence theory to explain the interaction effects of brand type and celebrity type on consumer attitude formation. J Bus Res 103:301–309

Zogaj A, Tscheulin DK, olk S (2021) Benefits of matching consumers’ personality: Creating perceived trustworthiness via actual self‐congruence and perceived competence via ideal self‐congruence. Psychol Mark 38(3):416–430. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21439

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Humanities & Social Sciences, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India

Mukta Garg & Apurva Bakshi

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

MG conceived and designed the research, conducted data collection and analysis, drafted the manuscript, analysed and interpreted the data, and participated in critical revisions. AB significantly contributed to the research design, provided crucial intellectual input, participated in manuscript writing, and played a key role in revisions. Both authors approved the final version of the manuscript for submission.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mukta Garg .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

The procedures used in this study adhere to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The corresponding author obtained permission to conduct the study. The research was carried out in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration guidelines and has been reviewed by the Ethical Committee of Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology (TIEC/EC/2022-16). Informed consents were obtained from participants prior to the survey to ensure respondents had a good understanding of the study objectives.

Informed consent

The survey was conducted upon informed consent previously gained from participants, who agreed to provide data for data analysis for this study. We informed each respondent of their rights and to safeguard their personal information.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Garg, M., Bakshi, A. Exploring the effects of audience and strategies used by beauty vloggers on behavioural intention towards endorsed brands. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 621 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03133-y

Download citation

Received : 09 December 2023

Accepted : 29 April 2024

Published : 13 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03133-y

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons

Margin Size

• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

11: Hypothesis Testing with One Sample

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 19096

\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

One job of a statistician is to make statistical inferences about populations based on samples taken from the population. Confidence intervals are one way to estimate a population parameter. Another way to make a statistical inference is to make a decision about a parameter. For instance, a car dealer advertises that its new small truck gets 35 miles per gallon, on average. A tutoring service claims that its method of tutoring helps 90% of its students get an A or a B. A company says that women managers in their company earn an average of $60,000 per year.

• 11.1: Prelude to Hypothesis Testing A statistician will make a decision about claims via a process called "hypothesis testing." A hypothesis test involves collecting data from a sample and evaluating the data. Then, the statistician makes a decision as to whether or not there is sufficient evidence, based upon analysis of the data, to reject the null hypothesis.
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses (Exercises)
• Outcomes and the Type I and Type II Errors (Exercises)
• Distribution Needed for Hypothesis Testing (Exercises)
• Rare Events, the Sample, Decision and Conclusion (Exercises)
• 11.6: Additional Information and Full Hypothesis Test Examples The hypothesis test itself has an established process. This can be summarized as follows: Determine H0 and Ha. Remember, they are contradictory. Determine the random variable. Determine the distribution for the test. Draw a graph, calculate the test statistic, and use the test statistic to calculate the p-value. (A z-score and a t-score are examples of test statistics.) Compare the preconceived α with the p-value, make a decision (reject or do not reject H0), and write a clear conclusion.
• 11.7: Hypothesis Testing of a Single Mean and Single Proportion (Worksheet) A statistics Worksheet:  The student will select the appropriate distributions to use in each case. The student will conduct hypothesis tests and interpret the results.
• 11.8: Hypothesis Testing with One Sample (Exercises) These are homework exercises to accompany the Textmap created for "Introductory Statistics" by OpenStax.

Contributors

• Template:ContribOpenStax

The Simulation Hypothesis: are we Living in a Virtual Reality?

This essay about the simulation hypothesis, which proposes that our universe could be an artificial construct akin to a computer simulation. It explores philosopher Nick Bostrom’s argument, which suggests that future civilizations might create simulations of their ancestors, leading to the possibility that we are living in such a simulated world. While intriguing, this idea faces skepticism due to the immense computational requirements and the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics. Nevertheless, it raises profound questions about the nature of reality, free will, and the purpose of existence, sparking philosophical discussions and speculation about the future of technology and human understanding.

How it works

The idea that life as we know it could be a computer simulation might seem like something straight out of science fiction. But this notion has fascinated thinkers from various disciplines, including philosophers, scientists, and technologists. The concept, often called the simulation hypothesis, explores the possibility that our universe is an artificial construct, much like a virtual reality. And it raises some big questions: Are we merely characters in a simulated world run by advanced beings? If we are in a simulation, what does that mean for our sense of reality and the purpose of our existence?

This hypothesis was famously articulated by philosopher Nick Bostrom in a 2003 paper.

His argument laid out a logical framework for understanding how future civilizations could achieve the technological capacity to run simulations of their ancestors and why it’s statistically probable that we are living in such a simulated world. Bostrom’s idea is built on three propositions, at least one of which, he argues, must be true: (1) humanity is unlikely to reach a technological state capable of creating sophisticated ancestor simulations; (2) if civilizations do reach that point, they will lose interest in creating such simulations; or (3) if those advanced civilizations do make simulations, we are almost certainly living in one now because the number of simulated realities would vastly outnumber the single original reality.

Bostrom’s trilemma has sparked much debate and intrigue because of its implication that we are more likely than not living inside a computer program. This kind of statistical reasoning, supported by trends in technological progress, makes the idea seem plausible on the surface. Just look at how much computing power has grown in recent decades. Our current video games and virtual reality environments, while still rudimentary compared to the richness of real life, are improving exponentially. If future generations keep refining these technologies and increasing computing power, it’s possible that one day we could build simulated worlds as detailed and realistic as the one we think we live in.

However, many scientists and philosophers are skeptical of this line of reasoning. They argue that we are still far from fully understanding the computational requirements needed to simulate an entire universe. Such an endeavor would require immense amounts of data storage and processing power, far beyond anything we can imagine today. Critics also point to the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, which suggests that the universe doesn’t follow deterministic rules and therefore may not be fully computable.

Furthermore, critics emphasize that the hypothesis is nearly impossible to prove or disprove. Since a simulation could, theoretically, be perfect enough to fool us into thinking it’s real, there’s no clear way to verify the hypothesis using scientific evidence. Relying solely on statistical probabilities without empirical data leads some to believe that the argument is too speculative to take seriously.

This idea isn’t entirely new. Similar ideas appear in the works of ancient and modern philosophers. Plato’s Allegory of the Cave depicts people who mistake shadows cast on a wall for reality, representing how perception can be limited. René Descartes wrote about the “evil demon,” an entity that could deceive humans into accepting a false reality. These philosophical explorations raise similar concerns about the limits of human perception and how we understand what is truly real.

So, what would it mean if life were a simulation? It would fundamentally change how we view our place in the universe. The very concept of reality would take on a new meaning, as everything we know could be part of a carefully constructed illusion. We might also have to reconsider the concept of free will. If advanced beings are running the simulation, they might have the power to control or influence our actions. For some, this idea might evoke existential dread, but others could see it as a new kind of spirituality, suggesting that we are all part of a grand design.

On a practical level, it wouldn’t change much. Our everyday lives would continue as usual. We would still need to work, eat, and maintain relationships. But it might encourage a shift in our priorities. Would people be less concerned about material wealth if they knew it was part of a virtual world? Could knowledge of being in a simulation lead us to pursue other goals, like understanding the nature of our existence and communicating with the creators?

Even if the hypothesis remains speculative, it’s an intriguing mental exercise. It encourages us to question our assumptions and think more deeply about the nature of consciousness and reality. There’s no telling how technology will evolve, and it’s fascinating to imagine a future where the simulation hypothesis could be tested scientifically. Until then, it will continue to captivate our imagination, inspiring philosophical discussions and sci-fi stories alike. Whether we’re characters in a grand digital play or just pondering the limits of human knowledge, the simulation hypothesis is a thought-provoking exploration of who we are and what it means to exist.

Cite this page

The Simulation Hypothesis: Are We Living in a Virtual Reality?. (2024, May 12). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/the-simulation-hypothesis-are-we-living-in-a-virtual-reality/

"The Simulation Hypothesis: Are We Living in a Virtual Reality?." PapersOwl.com , 12 May 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/the-simulation-hypothesis-are-we-living-in-a-virtual-reality/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Simulation Hypothesis: Are We Living in a Virtual Reality? . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-simulation-hypothesis-are-we-living-in-a-virtual-reality/ [Accessed: 15 May. 2024]

"The Simulation Hypothesis: Are We Living in a Virtual Reality?." PapersOwl.com, May 12, 2024. Accessed May 15, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/the-simulation-hypothesis-are-we-living-in-a-virtual-reality/

"The Simulation Hypothesis: Are We Living in a Virtual Reality?," PapersOwl.com , 12-May-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-simulation-hypothesis-are-we-living-in-a-virtual-reality/. [Accessed: 15-May-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Simulation Hypothesis: Are We Living in a Virtual Reality? . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-simulation-hypothesis-are-we-living-in-a-virtual-reality/ [Accessed: 15-May-2024]

Don't let plagiarism ruin your grade

Hire a writer to get a unique paper crafted to your needs.

Our writers will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!

Please check your inbox.

You can order an original essay written according to your instructions.

Trusted by over 1 million students worldwide

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers